ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

A long-term effort, led and supported by top management, to improve an organization's

visioning, empowerment, learning, and problem-solving processes, through an ongoing,
collaborative management of organization’s culture – with special emphasis on the
culture of intact work teams and other team configurations – utilizing the consultant –
facilitator role and the theory and technology of applied behavioral science, including
action research.

What are the forces prompting change?

The forces prompting change can be categorized as,

• EXTERNAL CHANGE FORCES

• INTERNAL CHANGE FORCES

EXTERNAL CHANGE FORCES

The forces compels from outside the organization, (on which organization normally have
no or minimal control) are termed as External Change Forces. The external forces
effecting change are:

• Technological developments:
• Competitive environment:
• Social and political pressure

• INTERNAL CHANGE FORCES

The forces compels from inside the organization, (basically under the
organization control) are called Internal Change Forces.
 DIAGNOSTIC MODEL OF CHANGE

ORGANIZATION MIRROR INTERVENTION

It is a technique designed to work units feedback on how other elements of

organization view them. It is designed to improve relationships between teams.
Gives feedback to teams on how other elements of organization view them. Units
meet together to process data with objective of identifying problems and
formulating solutions.

THIRD PARTY PEACE MAKING INTERVENTION

Walton has presented a statement of theory and practice for third-party peace
making interventions that is important in its own right and important for its role in
organization development. His method has a lot in common with group
interventions but it is directed more towards, interpersonal conflicts. The basic
feature of this third party peace making intervention is ‘Confrontation’ i.e the two
principals must be willing to confront the fact that conflict exists and that it has
consequences on the effectiveness of the two parties involved. The third party must
know how, when and where to utilize confrontation tactics that surface the conflict
for examination.

Walton’s model for diagnosis of conflict situation is based on four elements:

• The conflict issues.
• Precipitating circumstances.
• Conflict relevant acts.
• The consequences of the conflict.
PARALLEL LEARNING STRUCTURES:

Creating an informal, flexible collateral organization to supplement existing organization,

to solve problems that a regular organization cannot solve.

Parallel Learning Structures (also known as Communities of Practice) promote

innovation and change in large bureaucratic organizations while retaining the advantages
of bureaucratic design. Groups representing various levels and functions work to open
new channels of communication outside of and parallel to the normal, hierarchical
structure. Parallel Learning Structures may be a form of Knowledge Management.
Knowledge Management involves capturing the organization's collective expertise
wherever it resides (in databases, on paper, or in people's heads) and distributing it to the
people who need it in a timely and efficient way.

WHEN TO USE IT:

• To develop and implement organization-wide innovations.
• To foster innovation and creativity within a bureaucratic system.
• To support the exchange of knowledge and expertise among performers.
• To capture the organization's collective expertise.

APPLIED BEHAVIOUR SCIENCE

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is the science of controlling and predicting human
behavior. Behavior analysts reject the use of hypothetical constructs and focus on the
observable relationship of behavior to the environment. By functionally assessing the
relationship between a targeted behavior and the environment, the methods of ABA can
be used to change that behavior. Research in applied behavior analysis ranges from
behavioral intervention methods to basic research which investigates the rules by which
humans adapt and maintain behavior. BA is defined as the science in which the principles
of the analysis of behavior are applied systematically to improve socially significant
behavior, and in which experimentation is used to identify the variables responsible for
change in behavior. It is one of the three fields of behavior analysis. The other two
are behaviorism, or the philosophy of the science; and experimental analysis of behavior,
or basic experimental research.

ROLE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE (RAT)

Designed to clarify role expectations and obligations of team members to improve

team effectiveness.

Steps involved in RAT:

1. Analysis of the focal role initiated by focal role individual.
2. Examination of focal role incumbents expectation of others.
3. Explicating others expectations and desired behaviors of the focal role
4. F ocal Role person assumes responsibility for making a written summary of
the role as it has been defined (Role Profile)

ROLE NEGOTIATION TECHNIQUE (ROGER HARRISON)

Role negotiation deals with working relationships – what people do on the job and how
that helps or hinders others. It doesn’t probe into feelings or emotions towards others. It
deals directly with issues of power and authority – issues that are sometimes ignored by
other team building approaches. Although it doesn’t seek to undermine legitimate
authority, it does help people explore the sources of power available to them. It is
oriented towards action and achieving commitment to realistic change, not just
uncovering and understanding of issues. The procedures are clear and simple, and can be
outlined to participants beforehand to minimize the threat and uncertainty of many team
development techniques. Participants realize they have power and are not overly reliant
on the skill of the facilitator. Role negotiation is an economical process that can be
facilitated by internal consultants and team leaders, not exclusively by outside
consultants. It does not rely on extensive training or special credentials. It may only
function as a stopgap to help people live with potentially toxic relationship issues. But
even so, it is a way to make life more bearable in a bad situation. It does not necessarily
replace more complex interpersonal and organizational development processes that help
build trusting relationships over time, but it is a great first step and in many cases may be
a highly effective team development technique by itself. People don’t have to like one
another for this to work. But they often develop more positive feelings towards one
another when dealing from a position of clarity and when they know what to expect. We
perform better in consistent, reasonably predictable environments. Role Negotiation helps
clarify the organizational landscape.
Steps involved in this technique:

1. Contract setting-Consultant sets the climate and establishes the ground rules.
2. Issue diagnosis- Individuals think about how their own effectiveness can be
improved if others change their work behaviors.
3. Influence trade- Negotiation period in which two individuals discuss the
most important behavior changes they want from the other and the changes
they are willing to make themselves.
SIX-BOX DIAGNOSTIC MODEL, MARVIN R. WEISBORD

Organizational Diagnostic Model

It assumes that Purposes will be related to Environmental demands – i.e., an
organization’s priorities should be based on what it must do to fulfill its mission at this
time in this place.
Structure will be based on Purposes. In organizations, as in architecture, form follows
function. For example, functional—or departmental— organization is a strong structure
for developing in-depth special competence. It is much less effective in carrying out
integrative projects. By contrast, a product—or program or project—organization is
strong at coordinating around special purposes, and pays for his through less in-depth
specialized capability, such as production or sale. Historically, organizations have
reorganized periodically in one or the other mode as environment, technologies, and
strategies changed. Where both capabilities are equally important, organizations—e.g.,
aerospace industry, medical schools—have gone to a matrix. This requires sophisticated
conflict management.

Relationships refers primarily to the way units are coordinated. This is another way of
saying “conflict management,” for the critical problem in coordinating differentiated
activities is managing inevitable conflict between them. The more complex—i.e., matrix-
like—the required structure, the more conflict management becomes a critical
requirement for effective organization.

Rewards help or inhibit the “fit” between individuals and organizational goals. Ideally,
organizations should offer incentives—e.g., promotions, achievements, money—for
people to do what most needs doing. In practice, reward systems sometimes work against
the organization’s best interest. Piecework incentive plans sometimes have this
unintended consequence and, in medicine, academic promotion may hinge on research,
even though a medical center is under pressure to teach and serve patients.
Cutting across all four issues—Purposes, Structure, Relationships, Rewards—is the
notion of Helpful Mechanisms. These are procedures, policies, systems, forms,
committees, agendas which contribute to appropriate Purposes, Structure, Relationships,
and Rewards. An effective organization continually revises its mechanisms, eliminating
some and adding others as the need arises. Whenever a “gap” between what is and what
ought to be is identified, it is often discovered that no present mechanism exists to close
it. Hence, the creation of new mechanisms is central to the identification and closing of
gaps.

Only Leadership can scan the entire environment and act on behalf of the whole. This is
the appropriate role for top administration—to keep the entire organization in balance,
continually creating mechanisms to articulate Purposes (and change them as the
environment changes), alter Structure, and provide for appropriate Relationships and
Rewards.

8. The model provides a vocabulary and way of thinking about these issues.

FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS MODEL:

In 1951, Kurt Lewin developed a model for analyzing and managing organizational
problems which he has termed Force Field Analysis. A depiction of the model identifies
both driving forces and restraining forces within an organization. These driving forces,
such as environmental factors, push for change within the organization while the
restraining forces, such as organizational factors (e.g., limited resources or poor morale),
act as barriers to change. To understand the problem within the organization, the driving
forces and restraining forces are first identified and, hence, defined. Goals and strategies
for moving the equilibrium of the organization toward the desired direction can then be
planned.
The model relies upon the change process, with the social implications built into the
model (e.g., disequilibrium is expected to occur until equilibrium is reestablished). The
general goal of this model is to intentionally move to a desirable state of equilibrium by
adding driving forces, where important, and eliminating restraining forces, where
appropriate. These changes are thought to occur simultaneously within the dynamic
organization. The strength of this model is its ability to recognize which forces are
working within an organization, and developing methods to encourage driving forces
while minimizing restraining forces. Unfortunately, recognizing the forces at work within
an organization may not clearly reveal the components of those forces. Without a clear
understanding of the makeup of these forces, designing a strategy for successful change
may be difficult.

SURVEY FEEDBACK

Survey-Feedback is an OD method for collecting and analyzing information about an

organization making use of a survey or questionnaire. The method has two primary
objectives: 1) A tool in the improvement of the parish and 2) A tool that helps the
working relationship between parish leaders and members. It is one among several
methods used by OD practitioners along with interviews, observation, and group
exploration & discovery processes. Cummings and Worley see it as one of the “stems of
OD practice.” The method is a tool in action research, i.e., a methodology which is
intended to have both action outcomes and research outcomes. In globally competitive
environments, organizations are seeking information about obstacles to productivity and
satisfaction in the workplace. Survey feedback is a tool that can provide this type of
honest feedback to help leaders guide and direct their teams. Obstacles and gaps between
the current status quo and the desired situations may or may not be directly apparent. In
either case, it is vital to have a clear understanding of strategies for diagnosis and
prevention of important organization problems. If all leaders and members alike are clear
about the organizational development and change, strengths, weakness, strategies can be
designed and implemented to support positive change. Survey feedback provides a
participative approach and enables all members to become actively engaged in managing
the work environment.
SURVEY PROCESS STEPS:

1. Identify project plan and objectives

2. Brief team leaders and employees about the process
3. Administer survey
4. Conduct interviews and focus groups
5. Train leaders on facilitating team discussions
6. Analyze the data and construct a report
7. Provide feedback to leaders
8. Team leaders conduct feedback action planning and meetings
9. Leaders present reports on progress and results to Senior Management

Follow-up by senior leadership to ensure progress and accountability

NORMATIVE REEDUCATIVE STRATEGY OF CHANGING

A second meta-strategy focuses on normative-reeducative approaches to change. This

typology differs markedly from the rational-empirical approach outlined above. It is
based on the premise that individuals (and human systems) are necessarily active in their
search for need satisfaction and self-fulfillment and that change is largely values-based as
opposed to rational in nature. Change is motivated, according to this approach, when the
individuals identify some level of dissatisfaction with the status quo based on
fundamental value clashes. The key task of those who follow this approach to change is
not to find the right information to guide a rational change process but to find a proper
and effective relationship between the values of the system (and its members) and the
values of the organizational environment. The search is guided by active experimentation
and the direct involvement of as many members of the system as possible as a primary
methodology to the development of the change strategy.
A primary assumption of this approach is that intelligence is “social” rather than rational.
Protagonists hold that only through intense interaction between the players in the system
can the optimal change strategy be discovered, developed, and adopted with commitment.
Successful change strategy must take into consideration the surrounding culture of the
environment. Such considerations include attention to the broader system, including
socially determined meanings and norms and the personal where internalized meanings,
habits, and values of the members dominate.
Such elements frequently conflict with the rational data generated by fact-based research.
Change as defined by this approach, therefore, extends beyond the development of
common understandings that people have at a rational level to include the deeper
personal meanings that each carries with them at the level of habits and values. At the
organizational level, changes driven by the normative-reeducative approach focus on
alterations in how organizations define the normative or “right” way to structure
relationships, roles, and the personal meanings that individuals accept about human
systems and their missions in the world. Typical focuses of change include improving

Common Assumptions of a Normative-Reeducative Approach to Change

• Involvement of the members of the change system in working out programs of

change under their own direction.

• Definition of the change problem includes the probability that shifts in attitudes,
values, norms, and relationships between players in the system and between the
system and its external environment may be required.

• Relationship of management and the members of the system is one of mutual

collaborators in the development of the final strategy and not one of power
dominance by any one segment of the system.

• Deeper level assumptions and dynamics of the system (power, privilege, and
personality) are examined as part of the change process.

• A sub-goal of the change process is to improve the overall skills of the system to
direct its own change processes in the future.
 • overall organizational problem-solving, personal growth and development of
system members, either as individuals or as part of cadres within the system (such
as executive or middle management groups), and more recently, redesign or
restructuring of organizational systems to maximize member participation and
involvement as noted in Weisbord (1991) and Emery (1999).

TEAMS AND TEAMWORK

TEAMS
• groups of two or more people
• who interact & influence each other
• are mutually accountable for achieving common objectives, and
• perceive themselves as a social entity within an organization
GROUPS
• two or more people with a unifying rel’ship
• All teams are groups because they consist of people with a unifying rel’ship
• But not all groups are teams!
Team Effectiveness Model