GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

Dr. Sumalatha
Associate professor
Department of Civil Engineering
RIT Bangalore
 UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
Need for Ground improvement:
• Low density and bearing capacity
• Swelling and Shrinkage
• Problematic soils : Collapsible soils, Soft soils, Organic
soils and peaty soils
• Loosely deposited Sands and Gravels
• Foundations on dumps and sanitary landfills
• Handling dredged materials
• Handling contaminated soils
• Use of old mine pits
• Failure of slopes, Effects of Liquefaction
• Reclamation of unusable land
Low density and bearing capacity Swelling and Shrinkage

Collapsible soil Soft soil Organic soil

Loosely deposited sand Dump site

Contaminated Soil Dredged soil

Old mine pits landslide

Soil Erosion Liquefaction

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INTRODUCTION

Ground improvement Strategies:

• Avoid the particular site
• Design the superstructures accordingly (flexible/rigid)
• Remove and replace unsuitable soils / Geo-materials
• Improve the properties of Geo-materials
• Enable cost effective foundation design
• Reduce the effects of contaminated soils
• Ensure sustainability in construction projects
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INTRODUCTION
Principles of Ground improvement:
• Densification of the ground
• Accelerate the consolidation
• Usage of Geo-synthetics
• Usage of admixtures
• Preloading
• Mechanical stabilization
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INTRODUCTION
Various Ground improvement Techniques:
Ground Reinforcement Ground Improvement Ground Treatment
• Stone Columns • Surface Compaction • Soil Cement
• Soil Nails • Drainage/Surcharge • Lime Admixtures
• Micropiles • Electro-osmosis • Flyash
• Jet Grouting • Compaction • Dewatering
• Ground Anchors grouting •
• Geosynthetics • Blasting Heating/Freezing
• Fibers • Dynamic • Vitrification
• Lime Columns Compaction
• Vibro-Concrete Column
• Mechanically Stabilized Earth
• Biotechnical
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INTRODUCTION
Classification of ground modification techniques

• Mechanical modification
• Hydraulic modification
• Physical and chemical modification
• Modification by inclusion and confinement
• Combination of the above
 UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
Mechanical modification

• By mechanical means like

rollers or deep
compaction techniques
• Soil density is increased
by the application of
short term external
mechanical forces by
static, vibratory, impact
or plate rollers.
 UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic Modification
•To remove the water / consolidation by providing drainage path
(Free pore water is forced out of the soil)
•In coarse grained soil, this can be achieved by lowering the ground
water level
•In fine grained soils, the long term application of external loads
(preloading) is required.
•Preloading or pre-compression is the process of placing additional
vertical stress on a compressible soil to remove pore water over time

Preloading with or without vertical drains

 Stone Columns
• The stone column technique, also known as vibro-replacement or
vibro-displacement, is a ground improvement process where
vertical columns of compacted aggregate are formed through the
soils to be improved (to improve their load bearing and
settlement characteristics).
• Unlike clean granular soils, fine grained soils (such as clays and
silts) do not densify effectively under vibrations. Hence, it is
necessary to form stone columns to reinforce and improve fill
materials, weak cohesive and mixed soils.
 Stone Columns
• Stone columns may be provided in areas where subsoil consists of
more than about 5 m thick soft cohesive soil and where stability
and stringent considerations cannot be satisfied with
conventional removal / replacement of soft material. Stone
columns enable the embankment to be constructed to its full
height continuously without requiring stage construction.
• Stone columns, also known as granular piles, consist of stone
aggregates compacted into a vertical hole. Generally, the size of
aggregate used is 20mm to 75mm and the depth of hole is about
15m to 20m with the diameter of 0.6m to 1.0m. The compaction
is achieved by a vibrating probe or by ramming.
• Uses Of Stone Columns:
• Increases the shear strength.
• Lowers the compressibility of the composite soil consisting of the
stone column and the surrounding soil
 UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
Physical and chemical modification
(Physical – Gradation & Chemical – Mineralogical)
• Thermal modification (by heating / freezing the ground)
Heating is used to form a crystalline or glass product by electric current.
Ground freezing converts pore water to ice to increase their combined
strength and make them impervious.
• By additives which include natural soils, industrial by-products,
cementitious / reactive chemicals.
• Thermal Stabilization of Soil for Ground Improvement
• Heating or vitrification breaks the soil particle down to form a
crystalline or glass product. It uses electrical current to heat the
soil and modify the physical characteristics of the soil. Heating
soils permanently alters the properties of the soil. Depending on
the soil, temperatures can range between 300 and 1000 degree
Celsius. The impact on adjacent structures and utilities should be
considered when heating is used. .
• Applications of Vitrification of Soil:
• Immobilization of radioactive or contaminated soil
• Densification and stabilization
 Ground Freezing Technique for Ground Improvement
• Ground freezing is the use of refrigeration to convert in-situ pore water to ice.
The ice then acts as a cement or glue, bonding together adjacent particles of
soil or blocks of rock to increase their combined strength and make them
impervious. The ground freezing considerations are Thermal
analysis, Refrigeration system geometry, Thermal properties of soil and
rock, freezing rates, Energy requirements, Coolant/ refrigerant distribution
system analysis.
• Applications of Ground Freezing Technique
• Temporary underpinning
• Temporary support for an excavation
• Prevention of groundwater flow into excavated area
• Temporary slope stabilization
• Temporary containment of toxic/hazardous waste contamination
 UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
Modification by inclusion and confinement
• By providing reinforcement in the form of
fibers, strips, bars, meshes and fabrics.
• In situ reinforcement is achieved by nails and
anchors
 UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION

Combination of the above

The vaccuum consolidation BeauDrain-S system is a combination of the normal

BeauDrain system and vertical drainage.
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INTRODUCTION
Suitability, Feasibility and Desirability

• Type and degree of improvement required

• Type of soil, geological structure, Seepage conditions
• Quantity of work, Cost and construction time
• Availability of equipment and materials
• Possible damage to adjacent structures or pollution to
ground water resources
• Durability of the materials involved
• Toxicity or corrosivity of any chemical additives
• Reversibility or irreversibility of the process
 UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION

Suitability, Feasibility and Desirability

• Reliability of methods of testing, analysis and

design
• Feasibility of construction control and
performance measurements
The feasibility of a particular method is strongly
related to the type of problem in hand: a
foundation, an embankment on soft ground, an
unstable slope, an excavation, an earth retaining
structure, a leaking dam or reservoir
 UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
Traditional objectives and emerging trends
• Improves bearing capacity
• Reduces distortion under stress
• Reduces compressibility / settlements
• Control shrinkage and swelling
• Control permeability, reduce water pressure and
seepage
• Prevent detrimental physical / chemical changes due to
environmental conditions
• Reduce susceptibility to liquefaction
• Reduce natural variability of borrow materials or
foundation soils
• Provides excavation support
 UNIT – I
MECHANICAL MODIFICATION
Shallow compaction
Mechanical Modification
Deep compaction
Advantages of Compaction / Densification
1.Increases shear strength
2.Reduces compressibility
3.Reduces permeability
4.Reduces liquefaction potential
5.Controls swelling and shrinking
6.Prolongs durability
7.Improved uniformity in variable fill or granular ground
strata to limit differential settlements below
pavements and hard landscaped areas.
 UNIT – I
MECHANICAL MODIFICATION
Principles of Densification
• Densification under static or kneading pressure
It is effective for densifying unsaturated cohesive geomaterial.
• Densification under dynamic loading (vibration / impacts)
Vibration or impact is effective for densifying unsaturated
cohesionless or collapsible geomaterial.
• Densification due to liquefaction
Vibration or impact can also be used to densify saturated
cohesionless geomaterial by inducing liquefaction to the
geomaterial.
• Densification due to consolidation
Saturated cohesive geomaterial is difficult to be densified
immediately under pressure, vibration, and/or impact; however,
saturated cohesive geomaterial at low plasticity can be densified
by consolidation, which dissipates excess pore water pressure
induced by impact.
 UNIT – I
MECHANICAL MODIFICATION
Compaction
• Conventional compaction is used to densify a wide range of
cohesionless and cohesive geomaterials in lifts, but mainly for fill
under an unsaturated condition.
• The lift thickness is typically limited to 300 mm.
• Depending on geomaterial type, different types of equipment may
be selected.
Applications Conventional compaction has been used for
• earthworks such as roads, embankments, dams, slopes, walls,
parking lots, and sports fields.
The main limitations of this method are:
• the depth of improvement is limited
• it is mainly used for fill and not for in situ natural geomaterials,
• geomaterials should be within the moisture content close to the
optimum content to be more effective, and it is challenging to
achieve uniform compaction of geomaterials in a large area.
 Laboratory Compaction Test
Standard Proctor’s Test
for Compaction of Soil
IS: 2720 part VII
 Factors Affecting Compaction of Soil – Effect on
Different Soil Types
Factors affecting compaction of soil:
•Water content
•Amount of compaction
•Types of soil
•Methods of soil compaction
•Addition of admixtures
 Effect of Compaction on Properties of Soil
1. Effect of Compaction on Soil Structure
Soils compacted at a water content less than the optimum generally
have a flocculated structure. Soils compacted at water content more
than the optimum usually have a dispersed structure.
2. Effect of Compaction of Soil on Permeability
The permeability of a soil depends upon the size of voids. The
permeability of a soil decreases with an increase in water content on
the dry side of optimum water content.
3. Swelling
4. Pore water pressure
5. Shrinkage
6. Compressibility
7. Stress-strain relationship
8. Shear strength
 Field Compaction Methods
Several methods are used in the field for compaction of soils. The
choice of method will depend upon the soil type, the maximum dry
density required and economic consideration. The commonly used
methods are
1. Tampers
2. Rollers
3. Vibratory compactors
The compaction depends upon the following factors:
•Contact pressure
•Number of passes
•Layer thickness
•Speed of roller
 Field Compaction
Different Types of Soil Compaction
Equipments -Types of Rollers
The soil compaction equipments can be divided into two groups:
•Light soil compacting equipments
•Heavy soil compacting equipments
Light Soil Compacting Equipments:
These equipments are used for soil compacting of small areas only
and where the compacting effort needed is less.
(i) Rammers:
Rammers are used for compacting small areas by
providing impact load to the soil. This equipment is
light and can be hand or machine operated. The base
size of rammers can be 15cm x 15cm or 20cm x 20cm
or more. Rammers are suitable for compacting
cohesive soils as well as other soils
 Field Compaction
(ii) Vibrating Plate Compactors:
Vibrating plate compactors are used for
compaction of coarse soils with 4 to 8%
fines. These equipments are used for small
areas. The usual weights of these
machines vary from 100 kg to 2 tonne with
plate areas between 0.16 m2 and 1.6 m2.

(iii) Vibro Tampers:

Vibro tampers is used for compaction of
small areas in confined space. This
machine is suitable for compaction of all
types of soil by vibrations set up in a base
plate through a spring activated by an
engine driven reciprocating mechanism.
They are usually manually guided and
weigh between 50 and 100 kg (100 to 220
lbs).
 Field Compaction
Heavy Soil Compaction Equipments:
These compacting machines are used for large areas for use
on different types of soils. The heavy compaction
equipments are selected based on moisture content of soil
and types of soil. Following are different types of these
equipments:

I) Smooth Wheeled Rollers:

Smooth wheeled rollers are of two types:
oStatic smooth wheeled rollers
oVibrating smooth wheeled rollers
 Field Compaction
Static smooth wheeled rollers

The most suitable soils for these roller type are well graded sand,
gravel, crushed rock, asphalt etc. where crushing is required.
These are used on soils which does not require great pressure for
compaction.

These rollers are generally used for finishing the upper surface of
the soil. These roller are not used for compaction of uniform
sands.
 Field Compaction
Static smooth wheeled rollers
•The performance of smooth wheeled rollers depend on load
per cm width it transfers to the soil and diameter of the
drum.
•The smooth wheeled rollers consists of one large steel drum
in front and two steel drums on the rear. The gross weight
of these rollers is in the range of 6-10 tonnes.
•The performance of these rollers can be increased by
increasing the weight of the drum by ballasting the inside of
drums with wet sand or water. Steel sections can also be
used to increase the load of the drum by mounting on the
steel frame attached with axle.
•The desirable speed and number of passes for appropriate
compaction of soil depends on the type of soil and varies
from location to location. About 8 passes are adequate for
compacting 20 cm layer. A speed of 3-6 kmph is considered
appropriate for smooth wheel rollers.
 Field Compaction
Vibrating smooth wheeled rollers
In case of vibrating smooth wheeled rollers, the drums are made to
vibrate by employing rotating or reciprocating mass.
These rollers are helpful from several considerations like:-
(i) Higher compaction level can be achieved with maximum work
(ii) Compaction can be done up to greater depths
(iii) Output is many times more than conventional rollers
Although these rollers are expensive but in the long term the cost
becomes economical due to their higher outputs and improved
performance. The latest work specifications for excavation
recommends the use of vibratory rollers due to their advantage over
static smooth wheeled rollers.
•The weight of drums can be
increased as in the case of smooth
wheeled rollers by ballasting with
water, wet sand or by mounting
steel sections.
 Field Compaction
(ii) Sheepsfoot Roller:
•Sheepsfoot rollers are used for compacting fine grained soils such as
heavy clays and silty clays. Sheepsfoot rollers are used for
compaction of soils in dams, embankments, subgrade layers in
pavements and rail road construction projects.
•Sheepsfoot rollers are of static and vibratory types. Vibratory types
rollers are used for compaction of all fine grained soils and also soil
with sand-gravel mixes. Generally this roller is used for compaction of
subgrade layers in road and rail projects.
Sheepsfoot rollers consist of steel
drums on which projecting lugs are
fixed and can apply a pressure upto
14kg/sq cm or more.
Different types of lugs are namely
spindle shaped with widened base,
prismatic and clubfoot type.
 Field Compaction
(ii) Sheepsfoot Roller:
•The efficiency of sheepsfoot rollers compaction can be achieved
when lugs are gradual walkout of the roller lugs with successive
coverage. The efficiency is affected by the pressure on the foot and
coverage of ground obtained per pass. For required pressure and
coverage of ground, the parameters such as gross weight of the
roller, the area of each foot, the number of lugs in contact with the
ground at any time and total number of feet per drum are
considered.
•The compaction of soil is mainly due to foots penetrating and
exerting pressure on the soil. The pressure is maximum when a foot
is vertical.
 Field Compaction
(iii) Pneumatic Tyred Rollers:
•These rollers are used for compaction of coarse grained soils with
some fines. These rollers are least suitable for uniform coarse soils
and rocks. Generally pneumatic tyred rollers are used in pavement
subgrade works both earthwork and bituminous works.
•The factors which affects the degree of compaction are tyre inflation
pressure and the area of the contact. The latest rollers have an
arrangement to inflate the tyre to the desired pressure automatically.
The total weight of the roller can be increased from 11.0 tonne to
25.0 tonne or more by ballasting with steel sections or other means.
 Field Compaction
(iv) Grid Rollers:
•Grid rollers are used for compaction of weathered rocks, well graded
coarse soils. These rollers are not suitable for clayey soils, silty clays
and uniform soils. The main use of these rollers are in subgrade and
sub-base in road constructions. As the name suggests, these rollers
have a cylindrical heavy steel surface consisting of a network of steel
bars forming a grid with squire holes. The weight of this roller can be
increased by ballasting with concrete blocks.
•Typical weights vary between 5.5 tonnes net and 15 tonnes
ballasted. Grid rollers provide high contact pressure but little
kneading action and are suitable for compacting most coarse grained
soils.
 Field Compaction
(v) Pad Foot / Tamping Rollers:
•These rollers are similar to sheepsfoot rollers with lugs of larger area than
sheepsfoot rollers.
•These rollers are more preferable than sheepsfoot roller due to their high
production capacity, and degree of compaction achieved is more than
sheepsfoot rollers.
•The density of soil achieved after compaction with this roller is more
uniform. These rollers operate at high speeds, and are capable to breaking
large lumps. These rollers also consists of leveling blades to spread the
material. They are best suitable for compacting cohesive soils.
 Deep Compaction Techniques
Methods of Vibro-Stabilization for ground improvement:
Vibro-Compaction Method
This method is used for stabilization or compaction of deep layers of
non-cohesive soils. When vibration is applied to such soils, they
rearrange themselves under gravitational forces and become denser
by reducing the void ratio and compressibility of soil. This density of
soil thus achieved is permanent. This process can be used in both
dry and wet condition of soil.
 Deep Compaction Techniques
Methods of vibro-Stabilization for ground improvement:
Vibro-Displacement Method
Vibro-displacement method is used for compacting layers of
cohesive soil. The process involves the penetration of the vibrator
into partially saturated soils resulting in shear failure of the soil,
which then gets displaced forming a cylindrically compacted zone.
 Deep Compaction Techniques
Vibro-Replacement Method
Vibro-replacement method is used for
compaction of cohesive soils which are
more sensitive, saturated silts and alluvial
soils which have undrained shear strength
of less than 20 kN/m2. This method uses
the wet process, in which the disturbed
soils are washed away and are replaced
by compacted stone columns.
The process involves of penetrating the
poker into the soil using water jets to cut
an over-sized hole to the required depth
of treatment. The vibro-float is kept in the
hole while selected backfill of granular
material is placed in the hole.
 Deep Compaction Techniques
Dynamic compaction is a ground
improvement technique that densifies
soils and fill materials by using a drop
weight.
•The drop weight, typically steel, is lifted
by a crane and repeatedly dropped onto
the ground surface.
•Vibrations transmitted below the surface
improve soils at depth.
•The drop locations are typically located
on a grid pattern, the spacing of which is
determined by the subsurface conditions
and foundation loading and geometry.
•Treated granular soils and fills have
increased density, friction angle, and
stiffness.
 Densification of the ground

Old mine pits

 Compaction Control Procedures
Compaction control is done by measuring the dry density and the
water content of compacted soil in the field
Dry density
The dry density is measured by core cutter method IS 2720 (Part 29))
or sand replacement method (IS 2720 (Part 28))
Water content
For the measurement of water content, oven drying method, sand
bath method, calcium carbide method etc are used. Proctor needle is
also used for this.
Laboratory tests are conducted on samples of the field soil to define
the properties required for design.
Relative compaction or percent compaction

Typical required R.C. = 90% ~ 95%

 UNIT II
HYDRAULIC MODIFICATION
 UNIT II
HYDRAULIC MODIFICATION
Hydraulic Modification: Free pore water is forced
out of soil via drains or wells.
Course grained soils; it is achieved by lowering the
ground water level through pumping from
boreholes, or trenches.
In fine grained soils the long term application of
external loads (preloading) or electrical forces
(electrometic stabilization)
 UNIT II
HYDRAULIC MODIFICATION
OBJECTIVES:
• To keep working place dry like excavation for dams, building
foundations and tunnels.
• To stabilize natural or constructed slopes
• To treat granular soils by reducing their compressibility
• To decrease lateral pressures on retaining walls or foundation
• To improve bearing capacity of foundation soils
• To improve hauling characteristics or workability of the borrow
materials
• To reduce liquefaction susceptibility due to upward gradient
• To prevent migration of soil particles by groundwater
(phenomenon of piping)
• To improve workability of the borrow materials
• To reduce or prevent change from frost heave
 HYDRAULIC MODIFICATION
Preloading has been used for many years without change in the
method or application to improve soil properties. Preloading or
pre-compression is the process of placing additional vertical stress
on a compressible soil to remove pore water over time. The pore
water dissipation reduces the total volume causing
settlement. Surcharging is an economical method for ground
improvement. However, the consolidation of the soils is time
dependent, delaying construction projects making it a non-
feasible alternative.
The soils treated are Organic silt, Varved silts and clays, soft clay
and Dredged material. The design considerations which should be
made are bearing capacity, Slope stability, Degree of
consolidation.
Applications of Preloading of Soil
•Reduce post-construction Settlement
•Reduce secondary compression.
•Densification
•Improve bearing capacity
 HYDRAULIC MODIFICATION

Vertical drains and preloading are very effective and

economical ground modification techniques for
accelerating primary consolidation and compensating
some secondary compression of soft compressible soils.
Techniques involving for accelerated consolidation of soils
are
•Sand drains
•Pre-fabricated Vertical Drains
•Vacuum consolidation
•High Vacuum Densification Method (HVDM)
Vertical drains are generally installed in either triangular or
square patterns.
 Vertical Drains / Sand Drains
• Sand drains is a process of radial consolidation which increase
rate of drainage in the embankment by driving a casing into the
embankment and making vertical bore holes. These holes is back
filled with suitable grade of sand.
• The driven casing is withdrawn after the sand has been filled. A
sand blanket is placed over the top of the sand drains to connect
all the sand drains. To accelerate the drainage, a surcharge load is
placed on the sand blanket. The surcharge is usually in the form
of dumped soil.
 Vertical Drains / Sand Drains
When highly compressible, normally consolidated clayey soil
layers lie at limited/large depths, large consolidation settlements
are expected as the result of the loads from large buildings,
highway embankments, or earth dams etc. Pre-compression and
provision of vertical drains in soft soil may be used to minimize
post construction settlement.
 Prefabricated Drains
Development of geofabric wrapped, ribbed plastic, or band
drains, and high capacity dedicated mandrel installation rigs, has
improved the performance, potential depth of installation and
cost effectiveness of vertical drains.
 Prefabricated Drains
• The prefabricated band drains are used for accelerating the
consolidation of marine deposits or soft soils.
• In general, prefabricated band drains consist of a central core,
whose function is primarily to act as a free drainage channel, and
a non-woven filter jacket, which prevents the soil surrounding the
drain from entering the central core but allows water to flow in.
• Band drain is commonly used because of its easy prefabrication,
easy quality control, economy and small disturbance to the
surrounding soil during installation.
• Vertical Drain Installation Sequence
– Position Rig at Drain Location
– Place Anchor on Drain End
– Penetrate Mandrel to Desired Depth
– Withdraw Mandrel
– Cut Drain Material Above Drainage Blanket
 Vacuum Consolidation
The steadily increasing direct and indirect costs of placing and
removing surcharge fill and the advent of technology for sealing
landfills with impervious membranes for landfill gas extraction
systems have now made vacuum consolidation an economically
viable method as a replacement for surcharge fill.

The soil at the site is covered

with an airtight membrane and
a vacuum is created underneath
it by using a dual Venturi and
vacuum pump. The technology
can provide an equivalent pre-
loading of about 4.5 m high as
compared with a conventional
surcharging fill.
 Vacuum Consolidation
Instead of increasing the effective stress in the soil mass by
increasing the total stress as in conventional mechanical
surcharging, vacuum-assisted consolidation preloads the soil by
reducing the pore pressure while maintaining a constant total
stress. The effectiveness can be increased when applied with
combination of a surcharge fill. Field experience indicates a
substantial cost and time savings by this technology compared to
conventional surcharging.
 Dewatering
Dewatering means “the separation of water from the soil,” or
perhaps “taking the water out of the particular construction
problem completely.” Dewatering of excavations are required at
construction sites generally for foundation works to keep them dry.
 Dewatering
Purpose During construction stage
 Provides a dry excavation and permits construction to proceed
efficiently
 Reduce lateral loads on sheeting and bracing in excavations
 Stabilize “quick” bottom conditions and prevent heaving and piping
 Improve supporting characteristics of foundation materials
 Increase stability of excavation slopes and side-hill fills
 Cut off capillary rise and prevent piping and frost heaving in
pavements
 Reduce air pressure in tunneling operations
 Dewatering
Purpose - Post construction stage:
• Reduce or eliminate uplift pressures on bottom slabs and permit
economics from the reduction of slab thicknesses fro basements,
buried structures, canal linings, spillways, dry docks, etc.,
• Provide for dry basements , Reduce lateral pressures on retaining
structures , Control embankment seepage in all dams
• Control seepage and pore pressures beneath pavements, side-hill
fills, and cut slopes.
Methods of Dewatering Excavations at Construction Site
There are four important dewatering methods one should be
aware of:
• Wellpoint method of dewatering,
• Eductor wells,
• Open sump pumping and
• Deep wellpoint method
 Dewatering
Wellpoint method of dewatering:
A series of wells of required depth are created in the vicinity of
the excavated area from where the water has to be pumped out.
The wells are arranged either in a line or a rectangular form
where the wellpoints are created at a distance of at least 2m from
each other.
 Dewatering
Wellpoint method of dewatering:
• Riser pipes or dewatering pipes are then installed into those
closely spaced wells which on the surface are connected to a
flexible swing pipe which is ultimately appended to a common
header pipe that is responsible for discharging the water away
from the site. The purpose of using a flexible swing pipe is just to
provide a clear view of what is being pumped and the purpose of
header pipe is to create suction as well as discharge the water off
the working area.
• One end of the header pipe is connected to a vacuum pump
which draws water through notches in the wellpoint. The water
then travels from the wellpoints through the flexible swing pipe
into the header pipe to the pump. It is then discharged away from
the site or to other processes to remove unwanted properties
such as contaminants.
 Dewatering
Vacuum Dewatering or Eductor Wells Method of Dewatering
The method is very similar to the wellpoint method of dewatering;
the only difference lies in the usage of high pressure water in the
riser units instead of vacuum to draw out water from the
wellpoints. The method uses the venturi principle which is the
reduction in fluid pressure that results when a high pressure fluid
flows through a constricted section of a pipe.
A high pressure supply main feeds water through a
venturi-tube just above the well-screen, creating a
reduction in pressure which draws water through the
riser pipe. The high pressure main feeds off the return
water. The biggest advantage of using the eductor
system is, the water table can be lowered from depths
of 10-45 m if multiple pumps are operated from a
single pump station. This method therefore becomes
economically competitive at depth in soils of low
permeability.
 Dewatering
Ejector/Eductor Wells Method of Dewatering Excavations
A single pumping station can be used to operate up to about
75 ejector wells installed in an appropriate array around the
works.
They are particularly suited to operating in fine soil conditions.

Vacuum Consolidation
of Soil for Ground
Improvement
 Dewatering
Ejector/Eductor Wells Method of Dewatering Excavations
•Eductor systems are able to extract groundwater and generate a high
vacuum at the base of wells up to 50 m deep and of as little as 50 mm
diameter.
•Vacuum drainage can provide dramatic improvement in the stability
of silty fine sands and laminated silts and clays by the control of
excess pore pressures.
 Dewatering
Eductor Wells Method of Dewatering Excavations
Advantages:
•They are flexible in level and layout
•Stable in operation
•Able to run dry without damage
•Not limited by depth. Also effective to greater depths
•Best in low-yielding wells
•Energy intensive
•Venturi in base of well creates vacuum
•Eductor wells have been successfully installed in raking boreholes to
dewater beneath inaccessible areas such as railway lines and canals.
 Dewatering
Open Sump Pumping Method of Dewatering Excavations
This is the most common and economical method of dewatering as
gravity is the main playing force. Sump is created in the excavated
area into which the surrounding water converges and accumulates
facilitating easy discharge of water through robust solid handling
pumps.
 Dewatering
Open Sump Pumping Method of Dewatering Excavations
• Its application is however confined to the areas where soil is either
gravelly or sandy. Since the bottom of the sump is situated at a level
lower than that of the excavation bottom, it will abridge the
seepage way along which groundwater from outside seeps into the
excavation zone and as a result the exit gradient of the sump
bottom will be larger than that on the excavation surface.
• If the excavation area is large, several sumps may be placed along
the longer side or simply use a long narrow sump which is called a
ditch.
 Dewatering
Deep Well Method of Dewatering Excavations
Just like the wellpoint method, wells are drilled around the
excavated area, but the diameter of wells in this case varies
between 150-200mm. By creating deep wells around the vicinity,
the ground water is made to fall into them under the influence of
gravity.

As a result, the ground water level

in the surroundings would decline.
According to the type and
arrangement of pumps, the depths
of the wells could reach up to 30m.
This method is generally adopted
when a heavy amount of water
from the ground has to be drawn
out.
 Dewatering
Deep Well Method of Dewatering Excavations
• Casings of diameter fitting to wells are installed in order to retain
the wells. Additionally, well screens and filters (between sidewalls
and casing) are used which serve as a filtering device therefore not
letting the unwanted sediments enter into the well. The water thus
accumulated is pumped out using a submersible pump or a
centrifugal pump.
• It is prudent to assess ground-permeability conditions beforehand
since the whole process of accumulation and pumping takes quite a
bit of time. This may cause settlement in the nearby areas and
hence a different technique might need to be adopted.
 Electrokinetic Stabilisation
• One of the most common causes of foundation movement is
volume change of active clays in response to environmental and/or
vegetation, notably clay shrinkage in long dry spells and clay
swelling following the removal of large trees and hedges.
• Electrokinetic stabilisation is a technique of applying an electrical
current through a soil mass to promote the migration of chemicals
from injection points, which are usually the electrodes themselves.
• This technique is particularly suited to weak clayey soils that
require strengthening and yet possess a low hydraulic conductivity,
thus preventing the economic introduction of chemical grout using
conventional hydraulic means.
 Electro-osmosis
• Only effective method of dewatering in deep clay soils.
• Electro-osmosis is the movement of water through a porous media
by applying a direct current (DC) field.
• When an electrical potential difference is applied across a soil mass,
cations and anions are attracted to the cathode and anode
respectively, whereas neutral particles are attracted to neither.
 Electro-osmosis
• This forced migration occurs most readily by the ions with the
greatest mobility. Within a soil mass these ions are to be found in
the pore water existing between soil particles. The movement of
ions within the pore water causes a transfer of momentum to the
pore water.
• The corresponding direction and rate of pore water movement are
determined by the net transfer of momentum by both cations and
anions within the pore water. Because of the negatively charged
clay particles, the predominant ions within the pore fluid are
cationic and the water therefore moves from the anode to the
cathode. The two fundamental factors that control the degree of
water migration are the cation : anion distribution within the pore
water and the water–cation distribution within the soil.