Introduction to

Telecommunication

Frequency Modulation
System Examples and Example Problems

Asst. Prof. Dr. Ertuğrul SAATÇI

Overview
 The objective of today’s lecture is to wrap up our discussion of
the characteristics of FM signals by discussing a few examples.

 In particular we will examine broadcast FM.

 Reading
 4.9

1
Example 11.1
 A message signal has the following characteristics

f (Hz)

If an FM system has a bandwidth of 10kHz, determine the

value of kf that allows for full bandwidth utilization.

Example 11.1 – cont.

 The bandwidth BT is related to kf through

BT  2f  2W , f  k f max  m(t ) 

 From the previous slide we know that BT=10kHz and
W=1500Hz.
Thus: 2f  B  2W  10kHz  3kHz  7 kHz
T

f  3.5kHz
 Further, since ∆f=kfmax{|m(t)|} and the peak voltage is found
to be 3.5 Volt.
f 3.5kHz
kf    1000 Hz / Volt
max  m(t )  3.5

2
Example 11.2

 t  nT 
 Consider the following message signal: m(t )  2  rect  
n    

If the message signal above is frequency modulated with

kf=1000 Hz/Volt and fc=100kHz, plot an approximate
spectrum. The signal period T=1ms and =50μs.

Example 11.2 – cont.

 In order to determine the spectrum we first need to determine
whether the FM signal is narrowband or wideband.
• This can be determined from D=∆f/W.
• ∆f is found as ∆f=kfmax{|m(t)|}=10002=2000Hz.

 If D<0.2, the signal is narrowband otherwise we assume that it is

wideband.
• This means that if W > ∆f/D=2000/0.2=10000Hz then we
have narrowband FM.
 Note that increasing W increases the bandwidth of the FM
signal,
 but decreases the deviation ratio making it narrowband FM.

 To determine the message bandwidth W we require the spectrum

of the message.

3
 Example 11.2 – cont.
Message Spectrum
 The message is a periodic signal (thus power signal).
 The spectrum of a periodic signal can be determined from
the Fourier Series as

Mf  c   f  nf 
n 
n 0

 Since the Fourier Series coefficients are


 t  nT  A n
m(t )  A  rect    cn 
FS
sinc( )
n     T T
 The spectrum is
 
Mf  c   f  nf   A f  sinc(n f )  f  nf 
n 
n 0 0
n 
0 0

where fo=1/T and A=2.

Example 11.2 – cont.

Message Spectrum
 Discrete Spectrum
n  20, f 0  1000 Hz ,
 Spectral lines are
f  nf 0  20000 Hz separated by the
fundamental
sinc(n f 0 )  f  nf 0 
frequency
 sinc(20  50 106 1000) fo=1/T=1kHz.
 sinc(1)  0  First null at f=1/.
 Thus first null
bandwidth is
W≈1/
sinc(n f 0 )  sinc( f  )
1
f 1  f 

 
M  f   A f 0  sinc(n f )  f  nf   A f  sinc( f  )  f  nf ,
n 
0 0 0
n 
0 since f  nf 0

4
 Example 11.2 – cont.
 With T=1ms and =50μs, we find that the first-null bandwidth
is approximated by
● W ≈ f=1/=1/5010-6=20kHz

 For narrowband FM we require W>10000Hz.

 Thus, we have a narrowband FM signal.

(Note that D=∆f/W=2000/20000=0.1)

Example 11.2 – cont.

Narrowband Spectrum
 The narrowband spectrum can be approximated using the AM
approximation:

 t

sNBFM (t )  Ac cos  2 f c t    Ac 2 k f  m( ) d  sin  2 f c t 
 0 
Ac Ac k f  M  f  f c  M  f  f c  
S NBFM  f     f  f c     f  f c      
2 2   f  fc   f  fc  
A Ac k f A f 0 
 c   f  f c     f  f c   
2 
2 ff
 sinc(n f0 )  f  nf0  fc 
 n
c

Ac k f A f 0 
  sinc(n f )  f  nf
2  f  f c  n 
0 0  fc 

5
Example 11.2 – cont.
Approximated vs. Actual Spectrum

Approximate Actual (using Fourier Transform of signal)

BT≈2W = 40kHz BT≈2W = 40kHz

Example 11.2 – cont.

Wideband Spectrum
 Let’s change the message such that T=100ms and =50ms.
In this case
● W ≈ f=1/=20Hz
● Since W << 10000Hz, we have wideband FM.
● Specifically, D=∆f/W=2000/20=100
● We can use the wideband approximation

Ac2   1   1 
SWBFM  f    pm  f  f c    pm    f  f c   
4k f   k f  k 
  f 

6
Example 11.2 – cont.
Wideband Spectrum
 The pdf of the message signal is

(Volt)
0 2

 Thus, the approximate spectrum is

f (kHz)

100 102

Example 11.2 – cont.

Approximate Spectrum
 /T=50ms/100ms=0.5

 1–/T=0.5

7
Example 11.2 – cont.
Actual Spectrum
 Taking the Fourier Transform of the FM signal we have:

BT≈2f = 4kHz

Multiplexing
 Multiplexing allows to transmit a number of signals over the same
channel (allows signals to share channels).
● In order to be able to separate the signals at the receiving end,
● they must be kept apart so that they do not interfere with each
other.

 Many different strategies are possible

● Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) (3.9)
 Example: Stereophonic FM Broadcasting (4.9)
● Others:
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
 Code-division multiplexing (CDM)
 Space-division multiplexing (SDM)

8
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Baseband signal: Several messages are translated by
modulation to different spectral locations of a composite signal.
● Different modulation schemes can be used to form the
baseband: AM, DSB, SSB, FM, …
● The baseband signal is transmitted over a single channel,
using a single modulation scheme.

 The carriers used for multiplexing are called subcarriers.

 Usually they have lower frequency than the final carrier
used to modulate the composite baseband signal.

Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Block Diagram

9
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Baseband can have different modulation schemes:

 Bandwidth of the baseband signal:

 Sum of the BW of all modulated signals plus guardbands.

Broadcast FM
 FM radio was originally monophonic.

 Later converted to stereo in a compatible way

● Developed by GE and Zenith in 1960s
● Compatibility is usually needed in upgrades
 E.g., black and white TV to colour TV

 FM Radio Broadcast specifications

● Frequency range: 88MHz - 108MHz
● Message bandwidth: 15kHz
● Each station has 200kHz bandwidth
● Use a superheterodyne receiver
 Intermediate frequency (IF) 10.7 MHz

10
 Stereo FM Broadcasting
Stereo FM transmitter
 Message signal is Frequency Division Multiplexed for stereo sound.
 Composite message signal contains right and left channels and
pilot for coherent demodulation of stereo info.
m  t    mL (t )  mR (t )   mL (t )  mR (t ) cos  4 f p t   K cos  2 f p t 
mL (t ) mL (t )  mR (t )

mL (t )  mR (t ) m(t )
mR (t )
K

Stereo FM Broadcasting
Stereo FM transmitter – cont.
 FDM is used to multiplex 3 signals:
● 0-15kHz: Left+Right signal (compatible to mono FM)
● 23-53kHz: DSB-SC modulation of Left-Right signal
● 19kHz: Pilot for coherent DSB-SC demodulation
 Also pilot is used to differentiate and switch between mono and
stereo receiver circuits.
mL (t ) mL (t )  mR (t ) m  t    mL (t )  mR (t ) 
  mL (t )  mR (t )  cos  4 f p t 
 K cos  2 f p t 
mL (t )  mR (t ) m(t ) sFM (t )
mR (t )

11
 Stereo FM Broadcasting
FM baseband spectrum
 Spectrum of composite message signal.
● Monophonic receivers only detect the bottom portion of
the signal using standard FM receiver.
● Stereo receivers demodulate both portions and recreate
left and right channels.

DSB-SC spectrum corresponding to

ML( f )  MR( f ) ML( f )  MR( f )
f p  19kHz

m t   
mL (t )  mR (t )   mL (t )  mR (t )  cos  4 f p t 
  K cos  2 f p t 
     
0-15kHz: Left+Right signal 23-53kHz: DSB-SC modulation of 19kHz: Pilot for coherent
 compatible to mono FM  Left-Right signal DSB-SC demodulation

Stereo FM Broadcasting
Specifications
 The entire composite message signal is applied to an FM
transmitter with
● ∆f=75kHz
 kf=75000Hz/volt if max{|m(t)|}=1Volt.
● W=15kHz (music)
● fc=88.0MHz – 108.0MHz in 200kHz increments
 B ≈200kHz

 According to Carson’s Rule

 B=2∆f+2W=180kHz

 Modulation Index: D=∆f/W=5

 Wideband FM

12
 Stereo FM Receiver
Superheterodyne Receiver
● Limiter removes amplitude modulation.
● Discriminator performs frequency demodulation.
● De-emphasis removes high band gain and improves SNR.
● Demux network recovers right and left channels for stereo systems.
 (Monophonic receivers do not have this part. They use the
mL(t)+mR(t) signal)

Common
Tuning

Stereo FM Receiver
Limiter

• Limiter is a nonlinear circuit

with an output saturation
characteristic.
• It rejects envelope variations
but preserves the phase
variations.
vin(t )  R (t ) cos(2 f c t   (t ))
vout (t )  VL cos(2 f c t   (t ))

13
Stereo FM Receiver
Demux Network
 First use FM demodulation to get back baseband.
 Extract 19kHz pilot, use frequency multiplier to recover 38kHz
carrier for DSB-SC demodulation.
 Then demodulate L+R and L-R, respectively.

W=15kHz
 mL (t )  mR (t ) cos  4 f p t 

cos  4 f p t 
W=15kHz

cos  2 f p t 

m  t    mL (t )  mR (t )    mL (t )  mR (t )  cos  4 f p t   K cos  2 f p t 

Stereo FM Receiver
Signal Power
 The signal powers of
● the 19kHz pilot,
● the DSB-SC signal at 23-53kHz, and
● any other subcarrier signals (RDS (Radio Data System) etc.)
should be chosen such that 99% of the FM signal power is still
within 100kHz around the carrier (so bandwidth is still 200 kHz).

DSB-SC spectrum corresponding to

ML( f )  MR( f ) ML( f )  MR( f )
f p  19kHz

m  t    mL (t )  mR (t )    mL (t )  mR (t )  cos  4 f p t   K cos  2 f p t 

14
Stereo FM Receiver
Other subcarrier services
 The FM subcarrier system has been extended to other services.
● RDS (Radio Data System) or RBDS (Radio Broadcast Data
System) at 57kHz.
● SCA (subsidiary communications authority) Services: at
67kHz or 92kHz.

Stereo FM Receiver
RDS and RBDS
 RDS and RBDS are digital services.
● Use digital modulation, e.g., QPSK (studied later).
● Error correction can be used.
 In Europe, a 57kHz subcarrier is used to carry a low bandwidth
digital Radio Data System (RDS) signal.
 This signal runs at only 1187.5 bits per second, thus is only
suitable for text.
 Applications: RDS can be used to transmit
• song title,
• artist name or
• radio station info
that can be displayed by receiver.
 A variant of RDS is the North American Radio Broadcast Data
System (RBDS).

15
Stereo FM Receiver
SCA Services
 SCA: subsidiary communications authority services.
 Examples:
● Book/newspaper reading services for blind people.
● Private data transmission services (e.g. stock info)
● Commercial-free background music services for shops,
elevators, and restaurants.
● Paging services

 SCA subcarriers are typically 67kHz and 92kHz,

● The SCA signal is also frequency modulated, but with a
simple VCO-based NBFM method.
● The modulated SCA signal has a frequency deviation of
7.5kHz.
● The PLL is usually used to demodulate the SCA signal.

Broadcast TV
Audio Signal
 FM signal with carrier located 4.5MHz above the picture carrier.
● ∆f=25kHz
● W=15kHz
● B ≈ 2∆f+2W=80kHz
● D=∆f/W=1.67
 wideband but not real wide.

16
Broadcast TV
Example – Analog TV (Channel 7)

Picture Carrier Audio Subcarrier

fc=175.25MHz
fa=179.75MHz

Color Subcarrier

Summary
 In this lecture we have presented a few examples of FM
modulation.

 We have now discussed AM and FM modulation schemes fairly

thoroughly, particularly in terms of their
● spectral properties,
● transmitter design and
● receiver design.

 In the coming classes we will turn to performance

 FM generally outperforms AM (i.e., achieves a higher SNR
at the output of the system) in exchange for higher
bandwidth.

17
Introduction to
Telecommunication

Noise in AM Receivers

Asst. Prof. Dr. Ertuğrul SAATÇI

Overview
 We have studied the characteristics of AM and FM signals, but
we have not yet studied performance.

 Performance is measured in terms of the output (post-

detection) signal-to-noise ratio.

 Today we will examine the performance of AM systems as

compared to a simple baseband reference systems.

 Reading
 9.5, 9.6

18
 White Noise (8.10)
 White noise (or white process): A random process W(t) is called white
noise if it has a flat power spectral density, i.e., SW(f) is a constant c for
all f.
 The power of white noise is infinite:
c
 
P

 S  f  df   c df
W



 A white noise is not a meaningful

physical process.
 But as long as the bandwidth of the noise is much wider than that
of the signal, we can treat the noise as white noise.
 Importance of white noise:
● Thermal noise is close to white in a large range of frequencies.
● Many processes can be modeled as output of LTI systems driven by
a white noise.

White Noise (8.10) – cont.

 The PSD of white noise is usually
denoted as
N0
SW  f  
2
 The 1/2 here emphasizes that the
spectrum extends to both positive
and negative frequencies.
 Using Wiener-Khintchine relations,
 
FT: S X  f    RX   e  j 2 f  d  IFT: RX     S  f e
X
j 2 f 
df
 
 The autocorrelation function of WSS white noise:


N0
RW     S  f e
W
j 2 f 
df    

2
Different samples of white noise in time
domain are uncorrelated.

19
White Noise (8.10)
Ideal Lowpass Filtered White Noise
 A white noise with zero mean and PSD N0/2 is filtered by an ideal
lowpass filter of bandwidth B and unit gain. Find the output PSD and
auto-correlation.
 The output PSD:
 N0
N0  , f B
S N  f   H  f  SW  f   1 , SN  f    2
2 2

2  0, otherwise
 The output auto-correlation:
 B
N  e j 2 f  
B
N
RN     S  f e
j 2 f 
df   0 e j 2 f  df  0 
2  j 2   B
N
 B
2
N0  e j 2 B  e  j 2 B  sin  2 B 
    N0  N 0 Bsinc  2 B 
2  j 2  2

White Noise (8.10)

Ideal Lowpass Filtered White Noise – cont.

P  S  f  df

N RN  0 
B
N0
 
B
2
df  N 0 B


RN     S  f e
N
j 2 f 
df  N 0 Bsinc  2 B 

 The average power of the output process is:

RN  0   N 0 B
which is proportional to the bandwidth.

20
Definition of Bandpass or Narrowband
Random Process
 Definition: A random process X(t) is bandpass or narrowband
random process if its power spectral density SX(f) is nonzero only
in a small neighborhood of some high frequency fc.

 The definition of bandpass random process is the generalization

of bandpass deterministic signals.
● Deterministic signals: defined by its Fourier transform.
● Random processes: defined by its power spectral density.

 Notes:
1. Since X(t) is bandpass, it has zero mean: E[X(t)]=0.
2. fc needs not be the center of the signal bandwidth, or in the
signal bandwidth at all.

Narrowband Noise (8.11)

PSD of a NB noise Example of a NB noise waveform

 The noise process appearing at the output of a narrowband filter.

 Narrowband noise N(t) can be represented mathematically using in-
phase and quadrature components:
N (t )  N I (t ) cos  2 f c t   N Q (t ) sin  2 f c t 
N (t )  N I (t )  jN Q (t )

21
 Narrowband Noise (8.11) – cont.
 Generating NI(t) and NQ(t) from N(t), and vice versa:

N (t )  N I (t ) cos  2 f c t   N Q (t ) sin  2 f c t 
N (t )  N I (t )  jN Q (t )

Narrowband Noise (8.11) – cont.

 Some properties of the narrowband noise:
1. Mean of the in-phase and quadrature components: E[NI(t)]=E[NQ(t)]=0
2. If N(t) is Gaussian, NI(t) and NQ(t) are also Gaussian.
3. If N(t) is stationary, NI(t) and NQ(t) are also stationary.
4. Both NI(t) and NQ(t) have the same PSD and this PSD is related to the
PSD of the narrowband noise as:
S  f  fc   S N  f  fc  ,  B  f  B
S N I  f   S NQ  f    N
 0, otherwise
 N 0 / 2, f  f c  B ( f c  B  f  f c  B)

S N  f    N 0 / 2, f  f c  B ( f c  B  f   f c  B)
 0, otherwise

N , B  f  B
S N I  f   S NQ  f    0
 0, otherwise

22
 Narrowband Noise (8.11) – cont.
5. NI(t), NQ(t) and narrowband noise N(t) have the same variances
(same power):
var[NI(t)]=var[NQ(t)]=var[N(t)]

Proof:

From IFT of PSD: RX     S  f e
X
j 2 f 
df


For zero mean X: RX  0   var  X    S  f  df
X (average power)

  
From the last property:  S N I  f  df   S NQ  f  df   S  f  df
N
  
 B   fc  B c f B
N0 N0
 S N I  f  df   N 0 df  2 N 0 B,  S N  f  df   df   df  2 N 0 B
 B   fc  B
2 fc  B
2

Narrowband Noise (8.11) – cont.

 Cautions: PSD of bandpass
● SN(f) does not have filtered white noise
to be symmetric
around fc.
● fc does not have to
be the center of the
SN(f). Autocorrelation PSD of in-phase and
function quadrature comp.

23