SKELETAL SYSTEM
INTERACTION OF SKELETAL AND MUSCULAR SYSTEMS
- Together allow movement
- Ligament attach bone to bone
- Tendon attach muscle to bone
- Muscles contract to move skeleton
FUNCTIONS
Support & shape to body
Protection of internal organs
Movement in union with muscles
Storage of minerals (calcium, phosphorus) & lipids
Blood cell production (red marrow storage)
Storage of energy rich tissues (yellow marrow)
SKELETON (206 Bones)
Axial: (80 bones) skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, hyoid bone
Appendicular: (126 bones) upper&lower extremities, two girdles
BONE TYPES
- Long bones: longer than they are wide; shaft & 2 ends (bones of
arms & legs, except wrist, ankle & patella)
- Short bones: roughly cube-shaped (ankle & wrist bones)
- Sesamoid bones: short bones within tendons (patella)
- Flat bones: thin, flat & often curved (sternum, scapulae, ribs &
most skull bones)
- Irregular bones: odd shapes; don't fit into other classes (hip
bones & vertebrae)
VERTEBRAE
- Cervical (7): C1 is Atlas supports head
C2 is Axis pivots to turn head
Axis Atlas
- Thoracic (12) Lumbar (5)
JOINT TYPES
Ball & Socket: complete range of motion, shoulder, hip
Pivot: one bone pivots in the arch of other, Axis/Atlas, proximal
radioulnar joint
Saddle: 2 directional movement between thumb and trapez carpel
Hinge: door hinge, bending & extending, elbow, knee, finger joints
Ellipsoid, side to side, back & forth, radius end into carpal bones
Plane/Gliding: side to side only, intercarpal & intertarsal joints,
between vertebrae
LONG BONE CELLULAR STRUCTURE
- Compact (dense, cortical) Bone (80% skeleton mass): hard outer
layer, min gaps, and smooth, white, solid.
- Spongy Bone (20% mass): bone interior, rod and plane like
elements, lighter, room for blood vessels and marrow.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Muscle Functions
Stabilizing joints Maintaining posture Producing movement
Moving substances Stabilizing body position and regulating organ
volume Producing heat
Characteristics of Muscle Tissue
Excitability- receive and respond to stimuli
Contractility- ability to shorten and thicken
Extensibility- ability to stretch
Elasticity- ability to return to original shape after contr./exten.
Muscle Types
- Cartilage
BONE CELLS
Osteoblasts – bone forming cells, found in areas of high
metabolism (bone surface), secrete extracellular bone substance
Osteocytes – mature bone cells made from osteoblasts that have
made bone tissue around themselves. Secrete enzymes and control
mineral content; control calcium release.
Bone lining cells - made from osteoblasts along the surface of most
Skeletal Muscles
bones in an adult. Regulate movement of calcium and phosphate
650 muscles, work in pairs: one muscle moves the bone in one
Osteogenic cells - respond to traumas, such as fractures, by giving
direction and the other moves it back again.
rise to bone-forming cells and bone-destroying cells
Extend from one bone across a joint to another bone
Osteoclasts – bone absorbing cell – large cells that break down
Muscles are anchored to bone by tendons made of dense fibrous
bone tissue – important to growth, healing, remodeling
connective tissue shaped like heavy cords.
BONE MARROW
Attachment to the more stationary bone by tendon closest to the
Red Bone Marrow: form blood cells, red/white/platelets
body or muscle head or proximal is the ORIGIN and attachment to
(hematopoiesis). In infants, found in bone cavities, by age it gets
the more moveable bone by tendon at the distal end is the
replaced by yellow marrow. In adults, red marrow is limited to the
INSERTION. During movement, the origin remains stationary and
spongy bone in the skull, ribs, sternum, clavicles, vertebrae, pelvis.
the insertion moves.
CARTILAGE The force producing the bending is always a pull of contraction.
Mostly water; no blood vessels or nerves, Tough, resilient, New Reversing the direction is produced by the contraction of a
cartilage forms from chondroblasts, Heal poorly different set of muscles. As one group of muscles contracts, the
- Hyaline Cartilages: fine collagen fiber matrix- most abundant other group stretches and then they reverse actions.
type- found in articular (movable joint), costal (connect ribs
tosternum), respiratory (in larynx & upper ) & nasal cartilages
- Elastic Cartilages: similar to hyaline cartilage, more elastic fibers
(very flexible) – found in external ear & epiglottis (larynx covering)
- Fibrocartilage: rows of chondrocytes with thick collagen fibers;
highly compressible with great tensile strength- found in menisci of
knee, intervertebral discs & pubic symphysis
BONE FRACTURES
BONE REPAIR PROCESS
Injury – broken blood vessels, hematoma
Invasion of blood vessels & generalized cells (2-3 days)
Fibroblasts develop (1 week)
Chondroblasts develop
Callus forms (4 weeks)
Remodeling with osteoclasts (8 weeks)
SKELETAL DISORDERS
Spinal Stenosis-narrowing of the spinal column
Achondroplasia-Defect in the formation of cartilate at the
epiphysis of long bones (dwarfing)
Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis-chronic inflammatory diseases
involving the joints or other organs in children under 16
Ankylosing spondylitis-immobility of a joint in the spine
Osteosarcoma-malignant sarcoma of bone
Osteoarthritis-A type of arthritis marked by progressive cartilage
deterioration in synovial joints and vertebrae
Osteoporosis-Loss of bone mass that occurs throughout the
skeleton. Predisposes people to fractures
Disc Herniation-Rupture of the soft tissue that separates two
vertebral bones into the spinal canal
Scoliosis-a lateral curvature of the spine.
ACL & MCL-knee joint injuries
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Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
- Muscle composed of:
- Muscle tissue (1000’s of fibers) Each muscle fiber contains
nuclei, endoplasmic reticulum or sarcoplasmic reticulum, thick and
thin myofibrils, and mitochondria for energy.
- Artery (deliver oxygen & nutrients) - Veins (remove waste)
- Nerve fibers (controls contraction)
- Connective tissue (3 types)
1- Epimysium –dense regular tissue surrounds entire muscle
2- Perimysium – fibrous tissue surrounds groups of muscle
fibers called fascicles
3- Endomysium – fine tissue fibers surrounding each muscle
SACROMERE
- Basic functional unit of the muscle fiber
- consists of thick filaments with myosin (protein) molecules and
thin filaments with actin (protein) molecules between two Z disks.
- Striations of dark A bands and light I bands.
- Muscle Contraction: I band & H band decreases, Z disks come
closer, A band stays the same (thick filaments do not move)
- Muscle Relaxation: thin filaments move apart, I bands separate
Motor Unit (Nerve-Muscle Functional Unit)
-A motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it supplies
-Number of muscle fibers per motor unit can vary from 4 to 100’s
-Fine movement muscles (fingers, eyes) have small motor units
-Large weight-bearing muscles (thighs, hips) have large motor units
Contraction Events
Myosin bridge attach to Actin filament -> Myosin head pulls Actin
to M-line -> ATP attach to myosin head -> ATP puts myosin into
high energy state.
Muscle and Tendon Injuries
Strains – injuries from overexertion or trauma which involve
stretching or tearing of muscle fibers.
Sprain: muscle injury is near a joint and involves a ligament
Cramps – painful muscle spasms or involuntary twitches.
Stress-induced muscle tension: cause back pain and headaches.
Muscle Disorders
Poliomyelitis – viral infection of skeletal muscle nerves
Muscular Dystrophies –mutation of gene for the protein
dystrophin which helps attaching the filaments Duchenne and
Becker are the two most common types.
Myasthenia gravis – autoimmune disease affecting the
neuromuscular junction. It affects the ability of the impulse to
cause the muscle contraction.
Tetanus(lockjaw) serious bacterial disease that affect nervous sys.
Homeostatic Imbalance: Age Related
With age, connective tissue increases and muscle fibers decrease
Muscles become stringier, By age 80, 50% of muscle mass is lost
(sarcopenia), Regular exercise reverses sarcopenia, Aging of the
cardiovascular system affects every organ in the body
Effects of Exercise on Muscular System
Exercise helps muscles become more effective and efficient.
Tendons will become thicker and able to withstand force
High intensity exercise produces strength, size and power gains
Low intensity exercise for long durations give endurance
Trained muscles have better tone or readiness to respond
Exercise promotes good posture and prevent enjury
During exercise muscle cells use more oxygen
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INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Consists of skin, hair, nails, subcutaneous tissue, & assorted glands.
Functions
Protection (injury/infection) Regulates body temperature
Sensory perception Regulate water los Chemical synthesis
Types of Membranes
Serous Membranes
• Line body cavities that have no opening to the outside
• Secrete a watery fluid called serous fluid that lubricates surfaces.
Mucous Membranes
• Line cavities and tubes that open to the outside
Synovial Membranes
• Form the inner lining of joint cavities
• Secrete a thick fluid called synovial fluid
Cutaneous Membrane – also known as skin
Types of Skin
Thin - 1-2 mm on most of the body and 0.5 mm in eyelids, hairy,
covers all parts except palms and soles, Thin epidermis and lacks
stratum lucidum & dermal papillae, has more sebaceous glands,
fewer sweat glands, sensory receptors
Thick - up to 6 mm thick on palms of hands and soles of feet
Hairless, Thick epidermis, distinct stratum lucidum, Epidermal
ridges, Lacks sebaceous glands, has more sweat glands
Layers of Skin
Epidermis
Epidermis Cells
Keratinocytes (90% of cells)
Contains keratin, protects and waterproofs the skin
Melanocytes (8% of cells)
Produces melanin, contributes to skin color and absorbs UV light
Langerhans cells (small portion)
Arise from red bone marrow, Participate in immune responses
Merkel cells (least numerous)
Found in the deepest layer, function in sensation of touch
Epidermis Growth
Newly formed cells in the stratum basale undergo keratinazation as
they are pushed to the surface. Then undergo apoptosis
Eventually are replaced The process takes about 4 weeks
Rate of cell division in the stratum basale increases during injury
Epidermis Layers
Dermis
Blood vessels, nerves, glands and hair follicles are embedded here
Composed mainly of connective tissues (collagen 70% for strength
and elastic fibers 30% for elasticity)
Two layers – Papillary Layer and Epidermal layer.
Papillary layer Superficial, Consist of elastic fiber tissue, contains
capillaries or tactile receptors
Reticular layer, Deep, Consist of collagen/elastic fiber tissue,
Provides strength and elasticity, Contains hair follicles, nerves,
sebaceous and sudoriferous glands
Hypodermis (subcutaneous) Attaches the skin to underlying
organs and tissues, Not part of the skin,Contains connective tissue
and adipose (fat) tissues for insulation, Infants and elderly have
less of this than adults and are therefore more sensitive to cold.
Skin Colors
- Melanin quantity (in epidermis) determines skin color. Carotene,
hemoglobin are two other pigments affect skin color.
- We have same number of melanocytes
- Melanin productions is affected primarily by genetic factors and
secondarily by sun exposure (increase it) and blood volume.
- Freckles & Liver Spots caused by melanin accumulation in patches
- Melanocytes synthesize melanin from tyrosine amino acid &
tyrosinase enzyme inside the melanosome.
- Melanin types: eumelanin (brownish black/dark skin/protect
from UV) & pheomelanin (reddish yellow/fair skin/break down
with UV).
- Carotine (yellow) helps make vitamin A, found in stratum
corneum and fatty areas of dermis and hypodermis.
- Hemoglobin (Oxygen-carrying pigment in red blood cells)
Skin Appearance
- Albinism, inherited, can’t make tyrosinase thus no melanin
- Cyanotic bluish skin, no breathing due to less oxygen
- Jaundice:Buildup of bilirubin (yellow) in blood due to liver disease
- Erythema (red), Pallor, Bronzing, Bruising (hematoma), leathery…
Skin Markings(Friction ridges (fingerprints), Flexion lines,
freckles, Moles
Skin Aging
Skin Receptors
Light Touch (Meissner's corpuscles) in palms, soles, lips, eyelids
Heavy pressure (Paccinian corpuscules), 1 sq cm has 14
Pain 1 sq cm has 200 pain receptors
Temperature: 1 sq cm has 6 cold and 1 hot receptor
Hair
Anatomy :From the top: shaft, root (medulla, cortex, cuticle), Base
(Bulb, Matrix), Arrector pili: smooth muscle, Hair root plexus
Growth: repeated cycles, 3 phases (Anagen growth, Catagen
transition, Telogen resting)
Functions: head, nose, & eye protection, sensing light touch
Color: melanin synthesized in the bub matrix, dark hair (true
melanin), blond & red hair (iron/sulfur), Gray hair (less tyrosinase
enzyme), White hair (air bubbles in the medullary shaft)
Nail (grasping, manipulating, scratching, protection)
Glands
Sweat Glands (Sudoriferous): 3-4 million, 2 types
Eccrine sweat glands: cooling, into skin, soon after birth, regulate
temperature, aid waste removal, made of 98% water & 2% salt
Appocrine sweat glands: emotional stress/excitement, into hair
follicle, at puberty, made of water, salt, and lipids & proteins.
Oil Glands (Sebaceous): connected to hair follicles, in the dermis,
all body except palms and soles, secrete oily sebum, soften skin,
prevent bacteria growth, inflammation causes Acne.
Ceruminous Gland: produce ear wax to protect ear.
Skin Imbalances
Skin Lesions: elevated, flat, depressed
Infections: viral, warts (HPV), fungal (athletes foot), bacterial (boils
and carbuncles)
Contact Dermatitis: skin inflammation due to contact, 2 types
Irritant Dermatitis (contact with acids or chimical)
Allergies Dermatitis (latex, poisen ivy, metal, chemical, etc.)
Treatment with washing, avoid, anti-itch, Corticosteroid
Skin Burns:
1st degree: Epidermis only, red & inflammed skin
2nd degree: Epidermis & dermis, blisters form.
3rd degree: all layers, catastrophic loss of fluids
4th degree: all layers + deeper tissue (musles or bones)
Skin Cancer: (most forms progress slowly and treated, few deadly)
- Healthy cells stop growing when contact one another. In skin
cancer, cells continue to grow and lump up.
- Excessive UV exposure UV, x-rays or radiation’ chemicals.
Basal Cell Carcinoma: least malignant,78% of all, stratum basale
can’t form keratin, lose boundary layer between epidermis and
dermis, tissue erosion and ulceration, 99% cured
Squamous Cell Carcinoma, 20%, stratum spinosum, by sun, grow
rapidly, hardened small red growth, recovery if detected early
Malignant Melanoma, cancer of melanocytes, 1%, deadly, begins
with moles, spreads rapidly