06-Mechanical

Properties of Metals
How metals respond to external loads?

 Stress and Strain

 Tension
 Compression
 Shear
 Torsion
 Mechanical Properties of Metals
How metals respond to external loads ?

 Elastic Deformation
 Plastic Deformation
 Yield Strength
 Tensile Strength
 Ductility
 Toughness
 Hardness
Standard Test Method
ASTM Standards E 8 and E 8M

Universal Testing Machine

Types of Loading
 Concept of Stress and Strain
Tension and Compression
Engineering stress : s = F/Ao

Engineering strain : e = (li – lo)/lo = ∆l/lo

The load is applied
perpendicular to the
specimen cross-section. Ao
is the cross-sectional area
(perpendicular to force)
before the application of
the load
∆l is the change in length, lo
is the original length
Sample Problem #1 :
The length of a piece of copper wire originally
305 mm long with diameter of 6 mm, increased
to 305.77 mm when pulled in tension with a
force of 7850 N. The deformation is entirely
elastic. Compute for the a.) stress, and b.)
strain

Solution :
Given : F = 7850 N, lo = 305 mm, l = 305.77mm, dia. = 6 mm
Compute the area, Ao = pr2 = p(3/1000)2 = 2.827 x 10-5 m2
Stress, s = F/Ao = 7850 N /(2.827 x 10-5 m2)
= 277.637 x 106 N/m2 = 277.87 MPa
Strain, e, = (∆l/lo) = ( l – lo )/lo = (302.77 – 302)/305 = 0.0025
 Concept of Stress and Strain . . . . .
Shear and Torsion
Shear stress : t = F/Ao

Shear strain : g = tan q

F is a load applied parallel to the
upper and the lower faces each
of which has an area Ao
q is strain angle.
Torsion is a variation of pure
stress. A shear stress in this
case is a function of applied
torque, shear strain is related to
the angle of twist f.
 Stress – Strain Behavior
Yield stress – As a standard practice, this is measured at 0.002 off-set
of the strain due to the uncertainty in locating the yield point P

Elastic Deformation
Reversible : when the stress is removed,
the material returns to the dimension it
has before the loading.
Usually the strain are small (except for
Yield point P, a the case of plastics).
point on the

Plastic Deformation
curve that the
strain start being
not proportional
to the stress. It
is the limit of Irreversible : when the stress is removed,
proportinality,
and its location is
the material does not return to its original
uncertain. dimension .
 Stress-Strain Behavior …. Elastic Deformation
Deformation in which stress and strain
are proportional is called Elastic
Deformation
This proportionality within the elastic
limits, is known as Hooke’s Law :

s = Ee
E = the modulus of elasticity, or the
Young’s modulus ( a proportionality
constant)
The higher the value of E and s have the same units = GPa or
E  the higher is the psi
“stiffness”
Sample Problem #2 :
A piece of copper originally 305 mm long is
pulled in tension with a stress of 276 MPa. If
the deformation is entirely elastic and the
Elastic Modulus E is 110 GPa, what will be the
resultant elongation, ∆l ?

Given : s = 276 MPa, lo = 305 mm , E = 110 GPa = 110,000 MPa

Solution :
s = Ee, recall that e = (∆l/lo), hence : s = E (∆l/lo)

∆l = s lo /E = (276 MPa)(305 mm)/(110,000MPa) = 0.77 mm

July 07 lecture ended here

 Stress-Strain Behavior . . . . . . . . . . .

Elastic Deformation : Non-linear Elastic Behavior

In some materials (many polymers and concrete), elastic
deformation is not linear, but is still reversible.
 Stress-Strain Behavior . . . . . . . . .
Elastic Deformation : Anelasticity
(time dependence of elastic deformation)
A short summary of the preceeding discussion on Stress-Strain
Behavior (Elastic & Plastic Deformation) :
We had covered so far only Elastic deformation – which means
within elastic limits, hence materials revert back to its original
form or dimension when the stress (load) is removed.
There are two types of Elastic Deformation :

1.) Linear – metals 2.) Non-linear – most polymers

(E = constant) (E varies)

Anelasticity – time dependent elastic behavior

Elastic Deformation : Poisson’s Ratio
Materials shrink laterally in
tension, and bulge in
compression.
Poisson’s ratio, u = ratio of the
lateral and the axial strains.
u is dimensionless, the signs
shows that the lateral strain is
in opposite sense to the
longitudunal strain.
u = -ex /ez = -ey /ez Theoretical value for isotropic
material : 0.25
Maximum value : 0.50
Typical value : 0.24 – 0.30
Elastic Deformation : Poisson’s Ratio

ex = (ai - ao )/ao
li lo ey = (bi - bo )/bo
ez = (li – lo )/lo

u= [-(ai-ao)/ao]/[(li-lo)/lo] = [-(bi-bo)/bo]/[(li-lo)/lo]
Elastic Deformation : Shear Modulus

The relationship of shear

stress to shear strain :
t = Gl ,

where g = tan q = ∆y/zo

G is the shear Modulus (N/m2)

For isotropic materials, the shear and elastic moduli
are related by :
E = 2 G (1 + u)
for most metals G is = 0.40 E
Table 6.1 Room temperature Elastic Modulus,
Shear Modulus, and Poisson's ratio of Various Metal Alloys

Elastic Modulus (E) Shear Modulus (G) Poisson's

6 6
Metal Alloy GPa 10 psi GPa 10 psi Ratio (u)
Aluminum 69 10 25 3.6 0.33
Brass 97 14 37 5.4 0.34
Copper 110 16 46 6.7 0.34
Magnesium 45 6.5 17 2.5 0.29
Nickel 207 30 76 11.0 0.31
Steel 207 30 83 12.0 0.30
Titanium 107 15.5 45 6.5 0.34
Tungsten 407 59 160 23.2 0.28
Sample Problem #3 :
Determine the magnitude of the load F, applied
along the vertical axis of a brass rod with
diameter of 10 mm, that will produce a change of
2.5 x 10-3 mm in diameter if the deformation is
entirely elastic.

do = 10 mm = 0.010 m (or ro = 0.01/2 = 0.005 m)

∆d = 2.5 x 10-3 mm = 2.5 x 10-6 m,
Poisson’s ratio, n (from Table 6.1 for brass) = 0.34,
Elastic Modulus, E (from Table 6.1 for brass) = 97 GPa
‘ = 97 x 109 N/m2
Solution :
ex = (∆d/do) = (-2.5 x 10-3 mm/10 mm)* = -2.5 x 10-4 *
‘ * Note = negative because diameter do decreased to d  d is less than do
‘ hence, ∆d = (d – do) = (-)
Continue on . . . . . . . . . . . Sample Problem #3 :

Determine the magnitude of the load F, applied along

the vertical axis of a brass rod with diameter of 10
mm, that will produce a change of 2.5 x 10-3 mm in
diameter if the deformation is entirely elastic.

Recall that Poisson’s ratio, n = - ex/ez. By rearrangement :

ez = - ex/n = - (-2.5 x 10-3/0.34) = 7.35 x 10-4
Recall also that stress s = eE, (and since along the z-axis) is : ezE, and
that stress s is also = F/Ao , hence : F/Ao = ezE
F = ezEAo = (7.35 x 10-4)(97 x 109 N/m2)[p(0.005m)2m2]
= 5600 N.
 Stress-Strain Behavior - Plastic Deformation

Plastic deformation
 The stress is not proportional with the strain
 Deformation is not reversible
 Deformation occurs by breaking of atomic bonds & by dislocations
Stress-Strain
Behavior - Plastic
Deformation
Stress-Strain Behavior
- Plastic Deformation
Stress-Strain Behavior -
Plastic Deformation

Brittle materials are

approximately
considered to be
those having a
fracture strain of less
tha 5%.
Sample Problem #4 - A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original
diameter of 12.8 mm (0.505") is tensile tested to fracture & found to
have an engineering fracture strength of 460 MPa (67,000 psi). If the
cross-sectional area at fracture is 10.7 mm (0.422") determine : a.) the
ductility in terms of % area reduction. b.) the true stress at fracture.

Given : Do = 12.8 mm, Df = 10.7 mm, sf = 460 Mpa

Solution :
a.) Ductility is computed as : % RA = (Ao - Af)/Ao x 100
% RA = [(12.8/2)2p - (10.7/2)2p] / (12.8/2) 2p x 100 = 30%
b.) True stress  this will be solved after the discussion of true stress
* and true strain.

July 14, 2015 lecture ended here !

Stress-Strain Behavior - Plastic Deformation
sy
Stress-Strain Behavior - Elastic Deformation

Resilience is the capacity of the material to absorb energy

when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to
have this energy recovered. The associated property is the
Modulus of Resilience, Ur. The unit is J/m3 (equivalent to
Pa)
Ur = ½ sy ey = ½ sy(sy/E) = (sy)2/2E

This
area
Stress-Strain Behavior - Plastic Deformation
Toughness is a mechanical term that is loosely used as a
measure of the ability of the material to absorb energy up
to fracture. The word toughness is a qualitative term
meaning "difficult to break", and also implies resistance to
shock. For materials to be “tough”, it must display both
strength and ductility.

This total shaded area is

a measure of “toughness”
Stress-Strain Behavior - Plastic Deformation
Stress-Strain Behavior - Plastic Deformation
Stress-Strain
Behavior - Plastic
Deformation
sT = F/Ai , eT = ln(li/lo)
If no volume change
occur during the
deformation, (i.e. if
Aili = Aolo)

sT = s (1 + e) s = F/Ao , e = (li-lo)/ lo

eT = ln (1 + e)
Sample Problem #5 - A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original
diameter of 12.8 mm (0.505") is tensile tested to fracture & found to
have an engineering fracture strength of 460 MPa (67,000 psi). If the
cross-sectional diameter at fracture is 10.7 mm (0.422") determine : a.)
the ductility in terms of % area reduction. b.) the true stress at
fracture.

Given : Do = 12.8 mm, Df = 10.7 mm, sf = 460 Mpa

Solution :
a.)  solved already in sample problem #4.

b.) True stress, sTf = F/Af

F = sTf /Ao = (460 x 106 N/m2)/[p(12.8/2)2mm2)(1m2/106mm2)] =

* = 59,200 N

sT = 59,200 N/[(89.9mm2)(1m2/106mm2)] =
* = 6.6 x 108 N/m2 = 660 MPa
 Stress-Strain Behavior - Plastic Deformation

For some metals and alloys, the true stress and true
strain from the onset of plastic deformation to the
point at which necking begins maybe approximated by :

sT = K (eT)n where : K and n are constants

Table 6.3
Tabulation of n & K Values of Some Alloys (useful for the above equation)
K
Materials n MPa psi
Low carbon steel (annealed) 0.26 530 77,000
Alloy steel (4340, annealed) 0.15 640 93,000
Stainless steel (304, annealed) 0.45 1275 185,000
Aluminum, annealed 0.20 180 26,000
Aluminum alloy (2024, heat treated) 0.16 690 100,000
Copper (annealed) 0.54 315 46,000
Brass (70Cu-30Zn, annealed) 0.49 895 130.000
Sample Problem #6
Compute the strain-hardening component n for an alloy in which a true
stress of 415 MPa produces a true strain of 0.10, assuming a vaue of
1035 MPa for K.
Solution :
To facilitate easier solution, convert : sT = K (et)n
to logarithmic form  log sT = log K + n log eT
n = (log sT - log K)/log eT
= [log(415 MPa) - log(1035 MPa)]/log(0.1) = 0.40
Compression
 When a cylindrical piece of material is compressed,
relation between stress and strain are found to be
similar to those determined in tensile test.
 There is also an elastic range in whcih the stress is
directly proportional to the strain, a proportional
limit, and a yield strength. However, the cross-
sectional area of the specimen increases instead of
decreasing as in tension.
 Failure in compression may occur by buckling if the
material length is too long with respect to its
diameter; or failure by shearing on a plane at about
45 degrees to the normal stress in short or brittle
specimen
Malleability
 If the material can be severely deformed
plastically in compression without fracture, it is
said to be malleable.
 The greater the malleability, the greater the
amount of compression before fracture occurs.
 Malleable materials can be flattened by rolling and
hammering without rupture.
 Both ductility and malleability are measures of the
materials plasticilty.
Stress-Strain
Behavior - Plastic
Deformation
Stress-Strain Behavior - Plastic Deformation

Rockwell Hardness Test. A penetration test using a 120

degrees diamond indenters or hardened steel balls of 1/16, 1/8,
1/4, & 1/2 inches diameters. There are 2 types of test :
 Rockwell - using minor load of 10 kgs. and major loads of 60, 100, &
150 kgs. Each scale is represented by the letters
 Superficial - using a minor load of 5 kgs. and major loads of 15, 30,
& 45 kg. Superficial tests are performed on thin specimen.

Brinell Hardness Test - a hardened steel ball 10 mm in diameter

is pressed against the material surface with a force of vaying from 500
to 3000 kg (with 500 kg increment) for 30 seconds. The diameter of the
impression is measured and the Brinell hardness number (BHN) is taken
as the force in kg per square millimeter of the spherical impression. Only
one scale is used in this test.

BHN = 2P / { p x D [D - (D2 - d2)1/2 ] }

Where : P = load, kgs, D = diameter of sphere, mm, d = diameter of indentation, mm
 Stress-Strain Behavior - Plastic Deformation

Correlation of Hardness and

Tensile Strength
As "rule of thumb" for most steel,
the Brinell hardness number (BHN)
and Tensile Strength (TS) are
related by :

TS (MPa) = 3.45 x BHN, or

TS (psi) = 500 x BHN
Fatigue
 is a material behavior when subjected to repeated
or alternating stress.
 Failure which occur as a result of repeated or
alternating stress is called fatigue failure.
 A fatigue testing machine is used to determine how
materials behave when subjected to repeated or
alternating stresses.
Endurance limit is maximum stress that a material can
be alternately subjected (as tested in the
machine)
Endurance strength is the stress that will produce
failure in some specified number of cycles of stress
application.
Other types of fatigue
 Thermal fatigue - is an environmentally assisted
fatigue behavior of materials normally induced at
elevated temperatures by fluctuating thermal
stresses.
 Corrosion fatigue - is an environmentally assisted
fatigue behaviour of materials due to simultaneous
action of cyclic stress and chemical attack.
Creep
 is a time dependent and permanent material
deformation when subjected to constant load or
stress.
 Examples are materials that are placed in service
at elevated temperatures and exposed to static
mechanical stress (e.g. turbine rotors injet engines,
high pressure steam lines, etc)
Design & safety factors
There will always be uncertainties in characterizing the
magnitude of applied loads & their associated stress levels for in-
service applications as well as variability in the measured
materials mechanical properties. Hence, design allowances must
be made to protect against un-anticipated failure.

Two ways for design allowances for static loads & when ductile
materials are used:
 design stress, σd = σc x N‘
where: σc = calculated stress, N' = design factor
 safe working stress, σw = σy x N‘
where σy = yield stress, N = safety factor

Normal values of N range between 1.2 and 4.0. selection of N will

depend on factors including economics, experience, the accuracy
with which the loads & material properties are determined.