Introduction to

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

(Limit State Method)

1
Introduction
Steel has made possible some of the grandest structures both in
the past and in the present days

Structural steel is widely used in making:

Transmission towers
Industrial buildings
Bridges
Storage structures
Water tanks
ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS
Indian Standard Junior Beam (ISJB) JB
Indian Standard Light Beam (ISLB) LB
Indian Standard Medium Weight Beam (ISMB) MB
Indian Standard Wide Flange Beam (ISWB) WB
Indian Standard Heavy Weight Beam (ISHB) HB
Indian Standard column section (ISSC) SC

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ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS
I-Section

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Channel Sections
Indian Standard Junior Channel (ISJC) JC
Indian Standard Light Channel (ISLC) LC
Indian Standard Medium Weight (ISMC) MC
Indian Standard parallel flange Channel (ISMCP)-MCP

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 Angle Sections
Indian Standard Equal Angel (ISA)

Indian Standard Unequal Angel (ISA)

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Angle section
Tee Sections
Indian Standard Normal Tee Bars (ISNT) ISNT NT
Indian Standard Deep Tee Bars (ISDT) ISDT DT
Indian Standard Light Tee Bars (ISLT) ISLT LT
Indian Standard Medium Tee Bars (ISNT) ISMT MT
Indian Standard Heavy Tee Bars (ISHT) ISHT HT

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Rolled Steel Bar Section
Indian Standard Round Section-ISRO

Indian Standard Square Section-ISSQ

16
Rolled Steel Sections are designated as follows
ISRO100 means a round section of diameter 100mm,
while ISSQ50 means a square section each side of
which is 50mm.

100mm 50mm

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 Rolled Steel sheets & strip
Indian Standard Steel Sheet Section- ISSH-SH
Indian Standard Steel Strip Section- ISST-ST

Rolled steel flats are designated by width of

the section in mm followed by the letter F &
thickness. Thus, 50 F 8 means a flat of
width 50 mm & thickness of 8 mm.

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STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL
MATERIAL

1
Advantages of steel design

Better quality control

Lighter
Faster to erect
Reduced site time - Fast track Construction
Large column free space and amenable for alteration
Less material handling at site
Less percentage of floor area occupied by structural
elements
Has better ductility and hence superior lateral load
behavior; better earthquake resistance
2
Disadvantages of steel design

Skilled labor is required.

Higher cost of construction
Maintenance cost is high.
Poor fireproofing, as at 1000oF (538oC) 65% & at
1600oF (871oC) 15% of strength remains
Electricity may be required.

3
Types of structural steel:
Different structural steel can be produced based on the
necessity by changing slightly the chemical composition and
manufacturing process.

1. Carbon steel: In this type of structural steel carbon and

manganese are used as extra elements.

2. High Strength Carbon Steel: By increasing the carbon

content this type of steel can be manufactured which
basically produces steel with comparatively higher
strength but less ductility.

3. Stainless Steel: In this type of steel mainly foreign

material like nickel and chromium are used along with
small percentage of carbon.
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 Properties of structural steel
The important mechanical properties of steel are:
ultimate strength, yield stress, ductility,
weldabilty, toughness, corrosion resistance and machinability.

The last four properties are important for durability of material

and often associated with fabrication of steel members.
The mechanical properties of steel largely depend on its
Chemical composition
Heat treatment
Stress history
Rolling methods
Rolling thickness

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Structural Steel
The steel used for structural works shall confirm to IS 2062 :
2011 (Hot Rolled Medium and High Tensile Structural Steel).
Most Commonly used grade is Fe 410.
Followings are few physical properties of structural steel (As
per clause 2.2.4.1 of IS 800 : 2007):
Unit mass of steel, = 7850 kg/m3
Modulus of elasticity, E = 2.0 105 N/mm2
ratio, µ = 0.3
Modulus of rigidity, G = 0.769 105 N/mm2
Co-efficient of thermal expansion, 12 10-6 /oc
Mechanical properties:
Following are the most important mechanical properties that are
frequently used in design of steel structures.
Yield stress, fy
Ultimate stress, fu
Minimum percentage elongation
These properties can be obtained by performing tensile tests of the steel
sample.

Mechanical properties of structural steel products (Table 1 of IS 800 : 2007)

Grade of Yield Stress (MPa) Ultimate Tensile Elongation

Steel t<20 t = 20 to 40 t>40 Stress (MPa) Percentage
Fe 410 250 240 230 410 23
Fe 440 300 290 280 440 22
Fe 490 350 330 320 490 22
Fe 540 410 390 380 540 20
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Some other important mechanical properties of steel

(i) Ductility: It is defined as

the property of a material by
virtue of which it undergoes
large inelastic i.e. permanent
deformation without loss of
strength under the
application of tensile load.

(ii) Hardness: It is one of the mechanical properties of steel

by virtue of which it offers resistance to the indentation and
scratching. The hardness of steel is measured by
Brinell hardness test
Vickers hardness test
Rockwell hardness test
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(iii) Toughness: It is one of the mechanical
properties of steel by virtue of which it offers
resistance to fracture under the action of
impact loading.
Toughness = The ability to absorb energy up
to fracture.
Toughness is generally measured by the area
under the stress-strain curve.

(iv) Fatigue: It is defined as the damage caused by the repeated

fluctuation of stresses which leads to the progressive cracking of the
structural element.
Damage and failure of the material under the action of cyclic
loading.
(v) Resistance against corrosion:
In the presence of moist air corrosion of steel is an extremely important
aspect.
To avoid corrosion paint or metallic coating may be used
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 Stress-strain curve for mild steel
Stress-Strain diagram for steel specimen is generally plotted by
performing tensile test, in which a specimen having gauge length
L0 and initial cross sectional area A0 is taken.
E
fu
C
F
fy B
C D
A

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Part OA- In this region the stress is proportional to strain, and is called the
limit of proportionality.
Part AB- After reaching change in strain is rapid compared to that of
stress but still the material behaves elastically up to elastic limit .
C - represents the upper yield point
C - represents the lower yield point.
Part CD- Beyond yield point the material starts flowing plastically without
any significant increase in the stress and material undergoes large
deformation.
Part DE- After reaching point the strain hardening in the material begins
which necessitates requirement of higher load to continue deformation. This
phenomenon is called .
E represents the ultimate stress fu.
Part EF- When the stress reaches point that is the stress corresponding to
the ultimate stress, the necking in material begins.
F - represents breaking stress the stress corresponding to the breaking load.
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LIMIT STATE DESIGN
 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES

Safety at ultimate load and serviceability at working load

Working Stress Method:
Safety is ensured by limiting the stress of the material. The material is
assumed to behave in linear elastic manner. In this approach the stress-strain
behaviour is considered to be linear.

Permissible stress < (Yield stress / Factor of safety)

Details at: IS 800 1984.

Permissible stress in steel structural members
Types of stress Notation Permissible Factor of
stress (Mpa) safety
Axial tension at 0.6fy 1.67
Axial compression ac 0.6fy 1.67
Bending tension bt 0.66fy 1.515
Bending compression bc 0.66fy 1.515
Average shear stress va 0.4fy 2.5
Bearing stress p 0.75fy 1.33
USM: It is also referred to Plastic Design Method. In this case
the limit state is attained when the members reach plastic
moment strength Mp and the structure is attained into a
mechanism. The safety measure of the structure is taken care of
by an appropriate choice of load factor. It is multiplied to the
working load and it is checked w.r.t to the ultimate load
corresponding to the member.

LSM: In limit state design method, the structure is designed in

such a way that it can safely withstand all kind of loads that
may act on the structure under consideration in its entire design
life. In this approach, the science of reliability based design was
developed with the objective of providing a rational solution to
the problem of adequate safety. Uncertainty is reflected in
loading and material strength.
 Limit State of Strength
Factors
Governing
Ultimate
Strength

Stability Fatigue Plastic Collapse

Stability Against
Sway Stability
Overturning
Limit State of Strength:

These are associated with the failure of the structure under the action
of worst possible combination of loads along with proper partial
safety factor that may lead to loss of life and property. As provided
in IS 800: 2007, Limit state of strength includes
Loss of equilibrium of the structure as a whole or in part.
Loss of stability of the structure.
Failure due to excess deformation or rupture.
Fracture due to fatigue.
Brittle fracture.
 Limit State Serviceability

Check for
Serviceability
Limit States

Deflection Vibration Durability Fire

limit limit consideration Resistance
Limit State of Serviceability:

These are associated with the discomfort faced by the user while
using the structure.
Excess deflection or deformation of the structure.
Excess vibration of the structure causing discomfort to the
commuters.
Repairable damage or crack generated due to fatigue.
Corrosion and durability
 Partial Safety Factor for Load
(Clause 5.3.3, Table 4, IS 800: 2007)

Where, = the partial safety factor for kth load or load effect,
= Characteristic load or load effect, = Design load or load
effect.

Note
Characteristic values (loads/stresses) are defined as the values
that are not expected to be exceeded within the life of the
structure with more than 5% probability.

Generally partial factor of safety considered is in all cases higher

than unity. Whereas for serviceability limit states unit factor of
safety is considered as it is checked under the action of service
load for structure.
 Partial Safety Factor for Loads, (Table 4, IS 800: 2007)
Combinatio Limit State of Strength Limit State of Serviceability
ns DL LL WL/ AL DL LL WL/
Leadin Accompa EL Leading Accomp EL
g nying anying
DL+LL+CL 1.5 1.5 1.05 - -1.0 1.0 1.0 -
DL+LL+CL 1.2 1.2 1.05 0.6 -1.0 0.8 0.8 0.8
+WL/EL 1.2 1.2 0.53 1.2 -
DL+WL/EL 1.5 - - 1.5 - 1.0 - - 1.0
(0.9)
DL+ER 1.2 1.2 - - - - - - -
(0.9)
DL+LL+AL 1.0 0.35 0.35 - 1.0 - - - -
Notes:
(i) DL=dead load, LL=imposed (live) load, CL=crane load, WL=wind load, EL=earthquake
load, AL=accidental load.
(ii) During simultaneous action of different live loads one which has greater effect on the
member under consideration is considered as the leading live load.
(iii)Value in the bracket should be considered when dead load contributes to the stability
against overturning or it causes reduction in stress due to other loads.
 Partial Safety Factor for Material

Partial safety factor for material

Where, = Partial safety factor for material as given in Table 1.5.

= Ultimate strength of the material, = Design strength of the
material.

Generally, a factor of unity (one) or less is applied to the

resistances of the material.
 Partial safety factor for material, (Table 5, IS 800: 2007)
Definition Partial Safety Factor
Resistance governed by yielding, 1.10
Resistance of member to buckling, 1.10
Resistance governed by ultimate stress, 1.25

Resistance of connection Shop Field

Fabrication Fabrication
(a) Bolts, friction type, 1.25 1.25
(b) Bolts, bearing type, 1.25 1.25
(c) Rivets, 1.25 1.25
(d) Welds, 1.25 1.50
 Deflection Limits (Table 6, IS 800: 2007)
Type of Deflection Design Member Supporting Maximum
Building Load Deflection
LL/WL Purlins and Elastic Cladding Span/150
girts Brittle Cladding Span/180
LL Simple span Elastic Cladding Span/240
Brittle Cladding Span/300
LL Cantilever Elastic Cladding Span/120
Vertical span Brittle Cladding Span/150
LL/WL Rafter Profiled Metal sheeting Span/180
Industrial supporting Plastered sheeting Span/240
Buildings CL(manual operation) Gantry Crane Span/500
CL (electric operation up to 50t) Gantry Crane Span/750

CL (electric operation over 50t) Gantry Crane Span/1000

No cranes Column Elastic Cladding Height/150

Brittle Cladding Height/240
Lateral Crane + wind Gantry Crane(absolute) Span/400
(lateral) Relative displacement 10mm
between rails supporting
crane
Crane + wind Column/fra Gantry(Elastic cladding, Height/200
me pendant operated)
Gantry(Brittle cladding, cab Height/400
operated)
 Deflection Limits (Table 6, IS 800: 2007)

Type of Building Deflection Design Member Supporting Maximum

Load Deflection
LL Floor & Roof Elements not Span/300
susceptible to
Other Vertical cracking
Buildings Elements Span/360
susceptible to
cracking
LL Cantilever Elements not Span/150
susceptible to
cracking
Elements Span/180
susceptible to
cracking
WL Building Elastic cladding Height/300
Lateral Brittle cladding Height/500
WL Inter story drift - Story
height/300
 Cross Sectional Classification (Clause 3.7, Table 2)

Class 1
Plastic

Classification of Cross Class 2

Section Compact

Class 3
Semi-Compact
 Load and Load Combinations

Dead loads [IS:875 (Part-1)]

Imposed loads (i.e. Live loads, Crane loads etc) [IS:875 (Part 2)]
Wind loads [IS:875 (Part-3)]
Snow loads - [IS:875 (Part-4)]
Temperature, Hydrostatic, Soil pressure, Fatigue, Accidental,
Impact, Explosions etc and load combinations [IS:875 (Part-5)]
Earthquake load [IS:1893-2002 (Part-1)]
Erection loads [IS:800-2007 Cl. 3.3]
Other secondary effects such as temperature change, differential
settlement, eccentric connections etc.
In IS:800-2007 (Cl. 5.3.1) the loads/actions acting on a structural
system has been classified in three groups, these are as follows:
Permanent actions (Qp) Action due to self-weight of the structural
components, basically the dead loads.
Variable actions (Qv) Action due to loads at construction and
service stage such as all type of imposed loads, wind and earthquake
loads etc.
Accidental actions (Qa) Action due to accidental loads acting on
the structure such as due to explosion, due to sudden impact etc.
While designing the steel structure following load combination
must be considered along with partial safety factors
Dead loads + Imposed loads
Dead loads + Imposed loads + Wind / Earthquake loads
Dead loads + Wind / Earthquake loads
Dead loads + Erection loads
 Wind Load Calculation
Cl. 5.3, IS 875 (Part 3) 1987
Basic
wind Zone
The design wind speed (m/s) at any height z is speed, m/s
55 I
50 II
47 III
44 IV
Where, Basic wind speed (Figure 1) 39 V
33 VI
Probability factor (risk coefficient)
(Table 1)
Terrain, height and structure size
factor (Table 2)
Topography factor (Clause 5.3.3 )
 Design Wind Pressure
(cl. 5.4; IS 875 part 3)

Design wind pressure at any height above mean ground level

is obtained by

The wind pressure at any height of a structure

depends on following.
Velocity and density of the air
Height above ground level
Shape and aspect ratio of the building
Topography of the surrounding ground surface
Angle of wind attack
Solidity ratio or openings in the structure
 Design Wind Force:

1. The total wind load for a building as a whole is given by

[cl. 6.3 of IS 875 part-3 ]

Where, Force coefficient of the building

Effective frontal area
design wind pressure

2. Wind force on roof and walls is given by

[cl. 6.2.1 of IS 875 part-3]

Where, External pressure coefficient (cl. 6.2.2 of IS 875 part-3)

Internal pressure coefficient (cl. 6.2.3 of IS 875 part-3)

A = Surface area of structural element

INTRODUCTION TO
CONNECTIONS

1
Fabrication of structures between following
members:

Beam & column

Beam & beam
Beam & cross beam
Column & column
Column & brackets
Column & caps
Base plate of trusses
Truss member connections through gussets
Purlins & rafter
Wind braces and columns
Rails & columns
2
 Stiffeners in plate girders
Diaphragms in plate girders
Flange and web connections in plate girders
Stiffener plates in column joints

Methods of Fabrications:
Rivet Joints
Bolt Joints
Weld Joints
The combinations of two or three of the above

3
 Requirements of good connection

1. It should be rigid enough to avoid fluctuating

stresses which may cause fatigue failure.
2. It should be such that there is the least possible
weakening of the parts to be joined.
3. It should be such that it can be easily installed,
inspected, & maintained.

4
Advantages of Riveted connections
Ease of riveting process.
Rivet connection is permanent in nature
Cheaper fabrication cost.
Low maintenance cost.
Dissimilar metals can also be joined, even non-metallic joints
are possible with riveted joints.
Rivet connection is possible without electricity in remote area
 Disadvantages of Rivet Connection:
(i) Necessity of pre-heating the rivets prior to driving
(ii) High level of noise
(iii)Skilled work necessary for inspection of connection
(iv)Cost involved in careful inspection and removal of poorly
installed rivets
(v)Labor cost is high

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 Rivet

Power driven riveting Hand driven riveting

or Hot rivet or Cold rivet

Power driven shop Hand driven

rivet(PDS) shop rivet(HDS)

Power driven Hand driven field

field rivet(PDF) rivet(HDF)
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BOLT CONNECTION
Clause 2.4: Bolts, nuts
and washers shall
conform as
appropriate to:
IS 1363-1967, IS 1364-
1967, IS 1367-1967, IS
3640-1967, IS 3757-
1972, IS 6623-1972 and
IS 6639-1972
Advantages:
Less Manpower
High strength bolts are much stronger than
rivet. Hence, bolted connections need less
fasteners than rivet joints
Bolting operation is much faster
Bolting operation is very silent in contrast to
hammering noise in riveting
Bolting is a cold process; No risk of fire

Bolt can be removed, replaced or retightened

easily in the event of faulty bolting or
damaged bolts due to accidents/hazards
Disadvantages:
Bolted connections have lesser strength in
axial tension as the net area at the root of
the threads is less

Under vibratory loads, the strength is reduced

if the connections get loosened

Unfinished bolts have lesser strength because

of non uniform diameter

Architectural look
TYPES OF BOLT
According to material and strength
(i) Ordinary structural bolt
(ii) High strength steel bolt
According to Type of Shank
(i) Unfinished or black bolt
(ii) Turned bolt
(iii) High strength friction grip (HSFG) bolt
According to pitch and fit of thread
(i) Standard pitch bolt
(ii) Fine pitch bolt
(iii) Coarse pitch bolt
According to shape of head and nut
(i) Square bolt
(ii) Hexagonal bolt
 Terminology

Pitch, p Pitch is the centre to centre distance of adjacent rivets or bolt holes
measured in the direction of stress.
Minimum pitch: 2.5 d (clause 10.2.2)
To prevent bearing failure between two bolts
Sufficient space to tighten bolts
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 Terminology
Maximum pitch: Desirable to place bolts sufficiently closed (clause 10.2.3)
(1) To reduce length of connection and gusset plate
(2) To have uniform stress
(Distance between two consecutive bolts) < 16 t or 200 mm in tension
< 12 t or 200 mm in compression
(Distance between two adjacent bolts) < 32 t or 300 mm

Gauge, g A row of rivets which is parallel to the direction of stress is called

gauge line. The normal distance between two adjacent gauge lines is called
gauge.

Edge distance, e The distance between the edge of a member or cover plate
from the centre of the nearest rivet/bolt hole.

Minimum edge distance for rivet: 1.5 d

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 Nominal diameter, d It is the diameter of the shank of the
rivet. For bolts the diameter of the unthreaded portion of the
shank is called its nominal diameter.

Gross diameter, D The diameter of the rivet hole or bolt

hole is called its gross diameter.

For rivet:
As per clause 3.6.1.1 of IS 800:1984
D = d + 1.5 mm for d < 25mm
= d + 2 mm for d 25mm

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 For Bolt:

Minimum and maximum edge distance and end distance are given in
clause 10.2.4.2 and 10.2.4.3

The minimum edge/end distances > 1.7 times the hole diameter
(In case of sheared or hand-flame cut edges)
> 1.5 times the hole diameter
(In case of rolled, machine-flame cut, sawn and planed edges.)

The maximum edge distance < 12t where = (250/f y)1/2

(t is the thickness of the thinner plate)
Bolt holes:
Bolt holes are required to facilitate the insertion of bolts to make
connection between steel members. Bolt holes are usually made
larger than the nominal diameter of bolt to smooth the progress of
erection and accommodate minor discrepancies.

Bolt hole = bolt diameter + clearances of hole (Clause 10.2.1, Table 19)

Diameter, d Standard clearance Over size Short slot Long short

12-14 1 3 4 2.5
16-22 2 4 6 2.5
24 2 6 8 2.5
>24 3 8 10 2.5
 INTRODUCTION TO
BOLT CONNECTIONS

1
 TYPES OF JOINTS

(i) Depending upon arrangement of bolts& plates

(ii) Depending upon mode of load transmission
(iii)Depending upon nature and location of load

2
 TYPES OF BOLT JOINTS
(i) Depending upon arrangement of bolts and plates

Lap Joint
Single line bolting
Chain bolting
Staggered or zig-zag bolting

Butt Joint
Single bolting
Chain bolting
Staggered or zig-zag bolting

3
(i) Depending upon arrangement of bolts and plates
Single bolted Lap Joint:

Triple bolted lap joint:

Single bolted single cover butt joint:

Single bolted double cover butt joint

Double bolted double cover butt joint

5
 TYPES OF BOLT JOINTS
(ii) Depending upon the mode of load transmission

(a)Single shear
(b)Double shear
(c) Multiple shear

6
(ii) Depending upon the mode of load transmission

(a) Single shear

(b) Double shear

(c) Multiple shear

7
 TYPES OF BOLT JOINTS
(iii) Depending upon nature and location of load

(a) Direct shear connection

(b)Eccentric connection
(c) Pure moment connection
(d) Moment shear connection

8
(a) Direct shear connection

9
(b) Eccentric connection

10
(c) Pure moment connection

11
(d) Moment shear connection

12
The following are the failure modes of a bolted joint:

Shear failure of the bolt

Bearing failure of the bolt

Tensile failure of bolt

Shear failure of the plate

Bearing failure of the plate

Tensile failure of plate

Shear Failure of Bolt

(a) Single shear

(b) Double shear

14
Things to remember for bolted connections:
Stress concentration results in a considerable decrement
in the tensile strength.

Loose fit of the joint can reduce the stiffness which may
result in excessive deflections.

Vibrations can cause loosening of nuts which can

jeopardize the safety of structure.
 Criteria for designing bolted joints with
axially loaded members

The length of joint should be as small as possible to

save material on cover plates and gusset plates.

The center line of all the members meeting at a joint

should coincide at one point only. Otherwise the joint will
twist out of position.

The number of bolts should be increased gradually

towards the joint for uniform stress distribution in bolts .
Criteria for designing bolted joints with
axially loaded members

The arrangement should satisfy the pitch, gauge and edge

distance requirements.

The strength of joint reduces due to the bolt holes. The

reduction in area due to bolt holes can be minimized by
arranging in a zig-zag form.
 D E

C
A