Department of Mechanical Engineering

College of Engineering and Design

Silliman University

An Investigation on the Strain Rate of Aluminum, Brass, and Steel Sheets

Submitted to:

Engr. Louie Pierre O. Equio

Submitted by:

Vern Jasmine M. Alferez

Jennica Anne A. Bailon

Ma. Coleen V. Torres

September 26, 2017

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Sincere and heart-felt gratitude is hereby extended to the following people who never

ceased in guiding us through the duration of our research:

First and for most, God the Father Almighty, for the divine intervention and for always

being with us from the beginning until the end;

To Engr. Louie Pierre O. Equio, for giving us suggestions on how to improve our research;

To Mr. Roger Alcancia, for guiding us through the entire process of our experimentation;

To our co-researchers for putting up all efforts in finishing this research.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Introduction ………………………………………………………………….….……1

A. Hypothesis …………………………………………………………………….….1

B. Research Questions ………………………………………………………….……1

C. Objectives of the Study ……………………………………………………...……1

D. Significance of the Study …………………………………………………………2

E. Scope and Limitations ….……………………………………………………........2

II. Review of Related Literature …………………………………………………………3

A. Theoretical Framework ………………………………………………………...…3

B. Related Works ………………………………………………………………….....7

C. Conceptual Framework …………………………………………………….……9

III. Methodology ………………………………………………………………………..10

IV. Presentation and Interpretation of Results ……………………………………….….14

V. Summary, Conclusion, and Recommendation ………………………………………21

A. Summary and Conclusion………………………………………………………..21

B. Recommendations………………………………………………………………..21

VI. References ………………………………………………………………………...…23

VII. Appendix ………………………………………………………………….…………25

 I. INTRODUCTION

Man’s continuous hunger for change and improvement lead to the development of various

equipments and industrial machineries. This ambition caused these modern engineering materials

to face tests of reliability when placed under different kind of stresses may it be in high operating

conditions, geometrical structure and composition or even on elevated temperatures. When it

comes to construction materials, metal alloy sheets such as aluminum, brass and steel are most

commonly used. As engineering students and future innovators of this industry, we decided to test

the strain rate of the said materials through a creep test.

A. Hypothesis

Steel has the lowest strain rate among the three materials.

B. Research Questions

• Which among the materials have the highest average total elongation?

• Which among the materials have the lowest average strain rate?

• Based on their strain-time curves, which among the materials have the most deviating

pattern?

C. Objectives

• To know and to compare the strain rates of each material.

• To know and to compare the length of elongation of each material.

1
D. Significance of the Study

The time-dependent deformation we will observe in creep testing will help us predict

the life expectancy of a material before the service period to avoid the occurrence of failure.

By studying the creep property of these commonly used construction materials, we gain

the idea on to what extent these materials could perform its function when exposed to stress.

E. Scope and Limitations

This research is only limited to the following:

• Analysis of the strain rate of 1100 Aluminum Plate, Brass Shim Stock, and Ninjalume G.I.

sheets having the specified dimensions for creep testing

• Analysis of the strain rate of the materials through creep testing using the Creep Testing

Machine TM 221 with a steady load of 40 N at room temperature (22°C-27°C)

• Analysis of the strain rate of the materials with the records of elongation within 100

minutes.

2
 II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Theoretical Framework

▪ Creep Test

The use of metals at high temperatures introduces the possibility of failure in service by a

mechanism known as creep.

At room temperature, most metals and ceramics deform in a way which depends on stress

but which, for practical purposes, is independent of time (Mathers.N.D).

As the temperature is raised, loads which give no permanent deformation at room

temperature cause materials to creep. Creep is slow, continuous deformation with time: the strain,

instead of depending only on the stress, now depends on time and temperature as well. Most metals

and ceramics have high melting points and, because of this, they start to creep only at temperatures

well above room temperature. The point is that the temperature at which materials start to creep

depends on their melting point. As the name suggests this slow failure mechanism that may occur

in a material exposed for a protracted length of time to a load below its elastic limit, the material

increasing in length in the direction of the applied stress. At ambient temperature with most

materials this deformation is so slow that it is not significant (Roesler, et.al).

▪ Strain

Strain may refer to the deformation, a geometrical measure of deformation representing the

relative displacement between particles in a material body. When a component is stress, points

within it are displaced. The component can be displaced as a whole in a rigid-body displacement

or it can be rotated rigidly (rigid-body rotation). To describe the deformation of a component,

displacement, changes of distance and angles between points have to be looked at. All

3
deformations or strains can be composed from changes in length and angles. To describe these

changes in length, the normal or direct strain is defined as the difference between the final length

and the initial length (Callister, 2007).

▪ Strain Rate

As for the strain rate, it is the deformation or the elongation of the material per unit time. It

is the rate of change of the size and shape of a body under an applied stress (Wikipedia, n.d.). The

strain rate at some point within the material measures the rate at which the distances of adjacent

parcels of the material change with time in the neighborhood of that point. It comprises both the

rate at which the material is expanding or shrinking (expansion rate), and also the rate at which it

is being deformed by progressive shearing without changing its volume (shear rate). It is zero if

these distances do not change, as happens when all particles in some region are moving with the

same velocity (same speed and direction) and/or rotating with the same angular velocity, as if that

part of the medium were a rigid body (Callister, 2007).

The strain rate may be obtained with the formula:

𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
% 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

▪ Graphing of Creep

Creep is dependent on time so the graph that the machine generates is a time vs. strain. The

graphs are important to learn the trends of alloys and materials used and by the production of the

4
creep- time graph, it is easier to determine the better material for a specific application (Creep

Tester Manual, nd.).

▪ Creep Tester TM 221

Figure 1. Creep Tester TM 221.

This equipment is used for testing materials with high creep such as lead and plastics. A

constant load is applied to the specimen via a lever with ball bearing pivot. Specimen extension is

measured by a dial indicator. A glycol pack is provided to wrap the specimen and maintain the

required test temperature (Creep Tester TM 221 Manual, n.d.).

▪ Steel

Steel is well suited and widely used for a broad number of engineering applications. It

exhibits a variety of excellent mechanical properties, such as strength, toughness and ductility

(Akoy et al., 2004). Steel is also easily manufactured and presents good formability, weldability

and paintability (Kumar, 2002). Other positive factors include its availability, ferromagnetic

properties, recyclability and low cost. Because steel is susceptible to corrosion in the presence of

moisture and to oxidation at elevated temperatures, successful use of these favorable

characteristics generally requires some form of protection (Dafydd, H., Worsley, D.A. &

McMurray, H.N. 2005).

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 According to a 4-year research project by the BNF Technology Centre, UK, under the

sponsorship of International Lead Zinc Research Organization, The galvanizing process has no

effect on the mechanical properties of the structural steels commonly galvanized. Steels

conforming to ASTM Standard Specifications A36 and A572 Grade 60 and Canadian Standards

Association (CSA) Specifications G 40.8 and G 40.12 were included in this study. The published

BNF report, ‘Galvanizing of Structural Steels and their weldments’ concludes that “the galvanizing

process has no effect on the tensile, bend or impact properties of any of the structural steels

investigated when these are galvanized in the ‘as manufactured’ condition.” Ilzro, 1975. (AGA,

n.d.)

▪ Brass

Brass is a general term for a set of copper-zinc alloys that may include additional metals

such as lead. Different types of brass have different properties, but all brass is strong, machinable,

tough, conductive, and corrosion resistant. This along with beauty and ease of production

make brass one of the most widely used alloys (Bell, 2017).

Brass Shim is made from a half hard, cold rolled, 260 alloy brass. It is used in applications

where corrosion problems exist; low magnetic permeability. Excellent forming qualities and may

be lightly drawn, blanked or stamped. Measures 6″ wide by 60″ long by 0.009″ thick, is widely

used in the following applications: tool and die set up; alignment; new machine assembly; machine

repair and maintenance; mounting of motors, pumps and other machines; short run and prototype

work; along with a variety of other industrial uses. It is especially useful for pilot production runs

where material accuracy and economy are important (Precision Brand, n.d.).

6
 ▪ Aluminum

Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust. It is light and nontoxic, and it

does not corrode. Aluminum's strength and light weight also make it ideal for construction of

automobiles, railroad cars and airplanes (Azom, 2005).

Commercially pure aluminum is the product of the electrolytic cell process. It contains a low

level of impurities, usually much less than 1%. Commercially pure aluminum is light in weight

(2,700 kg.m-3 compared with iron at 7,870 kg.m-3) and melts at 660 °C.

A lump of aluminum that has been heated to just below the melting point and allowed to

cool slowly (annealed) is light in weight, is not very strong, is soft and ductile, is corrosion resistant

and has high thermal and electrical conductivity (Jacobs,1999).

B. Related Works

“Creep Test” by Kal Katu Malam, May 06, 2013

The errors that occurred and the factors that affected the experimental results of the creep

test when doing the experiment is that the size measure and the real size of the specimen is not

precise, thus making the error happen. Another factor that most likely to cause the experiment to

have an error from the theory result is that the specimen is not carefully cut from its required shape.

It make the specimen have a small unnecessary cut that make the specimen comes to fracture stage

than usual. Moreover, temperature of the surrounding also affects the experimental result. The last

error that might occur is the apparatus or equipment used showed error before the experiment or

the placing of the specimen onto the universal testing machine is not correct or slightly misplaced.

7
 “Creep Rupture Failure Under Conditions of Static Strain” by Jefrey Jansen and Jacob

Nemec of the Madison Group

Creep can also be observed within metals but predominantly at elevated temperature. In

most cases, the creep behavior of metals in ambient conditions are insignificant.

“Reference Document For The Analysis Of Creep And Stress-Rupture Data In Mil-

Hdbk-5” by Richard Rice of Battelle-Columbus Laboratories, 1981

One of the objectives of creep analysis is to find the underlying relationship between stress,

temperature, and life. It may be used to predict the stress to obtain a given life at a given

temperature, or to predict the temperature to obtain a given life at a given stress.

“An Experimental Study Of Room-Temperature Rate-Sensitivity, Creep And Relaxation

Of Aisi Type 304 Stainless Steel” by E. Krempl from Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Aeronautical Engineering and Mechanics, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1979

The room-temperature inelastic deformation behavior of structural metals is

generally considered to be rate-independent in yield-surface studies. In “dynamic plasticity”, the

rate-independent idealization is not always accepted and rate- dependent constitutive equations are

frequently used. This difference in viewpoint may be due to the different experimental techniques

used in “dynamic” and “static plasticity”.

8
C. Conceptual Framework

Figure 2. Conceptual framework of the entire research process.

The materials to undergo creep testing were aluminum, brass, steel in their sheet forms.

These materials were gathered from the local stores in Dumaguete and were shaped in a small

steelworks shop at Perdices St. to the specified dimensions required by the tester. After the

specimens were prepared, the creep experiment was conducted with five trials per material. After

all the necessary data were gathered, the researchers then proceeded to the final part of research

which was the data comparison and analysis.

9
 III. METHODOLOGY

In conducting the experiment, we adhered to the steps that follow:

A. Preparation of Specimens

After the materials have been gathered, the aluminum, brass, and steel sheets were

shaped into the specified dimensions (Figure 3) required for the creep tester (Figure

4).

Figure 3. Specified Dimensions for Creep Testing.

Figure 4. Aluminum, Brass and Steel Sheet Specimens.

B. Testing of Specimens

1. The lever arm was adjusted to level by adjusting the balancing weight.

2. The dial gauge reading was set to “0” by adjusting the reference screw upward or

downward as required.

3. The prepared specimen was installed in place with pins and the pin nuts were then

tightened (Figure 5).

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 4. The 40 N weight was placed on the hanger at the end of the lever. The timer was then

started as soon as the weight hanger settled (Figure 6).

5. The dial gauge reading was recorded every 5 minutes. Twenty readings were recorded

for every specimen.

For the first trial with the aluminum specimen, the specimen immediately reached the

maximum elongation the tester could accommodate upon placing the weight (Figure 7). On the

second trial, within seconds, the aluminum specimen reached its rupture (Figure 8). As advised

we changed the load for all aluminum specimens to 20 N.

Figure 5. Installed aluminum specimen in testing machine.

11
 Figure 6. Load of 40 N for creep testing.

Figure 7. Aluminum specimen in original Figure 8. Aluminum specimen in original

dimension (left) and aluminum specimen dimension (left) and aluminum specimen

after trial 1 (right). after rupture in trial 2 (right).

12
 Figure 9. Set-up for creep testing.

Figure 10. Preparing the set-up for creep testing.

C. Calculating of Strain Rates

The strain rates were calculated using the formula provided in the Creep Testing Machine

Manual, where the strain rate is equal to the quotient of the deformation (elongation in mm) and

the original length of the specimen.

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 IV. PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

Table 1. Total Elongation (mm).

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Average
Aluminum 0.900 0.800 0.200 0.550 0.900 0.670
Brass 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.125 0.025 0.060
Steel 0.200 0.100 0.200 0.075 0.050 0.125

There were five (5) records of total elongation for each material and the average total

elongation was calculated and obtained. The aluminum specimens have the highest average total

elongation with 0.670 mm, followed by the steel specimens with 0.125 mm and lastly the brass

specimens with 0.060 mm.

Table 2. Strain rates and average strain rates of the material aluminum with load
weight of 20 N.
Strain, ε
Time , t
(%)
(min.)
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5
0 0 0 0 0 0
5 0.001497 0.002395 0.000598 0.000150 0.001497
10 0.001796 0.002395 0.000898 0.000150 0.001497
15 0.002395 0.002395 0.000898 0.001796 0.001497
20 0.002994 0.002695 0.001198 0.002395 0.001796
25 0.002994 0.002994 0.001198 0.003293 0.001796
30 0.002994 0.003293 0.001198 0.003293 0.001796
35 0.002994 0.003293 0.001198 0.003293 0.002395
40 0.003293 0.003593 0.001198 0.003293 0.002395
45 0.003293 0.003593 0.001198 0.003293 0.002994
50 0.003293 0.003593 0.001198 0.003293 0.002994
55 0.003593 0.003892 0.001198 0.003293 0.003293
60 0.003593 0.003892 0.001198 0.003293 0.003293
65 0.003593 0.004192 0.001198 0.003293 0.003593
70 0.003593 0.004192 0.001198 0.003293 0.003593
75 0.003892 0.004192 0.001198 0.003293 0.003593
80 0.005090 0.004491 0.001198 0.003293 0.003593

14
 85 0.005389 0.004790 0.001198 0.003293 0.004790
90 0.005389 0.004790 0.001198 0.003293 0.004790
95 0.005389 0.004790 0.001198 0.003293 0.005089
100 0.005389 0.004790 0.001198 0.003293 0.005389
Average per trial
0.003622 0.003712 0.001138 0.002859 0.003083
(%)
AVERAGE
STRAIN RATE 0.00288315
(%)

With the five samples of the aluminum sheet material that experienced a load weight of 20

N, five sets of strain rate data were calculated. Unlike the other two materials, aluminum samples

experienced the 20N load weights since they were not able to withstand the 40N load weight for

even a minute. The average strain rate per trial were calculated with 0.003622, 0.003712,

0.001138, 0.002859, and 0.003083 respectively. Afterwards, the average strain rate of the

aluminum material with a value of 0.00288315 was obtained.

Strain-Time Curves of Aluminum

0.025

0.02

0.015
Strain (%)

0.01

0.005

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial5

Figure 11. Strain-time curves of aluminum specimens.

15
 With the data gathered from the experimentation of the aluminum samples, a time vs. strain

graph was derived. A clear pattern among the curves can be observed in the figure.

Table 3. Strain rates and average strain rates of the material brass with load weight
of 40 N.
Strain, ε
Time , t
(%)
(min.)
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5
0 0 0 0 0 0
5 0 0 0 0.000610 0
10 0 0 0 0.000610 0
15 0 0 0 0.000610 0
20 0 0 0 0.000610 0
25 0 0 0 0.000610 0
30 0.000153 0.000153 0 0.000610 0
35 0.000153 0.000153 0 0.000610 0
40 0.000153 0.000153 0.000305 0.000610 0
45 0.000153 0.000153 0.000305 0.000610 0
50 0.000153 0.000153 0.000305 0.000610 0
55 0.000153 0.000153 0.000305 0.000610 0
60 0.000153 0.000153 0.000305 0.000762 0
65 0.000153 0.000153 0.000305 0.000762 0
70 0.000305 0.000153 0.000305 0.000762 0
75 0.000305 0.000153 0.000305 0.000762 0
80 0.000305 0.000305 0.000305 0.000762 0
85 0.000305 0.000305 0.000305 0.000762 0
90 0.000305 0.000305 0.000305 0.000762 0.000153
95 0.000305 0.000305 0.000305 0.000762 0.000153
100 0.000305 0.000305 0.000305 0.000762 0.000153
Average per trial
0.000168 0.0001528 0.0001983 0.0006784 2.30E-05
(%)
AVERAGE
STRAIN RATE 0.00024406
(%)

16
 Similar with the aluminum specimens, five sets of strain rate data of the brass material were

calculated from the data gathered. The load weight for the brass samples was 40 N. The average

strain rate per trial were calculated and resulted with 0.000168, 0.0001528, 0.0001983, 0.0006784,

and 0.0000230 respectively. The average strain rate of the brass material was then computed and

a value of 0.00024406 was obtained, a value prominently lower than that of the aluminum material.

Strain- Time Curves of Brass

0.002

0.0018

0.0016

0.0014

0.0012 Trial5
Strain (%)

0.001 Trial 4

0.0008 Trial 3
Trial 2
0.0006
Trial 1
0.0004

0.0002

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Figure 12. Strain-time curves of brass specimens.

Although, there’s a trace of similarity between the strain-time curves of the brass material;

compared to the graph of the aluminum material, the curves of the brass specimens are more

random or inconsistent.

17
 Table 4. Strain rates and average strain rates of the material steel with load weight of
40 N.
Strain, ε
Time , t
(%)
(min.)
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5
0 0 0 0 0 0
5 0.000598 0.000299 0.000598 0 0.000149
10 0.000598 0.000299 0.000898 0.000149 0.000149
15 0.000748 0.000299 0.000898 0.000149 0.000149
20 0.000748 0.000299 0.000898 0.000149 0.000149
25 0.000748 0.000299 0.000898 0.000149 0.000149
30 0.000898 0.000299 0.001197 0.000149 0.000299
35 0.000898 0.000299 0.001197 0.000149 0.000299
40 0.000898 0.000299 0.001197 0.000149 0.000299
45 0.000898 0.000299 0.001197 0.000449 0.000299
50 0.000898 0.000299 0.001197 0.000449 0.000299
55 0.000898 0.000299 0.001197 0.000449 0.000299
60 0.000898 0.000299 0.001197 0.000449 0.000449
65 0.001047 0.000299 0.001197 0.000449 0.000449
70 0.001047 0.000299 0.001197 0.000449 0.000449
75 0.001047 0.000299 0.001197 0.000449 0.000449
80 0.001047 0.000299 0.001197 0.000449 0.000449
85 0.001047 0.000598 0.001197 0.000449 0.000449
90 0.001197 0.000598 0.001197 0.000449 0.000449
95 0.001197 0.000598 0.001197 0.000449 0.000449
100 0.001197 0.000598 0.001197 0.000449 0.000449
Average per trial
0.000928 0.000359 0.0011073 0.0003216 0.000330
(%)
AVERAGE
STRAIN RATE 0.00060884
(%)

Same as the brass samples, the load weight for the steel samples was 40N. Analogous to the

two materials, five sets of strain rate data were calculated from the data gathered. The average

strain rate per trial were calculated and resulted with 0.000928, 0.000359, 0.0011073, 0.0003216,

18
and 0.000330 respectively. The average strain rate of the steel material was then computed to be

0.00060884, a value comparatively higher than that of the steel material.

Strain-Time Curves for Steel

0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
Strain (%)

0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial5

Figure 13. Strain-time curves of steel specimens.

Like the strain-time curves of the aluminum samples, a pattern can be observed as well

among the strain-time curves of the steel samples.

19
 Average Strain Rate of Aluminum, Brass and Steel
0.0035

0.003 Aluminum, 0.00288315

0.0025

0.002

0.0015

0.001
Steel, 0.00060884
0.0005
Brass, 0.00024406

0
Strain Rate (%)

Figure 14. Average strain rate of aluminum, brass and steel.

Comparing the average strain rates of the three materials, the aluminum leads with the

strain rate of 0.00288315, steel follows with a prominently lower average strain rate of

0.00060884, and close behind it is brass with an average strain rate of 0.00024406. We can say

that with a time range of 100 minutes at constant load and at room temperature (22ᴼC- 27ᴼC), brass

has the lowest strain rate among the three materials.

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 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

A. Summary and Conclusion

As a conclusion, the creep test was conducted using a tensile specimen in which a constant

stress was applied by suspending weights from it at room temperature ranging from 22℃-27℃.

The loads were the same for both brass and steel but varied for aluminum for the cause that the

said load caused an immediate rupture for the aluminum. Thus, we were advised to change the

load for all aluminum specimen. Deformation were recorded at specified time intervals and strain

vs time diagram was plotted which helped in comparing the date between materials.

As shown in the figures and tables from the previous chapters, we the researchers therefore

conclude that in terms of elongation, the material aluminum has the highest deformation followed

by the steel and lastly, the brass. When it comes to strain rate, still aluminum has the highest rate

followed by steel and then brass with the lowest strain rate. Also, based on the data that we have

gathered and as observed from the graphs, brass can be seen as the material having the most

inconsistent or unpredictable pattern. Therefore, the hypothesis we stated at the beginning was

rejected stating that steel has the lowest strain rate when in fact, based on that data gathered, brass

has the lowest strain rate among the three materials in the 100-minute duration testing conducted.

B. Recommendations

To the future researchers who want to pursue or improve our study further, we recommend

that you use another way or method in cutting the materials wherein their sides, most particularly

the surrounding sides of the hole will not be damaged or undergo any kind of stress even before

testing. Another recommendation would be the use of two variables for variations in the

21
experimentation which would include temperature. Also, seeing brass as the material having the

most inconsistent pattern among the graphs of each material, future researchers are yet to find out

the reason behind it’s unpredictable deformation.

22
 VI. REFERENCES

Akoy, M.A., Kayali, E.S. & Cimenoglu, H. (2004). The influence of microstructure features and

mechanical properties on the cold formability of Ferritic steel sheets. ISIJ Int., Volume 44.

pp 422-428.

Aluminium - An Introduction to Aluminium Properties, Production and Applications. Retrieved

from https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=2861.

American Galvanizer Association AGA. (n.d.). The Design of Products to be Hot-Dip Galvanized

After Fabrication. Colorado.

Bell, T. (2017). Brass Alloys and Their Applications. Retrieved from https://www.thebalance.com/brass-

applications-2340108

Brass Shim stock. Retrieved from https://precisionbrand.com/products/0-009-brass-shim-stock-6-

x-60-roll/.

Callister, W. (2007). Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction. NY: John Wiley & Sons

Inc.

Creep Test. (2013). Retrieved September 06, 2017.

https://www.scribd.com/doc/139837056/CREEP-TEST-COMPLETE-pdf.

Dafydd, H., Worsley, D.A. & McMurray, H.N. (2005). The kinetics and mechanism of cathodic

oxygen reduction on Zinc and Zinc-Aluminium alloy galvanized coatings. Corrosion

Science, Volume 47. pp 3006-3018.

Jacobs, M.H., (1999). Introduction to Aluminum as an Engineering Material. UK: EAA.

23
Jansen, J. & Nemec, J. (n.d.). Retrieved September 26, 2017. Retrieved from

https://www.madisongroup.com/publications/JansenNemecANTEC2014.pdf.

Krempl, E. (1979). J. Mech. Phys. Solids. Pergamon Press Ltd.: Great Britain. Vol.27,pp.363-315.

Kumar, D. R. (2002). Formability analysis of extra deep drawing steel. Journal of Materials

Processing Technology, Volume 130-13. pp 31-41.

Mechanical Properties of Galvanized Steels. (n.d.) Retrieved August 12, 2017, from

https://www.gaa.com.au/index.php?page=mechanical-properties-of-galvanized-steels.

Matheres, G. (n.d.) Creep and Creep Testing. Retrieved August 10, 2017, from http://www.twi-

global.com/technical-knowledge/job-knowledge/creep-and-creep-testing-081/.

Rice, R. (1981). Retrieved September 17, 2017., from

http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a233316.pdf.

Roesler, J.,Harders ,H & Baeker, M., (2006).Mechanical Behavior of Engineering

Materials.Metals, Ceramics, Polymers and Composites. New York.

Wikipedia. The Free Encyclopedia. Strain Rate. Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_rate.

24
 VII. APPENDIX

A. Aluminum Data

Table 5. Trial 1: Aluminum.

Elongation, Elongation,
Time , t Gauge Strain, ε Time , t Gauge Strain, ε
X X
(min.) Reading (%) (min.) Reading (%)
(mm) (mm)
0 0 39 0
5 0.250 41.5 0.001497 55 0.600 45 0.003593
10 0.300 42 0.001796 60 0.600 45 0.003593
15 0.400 43 0.002395 65 0.600 45 0.003593
20 0.500 44 0.002994 70 0.600 45 0.003593
25 0.500 44 0.002994 75 0.650 45.5 0.003892
30 0.500 44 0.002994 80 0.850 47.5 0.005090
35 0.500 44 0.002994 85 0.900 48 0.005389
40 0.550 44.5 0.003293 90 0.900 48 0.005389
45 0.550 44.5 0.003293 95 0.900 48 0.005389
50 0.550 44.5 0.003293 100 0.900 48 0.005389

Strain-Time Curve
Trial 1: Aluminum
0.006

0.005

0.004
Strain (%)

0.003

0.002

0.001

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Figure 15. Trial 1: Aluminum.

25
Table 6. Trial 2: Aluminum.
Elongation, Elongation,
Time , t Gauge Strain, ε Time , t Gauge Strain, ε
X X
(min.) Reading (%) (min.) Reading (%)
(mm) (mm)
0 0 56 0
5 0.400 60 0.002395 55 0.650 62.5 0.003892
10 0.400 60 0.002395 60 0.650 62.5 0.003892
15 0.400 60 0.002395 65 0.700 63 0.004192
20 0.450 60.5 0.002695 70 0.700 63 0.004192
25 0.500 61 0.002994 75 0.700 63 0.004192
30 0.550 61.5 0.003293 80 0.750 63.5 0.004491
35 0.550 61.5 0.003293 85 0.800 64 0.004790
40 0.600 62 0.003593 90 0.800 64 0.004790
45 0.600 62 0.003593 95 0.800 64 0.004790
50 0.600 62 0.003593 100 0.800 64 0.004790

Strain-Time Curve
Trial 2: Aluminum
0.006

0.005

0.004
Strain (%)

0.003

0.002

0.001

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Figure 16. Trial 2: Aluminum.

26
Table 7. Trial 3: Aluminum.
Elongation, Elongation,
Time , t Gauge Strain, ε Time , t Gauge Strain, ε
X X
(min.) Reading (%) (min.) Reading (%)
(mm) (mm)
0 0 39 0
5 0.100 40 0.000598 55 0.200 41 0.001198
10 0.150 40.5 0.000898 60 0.200 41 0.001198
15 0.150 40.5 0.000898 65 0.200 41 0.001198
20 0.200 41 0.001198 70 0.200 41 0.001198
25 0.200 41 0.001198 75 0.200 41 0.001198
30 0.200 41 0.001198 80 0.200 41 0.001198
35 0.200 41 0.001198 85 0.200 41 0.001198
40 0.200 41 0.001198 90 0.200 41 0.001198
45 0.200 41 0.001198 95 0.200 41 0.001198
50 0.200 41 0.001198 100 0.200 41 0.001198

Strain-Time Curve
Trial 3: Aluminum
0.0014

0.0012

0.001
Strain (%)

0.0008

0.0006

0.0004

0.0002

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Figure 17. Trial 3: Aluminum.

27
Table 8. Trial 4: Aluminum.
Elongation, Elongation,
Time , t Gauge Strain, ε Time , t Gauge Strain, ε
X X
(min.) Reading (%) (min.) Reading (%)
(mm) (mm)
0 0 52 0
5 0.025 52.25 0.000150 55 0.550 57.5 0.003293
10 0.025 52.25 0.000150 60 0.550 57.5 0.003293
15 0.300 55 0.001796 65 0.550 57.5 0.003293
20 0.400 56 0.002395 70 0.550 57.5 0.003293
25 0.550 57.5 0.003293 75 0.550 57.5 0.003293
30 0.550 57.5 0.003293 80 0.550 57.5 0.003293
35 0.550 57.5 0.003293 85 0.550 57.5 0.003293
40 0.550 57.5 0.003293 90 0.550 57.5 0.003293
45 0.550 57.5 0.003293 95 0.550 57.5 0.003293
50 0.550 57.5 0.003293 100 0.550 57.5 0.003293

Strain-Time Curve
Trial 4: Aluminum
0.004

0.0035

0.003

0.0025
Strain (%)

0.002

0.0015

0.001

0.0005

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Figure 18. Trial 4: Aluminum.

28
Table 9. Trial 5: Aluminum.
Elongation, Elongation,
Time , t Gauge Strain, ε Time , t Gauge Strain, ε
X X
(min.) Reading (%) (min.) Reading (%)
(mm) (mm)
0 0 39 0
5 0.250 41.5 0.001497 55 0.550 44.5 0.003293
10 0.250 41.5 0.001497 60 0.550 44.5 0.003293
15 0.250 41.5 0.001497 65 0.600 45 0.003593
20 0.300 42 0.001796 70 0.600 45 0.003593
25 0.300 42 0.001796 75 0.600 45 0.003593
30 0.300 42 0.001796 80 0.600 45 0.003593
35 0.400 43 0.002395 85 0.800 47 0.004790
40 0.400 43 0.002395 90 0.800 47 0.004790
45 0.500 44 0.002994 95 0.850 47.5 0.005089
50 0.500 44 0.002994 100 0.900 48 0.005389

Strain-Time Curve
Trial 5: Aluminum
0.006

0.005

0.004
Strain (%)

0.003

0.002

0.001

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Figure 19. Trial 5: Aluminum.

29
 B. Brass Data

Table 10. Trial 1: Brass.

Elongation, Elongation,
Time , t Gauge Strain, ε Time , t Gauge Strain, ε
X X
(min.) Reading (%) (min.) Reading (%)
(mm) (mm)
0 0 95.5 0
5 0 95.5 0 55 0.025 95.75 0.000153
10 0 95.5 0 60 0.025 95.75 0.000153
15 0 95.5 0 65 0.025 95.75 0.000153
20 0 95.5 0 70 0.050 96 0.000305
25 0 95.5 0 75 0.050 96 0.000305
30 0.025 95.75 0.000153 80 0.050 96 0.000305
35 0.025 95.75 0.000153 85 0.050 96 0.000305
40 0.025 95.75 0.000153 90 0.050 96 0.000305
45 0.025 95.75 0.000153 95 0.050 96 0.000305
50 0.025 95.75 0.000153 100 0.050 96 0.000305

Strain-Time Curve
Trial 1: Brass
0.00035

0.0003

0.00025
Strain (%)

0.0002

0.00015

0.0001

0.00005

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Figure 20. Trial 1: Brass.

30
Table 11. Trial 2: Brass.
Elongation, Elongation,
Time , t Gauge Strain, ε Time , t Gauge Strain, ε
X X
(min.) Reading (%) (min.) Reading (%)
(mm) (mm)
0 0 46 0
5 0 46 0 55 0.025 46.25 0.000153
10 0 46 0 60 0.025 46.25 0.000153
15 0 46 0 65 0.025 46.25 0.000153
20 0 46 0 70 0.025 46.25 0.000153
25 0 46 0 75 0.025 46.25 0.000153
30 0.025 46.25 0.000153 80 0.050 46.5 0.000305
35 0.025 46.25 0.000153 85 0.050 46.5 0.000305
40 0.025 46.25 0.000153 90 0.050 46.5 0.000305
45 0.025 46.25 0.000153 95 0.050 46.5 0.000305
50 0.025 46.25 0.000153 100 0.050 46.5 0.000305

Strain-Time Curve
Trial 2: Brass
0.00035

0.0003

0.00025
Strain (%)

0.0002

0.00015

0.0001

0.00005

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Figure 21. Trial 2: Brass.

31
Table 12. Trial 3: Brass.
Elongation, Elongation,
Time , t Gauge Strain, ε Time , t Gauge Strain, ε
X X
(min.) Reading (%) (min.) Reading (%)
(mm) (mm)
0 0 93 0
5 0 93 0 55 0.050 93.5 0.000305
10 0 93 0 60 0.050 93.5 0.000305
15 0 93 0 65 0.050 93.5 0.000305
20 0 93 0 70 0.050 93.5 0.000305
25 0 93 0 75 0.050 93.5 0.000305
30 0 93 0 80 0.050 93.5 0.000305
35 0 93 0 85 0.050 93.5 0.000305
40 0.050 93.5 0.000305 90 0.050 93.5 0.000305
45 0.050 93.5 0.000305 95 0.050 93.5 0.000305
50 0.050 93.5 0.000305 100 0.050 93.5 0.000305

Strain-Time Curve
Trial 3: Brass
0.00035

0.0003

0.00025
Strain (%)

0.0002

0.00015

0.0001

0.00005

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Figure 22. Trial 3: Brass.

32
Table 13. Trial 4: Brass.
Elongation, Elongation,
Time , t Gauge Strain, ε Time , t Gauge Strain, ε
X X
(min.) Reading (%) (min.) Reading (%)
(mm) (mm)
0 0 80 0
5 0.100 81 0.000610 55 0.100 81 0.000610
10 0.100 81 0.000610 60 0.125 81.25 0.000762
15 0.100 81 0.000610 65 0.125 81.25 0.000762
20 0.100 81 0.000610 70 0.125 81.25 0.000762
25 0.100 81 0.000610 75 0.125 81.25 0.000762
30 0.100 81 0.000610 80 0.125 81.25 0.000762
35 0.100 81 0.000610 85 0.125 81.25 0.000762
40 0.100 81 0.000610 90 0.125 81.25 0.000762
45 0.100 81 0.000610 95 0.125 81.25 0.000762
50 0.100 81 0.000610 100 0.125 81.25 0.000762

Strain-Time Curve
Trial 4: Brass
0.0009
0.0008
0.0007
0.0006
Strain (%)

0.0005
0.0004
0.0003
0.0002
0.0001
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Figure 23. Trial 4: Brass.

33
Table 14. Trial 5: Brass.
Elongation, Elongation,
Time , t Gauge Strain, ε Time , t Gauge Strain, ε
X X
(min.) Reading (%) (min.) Reading (%)
(mm) (mm)
0 0 12 0
5 0 12 0 55 0 12 0
10 0 12 0 60 0 12 0
15 0 12 0 65 0 12 0
20 0 12 0 70 0 12 0
25 0 12 0 75 0 12 0
30 0 12 0 80 0 12 0
35 0 12 0 85 0 12 0
40 0 12 0 90 0.025 12.25 0.000153
45 0 12 0 95 0.025 12.25 0.000153
50 0 12 0 100 0.025 12.25 0.000153

Strain-Time Curve
Trial 5: Brass
0.00018
0.00016
0.00014
0.00012
Strain (%)

0.0001
0.00008
0.00006
0.00004
0.00002
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Figure 24. Trial 5: Brass.

34
 C. Steel Data

Table 15. Trial 1: Steel.

Elongation, Elongation,
Time , t Gauge Strain, ε Time , t Gauge Strain, ε
X X
(min.) Reading (%) (min.) Reading (%)
(mm) (mm)
0 0 71 0
5 0.100 72 0.000598 55 0.150 72.5 0.000898
10 0.100 72 0.000598 60 0.150 72.5 0.000898
15 0.125 72.25 0.000748 65 0.175 72.75 0.001047
20 0.125 72.25 0.000748 70 0.175 72.75 0.001047
25 0.125 72.25 0.000748 75 0.175 72.75 0.001047
30 0.150 72.5 0.000898 80 0.175 72.75 0.001047
35 0.150 72.5 0.000898 85 0.175 72.75 0.001047
40 0.150 72.5 0.000898 90 0.200 73 0.001197
45 0.150 72.5 0.000898 95 0.200 73 0.001197
50 0.150 72.5 0.000898 100 0.200 73 0.001197

Strain-Time Curve
Trial 1: Steel
0.14

0.12

0.1
Strain (%)

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Figure 25. Trial 1: Steel.

35
 .

Table 16. Trial 2: Steel.

Elongation, Elongation,
Time , t Gauge Strain, ε Time , t Gauge Strain, ε
X X
(min.) Reading (%) (min.) Reading (%)
(mm) (mm)
0 0 19.5 0
5 0.050 20 0.000299 55 0.050 20 0.000299
10 0.050 20 0.000299 60 0.050 20 0.000299
15 0.050 20 0.000299 65 0.050 20 0.000299
20 0.050 20 0.000299 70 0.050 20 0.000299
25 0.050 20 0.000299 75 0.050 20 0.000299
30 0.050 20 0.000299 80 0.050 20 0.000299
35 0.050 20 0.000299 85 0.100 20.5 0.000598
40 0.050 20 0.000299 90 0.100 20.5 0.000598
45 0.050 20 0.000299 95 0.100 20.5 0.000598
50 0.050 20 0.000299 100 0.100 20.5 0.000598

Strain-Time Curve
Trial 2: Steel
0.12

0.1

0.08
Strain (%)

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Figure 26. Trial 2: Steel.

36
Table 17. Trial 3: Steel.
Elongation, Elongation,
Time , t Gauge Strain, ε Time , t Gauge Strain, ε
X X
(min.) Reading (%) (min.) Reading (%)
(mm) (mm)
0 0 47 0
5 0.100 48 0.000598 55 0.200 49 0.001197
10 0.150 48.5 0.000898 60 0.200 49 0.001197
15 0.150 48.5 0.000898 65 0.200 49 0.001197
20 0.150 48.5 0.000898 70 0.200 49 0.001197
25 0.150 48.5 0.000898 75 0.200 49 0.001197
30 0.200 49 0.001197 80 0.200 49 0.001197
35 0.200 49 0.001197 85 0.200 49 0.001197
40 0.200 49 0.001197 90 0.200 49 0.001197
45 0.200 49 0.001197 95 0.200 49 0.001197
50 0.200 49 0.001197 100 0.200 49 0.001197

Strain- Time Curve

Trial 3: Steel
0.14

0.12

0.1
Strain (%)

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Figure 27. Trial 3: Steel.

37
Table 18. Trial 4: Steel.
Elongation, Elongation,
Time , t Gauge Strain, ε Time , t Gauge Strain, ε
X X
(min.) Reading (%) (min.) Reading (%)
(mm) (mm)
0 0 80.25 0
5 0 80.25 0 55 0.075 81 0.000449
10 0.025 80.5 0.000149 60 0.075 81 0.000449
15 0.025 80.5 0.000149 65 0.075 81 0.000449
20 0.025 80.5 0.000149 70 0.075 81 0.000449
25 0.025 80.5 0.000149 75 0.075 81 0.000449
30 0.025 80.5 0.000149 80 0.075 81 0.000449
35 0.025 80.5 0.000149 85 0.075 81 0.000449
40 0.025 80.5 0.000149 90 0.075 81 0.000449
45 0.075 81 0.000449 95 0.075 81 0.000449
50 0.075 81 0.000449 100 0.075 81 0.000449

Strain-Time Curve
Trial 4: Steel
0.05
0.045
0.04
0.035
Strain (%)

0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Figure 28. Trial 4: Steel.

38
Table 19. Trial 5: Steel.
Elongation, Elongation,
Time , t Gauge Strain, ε Time , t Gauge Strain, ε
X X
(min.) Reading (%) (min.) Reading (%)
(mm) (mm)
0 0 64.75 0
5 0.025 65 0.000149 0.050 65.25 0.000299
10 0.025 65 0.000149 0.075 65.5 0.000449
15 0.025 65 0.000149 0.075 65.5 0.000449
20 0.025 65 0.000149 0.075 65.5 0.000449
25 0.025 65 0.000149 0.075 65.5 0.000449
30 0.050 65.25 0.000299 0.075 65.5 0.000449
35 0.050 65.25 0.000299 0.075 65.5 0.000449
40 0.050 65.25 0.000299 0.075 65.5 0.000449
45 0.050 65.25 0.000299 0.075 65.5 0.000449
50 0.050 65.25 0.000299 0.075 65.5 0.000449

Strain-Time Curve
Trial 5: Steel
0.05
0.045
0.04
0.035
Strain (%)

0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time (min.)

Figure 29. Trial 5: Steel.

39
D. Timetable

Table 20. Timetable.

40
E. Laboratory Safety Rules

▪ LABORATORY SAFETY RULES

1. An individual is not permitted to work alone at a potentially hazardous task. For
example, students are not allowed to operate power tools or similarly dangerous
equipment at night unless someone else is in the area.
2. Wear safety glasses of face shields when operating power tools, around glass that
might shatter, when using compressed gases, working on pressure line connections, etc.
Around electrical equipment, avoid chances of grounding part of your body while using
our hands near “hot” lines. “One hand in the pocket” is a good rule. Don’t experiment
with circuits you don’t understand; call an expert.
3. Accumulation of fumes from volatiles such as gasoline is a great hazard-use proper
ventilation.
4. Handling of compressed gas cylinders and other potentially explosive materials/gases
should be exercised with utmost care.
5. Storage of chemicals is not allowed if refrigerators unless the refrigerator is marked
suitable for chemicals.
6. Experimental set-ups of potentially dangerous nature (explosion, high-voltage, etc) are
not to be operated until inspected and approved by designated Safety Officer.

▪ LABORATORY SAFETY RULES AND REGULATIONS

1. Never eat, drink or smoke while working in the laboratory.
2. Read labels carefully.
3. Do not use any equipment unless you are trained and approved as a user of your
supervisor.
4. Wear safety glasses when using any hazardous or toxic agent.
5. Clothing, when handling dangerous substances, wear gloves laboratory coats and
safety shield or glasses. Shorts and sandals should not be worn in the laboratory at any
time. Shoes are required when working in machine shops.
6. If you have long hair or loose clothes, make sure it is properly tied.
7. Keep the working are clear from all materials except those needed for your work.

41
Coats should be hang on the wall or placed in a locker. Extra books, purses, etc. should
be kept away from equipment that requires air flow or ventilation to prevent overheating.
8. Disposal, students are responsible for the proper disposal of used material, if any, in
appropriate containers.
9. Equipment failure, if equipment fails while being used, report it immediately to the
laboratory assistant or tutor. Never try to fix the problem yourself because you could
harm yourself and others.
10. When leaving lab, turn off all ignition sources and lock all doors.
11. Never pipette anything by mouth.
12. Clean up your working area before leaving.
13. Wash hands before leaving the lab and before eating.
14. When using compressed air, use only approved nozzles and never direct the air
towards any person.
15. Guard on machinery must be in post during operation.
16. Be careful when working with or near hydraulically pneumatically- driven
equipment. Sudden or unexpected motion can inflict serious injury.

Read all directions for each experiment before coming to class and starting to work. Note
all warnings about possible dangers that may be involved. Be prepared.
1. Proceed with your work thoroughly and cautiously. Do not attempt experiments not
specifically authorized by tour instructor.
2. Never do unauthorized experiments.
3. Never work alone in the laboratory.
4. Know the function of all laboratory equipment and use the equipment properly.
5. Keep your lab space clean and organized.
6. Do not leave on-going experiment unattended.
7. Always inform your instructor if you break a thermometer. Do not clean mercury
yourself.
8. Never taste anything. Never pipette anything by mouth, use a bulb.
9. Never use flames in the laboratory unless instructed by the technical assistant.
10. Check your glassware for cracks and chips each time you use it. Cracks could cause

42
the glassware to fail during usage and cause serious injury to you or your lab mates.
11. Maintain unobstructed access to all exits, fire extinguisher, electrical panel,
emergency showers and eye washes.
12. Do not use corridors for storage or as working areas.
13. Do not store heavy items above table height. Any overhead storage of supplies on top
of cabinets should be limited to lightweight only. Also, remember that a 32 diameter are
around all fire sprinkler head must be kept clear at all times.
14. Areas containing laser, biohazards, radioisotopes, and carcinogens should be posted
accordingly. However, do not post on areas unnecessarily and be sure that the labels are
removed when hazards are no longer present.
15. Be careful when lifting heavy objects. Only shop staff may operate forklifts or
cranes.
16. Clean your lab bench and equipment, and lock the door before you leave the
laboratory.

WHAT SHOULD I DO IN AN EMERGENCY?

1. IN ALL CASES, have one person immediately notify the laboratory supervisor.
2. For a minor cut, thoroughly rinse the cut. For serious injuries, get help.
3. If someone is being shocked, DO NOT TOUCH THEM. Use an insulating object, such
as a wooden (not metal) chair, an article of clothing or cloth, to pull the person free, or
turn the power off.
4. If a spill occurs, restrict access to the spill area.
5. If chemicals come in contact with skin, immediately wash the area with copious
amounts of water.

43