Fundamentals of Diesel Engines PDF

MCI 1335D
MARINE CORPS INSTITUTE
FUNDAMENTALS OF DIESEL
ENGINES
MARINE BARRACKS
WASHINGTON, DC
UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
MARINE CORPS INSTITUTE
912 CHARLES POOR STREET SE
WASHINGTON NAVY YARD DC 20391-5680
IN REPLY REFER TO:
1550
27 Mar 2014
From: Director
To: Marine Corps Institute Student
Subj: FUNDAMENTALS OF DIESEL ENGINES (MCI 1335D)
1. Purpose. The subject course provides instruction on the fundamentals of diesel engines to all
Marines having duties as a diesel engine mechanic.
2. Scope. This course addresses in-depth construction and operating principles of the diesel
engine including fuel efficiency, engine efficiency, advantages and disadvantages, engine
measurements, and main components. The course also covers the areas of two- and four-stroke
cycle operation, combustion chamber design, and the combustion process. Supercharging,
cooling, and fuel quality are discussed as well as how these characteristics affect engine
performance.
3. Applicability. This course is intended for instructional purposes only. This course is
designed for the Marines in the ranks of Private through Sergeant who are tasked with duties that
involve working closely with diesel engines.
4. Recommendations. Comments and recommendations on the contents of the course are

invited and will aid in subsequent course revisions. Please complete the course evaluation
questionnaire at the end of the final examination. Return the questionnaire and the examination
booklet to your proctor.
M. S. REICHENBAUGH
By direction
(This page intentionally left blank.)
Table of Contents
Page
Contents ............................................................................................................................ i
Student Information .......................................................................................................... iii
Study Guide ...................................................................................................................... v
Study Unit 1 Fundamentals of Diesel Engines ................................................... 1-1
Lesson 1 Fuel Efficiency and Engine Measurements .................................. 1-3

Lesson 2 Engine Output and Efficiency....................................................... 1-27
Lesson 3 Main Engine Components and Classifications of Engines ........... 1-49
Study Unit 2 Principles, Performance, and the Combustion Process ................. 2-1
Lesson 1 Operating Principles and Performance of the Diesel Engine........ 2-3

Lesson 2 The Combustion Process............................................................... 2-25
Study Unit 3 Diesel Engine Fuel Injection Systems .......................................... 3-1
Lesson 1 Fuel Injection Systems .................................................................. 3-3

Lesson 2 Governors ...................................................................................... 3-17
Review Lesson Examination............................................................................................. R-1
MCI Course 1335D i

MCI Course 1335D ii

Student Information
Number and MCI 1335D

Title FUNDAMENTALS OF DIESEL ENGINES
Study Hours 5
Course Text
Materials
Review Agency I MEF Headquarters Group

Camp Pendleton, CA
Reserve 1
Retirement
Credits (RRC)
ACE This course is scheduled for review by the American Council on Education
during 2014.
Assistance For administrative assistance, have your training officer or NCO log on to the
MCI home page at www.mci.usmc.mil. Marines CONUS may call toll free
1-800-MCI-USMC. Marines worldwide may call commercial (202) 685-
7596 or DSN 325-7596.
MCI Course 1335D iii

MCI Course 1335D iv

Study Guide
Congratulations Congratulations on your enrollment in a distance education course from the

Distance Learning and Technologies Department (DLTD) of the Marine
Corps Institute (MCI). Since 1920, the Marine Corps Institute has been
helping tens of thousands of hard-charging Marines, like you, improve their
technical job performance skills through distance learning. By enrolling in
this course, you have shown a desire to improve the skills you have and
master new skills to enhance your job performance. The distance learning
course you have chosen, MCI 1335D, Fundamentals of Diesel Engines,
prepares Marines for the job of engineer equipment chief.
Your Personal • YOU ARE PROPERLY MOTIVATED. You have made a positive
Characteristics decision to get training on your own. Self-motivation is perhaps the most
important force in learning or achieving anything. Doing whatever is
necessary to learn is motivation. You have it!
• YOU SEEK TO IMPROVE YOURSELF. You are enrolled to improve

those skills you already possess, and to learn new skills. When you
improve yourself, you improve the Corps!
• YOU HAVE THE INITIATIVE TO ACT. By acting on your own, you

have shown you are a self-starter, willing to reach out for opportunities to
learn and grow.
• YOU ACCEPT CHALLENGES. You have self-confidence and believe

in your ability to acquire knowledge and skills. You have the self-
confidence to set goals and the ability to achieve them, enabling you to
meet every challenge.
• YOU ARE ABLE TO SET AND ACCOMPLISH PRACTICAL

GOALS. You are willing to commit time, effort, and the resources
necessary to set and accomplish your goals. These professional traits will
help you successfully complete this distance learning course.
Continued on next page
MCI Course 1335D v

Study Guide, Continued
Beginning Your Before you actually begin this course of study, read the student information
Course page. If you find any course materials missing, notify your training officer or
training NCO. If you have all the required materials, you are ready to begin.
To begin your course of study, familiarize yourself with the structure of the
course text. One way to do this is to read the table of contents. Notice the
table of contents covers specific areas of study and the order in which they are
presented. You will find the text divided into several study units. Each study
unit is comprised of two or more lessons and lesson exercises.
Leafing Leaf through the text and look at the course. Read a few lesson exercise
Through the questions to get an idea of the type of material in the course. If the course has
Text additional study aids, such as a handbook or plotting board, familiarize
yourself with them.
The First Study Turn to the first page of study unit 1. On this page, you will find an
Unit introduction to the study unit and generally the first study unit lesson. Study
unit lessons contain learning objectives, lesson text, and exercises.
Reading the Learning objectives describe in concise terms what the successful learner,
Learning you, will be able to do as a result of mastering the content of the lesson text.
Objectives Read the objectives for each lesson and then read the lesson text. As you read
the lesson text, make notes on the points you feel are important.
Completing the To determine your mastery of the learning objectives and text, complete the
Exercises exercises developed for you. Exercises are located at the end of each lesson,
and at the end of each study unit. Without referring to the text, complete the
exercise questions and then check your responses against those provided.
MCI Course 1335D vi

Continuing to Continue on to the next lesson, repeating the above process until you have
March completed all lessons in the study unit. Follow the same procedures for each
study unit in the course.
Preparing for To prepare for your final exam, you must review what you learned in the
the Final Exam course. The following suggestions will help make the review interesting and
challenging.
• CHALLENGE YOURSELF. Try to recall the entire learning sequence

without referring to the text. Can you do it? Now look back at the text to
see if you have left anything out. This review should be interesting.
Undoubtedly, you’ll find you were not able to recall everything. But with
a little effort, you’ll be able to recall a great deal of the information.
• USE UNUSED MINUTES. Use your spare moments to review. Read

your notes or a part of a study unit, rework exercise items, review again;
you can do many of these things during the unused minutes of every day.
• APPLY WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED. It is always best to use the

skill or knowledge you’ve learned as soon as possible. If it isn’t possible
to actually use the skill or knowledge, at least try to imagine a situation in
which you would apply this learning. For example make up and solve
your own problems. Or, better still, make up and solve problems that use
most of the elements of a study unit.
• USE THE “SHAKEDOWN CRUISE” TECHNIQUE. Ask another

Marine to lend a hand by asking you questions about the course. Choose
a particular study unit and let your buddy “fire away.” This technique can
be interesting and challenging for both of you!
• MAKE REVIEWS FUN AND BENEFICIAL. Reviews are good habits

that enhance learning. They don’t have to be long and tedious. In fact,
some learners find short reviews conducted more often prove more
beneficial.
MCI Course 1335D vii

Tackling the When you have completed your study of the course material and are confident
Final Exam with the results attained on your Review Lesson exercise, you are ready to
take the final examination. Your training NCO or officer will administer the
final examination either online at www.mci.usmc.mil or by using Form
DP-37 (answer sheet) that is provided in the sealed envelope marked "FINAL
EXAM". If you use Form DP-37 to take your final examination, your
training NCO or officer will return it to MCI for grading. Ensure you read all
the directions carefully, whether online or on Form DP-37, before taking your
final examination.
Completing The sooner you complete your course, the sooner you can better yourself by
Your Course applying what you’ve learned! HOWEVER--you do have 2 years from the
date of enrollment to complete this course.
Graduating! As a graduate of this distance education course and as a dedicated Marine,

your job performance skills will improve, benefiting you, your unit, and the
Marine Corps.
Semper Fidelis!
MCI Course 1335D viii

STUDY UNIT 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF DIESEL ENGINE
Overview
Scope As a ground equipment mechanic in the Marine Corps, you will most likely
be dealing with a variety of diesel engines. Engines come in various
configurations and sizes, with different exterior components, made by
different manufacturers. Fundamentals of how the diesel engine works
remains the same regardless of these variations.
The diesel engine bears the name of Dr. Rudolph Diesel, a German engineer.
In 1897, he was credited with constructing the first successful diesel engine
that used liquid fuel. His objective was to develop an engine with greater fuel
economy than the steam engine, which used only a small percentage of the
energy contained in the coal burned under its boiler. Dr. Diesel originally
planned to use pulverized coal as fuel, but in 1893, his first experimental
engine was a failure. After a second engine failed, he changed his plan and
decided to use liquid fuel. The engine then proved successful.
In this study unit, we will cover in depth the basic construction and operating
principles of the diesel engine to include fuel efficiency, engine efficiency,
engine measurements, and main components. This will provide you with a
firm basis of the fundamentals of how and why a diesel engine operates.
In This Study The following lessons are in this study unit:

Unit
Lessons See Page
Fuel Efficiency and Engine Measurements 1-3
Engine Output and Efficiency 1-27
Main Components and Classifications of Engines 1-49
MCI Course 1335D 1-1 Study Unit 1


LESSON 1
FUEL EFFICIENCY AND ENGINE MEASUREMENTS
Introduction
Scope In the Marine Corps, diesel engines are used in a variety of applications.
They come in all sizes from the small 2-cylinder diesel generator set to the 2-,
4-, 6-, 8-, and 12-cylinder inline and V-type engines found in engineer
equipment, motor transport equipment, and tracked vehicles.
Various types of engines are found in the Marine Corps, but the diesel engine
makes up the bulk of these engines. Heavy equipment and most wheeled
vehicles used in the Marine Corps operate on diesel fuel. Did you know the
diesel powered engine has proven to be more fuel efficient than the gasoline
engine?
It's true, but you may be asking "What is fuel efficient?" Well, this means
that the diesel powered engine can get more miles per gallon of fuel than an
engine powered by gasoline. The three main reasons behind the diesel
engine's fuel efficiency are its higher air-fuel ratio, higher compression ratio,
and the heat value of the diesel fuel.
Learning Upon completion of this lesson, you should be able to

Objectives
• Identify three main reasons why diesel engines have high fuel efficiency.
• Identify the procedure used to compute compression ratio.
• Identify the differences between gasoline engines and diesel engines.
• Identify the major advantages of the diesel engine.
• Identify the major disadvantages of the diesel engine.
• Identify the definition of various engine measurements.
• Identify the characteristics of various engine measurements.
MCI Course 1335D 1-3 Study Unit 1, Lesson 1

Introduction, Continued
In This Lesson This lesson contains the following topics:
Topic See Page

Introduction 1-3
Fuel Efficiency 1-5
Gasoline Engine versus Diesel Engine 1-8
Engine Measurements 1-15
Lesson 1 Exercise 1-23

Fuel Efficiency
Air-Fuel Ratio The air-fuel ratio is the amount of air in relation to fuel that enters the engine
for burning. A ratio of 12:1 (12 to 1) means that there are 12 parts of air to
one part of fuel, by weight, in the mixture. This is considered a rich mixture
because of the high fuel content. A mixture of 18:1 (18 to 1) has more air
than the 12:1 (12 to 1) mixture and is called a lean mixture.
The leaner the mixture, the higher the fuel efficiency. Engines differ,
however, in their ability to operate on lean mixtures.
The table below describes the air-fuel ratio for each type of engine:
Type Description
Gasoline Engine Operates in a range between 18:1 and 12:1. Mixtures
leaner than 18:1 cause misfiring and loss of power in
the gasoline engine.
Diesel Engine The air-fuel ratio in a diesel engine varies from 100:1
at idle to 20:1 at full load.
Compression The second reason why diesel engines are more efficient than gasoline
Ratio engines is the higher compression ratio. This indicates how tightly the air and
fuel mixture is compressed on the compression stroke.
In a diesel engine, only air is drawn in on the intake stroke, and because air
intake is unrestricted, the cylinder fills with air on every intake stroke. The
high compression ratio causes the air temperature in the cylinder to be raised
above the ignition temperature of diesel fuel.
Fuel is not injected into the compressed air until it is time for ignition. The
fuel being injected into the cylinder is mixed with the air in the cylinder by
turbulence. Since the air temperature is hotter than the ignition temperature
of the fuel, the fuel ignites and burns completely when it comes in contact
with the compressed air.

Fuel Efficiency, Continued
Heat Value The third reason for greater fuel efficiency of the diesel engine is the heat
value of the fuel. If a fuel gives off more heat per unit, less fuel will be
needed to give the same power output. This is true for diesel fuel when
compared to gasoline. The heat value of Number 2 diesel fuel is
approximately 11 percent higher than that of gasoline.
Due to the high air-fuel ratio, compression ratio, and heat value, the diesel
engine produces more power during the cycle of operation with less fuel than
a gasoline engine.
Compression The compression ratio is computed by first measuring the volume of a

Ratio Formula cylinder when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke and dividing it by the
Example volume of the cylinder after the piston is moved to the top of its stroke.
For example, say the volume of the cylinder is at 100 cubic inches when the
piston is at the bottom of the cylinder. If the piston goes to the top, and the air
and fuel are squeezed into an area only 10 cubic inches in volume, the engine
would have a compression ratio of 10 to 1.
Follow the steps in the table below to calculate the compression ratio:
Step Action Example

1 Measure the volume of a cylinder 100 cubic inches in volume
when the piston is at the bottom
of its stroke.
2 Determine the volume of the 10 cubic inches in volume
cylinder after the piston is moved
to the top of its stroke.
3 Divide the volume at bottom dead Piston at BDC 100
center (BDC) by the volume at Piston at TDC 10
top dead center (TDC).
4 Put the answer into a ratio. Compression ratio = 10:1

Fuel Efficiency, Continued
Compression The tighter a mixture of air and fuel is squeezed, the higher the pressure
Ratio Formula build-up inside the cylinder will be. This leads to a higher engine
Example, compression ratio, which means that an engine can get more power from a
continued given amount of fuel.
The table below describes the compression ratios for each type of engine:
Type Description
Gasoline Engine Compression ratios for gasoline engines range around
10 to 1.
Diesel Engine Compression ratios for diesel engines use ratios
around 20 to 1.
The higher compression ratio of the diesel engine allows the engine to turn
more of the fuel's heat energy into mechanical energy. When air and fuel are
burned in the cylinder, the pressure in the cylinder increases.
Remember that the pressure in the diesel cylinder is already high due to its
high compression ratio, but it increases even more during combustion. The
increase in pressure in the combustion chamber forces the piston down in the
cylinder, resulting in greater power output per power stroke.

Gasoline Engine versus Diesel Engine
Background Many years ago when the Marine Corps replaced the M151 Jeep with the
High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV), out went an era
of a gasoline engine vehicle that spanned as far back as the Second World
War. The diesel engine vehicle is designed to provide a broader range of uses
than its pre-existing counterparts.
Gasoline and In many respects, the four stroke cycle gasoline engine and the four stroke
Diesel Engines cycle diesel engine are very similar.
• They both follow the same cycle of operation consisting of intake,

compression, power, and exhaust strokes.
• They both use the same type of intake and exhaust system.
But, they are different. The four main differences between a gasoline and
diesel engine are fuel ignition, volume of compression, fuel and air mixture,
and power control. Let’s examine the differences between the two engines.
Fuel Ignition Diesel engines are often called compression-ignition engines, because of the
method of fuel ignition. This is what makes them different from the spark
ignition engines.
The table below describes the fuel ignition for each type of engine:
Type Description
Gasoline Engine The fuel and air mixture is ignited by the use of a spark
ignition system. It uses gasoline as fuel, and the
mixture of gasoline and air is ignited by an electric
spark.
Diesel Engine The fuel and air mixture is ignited by the heat
generated by the compression stroke. The diesel
doesn’t need a spark ignition system.

Gasoline Engine versus Diesel Engine, Continued
Volume of The fuel and air mixture is compressed to about one-twentieth of its original
Compression volume in a diesel engine. In contrast, the fuel and air mixture in a gasoline
engine is compressed to about one-eighth of its original volume.
The graphic below shows the contrast between the two engines:

Fuel and Air Unlike the diesel engine, the gasoline engine (shown in the graphic below)
Mixture mixes the fuel and air before it reaches the combustion chamber. In a diesel
engine, fuel is put into the combustion chamber directly through an injection
system. The air and fuel then mix in the combustion chamber.

Power Control The engine speed and the power output of a diesel engine (shown below) are
controlled by the quantity of fuel admitted to the combustion chamber. The
amount of air is constant. This contrasts with the gasoline engine where the
speed and power output are regulated by limiting the air entering the engine.

Diesel Engine Now that you have examined the differences between the gasoline and diesel
Advantages engine, let’s continue with the advantages of the diesel engine, which are
listed in the table below.
Advantage Explanation
Tremendous low-speed Due to the way it burns fuel, a diesel engine
power. provides far more torque to the driveshaft
than does a gasoline engine. As a result,
most modern diesel engines are much faster
from a standing start than their gas-powered
counterparts. What’s more, diesel-powered
vehicles also can out tow gas powered
vehicles while still delivering improved fuel
economy.
Better fuel mileage than a This makes the engine more suitable for
similarly sized gasoline military equipment. Diesel fuel is one of the
engines, typically 20 to 30 most efficient and energy dense fuels
percent. available today. Because it contains more
usable energy than gasoline, it delivers better
fuel economy.
Does not require ignition The gasoline engine must have the ignition
tune-ups; therefore, it can system tuned regularly to get good fuel
operate reliably for longer mileage and to keep emission levels low.
periods of time between Fuel and air filters are changed at similar
services. intervals for both engines.
Built more ruggedly to They usually go much longer than gas-
withstand the rigors of powered vehicles before they require major
higher compression. repairs. Longevity and dependability are
extremely important especially with tight
military budgets and the extreme
environments in which military equipment is
expected to perform in.
Diesel fuel is less volatile It is not as likely to explode in a collision.
than gasoline.

Diesel Engine The table below lists the disadvantages of the diesel engine:
Disadvantages
Disadvantage Explanation
Diesel fuel costs the same Diesel fuel is also used for commercial trucks,
amount or more as home and industrial generators, and heating
gasoline fuel. oil, so as demand for diesel passenger vehicles
grows, the price of diesel fuel is likely to
continue to rise because of competition from
other users.
Diesel fuel doesn’t result Although diesel fuel is considered more
in flashy high-speed efficient because it converts heat into energy
performance. rather than sending the heat out the tailpipe as
gas-powered vehicles do, it doesn’t result in
flashy high-speed performance. In some ways,
a gasoline-powered engine is like a racehorse
— high-strung, fiery, and fast — whereas a
diesel engine is more like a workhorse —
slower, stronger, and more enduring.
Diesel still need regular You have to change the oil, air, and fuel filters.
maintenance to keep them Cleaner diesel fuels no longer require you to
running. bleed excess water out of the system, but many
vehicles still have water separators that need to
be emptied manually.
Generally heavier and The heavier weight and limited RPM
slower than a similar (revolutions per minute) of the diesel engine
gasoline model. result in an engine with generally lower power
output. Design advancements have helped
eliminate this problem and make the engine
more practical for most uses.

Diesel Engine The table below lists additional disadvantages of the diesel engine:
Disadvantages,
continued
Disadvantage Explanation
Noisier than a gasoline The engine emits a loud, clattering noise,
engine. especially after a cold start and during idling.
This knocking characteristic results from the
diesel's combustion process. Between the start
of fuel injection and effective ignition, air-fuel
mixing takes a minimum of 0.001 seconds and
a maximum of 0.002 seconds. This "pause" is
called ignition delay, and it is at its greatest
with a cold engine or under low load. Longer
delays result in more fuel entering the
combustion chamber and igniting violently.
This in turn results in more engine clatter.
Continuing improvements in fuel injection
systems have helped to reduce diesel noise to
acceptable levels.
Diesel fuel creates a large This is caused by poor fuel combustion—the
amount of fumes. hydrocarbons do not burn completely (blue
smoke). Sometimes carbon or soot forms
during combustion if there is not enough air
(black smoke).
Diesel fuel is not very The diesel engine can be more difficult to start
volatile. in cold weather. For reliable starting, the
diesel requires heavy-duty or even multiple
batteries, glow plugs or pre-heaters, and
reduction starter motors.

Engine Measurements
Overview Before you are introduced to the various parts of the diesel engine, you must
understand a few terms and definitions associated with piston engines in
general.
Bore and The size of an engine cylinder (shown in the piston displacement graphic
Stroke below) is usually indicated in terms of bore and stroke. Bore is the diameter
of the cylinder. Stroke is the distance the piston moves in the cylinder or the
distance between top dead center (TDC) and bottom dead center (BDC).
Engine Piston Piston displacement (shown below) is the volume of space that the piston
Displacement occupies as it moves from bottom dead center to top dead center. The engine
displacement is determined by the cylinder bore diameter, the length of the
stroke, and the number of cylinders.

Engine Measurements, Continued
Engine Piston To better understand bore and stroke and engine piston displacement, take a
Placement look at the following example: The bore (diameter) of the cylinder shown in
Formula the graphic on page 1-15 is 4 inches and that the length of the stroke is 4
Example inches. Assume that this is a six-cylinder engine.
Note: The following formula is used to compute engine displacement area of

the bore x the length of the stroke x the number of cylinders.
A= π r ² is the formula for finding the area of a cylinder. Π (pi) equals 3.14.
The ‘r’ is the radius of ½ the diameter of the cylinder.
From the example ……. A=πr² (r= 4/2 or 2)
Follow the steps in the table below to compute total engine displacement:
Step Action Example

1 Find the area of a cylinder by A =3.14(2²)
using A=π r². A= 3.14(4)
A=12.5666 sq/in
2 Multiply area of cylinder by 12.566 sq/in x 4 in =50.264 cu in
the length of the stroke
which is 4 inches to
determine piston
displacement.
3 Multiply the displacement of 50.264 cu in x 6 = 301.584 cu in
one cylinder by the number
of cylinders to determine
total engine displacement.
_______________________________________________________________

Atmospheric The air around us is always under a pressure which we call atmospheric
Pressure pressure or barometric pressure. This pressure is produced by the weight of
the envelope of air which surrounds the earth (air really has weight: 12 cubic
feet of air weighs about a pound).
As shown in the graphic below, at the outer limit of the atmosphere, the air is
under no pressure. As the elevation decreases, the weight of all the air above
presses down with more and more pressure until at sea level the atmospheric
pressure is 14.7 pounds per square-inch (psi).
Why don't you feel this pressure on your body? You don't feel the pressure
because the pressure inside you balances with the pressure exerted on you.
This same atmospheric pressure forces air into the cylinders of a four-cycle
engine.

Vacuum in the How does atmospheric pressure force air into the cylinder? Well, we could
Cylinder say air is “sucked in” when the piston descends on the intake stroke with the
inlet valve open. That's an easy way to explain it, but really, air isn't “sucked
in” at all.
What actually happens is the descending piston (shown below) makes a partial
vacuum which lowers the pressure inside the cylinder below that of the outside
pressure. Air is then forced into the cylinder as a result of the decrease in the
atmospheric pressure inside the cylinder.

Volumetric The atmosphere exerts considerable pressure and rapidly forces air into the
Efficiency cylinder on the intake stroke. However, the engine is not able to be filled to
100 percent on each intake stroke because of design limitations. Factors such
as valve and port diameters, manifold configurations, valve timing, engine
speed, and atmospheric pressure all affect volumetric efficiency (VE).
To sum it up, volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual volume of air
taken into the engine cylinder during the intake or suction stroke as compared
to the volume of air displaced during the piston's movement.
The actual volume of air the piston takes in is stated in terms of standard
temperature (60° F) atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi). Thus:
Volumetric efficiency
Volume of air admitted

Piston displacement X 100

Volume The graphic shown below demonstrates a typical engine with a volumetric
Efficiency efficiency of 80 percent. As the piston moves from top to bottom dead center,
the volume of space inside the cylinder increases by 100 cubic inches.
But, due to the engines rpms, which determine how fast the piston moves up
and down inside the cylinder, only 80 cubic inches of air is allowed to enter
the cylinder.

Volumetric Using the volumetric efficiency formula and the example shown in the
Efficiency graphic on page 1-20, calculate the volumetric efficiency of the engine.
Formulas
Example Follow the steps in the table below to calculate the volumetric efficiency of
the engine:
Step Action Example

1 Divide the volume of air Volume of air 80 cu in
admitted by the piston Piston displacement 100 cu in
displacement.
Answer 0.8
2 Multiply 0.8 by 100. VE = 0.8 x 100 = 80
Measuring Volumetric efficiency is the measurement of the amount of air that actually
Volumetric enters the cylinder during the intake stroke of the engine. The greater the
Efficiency volumetric efficiency, the greater the amount of air entering the cylinder; and
the greater the amount of air, the more power the engine cylinder can
produce.
At low speeds, more air can get into the cylinder; and the power the engine
produces during the power stroke is greater. Thus, at low speeds, the
volumetric efficiency is high.
But at high speeds, the shorter time taken by the intake stroke reduces the
amount of air entering the cylinder. Thus, at high speeds, the power the
engine produces during the power stroke is less.
Consequently, the volumetric efficiency is lower. In addition, the air expands

as it is heated when it passes through hot manifolds on its way to the cylinder.
This further reduces the amount of air entering the cylinder and the
volumetric efficiency.

Increasing As stated, volumetric efficiency is higher at low engine speed because more
Volumetric air gets into the cylinder. Volumetric efficiency can also be improved by
Efficiency installing a blower or air-compressing device on the engine.
These devices raise pressure of the intake system above atmospheric pressure
by forcing more air into the cylinder. With more air in the cylinder, fuel can
be burned more completely and the engine's power output increased. Blowers
and the aircompressing devices will be discussed further in study unit 2.

Lesson 1 Exercise
Directions Complete items 1 through 7 by performing the action required. Check your
answers against those listed at the end of this lesson.
Item 1 What are the three main reasons for high fuel efficiency in diesel engines?
a. Fuel ignition, compression ratio, and power control

b. Air-fuel ratio, heat value, and volume of compression
c. Power control, fuel and air mixture, and fuel ignition
d. Air-fuel ratio, compression ratio, and heat value
Item 2 When you divide the volume of air in a cylinder when the piston is at BDC by
the volume of air in the cylinder when the piston is at TDC, you are
computing the
a. heat value.
b. compression ratio.
c. power control ratio.
d. air-fuel ratio.
Item 3 The four main differences between a gasoline and diesel engine are fuel
ignition, volume of compression, fuel and air mixture, and
a. method of cooling.
b. power control.
c. heat value.
d. torque.
MCI Course 1335D 1-23 Study Unit 1, Lesson 1 Exercise

Lesson 1 Exercise, Continued
Item 4 What are three advantages the diesel engine has over the gasoline engine?
a. Intervals are longer for changing fuel air filters, require fewer ignition
tune-ups, and higher fuel mileage.
b. Produces tremendous low-speed power, does not require ignition tune-
ups, and diesel fuel is less volatile than gasoline.
c. Tremendous high-speed power, fewer ignition tune-ups, and less fuel
volatility.
d. Fewer spark plug changes, tremendous low-speed power, higher fuel
mileage.
Item 5 The diesel engine vehicle is generally _____________ than a similar gasoline
model.
a. lighter and faster

b. heavier
c. lighter
d. heavier and slower
Item 6 The definition, the weight of air that surrounds the earth, matches what type
of engine measurement listed below?
a. Vacuum in the cylinder

b. Atmospheric pressure
c. Volumetric efficiency
d. Engine piston displacement
Item 7 At lower speeds, the volumetric efficiency is
a. higher.
b. not changed.
c. fluctuating.
d. lower.

Answers The table below lists the answers to the exercise items. If you have questions
about these items, refer to the reference page.
Item Number Answer Reference Page

1 d 1-3
2 b 1-6
3 b 1-8
4 b 1-12
5 d 1-13
6 b 1-17
7 a 1-21

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LESSON 2
ENGINE OUTPUT AND EFFICIENCY
Introduction
Purpose There are several factors that relate to engine output and efficiency. This
lesson will explain these factors and define them so that you understand how
these terms relate to the diesel engine.

Objectives
• Identify the four factors of engine output.
• Identify the unit of measurement for the work capacity of an engine.
• Identify the equipment that was first used to determine engine power.
• Identify the equipment that is used to measure horsepower at the driving

wheels.
• Identify what is meant by engine efficiency.
• Explain why the efficiency of a diesel engine operating cycle is

considerably higher than the constant-volume cycle of a gasoline engine.
• Explain the relationship between the heat energy in the fuel and the
indicated horsepower.
• Identify the most common form of mechanical loss in an engine.
• Identify the two ways an engine's efficiency is decreased.
In This Lesson The following topics are in this lesson:
Topic See Page

Introduction 1-27
Factors of Engine Output 1-28
Horsepower Ratings 1-35
Engine Efficiency 1-38
Decreasing Engine Efficiency 1-43

Factors of Engine Output
Overview Engines vary in size and output. The following four factors that are involved
in the measurement of engine output are
• Work
• Energy
• Power
• Torque
Work A manufacturer designs an engine by considering the work the engine will be
required to do. The work an engine is able to perform is called engine output.
Work is the movement of a body against an opposing force. It is measured in
units of foot-pounds. One foot-pound of work is equivalent to lifting a 1-lb
weight vertically one foot.
When sliding an object horizontally, work is measured by the force required

to move the object multiplied by the distance that it is moved. Work is
always the force exerted over a distance. If you attempted to move a box by
applying force to it, and it does not move, no work is accomplished.
Energy Energy is the ability to do work. It takes many forms such as heat, light,
sound, stored energy (potential), or an object in motion (kinetic energy).
Energy performs work by changing from one form into another. How does
this relate to an engine? An engine is capable of converting energy into work.
Let’s consider the operation of an automobile. The table below shows how an
engine from start to finish is capable of converting energy into work:
Energy Action
Potential Energy This type of energy is stored in the fuel, when it is
sitting and not running.
Kinetic Energy This type of energy is created when the fuel is burned.
Its potential energy is changed into heat energy. The
auto's engine then transforms the heat energy from the
burning fuel into kinetic energy by forcing the car into
motion.
Heat Energy The action of stopping the vehicle is accomplished by
the brakes. By the action of friction, the brakes will
transform the kinetic energy of the vehicle back into
heat energy, and the vehicle will be stopped.

Factors of Engine Output, Continued
Power Power is the rate at which work is performed. It takes more power to work
quickly than to work slowly.
Engines are rated in terms of the amount of work they can do per minute. A
large engine that can do more work per minute is more powerful than a small
engine.
The work capacity of engines is measured in horsepower. The horsepower unit

was developed about the time that steam engines were being developed. It
was found that an average horse could pull a weight of 200 pounds a distance
of 165 feet in 1 minute as shown in the graphic below.
The amount of work involved here is 33,000 foot-pounds (165 x 200). If 100
pounds were lifted 330 feet, or if 330 pounds were lifted 100 feet, the amount
of work would be the same, 33,000 foot-pounds. When this amount of work is
done in 1 minute, then 1 horsepower is required. Thus, 1 horsepower equals
33,000 foot-pounds of power.

Horsepower A simple horsepower formula may be written as follows:

Formula
Example Horsepower = distance in feet per minute x force in pounds
33, 000 x time in minutes required to move the weight
Example: How much horsepower would be required to raise a weight of

10,000 lb. a distance of 60 ft in two minutes?
Follow the steps in the table below to calculate horsepower:
Step Action Example

1 Multiply distance in feet per Distance in ft per lb 60
minutes by force in pounds. Force in pound ×10,000
600,000
2 Multiply 33,000 by time in 33,000
minutes required to move the Time in minutes ×2
weight. 66,000
3 Divide answer in step 1 by Step 1 answer 600.000
answer in step 2. Step 2 answer 66,000
Horsepower 9.09 HP

Torque Torque is the turning or twisting force which rotates or tends to rotate an
object. As shown in the graphic below, when the lid on a jar is loosened, a
twisting force or torque is applied to it. Torque is measured in pound-feet
(not to be confused with work, which is measured in foot-pounds).
Suppose a wrench is used to tighten a nut on a stud. If the handle of the

wrench was 1-foot long (shown below) and a 10-pound force is applied to the
end of the wrench, you would then have 10 pound-feet of torque being
applied to the nut. If the handle was 2-feet long and a 10-pound force is put
on its end, 20 pound-feet of torque would be applied.

Torque, A tool called a torque wrench (shown below) is used to measure the force you
continued place on a nut when you are tightening it.
Torque can be converted into work with the following formula:
ft-lb (work) = 2πn x lb-ft (torque)

or
ft-lb = 6.2832n x lb-ft
where n is the number in revolutions per minute

Torque A 20 ft-lb torque is applied to a shaft to rotate it two times. The formula to do
Formula this is: 6.2832 x number of rotations x torque
Example
Follow the steps in the table below to calculate how much work is
accomplished:
Step Action Example

1 Multiply constant, 6.2832 by Constant 6.2832
number of rotations. Number of rotation ×2
12.5664
2 Multiply answer in step 1 by 12,5664
the amount of applied Torque ×20
torque.
251.328 ft-lb of work
The engine also exerts torque through gears and shafts connected to the
wheels so that the wheels turn and the vehicle moves. The amount of torque
(shown below) that an engine produces varies with engine speed.
The reason for this variation is, with increasing speed, the engine is turning
faster and is thus capable of supplying a greater twisting effort or torque.
However, with further speed increases, volumetric efficiency decreases.
Recall our earlier discussion about fuel efficiency in Lesson 1. Less air enters
the cylinders with each intake stroke and thus, the power strokes are not as
powerful; consequently, torque decreases.

Torque- The graphic below shows the relationship between speed, torque, and
Horsepower- horsepower for a given engine. As illustrated, horsepower will continue to
Speed increase with speed even after torque begins to decrease.
Relationship
The reason that this happens is because horsepower is dependent on speed
and torque. The horsepower will continue to increase due to the speed
increase offsetting the torque decrease. At a point, however, the torque
begins to decrease so sharply that the increase in speed cannot offset it and
horsepower also decreases.
A rated speed is indicated in the graphic below. This is the speed at which the
governor is usually set in military vehicles. The rated speed is usually just
under the maximum horsepower rating of the engine.

Horsepower Ratings
Indicated Horsepower ratings may be required at different power points of the engine;
Horsepower consequently, there are different ways of rating horsepower. To fully
understand engine performance, it is necessary to understand the different
ratings. Indicated horsepower (ihp) is the horsepower actually developed
inside the engine cylinders. It is called "indicated" horsepower because an
indicating device is required to measure this horsepower.
This device measures the pressures developed in the engine cylinders and
then, by a series of steps, translates this data into indicated horsepower.
Indicated horsepower is always considerably greater than horsepower
delivered by the engine because power is lost from the engine in a number of
ways (friction, heat-loss, etc.).
Friction Friction horsepower (fhp) is the power required to overcome the friction of
Horsepower the various moving engine components. In other words, it is the horsepower
lost by the engine running.
SAE The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) developed a simplified method

Horsepower of calculating horsepower based on engine dimensions. This rating was used
Formula only for commercial licensing of vehicles. This method is as follows:
Example
hp = NB²
2.5
Example: Consider an eight cylinder engine with a bore of 4 inches, where N

is the number of cylinders and B is the cylinder diameter in inches.
Follow the steps in the table below to calculate horsepower based on engine
dimensions:
Step Action Example

1 Multiply number of cylinders Number of cylinders 8
by the cylinder diameter in Cylinder diameter ×16
inches squared. 128
2 Divide answer in step 1 by 2.5. Answer from step 1 128
2.5
51.2 hp

Horsepower Ratings, Continued
Brake Brake horsepower (bhp) is the actual power delivered by the engine to the
Horsepower flywheel. It is the usable horsepower. Bhp is always less than the power
developed in the engine cylinders because of the friction and mechanical
losses. Indicated horsepower (ihp) minus friction horsepower (fhp) equals
brake horsepower (ihp-fhp=bhp).
The term ''brake horsepower" tends to be misleading because it has nothing to

do with the brakes. The term originated from the equipment that was first
used to determine the power developed by the engine. This piece of
equipment is known as the prony brake.
A prony brake, as shown in the graphic below, may be used to measure the
actual usable horsepower or bhp that an engine can deliver. The device
consists of a flywheel that is surrounded by a large braking device. A
pressure arm is attached to this braking device. The other end of this arm
exerts pressure on a scale.
The graphic below is an example of how to use the prony brake. An engine is
attached to, and subsequently drives, the flywheel. The braking device is then
tightened until the engine is slowed to a predetermined rpm (3,000 rpm). As
the braking device slows the engine, the other end of the arm exerts pressure
on the scale (250 lbs). Based on the reading on the scale and the engine rpm,
a bhp value is determined.

Horsepower Ratings, Continued
Brake To calculate the bhp value with the prony brake, use the following formula:
Horsepower
Bhp = ___6.2382 x length of arm (ft) x engine RPM x scale reading__
33,000
6.2832 is a given and 33,000 ft-lbs represents1 horsepower.
Example: A given engine exerts a force of 250 lbs on the scale through a 2-
foot long arm when the brake holds the engine speed at 3,000 rpm.
The brake horsepower is calculated as follows:
Bhp = 6.2382 x 2 x 3000 x250

33,000
9,424,800
33,000 = 285.65 bhp
Bhp can also be measured by a dynamometer (shown below). It is the

modern method used to determine engine power output. One type of
dynamometer is used to check the output of the engine at the crankshaft. The
horsepower of the engine can also be measured at the driving wheels of a
vehicle by using a chassis dynamometer.

Engine Efficiency
Overview Now that you have identified the various factors of engine output and how to
measure the output, examine engine efficiency. First, identify what efficiency
is.
The term "efficiency" is used to designate the relationship between results

obtained and the effort required to obtain those results. It is expressed as:
efficiency = output
input
Example: How many foot pounds are required for a set of pulleys to raise
270 lbs of weight two feet? This requires a 100- lb pull for 6 ft
(shown below). It would take 600 lbs to produce 540 lbs. The
ratio would be:
540
600 = .90 or 90% efficient
Ten percent of the effort was lost to frictional forces within the pulley system.
No machine is 100 percent efficient; all machines lose energy as explained
later in this lesson.

Engine Efficiency, Continued
Overview, Efficiency is expressed in a formula. Now look at engine efficiency and the
continued principle considerations of the internal-combustion process.
Engine Engine efficiency is the amount of power developed compared to the energy
Efficiency input. Energy input is measured by the heating value of the fuel used. The
Defined efficiency of any operating cycle is equal to the output divided by the input.
The efficiency of the diesel engine cycle is considerably higher than the
constant-volume cycle of a gasoline engine because of the higher
compression ratio and also because combustion starts at a higher temperature.
In other words, the heat input is at a higher average temperature in diesel
engines.
Theoretically, the gasoline engine using the four-stroke cycle could be more
efficient than the four-stroke cycle diesel engine if equivalent compression
ratios could be used.
However, in practice, gasoline engines cannot use a compression ratio

comparable to those of diesel engines because the fuel and air are drawn into
the cylinder together and compressed. If comparable compression ratios were
used, the fuel would fire or detonate before the piston reaches the correct
firing position.
Since temperature and the amount of heat content which is available for
power are proportional to each other, cycle efficiency is computed from
measurements made of temperature.

Indicated Indicated thermal efficiency is the relationship between the heat energy in the
Thermal fuel and the energy produced in the engine (indicated horsepower).
Efficiency
Thermal efficiency is defined as using, producing, or causing heat. Thermal
efficiency relates to the heat energy of the fuel and the work output.
The heat energy is the amount of heat the fuel will produce as it burns. Much
of this heat is lost through the cylinder walls. The engine's cooling system
and exhaust gases also contribute to heat loss. Heat that is lost cannot aid the
engine in producing power. Therefore, only a relatively small part of the heat
in the burning fuel can contribute toward pushing down on the pistons and
thereby cause the engine to produce power.
In actual practice, because of the great amount of heat lost to the cooling
water and lubricating oil and in the exhaust gases, thermal efficiency may be
as low as 20 percent. In other words, as much as 80 percent of the energy in
fuel is lost. However, the remaining 20 percent is sufficient to operate the
engine normally. Practical engine-design limitations prevent engines from
operating much above the thermal efficiency level of 25 percent.

Indicated The thermal efficiency of an engine is commonly expressed in heat units

Thermal called British Thermal Units (Btu). One Btu is equal to 778 foot-pounds of
Efficiency, work; therefore, the horsepower output of an engine can be readily converted
continued into Btu per unit of time.
Indicated thermal efficiency = indicated horsepower in Btu

fuel input in Btu
Example: An engine produces 85 ihp for a period of one hour and in that
time consumes 50 lbs. (approx. 7 ½ gallons) of fuel. Assuming
that the fuel has a value of 18,800 Btu per lb., find the thermal
efficiency of the engine.
Power delivered by the engine is 85 bhp for one hour, or 85 hp-hours.
1 hp-hour = 33, 000 ft – lb per min x 60 min

778 ft – lb per Btu = 2, 545 Btu
85 hp x 2,545 Btu – 216,325 Btu output
50 lb. x 18,800 Btu per lb. = 940,000 Btu input per hour
Indicated thermal efficiency = 216,325

940,000 = 0.230, or 23%
Mechanical The mechanical efficiency of the engine is the relationship between the power
Efficiency developed in the engine cylinders (ihp) and the power delivered by the engine
(bhp). Internal engine losses from friction and other factors always prevent
brake-horsepower from equaling indicated horsepower.
Example: When an engine is checked on a dynamometer and shows an

indicated horsepower of 85, it could produce an actual brake
horsepower (bhp) of 80. This engine would have a mechanical
efficiency of:
mechanical efficiency = brake horsepower = 80

indicated horsepower 85 = 0.94 or 94%

Calculating Now that you know how to compute the indicated thermo efficiency and the
Overall Engine mechanical efficiency, it is possible for you to calculate the overall engine
Efficiency efficiency. The overall engine efficiency is the relationship between the
power input and the true power output or the brake horsepower.
Use the following procedure to calculate the overall efficiency of the engine
description in the previous example:
Total power input for the 85 ihp engine = 940,000 Btu per hour.
1 hp per hr = 2545 Btu
Calculate the work output in Btu for 80 hp per hour by multiplying our
mechanical efficiency by the Btu’s per hp in our previous example:
80 hp x 2454 Btu = 203,600 Btu
So to calculate our overall engine efficiency, do the following:
brake horsepower = 203,6000

fuel input 940,000 = 0.216 or 21.6%

Decreasing Engine Efficiency
Engine Loss Change gears slightly and examine two ways that engine efficiency is
Classifications decreased. Efficiency of an engine is never at 100 percent. This is due to
engine losses that affect engine performance.
As the heat content of a fuel is transformed into useful work during the
combustion process, many different losses take place. These losses can be
divided into two general classifications: thermodynamic and mechanical.
The net useful work delivered by an engine is the result obtained by deducting
the total losses from the heat energy input.
Thermo- Thermodynamic losses are a result of cooling, lubricating, and exhaust

Dynamic Losses systems. Additionally, further losses result because of the lack of perfect
combustion.
Heat energy loss from both the cooling water system and the lubricating oil
system is always present. Some heat is lost through the engine parts and
radiated to the atmosphere or picked up by the surrounding air by convection.
The effects of these losses vary according to the part of the cycle that the
engine is operating.
Mechanical There are several kinds of mechanical losses, but all are not present in every
Losses engine. The most common form of mechanical loss in an engine is friction.
Friction is a source of energy loss in any mechanical system.
For example, if a heavy plank is dragged across a rough floor, it offers some
resistance to the movement. This resistance to movement would be less if the
plank and floor were polished smooth. Resistance would be even less if the
plank floated in water. This resistance to movement is called friction.
Friction can be visualized as being caused by tiny irregularities, or highpoints,

in the surfaces of the moving objects. These irregularities catch on each other
and particles are torn off. This action of catching and tearing requires force to
overcome. If the plank and floor are made smooth, then the projecting points
are much smaller and have fewer tendencies to catch and tear off.

Decreasing Engine, Continued
Mechanical Therefore, less force is required to pull the plank across the floor. If the plank
Losses, is floated in water, the surfaces can no longer rub against each other even
continued though there is still some friction in the liquid. In the engine, friction occurs
at all moving parts, even though the parts are, in effect, floating in films of
oil.

Lesson 2 Exercise
Item 1 What are the four factors of engine output?
a. Work, energy, power, and torque

b. Fuel, energy, power, and torque
c. Work, energy, bore, and torque
d. Work, heat, power, and torque
Item 2 Work capacity of an engine is measured by
a. power.
b. energy.
c. horsepower.
d. torque.
Items 3 What is the name of the equipment that was first used to determine the power
developed by an engine?
a. Prony brake
b. Dynamometer
c. Torque wrench
d. Power meter
Items 4 What equipment is used to measure horsepower at the driving wheels?
a. Chassis dynamometer
b. Prony brake
c. Power meter
d. Torque wrench

Items 5 The amount of power developed compared to the energy input is called
a. engine efficiency.
b. thermal efficiency.
c. indicated horse power.
d. base horsepower.
Items 6 Why is the efficiency of a diesel engine operating cycle considerably higher
than the constant-volume cycle of a gasoline engine?
a. Fuel detonates earlier

b. Faster cycle
c. Combustion starts at a lower temperature
d. Higher compression ratio
Items 7 The relationship between the heat energy in the fuel and the indicated
horsepower is called
a. friction.
b. engine efficiency.
c. indicated thermal efficiency.
d. mechanical efficiency.
Items 8 What is the most common form of mechanical loss in an engine?
a. Friction
b. Convection
c. Motion
d. Vibration
Items 9 Engine efficiency is decreased by ____ and ____ losses.
a. thermodynamic; mechanical
b. power ; work
c. thermodynamic; torque
d. mechanical; fuel

Answers The table below lists the answers to the exercise items. If you have
questions about these items, refer to the reference page.

1 a 1-28
2 c 1-29
3 a 1-36
4 a 1-37
5 a 1-39
6 d 1-39
7 c 1-40
8 a 1-43
9 a 1-43

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LESSON 3
MAIN ENGINE COMPONENTS AND CLASSIFICATIONS OF

ENGINES
Introduction
Purpose In this lesson, you will be introduced to the components that make up the
diesel engine and their purpose. Further, we will explain the different ways
of classifying piston engines.

Objectives
• Identify the engine components.
•
• Identify the purposes of selected engine components.
•
• Identify the functions of the engine components.
•
• Identify the three methods used to classify piston engines.
Topic See Page

Introduction 1-49
Main Components of the Diesel Engine 1-50
Classification of Piston Engines 1-64

Main Components of the Diesel Engine
Overview Diesel engines vary greatly in appearance, size, number of cylinders, cylinder
arrangement, and details of construction. Thus, it is not possible to cover all
components of all engines in this lesson. However, the basic components that
are common to most diesel engines are the construction and operation of these
and some of their auxiliary components.
Engine Block The engine block shown in the graphic below is the largest component of a
diesel engine. Most modern diesel engines use a single block made of cast
iron. The cylinder block provides a housing or foundation for all other
components. The cylinder block has holes or bores drilled for the piston and
liner assemblies, water or coolant passages, and oil or lubrication passages.
For engines that have the camshaft located in the block, there will be bores
drilled to support it. The bottom of the block is commonly called the
crankcase. It is designed to hold the main bearings and support the
crankshaft. The oil pan bolts to the bottom of the cylinder block.

Main Components of the Diesel Engine, Continued
Cylinder Some engine cylinder blocks have the cylinder holes bored right in the block.
Block, Other blocks are designed to use cylinder liners or sleeves. There are
continued advantages and disadvantages of each type (shown below). The application
determines the type used.
(1) Dry sleeve (shown below). This is a simple thin sleeve pressed into the
cylinder block. It is held in place by the cylinder head. Coolant doesn't come
in contact with the sleeve.
(2) Wet sleeve (shown below). This sleeve comes in contact with the coolant.
The sleeve is thick because it is not completely supported by the block. It is
normally sealed by a machine surface fit at the top. The bottom of the sleeve
is usually sealed by an o-ring.

Air-Cooled Air-cooled engine blocks are designed for a different type of cylinder. They
Engine Block have no coolant passages; fins are added on the outside of the cylinder to
dissipate heat. Each cylinder on multi-cylinder engines is cast separately and
is bolted to the crankcase.
Cylinder Head The cylinder head is a single one-piece casting that may cover one or more
cylinders. In most diesel engines; it forms part of the combustion chamber
and contains the valve guides for the valves, passages for intake and exhaust
gases, drilled bores for the fuel injection nozzles, and passages for the
coolant. Depending on its use, the cylinder head may be made of cast iron
alloy or aluminum. The graphic below depicts a typical cylinder head:

Piston The piston (shown below) is the component of the engine that receives the
energy from the combustion and transmits it to the crankshaft.
Various metals such as aluminum alloy and malleable iron are used in the
construction of pistons. Aluminum is used in many four-cycle diesel engines,
because it is light and transfers heat quickly. Aluminum pistons are normally
cam ground or elliptical in shape. This allows the piston to fit in the cylinder
regardless of the temperature.
The table below lists the parts and functions of the trunk type piston:
Part Function
Piston Head The head of the piston helps to form the combustion
chamber.
Skirt The skirt is the portion below the piston pin. It guides
the piston in the cylinder.
Piston Pin Boss Provides support for the piston pin.
Ring Grooves Machined to fit the piston rings.

Piston Rings Piston rings vary in design and quantity used, but there are basically two
types: compression and oil control (shown below).

Rings Compression rings are located at the top of the piston and are designed to form
a seal between the piston and the cylinder, thus preventing the high-pressure
combustion gases from escaping into the crankcase. They also help transmit
heat from the piston to the cylinder wall and damp out part of the fluctuations
of the piston side thrust.
The oil control rings are designed to control the flow of oil onto the cylinder
wall when the piston is moving upward, and scrape the oil back off the wall
when the piston is moving down. Holes are drilled into the piston ring grooves
to permit the return of the oil to the crankcase.
The graphic below illustrates how the piston rings function:

Connecting The connecting rod attaches the piston to the crankshaft. It is made of a very
Rod strong steel alloy and shaped like an I-beam. It has a hole bored in one end for
the piston pin. The other end has a larger bore with a removable cap so that
the rod can be connected to the crankshaft.
Most connecting rods have a drilled passage so that lubricating oil can reach
the piston pin. The piston pin connects the piston to the connecting rod. It is
supported in the rod by a precision bushing. The connecting rod bearing is a
precision friction type bearing.
The graphic below depicts a connecting rod:

Crankshaft, The crankshaft is the engine component that changes up-and-down

Main Bearing (reciprocating) movement of the pistons into usable rotary motion to operate
Journal, the powertrain. The crankshaft drives a number of engine components
Flywheel, and including the camshaft, oil pump, coolant pump, fan, alternator, and injection
Vibration pump.
The table below lists the parts and functions of the crankshaft:
Part Function
Main Bearing Journal Allows the crankshaft to be mounted to the
crankcase.
Counterweights Used to offset the force generated by the up and
down movement of the pistons.
Flywheel Smoothes out the power impulses and provides a
place to mount the transmission connecting device.
Vibration Damper Dampens the twisting action of the crankshaft.
The flywheel is mounted on the rear of the crankshaft. On the front end of the
crankshaft a vibration damper is mounted. The graphic below depicts the
major components of the crankshaft:

Main Bearings The main bearings (shown below) support the crankshaft and allow it to rotate.
Along with the main bearings are main bearing caps which bolt the main
bearings and crankshaft assembly to the crankcase. The main bearings are
similar to the connecting rod bearings. They are a split type precision insert
bearing made of the same type material. The bearings have oil holes and
grooves to provide a means of lubricating the bearings and the crankshaft
journals.

Camshaft and In most modern diesel engines, the cams and the shaft are forged or cast in one
Associated piece. The main function of the camshaft is to control the operation of the
Components engine valves. In some cases, it may also operate the fuel pump, oil pump,
and fuel injectors. This is usually accomplished through various intermediate
parts such as timing gears, push rods, cam followers (lifters), and rocker arms.
The number of cams or lobes on the camshaft depends on the type of engine.
The lobes are designed to change the rotary motion back into up and down
movement to operate the valves, and in some cases, the injectors.
The graphic below depicts the camshaft and associated components:

Camshaft and The camshaft is driven from the engine crankshaft by various means. The
Associated graphic below shows three different types of camshaft drivers.
Components,
continued Graphic A below shows helical gears, which are used because they are
stronger. They also tend to push the camshaft rearward during operation to
help control thrust.
There are two common types of timing chains: roller-link and silent link-type.
Graphic B below shows a roller-link chain drive, which is used in heavy-duty
applications.
Graphic C below shows a belt drive, which is limited to overhead camshaft

engines.

Camshaft and The components shown below work in conjunction with the camshaft to
Associated operate the valves and injectors. The table below lists the parts and functions
Components, of these camshaft components:
continued
Part Function
Lifters or cam followers Sleeve-like plungers that fit into bored holes
in the block. They ride on the camshaft and
transmit the motion from the cam to the
pushrods.
Push rods and push tubes The push rod connects the top of the valve
lifter and the rocker arm. As the lifter follows
the cam lobe, the push rod actuates the rocker
arm and moves the valve, opening and closing
it to allow fuel and air in and exhaust out of
the combustion chamber. The push rod, being
hollow, also channels oil up from the lifter
and out of the rocker arm.
Rocker arm and shaft Provides a pivot point between the push rod
and the valve or injector.

Valve Valves (shown below) are used to admit air into the combustion chamber and
Assembly to allow exhaust gases to escape. Each cylinder of a four-stroke-cycle engine
has at least one exhaust valve. Two-stroke-cycle diesel engines do not have
intake valves, but they may have more than one exhaust valve per cylinder.
The large portion of the valve is called the head or crown and the shaft is
called the stern. The head of the valve has a precision-ground tapered face
that, when closed, seals against a seat located in the cylinder head. When the
valve is pushed open by the movement of the camshaft, either gas or air is
allowed to move around the valve head and into or out of the cylinder.

Valve Intake valves are usually larger in diameter than exhaust valves because they
Assembly, must admit the slow-moving, low pressure intake charge.
continued
Exhaust valves may be smaller because the exhaust gases are denser and leave
the cylinder under higher pressure.
Valve guides are bored or pressed into the cylinder head to support or keep the
valve in alignment. The valve is pulled closed by the valve spring which is
retained on the stern by a spring retainer.
A key is used to secure the spring and retainer to the valve.

Classification of Piston Engines
Overview Engines are commonly divided into three classes using a different basis for
division. They are classified by the method of cooling, valve arrangement,
and cylinder arrangement. To better understand these classifications, each one
is explained separately.
Air Cooled Equipment operated by engines that use air as a cooling medium plays a vital
role in the Marine Corps. Equipment that generally uses an air-cooled engine
includes aircraft and small equipment such as motorcycles, all-terrain vehicles
(ATV), and gasoline powered tools.
You can usually identify the air-cooled engine by removable cylinders with
cooling fins covering the outside surfaces.
The graphic below illustrates a typical air-cooled engine:

Classification of Piston Engines, Continued
Liquid Cooled Equipment operated by engines that use liquid as a cooling medium make up
the bulk of vehicles in the Marine Corps.
The graphic below shows a liquid-cooled engine by a radiator and associated

plumbing:

Valve An engine can be classified by the arrangement of its valves (shown below)
Arrangement and valve train configuration. The various valve train configurations may be
grouped into two categories based on the location of the valves.
The table below describes the different categories of the valve train: flathead
engines and I-head engines.
Category Description
Flathead This category is the group of engines with the valves located
engines beside the pistons and cylinders in the cylinder block. This
type of engine is virtually obsolete in all current automotive
applications.
This group of engines most commonly has the valves located
I-head over the pistons in the cylinder heads.
engine

Standard To operate the valves, the graphic below shows how the overhead valve
Overhead engine (I-head) gets its name from the letter formed by the piston and the
Valve Engine valve. This engine has the camshaft located in the cylinder block, and the
valves are operated through the lifter (cam follower), push rod, and rocker
arm.

Single The camshaft of this engine is located on the cylinder head. When the single
Overhead overhead camshaft configuration is used, the intake and the exhaust valves are
Camshaft both operated from a common camshaft.
Engine
The valve train may be arranged to operate the valves directly through the
lifters as shown in view A or through the rocker arms as shown in View B in
the graphic below:

Double The double overhead camshaft (shown below) has its camshafts located on the
Overhead cylinder head. When the double overhead camshaft is used, the intake and the
Camshaft exhaust valves each operate from a separate camshaft.
Each camshaft operates the valves directly through the lifters. This
configuration provides maximum engine performance and is used mostly in
more expensive automotive applications.

Cylinder Multi-cylinder engines classified by cylinder arrangement can be divided into

Arrangement four groups: in-line, v-type, opposed, and radial. For this course, only in-line
and v-type cylinder arrangements will be covered.
In-Line This is the simplest cylinder arrangement in automotive and truck

applications alike. It is commonly built in four- and six-cylinder
arrangements. The Marine Corps LVSR and the MTVR both use Caterpillar
in line engines.
The graphic below illustrates an in-line cylinder arrangement:

V-type Some of the equipment in the Marine Corps such as the High Mobility Multi-
purpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV), and Assault Amphibious Vehicle
(AAV) use v-type cylinder arranged engines. The V-arrangement is common
for engines with 6 to 18 cylinders. If an engine has more than eight cylinders,
it becomes difficult to make a sufficiently rigid frame and crankshaft for an in-
line arrangement.
The V-arrangement, with two connecting rods attached to each crankpin,

permits reduction in the engine length by one-half, thus making it much more
rigid with a stiff crankshaft. The cylinders are usually arranged at 90 degrees
to each other with opposing cylinders sharing a common crankpin.
The graphic below illustrates a V-type cylinder arrangement:

Lesson 3 Exercise
Item 1 The largest component of a diesel engine is the
a. cylinder.
b. engine block.
c. piston.
d. crankshaft.
Items 2 The oil control rings are designed to control the flow of oil onto the
a. cylinder walls.
b. crankshaft.
c. main bearing.
d. connecting rods.
Items 3 The function of the camshaft is to
a. dampen out part of the fluctuations of the piston thrust.

b. change reciprocating motion into rotary motion.
c. control the operation of the engine valves.
d. transmit energy from the combustion chamber to the crankshaft.

Item 4 Through For items 4 through 7, refer to the following illustrations.

Item 7
a. d.
b. e.
c.
Matching: For items 4 through 7, match the component function to its

corresponding illustration shown above. Write the letter of each response in
the space provided.
___ 4. Attaches the piston to the crankshaft.

___ 5. Receives the energy from the combustion and transmits it to the
crankshaft.
___ 6. Supports the crankshaft and allows it to rotate.
___ 7. Provides the combustion chamber and the intake and exhaust passages.

Item 8 For items 8 through 11, refer to the following illustrations.

Through Item
11
a. d.
b. e.
c.
Matching: For items 8 through 11, match the main component function to its
corresponding illustration shown above. Write the letter of each response in
the space provided.
___ 8. Provides a housing or foundation for all other components.

___ 9. Used to admit air into the combustion chamber and to allow exhaust to
escape.
__10. Changes reciprocating movement to rotary movement.
__11. Controls the operation of the engine valves, and in some cases, the
fuel injectors.

Item 12 What three methods are used to classify piston engines?
a. Operating cycle, piston action, and power output

b. Cylinder arrangement, valve arrangement, and method of cooling
c. Method of cooling, valve arrangement, and classification by horsepower
d. Method of fuel injection, speed, and operating cycle


1 b 1-50
2 a 1-55
3 c 1-59
4 d 1-56
5 c 1-53
6 a 1-58
7 b 1-52
8 b 1-50
9 a 1-62
10 c 1-57
11 d 1-59
12 b 1-64

STUDY UNIT 2
PRINCIPLES, PERFORMANCE, AND THE COMBUSTION
PROCESS
Overview
Scope As you have seen from the preceding study unit, the diesel engine can be a
complex piece of equipment. The basic knowledge introduced in the first
study unit provided you with a firm platform on which to build.
In this study unit, you will expand your knowledge by gaining information in
the areas of two- and four-stroke cycle operation, combustion chamber
design, and the combustion process. You will also examine turbocharging,
supercharging, cooling, and fuel quality, and how these characteristics affect
engine performance.

Unit
Lesson See Page
Operating Principles and Performance of the Diesel Engine 2-3
The Combustion Process 2-25


LESSON 1
OPERATING PRINCIPLES AND PERFORMANCE OF THE
DIESEL ENGINE
Introduction
Scope To better understand the diesel engine and how it works, it is important to
have a firm grasp on its operating principles. In this lesson, we will cover the
operating principles of the two and four-stroke engine as well as discuss the
term “supercharging” and its advantages.

Objectives
• Identify each phase of the four-stroke cycle.
• Identify the action that takes place within the cylinder during each phase
of the four-stroke cycle.
• Identify the action that takes place within the cylinder during each phase
of the two-stroke cycle engine.
• Identify the operation that takes place within the cylinder of the two-
stroke cycle engine.
• Identify the advantages of supercharging.
• Identify a supercharger.
• Identify a turbocharger.
• Identify the purpose of an aftercooler.

Introduction, Continued
Topic See Page

Introduction 2-3
Four-Stroke Cycle of Operation 2-5
Two-Stroke Cycle of Operation 2-10
Supercharging 2-14
Supercharger 2-16
Turbocharging 2-18
Intercoolers and Aftercoolers 2-19

Four-Stroke Cycle of Operation
Principle Power in most of the diesel engines used in military vehicles is developed
through a series of events known as the four-stroke cycle. A cycle is one
complete series of events that is constantly repeated.
When the piston moves from the top of the cylinder, called "top dead center"
(TDC), to the bottom of the cylinder, called "bottom dead center" (BDC), one
stroke occurs.
When the piston moves from the bottom of the cylinder to the top another
stroke has occurred. A series of four strokes is used to develop power in the
four-stroke cycle diesel engine.
In the top of the cylinder, there are two holes or ports that can be opened or
closed as needed. One allows air to enter and is called the intake port. The
other opening provides a passage for getting rid of the exhaust gases left after
combustion, and it is called the exhaust port.
There are four definite phases of operation that an engine goes through to
complete one operating cycle. Each one of these phases takes place in one
piston stroke. Because of this, each phase is also referred to as a stroke.
Since it takes four strokes to complete an operating cycle, the engine is
referred to as a four-stroke cycle engine. The four strokes are intake,
compression, power, and exhaust.

Four-Stroke Cycle of Operation, Continued
Intake Stroke The intake stroke begins at top dead center. As the piston moves down, the
intake port opens. The downward movement of the piston creates a low
pressure area in the cylinder, which causes the air to be drawn through the
intake port.
Remember, the diesel engine is not like the gasoline engine where there is a
carburetor to mix the fuel with air prior to entering the cylinder. As you can
see in the graphic shown below, the cylinder fills completely with air on
every intake stroke. As the piston reaches bottom dead center, the intake port
closes.

Compression As the piston starts upward for the compression stroke as shown in the
Stroke graphic below, the intake and exhaust ports are closed. The piston travels
upward, compressing or "squeezing" the air in the combustion chamber.
The pressure rises to about 700 psi, and the temperature rises to about
1,475°F. As the piston reaches top dead center, the compression stroke ends
and fuel is injected into the combustion chamber.

Power Stroke The intense heat caused by the compression of the air ignites the fuel, and it
burns quickly causing a rapid pressure rise in the cylinder. This pressure
forces the piston down in the cylinder on the power stroke and causes the
crankshaft to rotate as shown in the graphic below. The exhaust and intake
ports are closed.

Exhaust Stroke The fourth stroke of the piston (exhaust) is an upward stroke. The exhaust
port opens (shown in the graphic below) and the piston pushes the burned
gases out through the exhaust port. As the piston reaches top dead center, the
exhaust port closes and the intake port opens. The engine is now ready to
begin another operating cycle.

Two-Stroke Cycle of Operation
Principle An engine that can complete its operating cycle in just two piston strokes is
called a two-stroke cycle engine (shown in the graphic below). Two-stroke
cycle engines complete one operating cycle every two crankshaft revolutions.
Often we shorten the name and just call this engine a "two-stroke" or a "two-
cycle" engine.
Remember that a stroke is the movement of the piston from the top of the
cylinder to the bottom or when the piston moves from the bottom back up to
the top. A cycle is an action that is repeated over and over. Unlike the four-
stroke cycle engine which requires a separate stroke for each operating phase,
the two-stroke cycle engine completes all four phases of operation in two
strokes of the piston.
The strokes are usually referred to as compression and power. Since the
intake and exhaust strokes are eliminated, an air pump is used to expel the
exhaust gases and fill the cylinder with fresh air. The two-stroke cycle diesel
engine must have this air pump to force air into the upper cylinder. Air pumps
will be discussed later in this study unit.

Two-Stroke Cycle of Operation, Continued
Scavenging Determine how the two-stroke cycle diesel engine performs its cycle of
operation and how it differs from that of a four-stroke engine. As noted
before, the intake and exhaust strokes are eliminated by the use of an air
pump. How does the engine perform all four phases of operation found in its
four-stroke counterpart? This question can be answered by understanding a
principle called scavenging.
The two-stroke cycle diesel engine performs intake and exhaust during part of
the compression and power strokes. This process is called scavenging. It
begins with the piston moving downward through the lower half of the
cylinder (shown in the graphic below). The intake ports are uncovered in the
cylinder wall and the exhaust ports are open. Air is forced into the upper
cylinder through the intake ports by the air pump. The pump is commonly
referred to as a blower. As the air is forced in, the burned gases from the
previous operating cycle are forced out of the exhaust ports.

Compression As the piston continues toward top dead center as shown in the graphic below,
it covers the intake ports and the exhaust ports close. This seals the upper
cylinder leaving clean air. As the piston continues upward, the air in the
cylinder is tightly compressed. As in the four stroke cycle diesel, a
tremendous amount of heat is generated by the compression. As the piston
reaches top dead center, the fuel is injected into the hot compressed air.

Power The intense heat of compression causes the fuel to ignite and the pressure
caused by combustion pushes the piston down, giving power to the crankshaft
(shown in the graphic below).
The power stroke ends when the exhaust ports open and the piston returns to
the point where the intake ports are uncovered. One operating cycle is then
completed and scavenging begins again.

Supercharging
Definition Supercharging is the process of forcing fresh air into the cylinders above
atmospheric pressure during the intake stroke. In most applications,
supercharged air is provided either by positive displacement rotary air pumps
or centrifugal blowers. The most common type of positive displacement
pump is the Roots blower and the most common type of centrifugal pump is
the turbocharger.
Advantages Why do we want to force air into the cylinders rather than merely allowing
the pistons to draw it in naturally? Well, do you remember studying the
advantages of increasing volumetric efficiency? Remember that when you
force more air into the cylinders, the fuel can be burned more completely and
the engine's power output increases. As you pack more fuel and air into the
cylinder, the combustion charge becomes more powerful and the engine
produces more power and torque. Supercharging also reduces exhaust smoke
and emissions.
Volumetric The table below describes the volumetric efficiency of a naturally aspirated
Efficiency of a engine with and without a supercharger:
Naturally
Aspirated Type Description
Engine
Naturally When the piston goes down in a naturally aspirated
aspirated engine engine on the intake stroke, atmospheric pressure tries
to fill the void now present in the cylinder. If the
cylinder filled completely with air, the engine would
have a volumetric efficiency of 100%. Due to the
restrictions in any engine created by the air cleaner,
cylinder head, and cam timing, all of the air that should
get into the cylinder can't, so the typical engine's
volumetric efficiency is less than 100%.
Supercharged With a supercharger, the amount of air and fuel that can
engine be packed into the cylinders greatly exceeds the 100%
volumetric efficiency of a highly refined unblown
engine. Since the air is now being forced into the
engine, you can put a substantially denser fuel/air
charge into the cylinders. With most street type blown
applications approximately 40 to 50% more fuel and air
can be packed into the cylinders than in a comparable
unblown engine.

Supercharging, Continued
Displacement The reason that larger displacement engines make more power and torque
Benefits of than smaller ones is that more fuel and air are available for combustion. As a
Supercharged result of supercharging, a small displacement supercharged engine can
Engines produce similar horsepower and torque to a naturally aspirated larger
displacement engine.
Both four- and two-stroke cycle engines may be supercharged; however,

some type of air pump is definitely required to accomplish the scavenging
process of the two-stroke cycle engine. Let's now explore just how the two
most common types of air pumps function.

Supercharger
Purpose Superchargers are engine driven air pumps that force air into the cylinders.
These air pumps are mechanically driven by chains, belts, or gears from the
crankshaft. There are three common types of superchargers; the roots blower,
the screw type blower, and the centrifugal supercharger.
Note: It is common for the term “supercharger” and “blower” to be used

interchangeably.
Roots Blower The roots blower (shown in the graphic below) is the simplest of all blowers
and therefore is also the least expensive and most common. A roots blower
does not compress the air inside the supercharger. It is actually an air pump.
The compression of the inlet charge (creation of boost) actually takes place in
the cylinders and the manifold. Centrifugal superchargers and screw type
superchargers are called "internal compression" blowers because the air
compression takes place inside the supercharger. Roots superchargers are
"external compression" blowers because the air compression takes place
outside of the supercharger.
Roots Blower The rotors are designed so that they do not come in contact with each other or
Basics the housing. The air entering the blower from the air cleaner is picked up by
the rotor lobes and is carried to the discharge side of the blower. The
continuous discharge of fresh air enters the air chamber of the cylinder block
and sweeps through the intake ports to scavenge the combustion chamber and
supply fresh air for combustion.

Supercharger, Continued
Screw Type The screw type blower appears somewhat similar to a roots type blower from
Blower the outside, but the internal rotors are quite different. In a screw type blower,
the rotors interleave one another.
Screw Type As the outside air is drawn into the blower the rotors progressively compress
Blower Basics the air inside the blower as it passes along the rotors. These rotors require an
extremely high degree of tolerance and, as a result, the screw type
supercharger is more expensive than a roots type.
Centrifugal The centrifugal supercharger is very similar to a turbocharger, except the

Supercharger centrifugal supercharger is driven by a belt off the engine, while the
turbocharger is driven by the force of the exhaust gases. These types of
superchargers (or turbos) run at extremely high speeds.
Centrifugal To achieve these high speeds in the centrifugal supercharger, there is an

Supercharger additional internal step-up drive inside the blower. Due to the design of these
Basics units, the faster the impeller spins the more boosts the blower makes. As a
result, these units typically do not produce much power at low engine speeds
because the impeller is not spinning fast enough to make much boost. Some
manufacturers install a blower and a turbocharger combination. With this
installation, both torque and fuel economy are further improved.
Difference Don't confuse supercharging with scavenging. Scavenging is the process that
Between takes place in two-cycle engines where a blower is used to carry a small
Supercharging amount of air into the cylinders to push out the spent gases and replace them
and Scavenging with fresh air.
Supercharging goes a step further and packs the cylinder with still more fresh
air. The roots blower is commonly used on two-stroke cycle engines to
supply fresh air for both combustion and scavenging. It is engine driven,
usually by gears, from the crankshaft.

Turbocharging
Turbocharger A turbocharger (shown in the graphic below) uses the force of the engine
Operation exhaust gases to force the air, under pressure, into the engine. It consists of a
turbine housing, compressor housing, and center housing. The turbine
housing contains a turbine wheel mounted on a turbine shaft that is spun as
hot exhaust gases are directed against it. The exhaust gases are discharged
into the atmosphere after passing through the turbine housing. The turbine
shaft drives a compressor wheel that is located in the compressor housing.
The spinning wheel draws air through the air cleaning system and forces it
into the engine. The center housing serves to support the rotating assembly,
bearings, seals, turbine housing, and compressor housing.
During operation, the turbocharger responds to load demands by reacting to

the flow of exhaust gases. As the engine output increases or decreases, the
turbocharger responds to deliver the required amount of air. Some
turbochargers may use what is called a waste gate (bypass valve) to control
exhaust gases. Turbochargers are very common to four-stroke cycle engines;
however, they may also be used in two-stroke cycle engine operation.
_______________________________________________________________

Intercoolers and Aftercoolers
Cooling As a result of supercharging or turbocharging, the intake air temperature

increases considerably. Cooling the air makes it denser, which results in
more air entering the cylinders. Cooling is accomplished by using either
engine coolant or air as the cooling medium. This cooling is accomplished by
using either an intercooler or an aftercooler.
Intercooler Where the cooler is located usually dictates what it is called. Intercoolers are
common on some engines that employ both turbochargers and blowers. The
intercooler is located between the turbocharger and the blower. It cools the
air that is leaving the turbocharger before it reaches the blower (shown in the
graphic below). This permits a more dense charge of air to be delivered to the
engine.

Intercoolers and Aftercoolers, Continued
Aftercoolers The aftercooler mounts in the cylinder block opening between the cylinders,
beneath the blower assembly. The aftercooler cools the air going into the
engine after it passes through both the turbocharger and the blower as shown
in the graphic below:

Lesson 1 Exercise
Item 1 The graphic below shows the four phases (sequence of operation) for the
four-stroke –cycle engine.
Using the graphic above, select the correct sequence of operation for a four-
stroke cycle diesel engine.
a. D, A, B, C
b. B, A, C, D
c. C, D, A, B
d. A, B, D, C
Item 2 During this stroke the downward movement of the piston creates a low
pressure area.
a. Intake
b. Compression
c. Power
d. Exhaust

Item 3 A two-stroke cycle engine completes one operating cycle every ________
crankshaft revolution(s).
a. two
b. complete
c. one-half
d. one and a half
Item 4 Each graphic shows a phase of operation of the two-stroke cycle engine
operation.
Which graphic shows the scavenging process?
a. A
b. B
c. C
Item 5 A major advantage of supercharging a system is it will
a. reduce the quantity of fuel injected in the combustion chamber.

b. increase volumetric efficiency generating greater power output.
c. decrease volumetric pressure in the cylinders by increasing the air-fuel
ratio.
d. increase efficiency because it emits exhaust gases back into the
combustion chamber.
Item 6 Superchargers are air pumps that are driven by the
a. engine.
b. engine exhaust.
c. operator.
d. airflow.

Item 7 A turbocharger consists of a turbine housing, compressor housing, and a
a. center housing.
b. right side housing.
c. left side housing.
e. plunger housing.
Item 8 What is the purpose of an after-cooler?
a. Cool the exhaust gases that leave the turbocharger to help control
emissions.
b. Cool the intake air, which results in more air going to the cylinders.
c. Cool the air prior to entering the turbocharger which helps keep the
turbocharger cool.
d. Cool the fuel air mixture prior to entering the cylinders to help in more
complete combustion.

Item Number Answer Reference

1 d 2-5
2 a 2-6
3 b 2-10
4 a 2-11
5 b 2-14
6 a 2-16
7 a 2-18
8 b 2-19

LESSON 2
THE COMBUSTION PROCESS
Introduction
Purpose Diesel engines provide maximum efficiency only when they mix fuel and air
properly. The fuel injector sprays the fuel (as fine particles) into the cylinder
after the piston compresses the air. The well-designed diesel engine uses a
combustion chamber designed for the engine's intended purpose. The
injectors used in the engine should complement the combustion chamber. In
this lesson, you will learn the combustion process within the diesel engine to
include combustion chamber design and qualities of diesel fuel.

Objectives
• Identify the four types of combustion chambers.
• Identify the causes of turbulence of air inside the combustion chamber.
• Identify the two major advantages of the open combustion chamber

design.
• Identify how the turbulence chamber produces combustion within the

cylinder.
• Identify how the Lanova combustion chamber differs from other chamber
designs.
• Identify four advantages of the Lanova combustion chamber design.
• Identify the three most important qualities of diesel fuel.
Topic See Page

Introduction 2-25
Combustion Chamber Design 2-26
Lanova System 2-29
Qualities of Diesel Fuel 2-32

Combustion Chamber Design
Open The open chamber is the simplest form of chamber design. It is suitable for
Chamber both slow-speed, four-stroke cycle and two-stroke cycle diesel engines. The
fuel is injected directly into the combustion space at the top of the cylinder.
The combustion space (shown in the graphic below), formed by the top of the
piston and the cylinder head, is usually shaped to provide a swirling action of
the air (turbulence) as the piston starts its compression stroke. There are no
special pockets, cells, or passages to aid the mixing of the fuel and air. This
chamber does require high injection pressures and, a great degree of fuel
atomization to obtain an acceptable level of fuel mixing. Two major
advantages of the open combustion chamber are its high fuel economy and
simple design.

Combustion Chamber Design, Continued
Pre In some engine designs, a portion of the clearance volume is placed in a

Combustion separate chamber located in the cylinder head or in the cylinder wall. This
Chamber chamber is known as a pre-combustion chamber and is connected to the space
over the piston by one or more passages. As air is compressed within the
cylinder, it is given a high degree of turbulence as it passes through the
narrow passageway into the pre-combustion chamber (shown in the graphic
below).
Pre The pre-combustion chamber enhances combustion by conditioning the fuel

Combustion for final combustion in the cylinder and distributes the fuel through the air so
Chamber that complete combustion is assured. At the beginning of fuel injection the
Process pre-combustion chamber contains a definite volume of air. Combustion is
started at that point. Because of the limited amount of air available,
combustion is incomplete, but the resulting heat and high pressure forces the
fuel at a high velocity into the cylinder.
The entering mixture hits the hollowed-out piston top, creating turbulence in
the chamber to ensure complete mixing of the fuel charge with air. This
mixture ensures even and complete combustion. This chamber design
provides satisfactory performance with low fuel injector pressures and coarse
spray patterns because a large amount of vaporization takes place in the
combustion chamber. This chamber is more suitable for high-speed
applications.

Combustion Chamber Design, Continued
Turbulence The turbulence chamber is similar in appearance to the precombustion

Chamber chamber, but its function is different. There is very little clearance above the
piston when it is at the top of the compression stroke. When the piston
reaches top dead center, virtually all of the air has been compressed within the
turbulence chamber.
Turbulence The chamber is usually spherical, and the air passage becomes smaller as the
Chamber piston reaches the top of the stroke, thereby increasing the velocity of the air
Process in the chamber. Fuel is injected into the turbulence chamber. As shown in
the graphic below, injection is timed to occur when the turbulence in the
chamber is the greatest. This ensures thorough mixing of the fuel and the air
and results in the greater part of combustion taking place in the turbulence
chamber. The pressure created by the expansion of the burning gases is the
force that drives the piston downward on the power stroke.

Lanova System
Lanova The Lanova system (shown in the graphic below), which is of divided
Combustion chamber construction, is basically a combination of the precombustion
Chamber chamber and the turbulence chamber designs. This construction is named
after its originator. The Lanova combustion chamber design has two rounded
spaces, which form a figure eight and make up the main combustion chamber.
This combustion chamber is cast in the cylinder head.
Lanova As in the case of the open combustion chamber design, the main volume of
Combustion air is in the main combustion chamber and the principal combustion takes
Chamber place there. However, unlike the open combustion chamber design,
Process combustion in the Lanova system is controlled. In some designs, both intake
and exhaust valves are located directly above the figure eight shaped
combustion chamber. On others, one valve is located in the top of the
chamber, while the other is in the flat portion of the head.

Lanova System, Continued
Lanova Like the turbulence-chamber type, the Lanova system depends on a high
Combustion degree of turbulence to promote thorough mixing and distribution of the air
Chamber and fuel. In this design, about 90 percent of the combustion chamber is
Process, directly in the path of the in and out movement of the valves. The turbulence
continued is dependent upon the thermal action, and not on engine speed, as is the case
in open combustion chamber designs.
Sequence of Primarily, the sequence of operation of the Lanova combustion system

Operation of (shown in the graphic below) involves the combination of the combustion
the Lanova chamber and a small air chamber known as the energy cell. In its latest
System development, this energy cell is composed of two separate chambers. The
inner chamber, which is the smaller of the two, opens into the narrow throat
between the two lobes of the main combustion chamber through a funnel-
shaped venturi passage. The larger outer chamber connects with the inner one
through a second venturi. Directly opposite the energy cell is the injection
nozzle.

Lanova System, Continued
Sequence of The table below describes the combustion sequence of the Lanova system as
Operation of shown on the previous page:
the Lanova
System, Combustion Action
continued
Sequence
Fuel injection During the compression stroke, about 10 percent of
the total compressed volume of air passes into the
energy cell; the remainder stays in the figure-eight
shaped combustion chamber. The fuel is injected in
the form of a pencil stream directly across the narrow
throat of the combustion chamber, where most of it
penetrates into the energy cell. A small portion of the
boundary layer of fuel follows the curvature of the
combustion chamber lobes and swirls into the
vortexes within them.
Fuel ignition The fuel entering the energy cell is trapped for the
most part in the small inner cell, but a small part
passes into the larger outer cell where it meets a
sufficient quantity of super-heated air to explode
violently.
Combustion in This explosion produces an extremely rapid rise in
energy cell pressure within the energy cell.
Combustion in This pressure blows the main body of the fuel lying in
main cell the inner cell back into the main combustion chamber
so that there is a swirling action of fuel and air around
the two lobes of the combustion chamber where
combustion is completed. Because of the restrictive
action of the venturi connecting the energy cells, the
blowback of fuel into the combustion chamber is
controlled and takes appreciable time. The result is a
prolonged and smooth combustion, high performance
and an excellent economy of operation.

Qualities of Diesel Fuel
Specification The fuels used in modern high-speed diesel engines are a product of the
Requirements petroleum refining process. They are heavier than gasoline because they are
obtained from the leftover crude oil residue after the more volatile gasoline
and kerosene have been removed. The large, slow running diesel engines
used in stationary or marine installations will burn almost any grade of heavy
fuel oil, but the high-speed diesel engines used in automotive applications
require a fuel oil as light as kerosene. Although diesel fuel is different from
gasoline, its specification requirements are just as exacting. Of the various
qualities to be considered in selecting a fuel for diesel engines, the most
important are cleanliness, viscosity, and ignition quality
Cleanliness Cleanliness is the most necessary quality of a diesel fuel. The fuel should not
contain more than a trace of foreign substance; otherwise, fuel pump and
injector difficulties will occur. Because diesel is heavier and more viscous
than gasoline, it will hold dirt in suspension for longer periods of time.
Therefore, every precaution must be taken to keep dirt out of the fuel system
or to eliminate it before it reaches the pump. Water is more objectionable in
diesel fuels than it is in gasoline because it will cause ragged operation and
corrode the fuel system. The smallest amount of corrosion of the accurately
machined surfaces in the injection equipment will cause the system to become
inoperative.
Viscosity The viscosity of oil is the fluid property that resists the force which causes the
fluid to flow. The viscosity of a diesel fuel must be low enough to flow freely
at the lowest temperatures encountered, but it must also be high enough to
properly lubricate the closely fitted pump parts and injector plungers. It must
also be viscous enough so that leakage at the pump plungers and dribbling at
the injectors will not occur. The viscosity of a fuel also determines the size of
the fuel-spray droplets which, in turn, govern the atomization and penetration
qualities of the spray.

Qualities of Diesel Fuel, Continued
Ignition Quality The ignition quality of a diesel fuel is its ability to ignite spontaneously under
the conditions existing in the engine cylinder. The spontaneous-ignition point
of a fuel is a function of temperature, pressure, and time. Since it would be
difficult to reproduce these factors artificially, the best apparatus for
measuring the ignition quality of a fuel is an actual diesel cylinder running
under controlled operating conditions.
The ignition quality of diesel fuel is expressed as a cetane number. The

cetane number rating is obtained by comparing the fuel with cetane, a
colorless, liquid hydrocarbon which has excellent ignition qualities, and is
rated at 100. The higher the cetane number, the shorter the lag between the
instant the fuel enters the combustion chamber and the instant it begins to
burn. A cetane rating may be obtained by comparing the performance of a
diesel fuel of unknown quality with cetane.

Lesson 2 Exercise
answers against those listed at the end of this study unit.
Item 1 Which statement best describes the open-combustion chamber?
a. This chamber has very little clearance above the piston when it is at the
top of the compression stroke, and the greatest part of combustion takes
place outside the main chamber.
b. The simplest form of chamber design, and it is suitable for both slow-
speed, four-stroke and two-stroke cycle diesel engines.
c. The turbulence this figure 8 designed chamber, creates is dependent upon
thermal action and not on engine speed.
d. This chamber conditions the fuel for final combustion in the cylinder and
distributes the fuel through air so that complete combustion is assured.
Item 2 The turbulence of air inside the open combustion chamber is caused by the
a. speed at which the piston travels inside the cylinder.

b. rate of air flow into the combustion chamber.
c. shape formed by the top of the piston and the cylinder head.
d. level of atmospheric pressure that forces air into the combustion chamber.
Item 3 Simplicity of design and high fuel economy are two major advantages of the
__________ chamber.
a. turbulence
b. Lanova combustion
c. open combustion
d. pre-combustion

Item 4 How is combustion produced in the turbulence chamber design?
a. As the piston reaches bottom dead center, fuel is injected into the
turbulence chamber where atomization takes place; as the piston moves to
top dead center, the fuel-air mixture is forced into the cylinder where it is
ignited; the pressure created by the expansion of the burning gases forces
the piston downward on the power stroke.
b. As the piston reaches top dead center, compressed air is forced into the
turbulence chamber; fuel is then injected into the main chamber where the
greater part of combustion takes place; the pressure created by the
turbulence of burning gases is the force that drives the piston downward
on the power stroke.
c. As the piston moves to top dead center, air is compressed within the
turbulence chamber; fuel is then injected into the turbulence chamber
where the greater part of combustion takes place; the pressure created by
the expansion of the burning gases is the force that drives the piston
downward on the power stroke.
d. As the piston reaches bottom dead center, fuel is injected into the
combustion chamber where atomization takes place; as the piston moves
to top dead center, the fuel-air mixture is forced into the cylinder where it
is ignited; the pressure created by the expansion of the burning gases
forces the piston downward on the power stroke.
Item 5 The Lanova combustion chamber differs from other combustion chamber
construction in that it is basically a combination of ________ and ______
designs.
a. divided; turbulence
b. pre-combustion; turbulence
c. open; pre-combustion
d. turbulence; open

Item 6 The three advantages of the Lanova combustion chamber are
a. smooth operation, high fuel requirements, and high engine speed.

b. smooth combustion, high performance, and excellent economy of
operation.
c. high performance, absence of diesel knock, and excellent economy of
operation
d. smooth operation, high fuel requirements, and excellent economy of
operation.
Item 7 Cleanliness, viscosity, and ignition quality are the three qualities of
a. horsepower.
b. diesel fuel.
c. gasoline.
d. work.

Answers The table below lists the answers to the lesson exercise. If you have any

1 b 2-26
2 c 2-26
3 c 2-26
4 c 2-28
5 b 2-29
6 b 2-31
7 b 2-32


STUDY UNIT 3
DIESEL ENGINE FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS
Overview
Scope The diesel engine has come a long way in terms of efficiency. This is due in
large part to the ever evolving methods of fuel injection systems. The diesel
engine relies on its fuel injection system. Regardless of the design or type,
the major function of the injection system is to inject fuel into the engine in
correct amounts at the correct time.
The performance of diesel engines is heavily influenced by their injection

system design. The diesel fuel injection system can often be more
complicated than the fuel injection methods used in modern gasoline engines.
In fact, the most notable advances achieved in diesel engines have resulted
from superior fuel injection system designs. Coupled with expensive
materials, manufacturing costs and a more intricate control requirement,
diesel injection systems can account for up to 30% of the total cost of the
engine.
In this study unit, we will identify fuel injection methods, types of injectors,
fuel injection pumps, governors and the characteristics of the different
systems.

Unit
Lessons See Page

Fuel Injection Systems 3-3
Governors 3-17


LESSON 1
FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS
Introduction
Scope Some engine manufacturers use their own fuel injection equipment, while
others rely on outside manufacturers who specialize in fuel injection
equipment. This equipment will vary in construction and method of forcing
fuel into the combustion chamber; however, in every case, the fuel injection
equipment for any diesel engine must accomplish several basic functions.
This lesson will cover the five main functions of fuel injection systems, the
types of fuel injection, and the four common types of fuel injection systems.

Objectives
• Identify the fuel injection system's five main functions.
• Identify the types of fuel injection.
• Identify the four common types of fuel injection systems.
Topic See Page

Introduction 3-3
Fuel Injection System Functions 3-4
Types of Fuel Injection 3-7
Common Fuel Injection Systems 3-10

Fuel Injection System Functions
Main Functions The fuel injection system must precisely meter the quantity of fuel required,
according to the load and speed of the engine and it must also develop the
high pressure that is required to inject fuel into the cylinder. Additionally, the
system must control the atomization, rate, and timing at which the fuel is
injected and distributed throughout the combustion chamber. Fuel injection
must start and end abruptly. The following are the five main functions of fuel
injection systems:
• Develop pressure
• Meter the fuel
• Time the injection
• Control the rate
• Atomize the fuel
Develop At the time of fuel injection, the air in the combustion chamber is at
Pressure maximum compression; consequently, the fuel system must pressurize the
fuel high enough to offset this pressure. The phase and description of the
pressure required to inject the fuel into the engine with a compression ratio of
approximately 15 to 1 are explained in the table below:
Phase Description
Initial At the beginning of injection, fuel pressure may be as low as
1800 psi to as high as 30,000 psi, depending upon the design
of the equipment.
Dispersion The fuel injection equipment must raise the pressure of the
fuel enough to overcome the force of the compressed air
charge in the combustion chamber and ensure proper
dispersion (distribution) of the fuel being injected into the
combustion space.
Penetration The penetration of the fuel determines the distance through
which the fuel droplets travel after leaving the injector tip or
nozzle. If the atomizing process results in fuel droplets that
are too small, they will not have sufficient weight to
penetrate very far into the air charge. Too little penetration
results in the fuel igniting and burning before it is properly
dispersed through the air charge in the combustion space.
Since penetration and atomization tend to oppose each other,
a compromise in the degree of each is necessary in the
design of the fuel injection equipment.

Fuel Injection System Functions, Continued
Meter the Fuel Accurate metering, or measuring of fuel means that for a given engine speed,
setting, and load, the same quantity of fuel must be delivered to each cylinder
just before each power stroke of the engine. During the metering process
• Each cylinder of the diesel engine operates at a uniform speed.
• Each cylinder of the diesel engine delivers the same power output.
• The quantity must be varied according to the load on the engine and its
speed.
• The engine speed will be erratic and the horsepower output of the engine
will not be uniform, if the fuel quantity varied in the different cylinders.
• Smooth engine operation and even distribution of the load between

cylinders requires that the same amount (volume) of fuel is delivered to a
particular cylinder each time it fires, and that equal volumes of fuel are
delivered to all cylinders of the engine.
Time the The fuel must be injected at the correct instant. Early or late injection results
Injection in power loss. Correct timing is vital to ensure that complete combustion
takes place and that maximum energy is obtained from the fuel. The table
below describes early and late injections:
If ... Then ...

The fuel is injected too early in the Ignition will be delayed, because
cycle compression will not be at its
maximum and the temperature will be
low.
The fuel is injected late The fuel will not all be burned until
after the piston has traveled past top
dead center. Late injection results in
rough, noisy operation of the engine.
Wetting of the cylinder walls and
piston crown occurs. This condition
results in poor fuel economy, higher
than normal exhaust gas temperatures,
and smoky exhaust.

Fuel Injection System Functions, Continued
Control the Fuel is not injected in one single spurt, but extends over a period of time. The
Rate injection rate varies with different engines. It is affected largely by the type
and contour of combustion chambers, engine speed, and fuel characteristics.
The condition and description of incorrect rate of injection are explained in
the table below:
Condition Description
Rate of injection The symptoms are similar to those caused when fuel
is too high injection is too early; diesel engine will not run at peak
performance.
Rate of injection The symptoms are similar to those caused when fuel
is too low injection is too late; diesel engine will not run at peak
performance
Atomize The Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber as a spray. The degree of
Fuel atomization (breaking up of fuel into small particles) will vary depending on
the design of the combustion chamber. Proper atomization increases the
surface area of fuel which is exposed to the oxygen of the air and results in
improved combustion and maximum power development. The steps listed in
the table below describe the atomization of fuel:
Step Action
1 Shortly before the top of the compression stroke, at a point
controlled by the mechanical injection timing arrangement, one or
more jets of fuel are introduced into the combustion chamber. As
explained previously, ignition of fuel does NOT occur immediately
on injection.
2 The fuel droplets absorb heat from the compressed air swirling
around the combustion chamber. This process is necessary because
it causes the liquid fuel to VAPORIZE so it can burn! The duration
of the second phase of ignition delay is controlled by the design or
shape of the combustion chamber, fuel and air inlet temperatures,
degree of atomization of the fuel, and the quality of the fuel.
3 When the fuel-air mixture reaches a temperature at which self-
ignition occurs, the flame begins to spread. Injection of the
remaining volume of fuel for the cylinder continues during this
time.

Types of Fuel Injection
Methods The following are the two methods of fuel injection:
• Mechanical fuel injection

• Electronically controlled fuel injection
Most systems in use today operate off of a mechanical pump that supplies
fuel directly to the injector or to a common fuel rail. The injector is then
either actuated mechanically or electronically by a solenoid attached to the
injector. An ECU (Electronic Control Unit) sends an electrical signal to the
injector to actuate its operation.
Mechanical In a mechanical fuel injection system, the pressurizing and delivery of the
Fuel Injection fuel is accomplished by purely mechanical means. For example, in a unit
pump system, each cylinder of the engine incorporates a single high pressure
pump and injector separated by a high pressure pipe. The fuel pump is
connected either directly out through a roller/push rod mechanism to the
engine fuel camshaft. The rotation of the fuel camshaft with its elliptically
shaped cam lobe allows a plunger within the high pressure pump to rise and
fall. The table below describes the action of the plunger during the
pressurization and delivery stages of the fuel into the engine’s cylinder:
Stage Description
Pressurization During the “rising” phase of the plunger stroke, the
plunger squeezes fuel that has entered the fuel pump
through ports above the plunger. The “squeezing” of the
fuel creates the high injection pressures characteristic of
diesel fuel injection systems. The amount of fuel that is
injected is controlled by the rotary position of a
specifically designed helix that is machined into the pump
plunger that in turn is connected to the engine governor
through a linkage system.
Delivery The high pressure fuel is injected into the engine’s
cylinder through the high pressure injector. The high
pressure injector uses a group of small orifices or “spray
holes” that distribute the high pressure fuel into the
engine's cylinder chamber in a specifically designed
pattern to fit the engine's performance and emissions
requirements.

Types of Fuel Injection, Continued
Electronically With increased demand to lower emissions from diesel engines, the flexibility
Controlled Fuel and improved performance offered by electronic control was an important
Injection driver for many engine manufacturers to introduce electronically controlled
fuel injection systems. While injection timing could be varied with a purely
mechanical approach, electronic control offered a much more flexible and a
potentially simpler way to achieve this while also providing the option of
introducing a number of other desirable features.
Benefits of An important tool for lowering emissions from diesel engines produced
Electronically during this period was fuel injection timing that could be varied over the
Controlled Fuel speed and load range of the engine. Electronic control not only controls
Injectors injection timing according to speed and load, but also according to the type of
driving conditions (usual, unusual and emergency).
Benefits of electronically controlled fuel injection include the following:
• Maintains accuracy of timing and fuel metering over the expected life of
the engine.
• Injection pressures increased to maintain engine thermal efficiency and to

enable some reduction in exhaust emissions.
• Injector response times became faster to allow predictable injection of

small injection quantities. This was an important feature to enable
multiple injection events.
• Better control over the opening and closing of the injection nozzle to
avoid uncontrolled secondary injections and provide a sharp end of
injection.
• Improved mechanical efficiency of the injection system to contribute to

the overall goal of improving engine efficiency.

Types of Fuel Injection, Continued
Solenoid The unit injector systems were the first to use this technology with the
Actuator addition of solenoid actuated electronic fuel injectors. Solenoid actuator
Design designs of that period were initially relatively large and bulky and a unit
injector for a heavy-duty engine provided ample room for it. It took several
years for manufacturers to refine the actuator design to make it compact
enough to use in common rail systems for light-duty applications and to
produce a heavy-duty unit injector, which replaced the bulky side mounted
actuators with a more compact design that could be integrated into the
injector body.

Common Fuel Injection Systems
Purpose The purpose of the fuel injection is to deliver an exact metered amount of
fuel, under high pressure, at the right time to the injector. The injector injects
the fuel directly into the cylinder or a pre-chamber connected to the cylinder.
Listed below are several common fuel injection systems through which this is
achieved:
• Distributor injection pumps

• Unit pump system
• Common rail system
• Unit injection
Distributor The distributor injection pump (shown in the graphic below) is one common
Injection Pump types of diesel injection systems found. Fuel flows from the tank through a
fuel filter into a transfer pump (low pressure) and then into the pump itself.
This type of pump pressurizes and distributes fuel for each of the cylinders
through high pressure fuel lines to an injector at the appropriate cylinder. The
fuel is then atomized as it passes through the injector into the cylinder for
combustion.

Common Fuel Injection Systems, Continued
Unit Pump Unit pumps use separate pumping elements to pressurize fuel. Pressurization
System is accomplished using an engine-mounted camshaft that provides for high
pressurization of fuel. The pump is connected to the fuel nozzle through a
high-pressure fuel line. This system features higher spray-in pressures than a
few other fuel systems, although not as high as unit injectors. The use of the
high-pressure fuel line and delivery valves in the pump incorporates injection
delay to the design. These systems feature spray-in pressures of up to
26,500psi. An example of a unit pump injection system is shown in the
graphic below:

Common Rail The following are the three major components of the common rail system:
Components
• Fuel pump
• Electronic control unit
• Fuel injector
The table below describes the function of each component:
Component Function
Fuel Pump Sends fuel to an accumulator or rail. Charges the fuel
rail at a pressure of up to 25,000 psi.
Electronic Allows the common rail injection system to deliver a
Control Unit more controlled quantity of atomized fuel, which leads
to better fuel economy; a reduction in exhaust
emissions; and a significant decrease in engine noise
during operation.
Fuel Injector Injects the correct amount of fuel into the combustion
chambers.
Function of The injectors used in Common Rail systems are triggered externally by an
Injectors used electronic diesel control (EDC) unit, which controls all the engine injection
in Electronic parameters, including the pressure in the fuel rail and the timing and duration
Diesel Control of injection.
EDC Process Each fuel injector is mounted directly above the piston within the cylinder
head. The high pressure allows for a very fine injector orifice that completely
atomizes the fuel and precludes the need for a pre-chamber. Like the fuel
pump, the injectors are also controlled by the engine computer and can be
fired in rapid succession several times during the injection cycle.

EDC Process, With this precise control over injector firings, smaller, staggered quantities of
continued fuel delivery can be timed over the course of the power stroke to promote
complete and accurate combustion. In addition to timing control, the short
duration, high pressure injections allow a finer and more accurate spray
pattern that also supports better and more complete atomization and
combustion. The graphic below shows a typical common rail injection
system:
Unit Injection The Unit Injector System combines the injection nozzle and the high-pressure
pump in a single assembly. One such unit injector is fitted in the head of each
engine cylinder. The fuel is sent to the individual assemblies via fuel lines
that are fed by a transfer pump. The high pressure is built up by the
activation of the pump plunger of the unit injector by the engine camshaft via
a tappet or rocker arm.
Advantage of The advantage of the unit injector system is that there is no high-pressure line
the Unit between the high-pressure pump and the injection nozzle. This means that the
Injector System unit injection system can build up extremely high injection pressures: over
30,000 PSI in the current generation. This leads to lower emissions and
increased efficiency.
Timing In an electronically controlled unit injector, the timing of the fuel delivery is
achieved through the opening and closing of an electronic solenoid attached
to the injector, vice the mechanical movement of a control rack.
Continue on next page

Hydraulically There are also hydraulically activated electronically controlled injectors.

Activated These injectors use pressurized oil to develop pressure and ultimately deliver
Electronically the fuel at the right time and very high pressure through the injector nozzle
Controlled into the chamber. The unit injector system is mainly employed in heavy and
Injectors medium-sized commercial vehicles. The graphic below is an example of a
mechanical type unit injector:

Lesson 1 Exercise
Item 1 What are the fuel injection system's five main functions?
a. Develop pressure, timing, fuel atomization, combustion, and distribution

b. Metering, ignition rate control, purging, injection, and timing
c. Develop pressure, metering, timing, ignition rate control, and fuel
atomization
d. Combustion, purging, fuel delivery control, ignition rate control, and
pressure relief
Item 2 The two basic methods of injecting fuel into the combustion chamber are
____________ and ____________ injection.
a. Mechanical, electronically controlled

b. air/pressure
c. air/mechanical
d. electrical/pressure
Item 3 The four types of mechanical fuel injection systems are
a. unit pump, common rail, unit injection, and distributor.

b. single-plunger, heat injection, pressure time, and distributor.
c. multi-plunger, pressure time, unit injection, and vacuum.
d. Rudolf, pressure time, unit injection, and distributor.

Answers The table below lists the answers to the lesson exercise. If you have

1 c 3-4
2 a 3-7
3 a 3-10

LESSON 2
GOVERNORS
Introduction
Scope Just like engines, there are many different types and designs of governors.
The governor may be an integral part of the injection pump or may be a
separate unit driven by a gear or belt arrangement. Governors are vital to
ensure proper fuel delivery and a smooth operation of your diesel engine.
The governor is considered the brain of the diesel engine. This lesson will
cover the basic governor components, classifications and types of governors
as well as the basic operating principle of a governor.

Objectives
• Identify the primary function of governors.
• Identify the three classifications of governors.
• Identify the terms associated with governors.
• Identify the types of governors.
Topic See Page

Introduction 3-17
Basic Governor Components and Classifications 3-18
Types of Governors 3-21

Basic Governor Components and Classifications
Basic Governor The governor (shown in the graphic below) is an integral part of the injection
Components pump. The governor’s primary function is to sense the changes in engine
speed and then make corrections in fuel delivery. The table below lists some
of the basic parts and functions of the mechanical type governor:
Part Function
Thrust Sleeve Rides on the injection pump drive shaft (not pictured)
Transfers the outward and inward movement of the
flyweights through the pivot shaft and governor linkage to
the control rod (rack) or metering valve
Flyweights Assists in controlling fuel delivery
• If the load on the engine increases, the engine tends to
slow down, thereby causing an inward movement of
the flyweights.
• If the load on the engine decreases, the engine tends to

accelerate, thereby causing an outward movement of
the flyweights.
Weight Retainer Rides on the injection pump drive shaft
Governor Spring Provides tension on the governor weight
• In a variable speed governor, spring tension is
manually changed (tightened or loosened) by the
operator through the throttle.
• In a constant speed governor, spring tension would be

adjusted internally by adding or subtracting shims to
the governor spring pack.

Basic Governor Components and Classifications, Continued
Governor All governors are classified according to speed regulation. Regardless of the
Classifications type of governor used, they will fall into one of the following classes:
• Variable speed
• Constant speed
• Limiting speed
Each class is listed and explained in the table below:
Class Description
Variable A variable speed governor is designed so that the governor can
Speed be adjusted by the operator to control engine speed to fit the
conditions. Variable speed governors are found on equipment
such as industrial engines and farm tractors. The main
advantage of using this type of governor is that the operator can
adjust the governor to maintain any one of several speeds
between low idle (low speed) and high idle (full speed). This
governor will then maintain that speed by automatically
changing the fuel delivery according to load requirements.
Limiting Limiting speed governors are generally used on vehicle engines
Speed to control engine low idle and prevent it from exceeding high
idle. The in-between speeds on this engine are controlled by
the operator. The main function of this governor is to prevent
the engine from stalling and over speeding.
Constant The military uses constant speed governors on engines that are
Speed used to drive generators. Constant speed governors are
designed to maintain the engine speed at a constant rpm.

Basic Governor Components and Classifications, Continued
Governor To understand why different types of governors are needed for different kinds
Terms of applications it is important to know the meanings of several terms that are
used in describing governor action or characteristics. Governor terms are
listed and explained in the table below:
Term Description
Speed Droop Speed droop is the decrease in speed of the engine from a
no load condition to a full load condition as expressed in
rpm or as a percent of average speed. A certain amount of
speed droop must occur before the governor will sense a
speed change and cause a fuel change. A governor must
have speed droop to prevent false motions or
overcorrection.
Hunting Hunting is the continuous erratic variations (surges) in
governor speed that may occur when it overcompensates
for speed changes. Any method of reducing friction in the
operating mechanisms of the governor will tend to
increase stability and decrease hunting.
Stability Stability refers to the governor's ability to maintain a given
speed without fluctuations. Hunting may occur if a
governor's operation isn't stable. Speed droop helps the
governor obtain stability.
Promptness Promptness refers to the governor's ability to react.
Promptness depends upon the power of the governor; the
greater the power, the shorter the time required to
overcome resistances.
Sensitivity Sensitivity is the change in speed required before the
governor will make a corrective movement of the fuel
control. A good governor must be sensitive to load and/or
speed changes, but must not over-correct, which may
cause hunting. Speed droop will prevent unnecessary
governor reactions and over-corrections.

Types of Governors
Governors There are mechanical, hydraulic, electric, and pneumatic governors.
Category The table below and on the next page describe the types of governors:
Type Description
Mechanical The operation of the mechanical governor is based on the
Governor centrifugal force of rotating weights that are
counterbalanced by springs. The weights are generally
mounted on a sleeve that is connected to the fuel control rod
or linkage. When the speed of the engine increases, the
weights pivot outward. As the weights move, the movement
is transmitted through the sleeve or linkage to a control rack
or metering valve. Mechanical type governors have an
unavoidable speed droop, and therefore, cannot truly provide
constant speed where it is needed
Servo This governor operates similarly to the mechanical
Mechanical centrifugal flyweight but uses engine oil under pressure to
Governor move the operating linkage.
Pneumatic This type of governor uses a vacuum to control engine
Governor speed. The governor has two main parts, a venturi in the
intake manifold and a diaphragm connected to the injection
pump control rack. A butterfly, located in the venturi, is
connected to the throttle. When the position of the butterfly
changes, vacuum in the intake manifold changes. Depending
on the butterfly position and the engine speed, varying
amounts of vacuum will be supplied to the diaphragm to
control engine speed.
Electro- The electromechanical governor uses a magnetic speed
Mechanical pickup sensor on an engine-driven component to monitor the
Governor rpm of the engine. The sensor sends a voltage signal to an
electronic control unit that controls the current flow to a
mechanical actuator connected to the fuel linkage.
Electronic This governor uses magnetic speed sensor to monitor the
Governor rpm of the engine. The sensor continuously feeds
information back to the ECM (Electronic Control Module).
The ECM then computes all the information sent from all
other engine sensors to limit engine speed.

Types of Governors, Continued
Category, Type Description

continued Hydraulic In hydraulic governors, the power that moves the fuel
Governor control rod or linkage does not come from flyweights.
Instead, it comes from a hydraulic power piston, or servo-
motor. This is a piston which is acted upon by a fluid under
pressure, generally oil under the pressure of a pump. By
using the appropriate piston size and controlled oil pressure,
the power of this type governor can be great enough and fast
enough to accommodate the fuel change needs of the largest
engines.

Lesson 2 Exercise
Item 1 The primary function of the _______ is to sense the changes in engine speed
and then make corrections in fuel delivery.
a. injection pump
b. governor
c. cylinder
d. fuel pump
Item 2 All governors are classified by
a. size.
b. speed.
c. weight.
d. ports.
Item 3 The decrease in speed of the engine RPM from no load condition to full load
condition is known as
a. speed droop.
b. hunting.
c. stability.
d. promptness.
Item 4 Which of the governors operations is based on the centrifugal force of

rotating weights that are counterbalanced by springs?
a. Electronic governor
b. Pneumatic governor
c. Hydraulic governor
d. Mechanical governor

Answers The table below lists the answers to the lesson exercise. If you have

1 b 3-18
2 b 3-19
3 a 3-20
4 d 3-21

REVIEW LESSON EXAMINATION
Review Lesson
Introduction The purpose of the review lesson examination is to prepare you for your final
examination. We recommend that you try to complete your review lesson
examination without referring to the text, but for those items (questions) you
are unsure of, restudy the text. When you finish your review lesson and are
satisfied with your responses, check your responses against the answers
provided at the end of this review lesson examination
Directions Select the ONE answer that BEST completes the statement or that answers
the item. For multiple choice items, circle your response. For matching
items, place the letter of your response in the space provided.
Item 1 Other than the compression ratio, what are two more reasons for high fuel
efficiency in diesel engines?
a. Compression ratio and power control

b. Air mixture and fuel ignition
c. Heat value and volume of compression
d. Air-fuel ratio and heat value
Item 2 When you divide the volume of air in a cylinder when the piston is at BDC by
the volume of air in the cylinder when the piston is at TDC, you are
computing the
a. heat value.
b. compression ratio.
c. power control ratio.
d. air-fuel ratio.
Item 3 The four main differences between a gasoline and diesel engine are power
control, volume of compression, fuel and air mixture, and
a. torque.
b. method of cooling.
c. fuel ignition.
d. heat value.
MCI Course 1335D R-1 Review Lesson Examination

Review Lesson, Continued
Item 4 What are three advantages that the diesel engine has over the gasoline engine?
a. Fewer spark plug changes, low-speed power, and higher fuel mileage
b. Tremendous high-speed power, fewer ignition tune-ups, and less fuel
volatility
c. Intervals are longer for changing fuel and air filters, require fewer ignition
tune-ups, and higher fuel mileage
d. Produces tremendous low-speed power, does not require ignition tune-
ups, and diesel fuel is less volatile than gasoline
Item 5 The diesel engine has limited
a. mileage.
b. rpms.
c. time.
d. weight.
Item 6 The definition, the weight of air that surrounds the earth, matches what type
of engine measurement listed below?
a. Engine piston displacement

b. Vacuum in the cylinder
c. Atmospheric pressure
d. Volumetric efficiency
Item 7 At lower speeds, the volumetric efficiency is
a. higher.
b. not changed.
c. fluctuating.
d. lower.
Item 8 The rate at which work is performed is known as
a. work.
b. energy.
c. power.
d. torque.

Item 9 The work capacity of an engine is measured by
a. energy.
b. power.
c. torque.
d. horsepower.
Item 10 What was the equipment first used to determine the power developed by an
engine?
a. Dynamometer
b. Torque wrench
c. Power meter
d. Prony brake
Item 11 The equipment used to measure horsepower at the driving wheels is a
a. prony brake.
b. power meter.
c. torque wrench.
d. chassis dynamometer.
Item 12 The amount of power developed compared to the energy input is called
a. base horsepower.
b. thermal efficiency.
c. indicated horsepower.
d. engine efficiency.
Item 13 Why is the efficiency of a diesel engine operating cycle considerably higher
than the constant-volume cycle of a gasoline engine?
a. Fuel detonates earlier

b. Faster operating cycle
c. Combustion starts at lower temperature
d. Higher compression ratio and higher combustion temperature

Item 14 What is the relationship between the heat energy in the fuel and the indicated
horsepower called?
a. Friction
b. Mechanical efficiency
c. Engine efficiency
d. Indicated thermal efficiency
Item 15 The most common form of mechanical loss in an engine is
a. convection.
b. motion.
c. vibration.
d. friction.
Item 16 Cooling, lubricating and exhaust systems are examples of_______ loss.
a. mechanical
b. thermodynamic
c. heat
d. fuel
Item 17 What component changes up and down movement?
a. Crankshaft
b. Cylinder
c. Main bearings
d. Piston
Item 18 The main function of the engine camshaft is to
a. dampen out part of the fluctuations of the piston thrust.

b. change reciprocating motion into rotary motion.
c. control the operation of the engine valves.
d. transmit energy from the combustion chamber to the crankshaft.

Item 19 The connecting rod attaches the piston to the
a. engine block.
b. cylinder head.
c. cylinders.
d. crankshaft.
Item 20 What three methods are used to classify piston engines?
a. Operating cycle, piston action, and power output

b. Cylinder arrangement, valve arrangement, and method of cooling
c. Method of cooling, valve arrangement, and classification by horsepower
d. Method of fuel injection, speed, and operating cycle
Item 21 Using the illustration, select the correct sequence of operation for a four-
stroke cycle diesel engine
a. d,a,b,c
b. b,a,c,d
c. c,d,a,b
d. a,b,d,c
Item 22 During this stroke the air ignites the fuel and the piston is forced down in the
cylinder.
a. Intake
b. Compression
c. Power.
d. Exhaust

Item 23 An engine that can complete its operating cycle in _______ piston stokes is
called a two-stroke cycle engine.
a. two
b. three
c. four
d. five
Item 24 Which illustration below shows the power stroke?
a. B
b. C
c. A
Item 25 A major advantage of supercharging a system is it will
a. reduce the quantity of fuel injected into the combustion chamber.

b. increase volumetric efficiency generating greater power output.
c. decrease volumetric pressure in the cylinders by increasing the air-fuel
ratio.
d. increase efficiency because it emits exhaust gases back into the
combustion chamber.
Item 26 Supercharging increases the _______ of an engine.
a. fuel pressure
b. air quality
c. fuel consumption
d. volumetric efficiency

Item 27 In a turbocharger, exhaust gases are discharged through the
a. center housing.
b. compressor housing.
c. turbine housing.
d. exhaust valves.
Item 28 The purpose of an after-cooler is to cool the
a. intake air, which results in more air going into the cylinders.
b. air prior to entering the turbocharger which helps keep the turbocharger
cool.
c. fuel air mixture prior to entering the cylinders to help in more complete
combustion.
d. exhaust gases that leave the turbocharger to help control emissions.
Item 29 What are the five main functions of the fuel injection system?
a. Develop pressure, meter the fuel, time the injection, control the rate, and
atomize the fuel
b. Combustion, purging, fuel delivery control, ignition rate control, and
pressure relief
c. Develop pressure, timing, fuel atomization, combustion, and distribution
d. Metering, ignition rate control, purging, injection, and timing
Item 30 What are the two basic methods of injecting fuel into the combustion
chamber?
a. Electronically controlled; mechanical

b. Electrical; pressure
c. Mechanical; electrical
d. Air; pressure

Item 31 The four principle types of mechanical fuel injection systems are unit pump,
common rail, unit injection, and
a. vacuum.
b. single-plunger.
c. distributor.
d. heat injected.
Item 32 To sense the changes in engine speed and then make corrections in fuel
delivery is the primary function of the
a. injection pump.
b. governor.
c. cylinder.
d. fuel pump.
Item 33 All governors are classified by
a. size.
b. speed.
c. Weight.
d. ports.
Item 34 The continuous erratic surges in governor speed that may occur when it over
compensates for speed changes is known as
a. speed droop.
b. hunting.
c. stability.
d. promptness.

Item 35 Which of the governors uses a servo-motor, or hydraulic powered piston to

move the fuel control rod?
a. Electronic governor
b. Pneumatic governor
c. Hydraulic governor
d. Mechanical governor

Answers The table below lists the answers to the review lesson examination item. If
you have questions about these items, refer to the reference page.

1 d 1-3
2 b 1-6
3 c 1-8
4 d 1-12
5 b 1-13
6 c 1-17
7 a 1-21
8 c 1-29
9 d 1-29
10 d 1-36
11 d 1-37
12 d 1-39
13 d 1-39
14 d 1-40
15 d 1-43
16 b 1-43
17 a 1-57
18 c 1-59
19 d 1-56
20 b 1-64
21 d 2-5
22 c 2-8
23 a 2-10
24 a 2-13
25 b 2-14
26 d 2-14
27 c 2-18
28 a 2-19
29 a 3-4
30 a 3-7
31 c 3-10
32 b 3-18
33 b 3-19
34 b 3-20
35 c 3-21

Fundamentals of Diesel Engines PDF

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MCI 1335D

MARINE CORPS INSTITUTE

Subj: FUNDAMENTALS OF DIESEL ENGINES (MCI 1335D)

4. Recommendations. Comments and recommendations on the contents of the course are

Student Information .......................................................................................................... iii

Study Guide ...................................................................................................................... v

Study Unit 1 Fundamentals of Diesel Engines ................................................... 1-1

Lesson 1 Fuel Efficiency and Engine Measurements .................................. 1-3

Lesson 1 Operating Principles and Performance of the Diesel Engine........ 2-3

Study Unit 3 Diesel Engine Fuel Injection Systems .......................................... 3-1

Lesson 1 Fuel Injection Systems .................................................................. 3-3

Review Lesson Examination............................................................................................. R-1

MCI Course 1335D i

MCI Course 1335D ii

Number and MCI 1335D

Review Agency I MEF Headquarters Group

MCI Course 1335D iii

MCI Course 1335D iv

Congratulations Congratulations on your enrollment in a distance education course from the

• YOU SEEK TO IMPROVE YOURSELF. You are enrolled to improve

• YOU HAVE THE INITIATIVE TO ACT. By acting on your own, you

• YOU ACCEPT CHALLENGES. You have self-confidence and believe

• YOU ARE ABLE TO SET AND ACCOMPLISH PRACTICAL

Continued on next page

MCI Course 1335D v

Continued on next page

MCI Course 1335D vi

• CHALLENGE YOURSELF. Try to recall the entire learning sequence

• USE UNUSED MINUTES. Use your spare moments to review. Read

• APPLY WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED. It is always best to use the

• USE THE “SHAKEDOWN CRUISE” TECHNIQUE. Ask another

• MAKE REVIEWS FUN AND BENEFICIAL. Reviews are good habits

Continued on next page

MCI Course 1335D vii

Graduating! As a graduate of this distance education course and as a dedicated Marine,

MCI Course 1335D viii

In This Study The following lessons are in this study unit:

MCI Course 1335D 1-1 Study Unit 1

MCI Course 1335D 1-2 Study Unit 1

Learning Upon completion of this lesson, you should be able to

• Identify the procedure used to compute compression ratio.

• Identify the differences between gasoline engines and diesel engines.

• Identify the major advantages of the diesel engine.

• Identify the major disadvantages of the diesel engine.

• Identify the definition of various engine measurements.

• Identify the characteristics of various engine measurements.

Continued on next page

MCI Course 1335D 1-3 Study Unit 1, Lesson 1

In This Lesson This lesson contains the following topics:

Topic See Page

MCI Course 1335D 1-4 Study Unit 1, Lesson 1

Continued on next page

MCI Course 1335D 1-5 Study Unit 1, Lesson 1

Compression The compression ratio is computed by first measuring the volume of a

Step Action Example

Continued on next page

MCI Course 1335D 1-6 Study Unit 1, Lesson 1

MCI Course 1335D 1-7 Study Unit 1, Lesson 1

• They both follow the same cycle of operation consisting of intake,

Continued on next page

MCI Course 1335D 1-8 Study Unit 1, Lesson 1

Continued on next page