CHAPTER

METAL CUTTING

Presentation Prepared by
Prof. Naman M. Dave
Assistant Prof. (Mechanical Dept.)
Gandhinagar Institute of Technology
 INTRODUCTION
• Definition of Manufacturing
• The word manufacturing is derived from Latin:
manus = hand, factus = made
• Manufacturing is the economic term for making goods and
services available to satisfy human wants.
• Manufacturing implies creating value to a raw material by
applying useful mental and physical labour. Manufacturing
converts the raw materials to finished products to be used for
some purpose.
• Whether from nature or industry materials cannot be used in their
raw forms for any useful purpose.
• The materials are then shaped and formed into different useful
components through different manufacturing processes to fulfil the
needs of day-to-day work.
MANUFACTURING SYSTEM AND
PRODUCTION SYSTEM
Manufacturing system:
• A collection of operations and processes used to obtain a
desired product(s) or component(s) is called a manufacturing
system.
• The manufacturing system is therefore the design or
arrangement of the manufacturing processes..

Production system:
• A production system includes people, money, equipment,
materials and supplies, markets, management and the
manufacturing system.
Production System - The Big Picture

Raw materials Manufacturing Manufacturing Finished

Process Process product

Manufacturing System

People, Money, Equipment, Materials and Supplies, Markets, Management

Material Removal Processes
A family of shaping operations, the common feature of
which is removal of material from a starting work part
so the remaining part has the desired geometry.
 Machining – material removal by a sharp cutting
tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling.
 Abrasive processes – material removal by hard,
abrasive particles, e.g., grinding.
 Nontraditional processes - various energy forms
other than sharp cutting tool to remove material.
MACHINING
Machining is a semi-finishing or finishing process
essentially done to impart required or stipulated
dimensional and form accuracy and surface finish to
enable the product to
 fulfill its basic functional requirements
 provide better or improved performance
 render long service life.
Machining is a process of gradual removal of excess
material from the preformed blanks in the form of
chips.
Why Machining is Important
 Variety of work materials can be machined
◦ Most frequently used to cut metals
 Variety of part shapes and special geometric
features possible, such as:
◦ Screw threads
◦ Accurate round holes
◦ Very straight edges and surfaces
 Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Examples of Cutting Processes
Disadvantages with Machining
 Wasteful of material
◦ Chips generated in machining are wasted material, at
least in the unit operation
 Time consuming
◦ A machining operation generally takes more time to
shape a given part than alternative shaping processes,
such as casting, powder metallurgy, or forming
Diagrammatic Representation of
Material Removal Operations
Mechanism of Chip formation
The form of the chips is an important index of
machining because it directly or indirectly indicates :
 Nature and behavior of the work material under
machining condition
 Specific energy requirement (amount of energy
required to remove unit volume of work material)
in machining work
 Nature and degree of interaction at the chip-tool
interfaces.
 Mechanism of Chip
formation
The form of machined chips depend mainly upon :
 Work material
 Material and geometry of the cutting tool
 Levels of cutting velocity and feed and also to some extent
on depth of cut
 Machining environment or cutting fluid that affects
temperature and friction at the chip-tool and work-tool
interfaces.

Knowledge of basic mechanisms of chip formation helps to

understand the characteristics of chips and to attain
favourable chip forms.
 Chip Formation
A chip has two surfaces:
1. One that is in contact with the tool face (rake
face). This surface is shiny, or burnished.
2. The other from the original surface of the work
piece.
This surface does not come into contact with any
solid body. It has a jagged, rough appearance,
which is caused by the shearing mechanism.
 Primary & Secondary Shear
Zone

Figure. More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone

rather than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear zone
resulting from tool-chip friction.
Piispanen model of Card
Analogy
Piispanen model of Card Analogy
 Four Basic Types of Chip in
Machining
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip
Shear Strain in Chip Formation

Figure: Shear strain during chip formation:

(a) Chip formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other,
(b) One of the plates isolated to show shear strain, and
(c) Shear strain triangle used to derive strain equation.

Shear strain in machining can be computed from the following equation,

based on the parallel plate model:
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨+𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫
𝜺𝜺 = = = 𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 ∅ + 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 (∅ −∝)
𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩
Where,
ε =Shear strain, φ = Shear plane angle and α = Rake angle of cutting
tool
Shear Strain in Chip Formation
Large shear strains are associated with low shear angles, or
low or negative rake angles.
Shear strains of 5 or higher in actual cutting operations.
Deformation in cutting generally takes place within a very
narrow deformation zone; that is, d = BD in Fig is very small.
Therefore, the rate at which shearing takes place is high.
Shear angle influences force and power requirements, chip
thickness, and temperature.
Consequently, much attention has been focused on
determining the relationships between the shear angle and
work piece material properties and cutting process variables.
Velocity Relationship in Orthogonal
Cutting
The tool has a rake angle of α, and relief (clearance) angle. The shearing
process in chip formation is similar to the motion of cards in a deck sliding
against each other.

Figure (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation by

shearing. (b) Velocity diagram showing angular relationships among the three
speeds in the cutting zone.
Velocity Relationship
 Velocity Relationship
Using sine rule,
v v vs
= c =
sin(90 − (φ − α )) sin φ sin(90 − α )
v vc vs
= =
cos(φ − α ) sin φ cos α

vc = v × r
v sin φ
 Sin φ  vc = v cos α
cos(φ − α ) vs =
r = Cos (φ - α )  cos(φ − α )
 
Volume of material per unit time = Volume of material flowing up the chip
⇒ v × t0 = vc × tc
t0
⇒ vc = v × r As, r =
tc
 Forces Acting on Chip

F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured

Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
– Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft
 Forces acting on chip in Orthogonal
cutting
Fs = Shear Force, which acts along the shear plane, is the resistance to
shear of the metal in forming the chip.
Fn = Force acting normal to the shear plane, is the backing up force on
the chip provided by the work piece.
F = Frictional resistance of the tool acting against the motion of the chip
as it moves upward along the tool
N = Normal to the chip force, is provided by the tool.
/  
R = N +F
  
R = FS + FN
It is assumed that the resultant forces R & R’ are equal and opposite in
magnitude and direction. Also they are Collinear. Therefore for the
purpose of analysis the chip is regarded as an independent body held in
mechanical equilibrium by the action of two equal and opposite forces R,
which the workpiece exerts upon the chip and R’ which the tool exerts
upon the chip.
Resultant Forces
 Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
 Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R '
 Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
◦ R ' must be equal in magnitude to R
◦ R’ must be opposite in direction to R
◦ R’ must be collinear with R
 Cutting Forces

Fig: (a) Forces acting on a cutting tool during 2-dimensional cutting. Note that the resultant force, R must
be collinear to balance the forces. (b) Force circle to determine various forces acting in the cutting
zone.
 Merchant’s Circle Diagram
The following is a circle
diagram. Known as Merchant’s
circle diagram, which is Chip α

convenient to determine the Fs

Tool

relation between the various

Clearance Angle
Fc ∅
(β - α)
forces and angles. Fn
Work

In the diagram two force Ft R

α

triangles have been combined F

and R and R’ together have
been replaced by R. the force β

R can be resolved into two N

components Fc and Ft.   

Fc and Ft can be determined
R = Fc + Ft
by force dynamometers.
The rake angle (α) can be measured from the tool, and forces F and N can then
be determined. The shear angle (φ) can be obtained from it’s relation with chip
reduction coefficient. Now Fs & Fn can also be determined.
Merchant’s Circle Diagram

Chip α
Tool
Fs
Fc ∅ Clearance Angle
(β - α)
Work
Fn
Ft R
α

β
N
The procedure to construct a
Merchant’s circle diagram
Chip α
Tool
Fs
Fc ∅ Clearance Angle

Work
Fn
Ft R
α

β
N
The procedure to construct a
Merchant’s circle diagram
 Set up x-y axis labeled with forces, and the origin in the
centre of the page. The cutting force (Fc) is drawn
horizontally, and the tangential force (Ft) is drawn
vertically. (Draw in the resultant (R) of Fc and Ft.
 Locate the centre of R, and draw a circle that encloses
vector R. If done correctly, the heads and tails of all 3
vectors will lie on this circle.
 Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right hand
quadrant, taking care to draw the correct rake angle (α)
from the vertical axis.
 Extend the line that is the cutting face of the tool (at the
same rake angle) through the circle. This now gives the
friction vector (F).
The procedure to construct a
Merchant’s circle diagram
 A line can now be drawn from the head of the friction
vector, to the head of the resultant vector (R). This gives the
normal vector (N). Also add a friction angle (β) between
vectors R and N. Therefore, mathematically, R = Fc+Ft = F +
N.
 Draw a feed thickness line parallel to the horizontal axis.
Next draw a chip thickness line parallel to the tool cutting
face.
 Draw a vector from the origin (tool point) towards the
intersection of the two chip lines, stopping at the circle. The
result will be a shear force vector (Fs). Also measure the
shear force angle between Fs and Fc.
 Finally add the shear force normal (Fn) from the head of Fs
to the head of R.
 Use a scale and protractor to measure off all distances
(forces) and angles.
 Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram
Frictional Force System
D
Chip α
α Tool
C Fs
(90-α)
Fc ∅ Clearance Angle
α
E α Fc O
(β - α)
(β - α)
(90-α) G Work
Fn
Ft R Ft R
α α

α F F

β β
B N N
A

F = OA = CB = CG + GB = ED + GB The coefficient of friction

⇒ F = FC sin α + Ft cos α µ = tanβ =
F
N
N = AB = OD − CD = OD − GE
Where β = Friction angle
⇒ N = FC cos α − Ft sin α
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram
Shear Force System
B
Chip α
α Tool
A Fs
Fs Fc
(90-∅) ∅ Clearance Angle
Fc ∅
C O (β - α)
∅
(β - α) Fn
Work
(90-∅)
D Ft R
Fn α
Ft R
α
F
∅
β
N

FS = OA = OB − AB = OB − CD Also:
⇒ FS = FC cos φ − Ft sin φ FN = FS tan(φ + β − α )
FS = RCos ( β − α + φ )
FN = AE = AD + DE = BC + DE
⇒ FN = FC sin φ + Ft cos φ
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram

Chip α
Tool
Fs
Fc
∅ Clearance Angle

(β - α)
Work
F = FC sin α + Ft cos α
N = FC cos α − Ft sin α
Fn

Ft R
α
FS = FC cos φ − Ft sin φ
FN = FC sin φ + Ft cos φ
F

β FN = FS tan(φ + β − α )
N

Ft = R Sin (β-α)
Fc = R Cos (β –α)
 CUTTING FORCES and POWER
Knowledge of the cutting forces and power involved in
machining operations is important for the following
reasons:
a. Machine tools can be properly designed to minimize
distortion of the machine components, maintain the
desired dimensional accuracy of the machined part,
and help select appropriate tool holders and work-
holding devices.
b. The work piece is capable of withstanding these
forces without excessive distortion.
c. Power requirements must be known in order to
enable the selection of a machine tool with adequate
electric power.
CUTTING FORCES and POWER
Cutting force, Fc, acts in the direction of cutting speed, V, and
supplies energy required for cutting.
Thrust force, Ft , acts in a direction normal to cutting velocity,
perpendicular to WP. The resultant force, R can be resolved
into two components :
 Friction force: F, along the tool-chip interface
 Normal force: N, perpendicular to it.
F = R sin β
N = R cos β
R is balanced by an equal and opposite force along the shear
plane and is resolved into a shear force, Fs, and a normal
force, Fn
Fs = Fc cos Ø – Ft sin Ø
Fn = Fc sin Ø + Ft cos Ø
Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
F
µ =
N
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as follows:

µ = tan β
The ratio of F to N is the coefficient of friction, μ, at the tool-chip
interface, and the angle β is the friction angle.

F Ft + Fc tan α
Coefficient of friction, µ = =
N Fc − Ft tan α

The coefficient of friction in metal cutting generally ranges from about

0.5 to 2.
 Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
F
τ = s
A
s

where As = area of the shear plane,

t ow
As =
sin φ
Shear stress = shear strength of work material during
cutting
 References
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