Complements Exo

66 Chapter 2 Basic Laws
B
$BMDVMBUFDVSSFOUJJO'JHXIFOUIFTXJUDI Section 2.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws
JTJOQPTJUJPO
C
'JOEUIFDVSSFOUXIFOUIFTXJUDIJTJOQPTJUJPO %FTJHOBQSPCMFN DPNQMFUFXJUIBTPMVUJPO UPIFMQ
PUIFSTUVEFOUTCFUUFSVOEFSTUBOE,JSDIIPGGT$VSSFOU
-BX%FTJHOUIFQSPCMFNCZTQFDJGZJOHWBMVFTPG
1 2
JB JC BOEJD TIPXOJO'JH BOEBTLJOHUIFNUP
TPMWFGPSWBMVFTPGJ J BOEJ#FDBSFGVMUPTQFDJGZ
i SFBMJTUJDDVSSFOUT
100 Ω 250 Ω
+ 40 V
–
ib
Figure 2.68 i2 i1
'PS1SPC ia
i3
ic
Section 2.3 Nodes, Branches, and Loops
Figure 2.72
For the network graph in Fig. 2.69, find the number
'PS1SPC
PGOPEFT CSBODIFT BOEMPPQT
'JOEJ J BOEJJO'JH
–4 A
1A i2
–3 A A B i3
i1 –6 A
2A
Figure 2.69 C
'PS1SPC –2 A
Figure 2.73
'PS1SPC
*OUIFOFUXPSLHSBQITIPXOJO'JH EFUFSNJOF
UIFOVNCFSPGCSBODIFTBOEOPEFT
%FUFSNJOFJBOEJJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
–8 A 4A
i2
i1
–6 A
Figure 2.70
'PS1SPC Figure 2.74
'PS1SPC
%FUFSNJOFUIFOVNCFSPGCSBODIFTBOEOPEFTJOUIF
DJSDVJUPG'JH *OUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH DBMDVMBUF7BOE7
1Ω 4Ω 1V 2V
+ – + –
12 V +
– 8Ω 5Ω 2A + + +
V1 5V V2
– – –
Figure 2.71 Figure 2.75

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
Problems 67
*OUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH PCUBJOW W BOEW %FUFSNJOF7PJOUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH

+ 30 V –
16 Ω 14 Ω
– 50 V + + 20 V – + v2 –
+
10 V +
– Vo + 25 V
–
+ + +
40 V v1 v3 –
– – –
Figure 2.80
'PS1SPC
Figure 2.76
'PS1SPC
For the circuit in Fig. 2.77, use KCL to find the 0CUBJOWUISPVHIWJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
CSBODIDVSSFOUT*UP*
+ v1 –
2A
v2 – +
24 V + v3 + 10 V
I2 7A I4 – + –
–
–+
3A I3 4A 12 V
I1
Figure 2.81
'PS1SPC
Figure 2.77
'PS1SPC
'JOE*BOE7JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
Given the circuit in Fig. 2.78, use KVL to find the I
CSBODIWPMUBHFT7UP7
+
3A 20 Ω 10 Ω 4A 20 Ω –2 A V
+ + –
–
3V V1 V2
– – +2 V – +
– +
V3
– + + Figure 2.82
4V V4 5V 'PS1SPC
+ – –
Figure 2.78
'PS1SPC From the circuit in Fig. 2.83, find * UIFQPXFSEJT
TJQBUFECZUIFSFTJTUPS BOEUIFQPXFSTVQQMJFECZ
FBDITPVSDF
$BMDVMBUFWBOEJYJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
10 V
12 Ω + 16 V – +–
I
+v– ix
+ 12 V +
– 3Ω
10 V +
– 4V + 3i
– x
– +–
–8 V
'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
%FUFSNJOFJPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH For the circuit in Fig. 2.88, find 7P7TJOUFSNTPGα,
3 3 3 BOE3*G3=3=3=3 XIBUWBMVF
PGαXJMMQSPEVDF]7P7T]= 10?
io 22 Ω
Io R1
54 V + + 5i
– – o
+
Vs + R2 𝛼Io R3 R4 Vo
–
–
Figure 2.84
'PS1SPC Figure 2.88
'PS1SPC
'JOE7YJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
For the network in Fig. 2.89, find the current, volt-
BHF BOEQPXFSBTTPDJBUFEXJUIUIFLΩSFTJTUPS
2 Vx
1Ω
+ –
+
+ 5 mA 10 kΩ Vo 0.01Vo 5 kΩ 20 kΩ
15 V +
– 5Ω Vx –
–
Figure 2.89
'PS1SPC
2Ω
Figure 2.85
'PS1SPC Sections 2.5 and 2.6 Series and Parallel Resistors
'PSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH JP="$BMDVMBUFJYBOE
'JOE7PJOUIFDJSDVJUJO'JHBOEUIFQPXFS UIFUPUBMQPXFSBCTPSCFECZUIFFOUJSFDJSDVJU
BCTPSCFECZUIFEFQFOEFOUTPVSDF
10 Ω ix io
25 Ω
+ Vo –
10 Ω 25 A 2 Vo
20 Ω 10 Ω 5Ω 40 Ω
Figure 2.86
'PS1SPC Figure 2.90
'PS1SPC
*OUIFDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JH EFUFSNJOF7YBOE

UIFQPXFSBCTPSCFECZUIFΩSFTJTUPS $BMDVMBUF*PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
5Ω 6Ω
8Ω
+ v –
x
20 Ω
Io
60 A 10 Ω 40 Ω 60 Ω
10 V +
– 3Ω 6Ω
15 Ω 30 Ω

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
Problems 69
%FTJHOBQSPCMFN VTJOH'JH UPIFMQPUIFS 'JOEJUISPVHIJJOUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH

TUVEFOUTCFUUFSVOEFSTUBOETFSJFTBOEQBSBMMFMDJSDVJUT
i4 i2 200 Ω
60 Ω
R1
+ v1 – 40 Ω 50 Ω
+ + i3 i1
Vs + v2 R2 v3 R3 16 A
–
– –
Figure 2.92
'PS1SPC Figure 2.96
'PS1SPC
"MMSFTJTUPST 3
JO'JHBSFΩFBDI'JOE3FR
R
0CUBJOWBOEJJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
Req R i 4S 6S
+
R R R R 9A v 1S 2S 3S
–
R
Figure 2.97
Figure 2.93 'PS1SPC
'PS1SPC
'JOE3FRGPSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH Using series/parallel resistance combination, find the

FRVJWBMFOUSFTJTUBODFTFFOCZUIFTPVSDFJOUIFDJSDVJU
PG'JH'JOEUIFPWFSBMMBCTPSCFEQPXFSCZUIF
SFTJTUPSOFUXPSL
25 Ω 180 Ω
50 Ω 70 Ω 150 Ω
60 Ω
Req 60 Ω
600 V +
– 400 Ω 400 Ω 200 Ω
Figure 2.94 130 Ω 50 Ω

'PS1SPC
Figure 2.98
'PS1SPC
'PSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH EFUFSNJOFJUPJ

$BMDVMBUF7PBOE*PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
i1
3Ω
i3
i2 70 Ω 30 Ω
Io
200 V +
– 4Ω i4 2 Ω i5 200 V +
–
1Ω +
20 Ω Vo 5Ω
–

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
'JOEJBOE7PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH &WBMVBUF3FRMPPLJOHJOUPFBDITFUPGUFSNJOBMTGPS

each of the circuits shown in Fig. 2.103.
i 80 Ω 24 Ω 50 Ω 3 kΩ
6Ω
25 Ω 3Ω 2 kΩ 6 kΩ
+
20 V +
– 20 Ω 30 Ω Vo
– 6Ω 3Ω 6 kΩ
60 Ω 20 Ω
(a) (b)
Figure 2.103
Figure 2.100 'PS1SPC
'PS1SPC
For the ladder network in Fig. 2.104, find * and 3FR
(JWFOUIFDJSDVJUJO'JHBOEUIBUUIFSFTJT I 8Ω 2Ω 1Ω
UBODF 3FR MPPLJOHJOUPUIFDJSDVJUGSPNUIFMFGUJT
FRVBMUPΩ EFUFSNJOFUIFWBMVFPG3
15 V + 4Ω 6Ω 2Ω
–
R1 R1 Req
Figure 2.104
'PS1SPC
R1 R1
*G3FR=Ω in the circuit of Fig. 2.105, find 3
Figure 2.101
'PS1SPC R
10 Ω
30 Ω
Req 12 Ω 12 Ω 12 Ω
60 Ω
'JOE3FRBOEJPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
Figure 2.105
'PS1SPC
60 Ω
12 Ω 3FEVDFFBDIPGUIFDJSDVJUTJO'JHUPBTJOHMF
SFTJTUPSBUUFSNJOBMTBC
io 2.5 Ω 6Ω 5Ω
80 Ω
a b
35 V +
– 15 Ω 20 Ω 8Ω 20 Ω
Req
30 Ω
Figure 2.102
'PS1SPC (a)
Problems 71
'JOEUIFFRVJWBMFOUSFTJTUBODFBUUFSNJOBMTBCPG
2Ω 4Ω 5Ω
a
FBDIDJSDVJUJO'JH
b
5Ω 3Ω 10 Ω 10 Ω
8Ω 4Ω 40 Ω
20 Ω
(b)
Figure 2.106 a
'PS1SPC
30 Ω 5Ω
50 Ω
b
$BMDVMBUFUIFFRVJWBMFOUSFTJTUBODF3BCBUUFSNJOBMT
BC for each of the circuits in Fig. 2.107. (a)
5Ω 30 Ω
a
12 Ω
20 Ω 10 Ω 40 Ω
5Ω 20 Ω
b
(a)
25 Ω 60 Ω
15 Ω 10 Ω
10 Ω
a
(b)
80 Ω
Figure 2.109
60 Ω 20 Ω 30 Ω 'PS1SPC
b
(b)
Figure 2.107
'PS1SPC
'PSUIFDJSDVJUTJO'JH PCUBJOUIFFRVJWBMFOU 'JOE*JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH

SFTJTUBODFBUUFSNJOBMTBC
20 Ω 72 Ω 80 Ω
I
30 Ω 24 Ω 20 Ω
a
140 V +
– 36 Ω 10 Ω
30 Ω 8Ω
14 Ω 36 Ω
36 Ω
b

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
'JOEUIFFRVJWBMFOUSFTJTUBODF3BCJOUIFDJSDVJUPG %FTJHOBQSPCMFNUPIFMQPUIFSTUVEFOUTCFUUFS

'JH VOEFSTUBOEXZFEFMUBUSBOTGPSNBUJPOTVTJOH
'JH
c
R R
5Ω 6Ω
R
9 mA
10 Ω 8Ω
d a b e
R R
20 Ω 3Ω
Figure 2.114
f 'PS1SPC
0CUBJOUIFFRVJWBMFOUSFTJTUBODFBUUIFUFSNJOBMTBC
Figure 2.111 for each of the circuits in Fig. 2.115.
'PS1SPC
a
10 Ω 20 Ω
10 Ω
30 Ω
Section 2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations
$POWFSUUIFDJSDVJUTJO'JHGSPN:UPΔ 10 Ω 20 Ω
b
(a)
10 Ω 10 Ω 30 Ω 20 Ω
a b a b 30 Ω
10 Ω 50 Ω
25 Ω 10 Ω 20 Ω
a
c c
5Ω 15 Ω
(a) (b)
Figure 2.112 b
'PS1SPC (b)
Figure 2.115
'PS1SPC
5SBOTGPSNUIFDJSDVJUTJO'JHGSPNΔUP:
For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.116, find the equiva-
MFOUSFTJTUBODF"MMSFTJTUPSTBSFΩ
60 Ω 75 Ω
a b a b
60 Ω 60 Ω 150 Ω 25 Ω
c c
(a) (b)
Figure 2.113 Req
'PS1SPC Figure 2.116
'PS1SPC
"OBTUFSJTLJOEJDBUFTBDIBMMFOHJOHQSPCMFN
Problems 73
0CUBJOUIFFRVJWBMFOUSFTJTUBODF3BCJOFBDIPGUIF %FUFSNJOF7JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH

DJSDVJUTPG'JH*O C
BMMSFTJTUPSTIBWFB
WBMVFPGΩ. 30 Ω
16 Ω 15 Ω 10 Ω
30 Ω 40 Ω
+
20 Ω 100 V +
– V 35 Ω 12 Ω 20 Ω
a –
10 Ω
Figure 2.120
60 Ω 50 Ω
80 Ω 'PS1SPC
b
'JOE3FRBOE*JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
(a)
a I 10 Ω 25 Ω
30 Ω
10 Ω 5Ω
10 Ω
b
(b) 50 V +
–
10 Ω 20 Ω
80 Ω
Figure 2.117
'PS1SPC
10 Ω 15 Ω
25 Ω
$POTJEFSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH'JOEUIFFRVJWB
Req
MFOUSFTJTUBODFBUUFSNJOBMT B
BC, (b) DE
Figure 2.121
10 Ω 450 Ω
'PS1SPC
a c
300 Ω 300 Ω
Section 2.8 Applications
b d
450 Ω 60 Ω 5IF8MJHIUCVMCJO'JHJTSBUFEBU
WPMUT$BMDVMBUFUIFWBMVFPG7TUPNBLFUIFMJHIU
Figure 2.118
'PS1SPC CVMCPQFSBUFBUJUTSBUFEDPOEJUJPOT
150 Watt
$BMDVMBUF*PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
100 Ω
Vs +
– 50 Ω
Io
Figure 2.122
'PS1SPC
400 Ω 700 Ω
200 Ω
100 V +
– "OFOUFSQSJTJOHZPVOHNBOUSBWFMTUP&VSPQF
DBSSZJOHUISFFMJHIUCVMCTIFIBEQVSDIBTFEJO/PSUI
800 Ω 1.7 kΩ
"NFSJDB5IFMJHIUCVMCTIFIBTBSFB8MJHIU
400 Ω CVMC B8MJHIUCVMC BOEB8MJHIUCVMC&BDI
MJHIUCVMCJTSBUFEBU7)FXJTIFTUPDPOOFDU
Figure 2.119 UIFTFUPB7TZTUFNUIBUJTGPVOEJO&VSPQF'PS
'PS1SPC SFBTPOTXFBSFOPUTVSFPG IFDPOOFDUTUIF8
MJHIUCVMCJOTFSJFTXJUIBQBSBMMFMDPNCJOBUJPOPGUIF BOEDFOUTL8I DBMDVMBUFUIFBOOVBMFOFSHZDPTUPG

8MJHIUCVMCBOEUIF8MJHIUCVMCBTTIPXO UIFTZTUFN
JO'JH)PXNVDIQPXFSJTBDUVBMMZCFJOH
EFMJWFSFEUPFBDIMJHIUCVMC 8IBUEPFTIFTFFXIFO
he first turns on the light bulbs?
*TUIFSFBCFUUFSXBZUPDPOOFDUUIFTFMJHIUCVMCTJO 110 V
+
– A
PSEFSUPIBWFUIFNXPSLNPSFFGGFDUJWFMZ
110 V + B
40 W 100 W –
Figure 2.125
60 W
Figure 2.123 *GBOBNNFUFSXJUIBOJOUFSOBMSFTJTUBODFPGΩ

'PS1SPC BOEBDVSSFOUDBQBDJUZPGN"JTUPNFBTVSF"
EFUFSNJOFUIFWBMVFPGUIFSFTJTUBODFOFFEFE$BMDV
late the power dissipated in the shunt resistor.
*GUIFUISFFCVMCTPG1SPCBSFDPOOFDUFEJO 5IFQPUFOUJPNFUFS BEKVTUBCMFSFTJTUPS

3YJO
QBSBMMFMUPUIF7TPVSDF DBMDVMBUFUIFDVSSFOU 'JHJTUPCFEFTJHOFEUPBEKVTUDVSSFOUJYGSPN
UISPVHIFBDICVMC 10 mA to 1 A. Calculate the values of 3 and 3YUP
BDIJFWFUIJT
"TBEFTJHOFOHJOFFS ZPVBSFBTLFEUPEFTJHOB
MJHIUJOHTZTUFNDPOTJTUJOHPGB8QPXFSTVQQMZ
BOEUXPMJHIUCVMCTBTTIPXOJO'JH:PV
ix R
NVTUTFMFDUUIFUXPCVMCTGSPNUIFGPMMPXJOHUISFF
BWBJMBCMFCVMCT
Rx
3=Ω DPTU= TUBOEBSETJ[F
110 V +
– ix
3=Ω DPTU= TUBOEBSETJ[F
3=Ω DPTU= OPOTUBOEBSETJ[F
5IFTZTUFNTIPVMECFEFTJHOFEGPSNJOJNVNDPTU Figure 2.126

TVDIUIBU*MJFTXJUIJOUIFSBOHF*="±QFSDFOU 'PS1SPC
%FTJHOBDJSDVJUUIBUVTFTBE"STPOWBMNFUFS XJUI

I BOJOUFSOBMSFTJTUBODFPGLΩUIBUSFRVJSFTBDVSSFOU
of 5 mA to cause the meter to deflect full scale) to
+
CVJMEBWPMUNFUFSUPSFBEWBMVFTPGWPMUBHFTVQUP
70-W WPMUT
Power Rx Ry
Supply "LΩ7WPMUNFUFSSFBET7GVMMTDBMF
– B
8IBUTFSJFTSFTJTUBODFJTSFRVJSFEUPNBLFUIF
Figure 2.124 NFUFSSFBE7GVMMTDBMF
'PS1SPC
C
8IBUQPXFSXJMMUIFTFSJFTSFTJTUPSEJTTJQBUF
XIFOUIFNFUFSSFBETGVMMTDBMF
B
0CUBJOUIFWPMUBHF7PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG
"UISFFXJSFTZTUFNTVQQMJFTUXPMPBET"BOE#BT 'JH B

TIPXOJO'JH-PBE"DPOTJTUTPGBNP C
%FUFSNJOFUIFWPMUBHF7ʹPNFBTVSFEXIFOBWPMU
UPSESBXJOHBDVSSFOUPG" XIJMFMPBE#JTB1$ NFUFSXJUILΩJOUFSOBMSFTJTUBODFJTDPOOFDUFE
ESBXJOH""TTVNJOHIEBZPGVTFGPSEBZT BTTIPXOJO'JH C

Problems 75
D
The finite resistance of the meter introduces an "WPMUNFUFSJTVTFEUPNFBTVSF7PJOUIFDJSDVJUJO
FSSPSJOUPUIFNFBTVSFNFOU$BMDVMBUFUIFQFSDFOU 'JH5IFWPMUNFUFSNPEFMDPOTJTUTPGBOJEFBM
FSSPSBT WPMUNFUFSJOQBSBMMFMXJUIBLΩSFTJTUPS-FU
] ]
7 −7ʹ 7T=7 3T=LΩ,BOE3=LΩ.$BMDVMBUF
@@@@@@@
P P

×
7P 7PXJUIBOEXJUIPVUUIFWPMUNFUFSXIFO
E
'JOEUIFQFSDFOUFSSPSJGUIFJOUFSOBMSFTJTUBODF B
3=LΩ C
3=LΩ
XFSFLΩ. D
3=LΩ
1 kΩ Rs
+
2 mA 5 kΩ 4 kΩ Vo R1
–
Vs +
–
+
(a) R2 250 kΩ V
Vo
–
1 kΩ
+
Figure 2.129
'PS1SPC
2 mA 5 kΩ 4 kΩ Vo Voltmeter
–
(b) B
$POTJEFSUIF8IFBUTUPOFCSJEHFTIPXOJO
Figure 2.127 'JH$BMDVMBUFWB WC BOEWBC
'PS1SPC (b) 3FXPSLQBSU B
JGUIFHSPVOEJTQMBDFEBU
B instead of P
B
'JOEUIFDVSSFOU*JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH B

C
"OBNNFUFSXJUIBOJOUFSOBMSFTJTUBODFPGΩJT
JOTFSUFEJOUIFOFUXPSLUPNFBTVSF*ʹ BTTIPXOJO
'JH C
8IBUJT*ʹ? 8 kΩ 15 kΩ
D
$BMDVMBUFUIFQFSDFOUFSSPSJOUSPEVDFECZUIF
NFUFSBT 25 V +
– a b
]
*−*ʹ
_____
* ]
× 100%
12 kΩ 10 kΩ
o
I 16 Ω
Figure 2.130
'PS1SPC
4V +
– 40 Ω 60 Ω
'JHVSFSFQSFTFOUTBNPEFMPGBTPMBS
(a) QIPUPWPMUBJDQBOFM(JWFOUIBU7T=7
3=Ω BOEJ-=2 A, find 3-
Ammeter
I' 16 Ω
R1
iL
4V +
– 40 Ω 60 Ω
Vs +
– RL
(b)
'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
'JOE7PJOUIFUXPXBZQPXFSEJWJEFSDJSDVJUJO 5IFDJSDVJUJO'JHJTUPDPOUSPMUIFTQFFEPGB

'JH NPUPSTVDIUIBUUIFNPUPSESBXTDVSSFOUT" "
BOE"XIFOUIFTXJUDIJTBUIJHI NFEJVN BOEMPX
QPTJUJPOT SFTQFDUJWFMZ5IFNPUPSDBOCFNPEFMFE
1Ω 1Ω BTBMPBESFTJTUBODFPGNΩ.%FUFSNJOFUIFTFSJFT
ESPQQJOHSFTJTUBODFT3 3 BOE3
1Ω
Vo 2Ω
10 V + Low
– 1Ω 1Ω R1
10-A, 0.01-Ω fuse
Medium
Figure 2.132
'PS1SPC High R2
6V
"OBNNFUFSNPEFMDPOTJTUTPGBOJEFBMBNNF R3
UFSJOTFSJFTXJUIBΩSFTJTUPS*UJTDPOOFDUFE
XJUIBDVSSFOUTPVSDFBOEBOVOLOPXOSFTJTUPS Motor
3YBTTIPXOJO'JH5IFBNNFUFSSFBEJOH
Figure 2.134
JTOPUFE8IFOBQPUFOUJPNFUFS3JTBEEFEBOE
'PS1SPC
BEKVTUFEVOUJMUIFBNNFUFSSFBEJOHESPQTUPPOF
IBMGJUTQSFWJPVTSFBEJOH UIFO3=Ω.8IBUJT
UIFWBMVFPG3Y
'JOE3BCJOUIFGPVSXBZQPXFSEJWJEFSDJSDVJUJO
'JH"TTVNFFBDI3=Ω
R R
20 Ω
Ammeter R R
model R R
A
R
a R R R
I R
Rx R R
R R
b
'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
Comprehensive Problems 77
Comprehensive Problems
3FQFBU1SPCGPSUIFFJHIUXBZEJWJEFSTIPXOJO "OFMFDUSJDQFODJMTIBSQFOFSSBUFEN8 7JT
'JH connected to a 9-V battery as shown in Fig. 2.138.
1 1 $BMDVMBUFUIFWBMVFPGUIFTFSJFTESPQQJOHSFTJTUPS3Y
OFFEFEUPQPXFSUIFTIBSQFOFS
1 1
1 1
1 1 1
Switch Rx
1 1
1
1 1
9V
1
a 1 1 1
Figure 2.138
1 'PS1SPC
1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1 1
1 1
A loudspeaker is connected to an amplifier as shown
b JO'JH*GBΩMPVETQFBLFSESBXTUIFNBYJ
mum power of 12 W from the amplifier, determine
Figure 2.136
'PS1SPC UIFNBYJNVNQPXFSBΩMPVETQFBLFSXJMMESBX
4VQQPTFZPVSDJSDVJUMBCPSBUPSZIBTUIFGPMMPXJOH
TUBOEBSEDPNNFSDJBMMZBWBJMBCMFSFTJTUPSTJOMBSHF
RVBOUJUJFT
Amplifier
Ω Ω Ω LΩ LΩ
Loudspeaker
6TJOHTFSJFTBOEQBSBMMFMDPNCJOBUJPOTBOEBNJOJ
NVNOVNCFSPGBWBJMBCMFSFTJTUPST IPXXPVMEZPV Figure 2.139
PCUBJOUIFGPMMPXJOHSFTJTUBODFTGPSBOFMFDUSPOJD 'PS1SPC
DJSDVJUEFTJHO
B
Ω C
Ω
D
LΩ E
LΩ
*OUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH UIFXJQFSEJWJEFTUIF For a specific application, the circuit shown in
QPUFOUJPNFUFSSFTJTUBODFCFUXFFOα3BOE −α)3 'JHXBTEFTJHOFETPUIBU*-=N"BOE
≤α≤ 1. 'JOEWPWT UIBU3JO=LƗ8IBUBSFUIFWBMVFTPG3BOE3
R
IL
+ R
vs + vo
– R 1A NΩ Rin NΩ R NΩ
𝛼R
–
Figure 2.140
'PS1SPC
Problems 113
0CUBJOvPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH %FUFSNJOF*CJOUIFDJSDVJUJO'JHVTJOHOPEBM

BOBMZTJT
120 V
+– 60Ib
Ib 250 Ω
60 V +
– + + –
120 kΩ 120 kΩ vo
30 kΩ – 24 V + 50 Ω 150 Ω
–
Figure 3.54
'PS1SPC
Figure 3.58
'PS1SPC
4PMWFGPS7JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JHVTJOHOPEBM 'JOE*PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH

BOBMZTJT
1Ω
10 Ω
4Ω
4A 2 Io
5Ω +
Io
10 V +
– V1 10 Ω + 20 V
–
– 8Ω 2Ω 4Ω
Figure 3.55
'PS1SPC Figure 3.59
'PS1SPC
'JOE7PBOEUIFQPXFSEJTTJQBUFEJOBMMUIFSFTJTUPST
"QQMZOPEBMBOBMZTJTUPTPMWFGPS7YJOUIFDJSDVJUPG JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
'JH
12 Ω Vo 6Ω
+
60 V + 12 Ω – 24 V
60 Ω Vx 30 Ω 0.05Vx – +
2A
–

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
Using nodal analysis, find vPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH 6TJOHOPEBMBOBMZTJT EFUFSNJOF7PJOUIFDJSDVJUJO

'JH
6Ω 20 Ω 20 Ω 10 Ω
Ix +
+ 60 V +
–
+ 40 V +
– 20 Ω 10 Ω Vo
vo 4Ω 5vo 4 Ix
–
– –
20 Ω

'PS1SPCBOE1SPC 'PS1SPC
114 Chapter 3 Methods of Analysis
$BMDVMBUFvBOEvJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JHVTJOH Using nodal analysis, find current JPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG

OPEBMBOBMZTJT 'JH
v1 10 Ω 600 V v
2
+–
io
50 Ω 30 Ω 15 A
4Ω 2Ω
10 Ω
8Ω
Figure 3.62
'PS1SPC 60 V +
– 3io
Using nodal analysis, find vPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH Figure 3.66

'PS1SPC
12.5 A
8Ω %FUFSNJOFUIFOPEFWPMUBHFTJOUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH
VTJOHOPEBMBOBMZTJT
2Ω
1Ω +
vo 4Ω –
+ 50 V
+ – 300 V
100 V – +–
Figure 3.63
'PS1SPC 40 Ω 2 40 Ω
1 3
Apply nodal analysis to find JPBOEUIFQPXFSEJT
TJQBUFEJOFBDISFTJTUPSJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH 20 Ω 15 A 40 Ω
2A
Figure 3.67
10 V 3S 'PS1SPC
+–
io
6S 5S 4A
Use nodal analysis to find v v BOEvJOUIFDJSDVJU
PG'JH
Figure 3.64
'PS1SPC
3A
%FUFSNJOFWPMUBHFTvUISPVHIvJOUIFDJSDVJUPG
'JHVTJOHOPEBMBOBMZTJT 2Ω
2S v1 8Ω v2 4Ω
v3
2vo
v1 v2 8S 8Ω
+– v3 5A 4Ω 2Ω
+
2A 1S vo 4S + 13 V +
– 12 V
– –

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
Problems 115
For the circuit in Fig. 3.69, find v v BOEvVTJOH 6TFOPEBMBOBMZTJTBOE."5-"# to find 7PJOUIF
OPEBMBOBMZTJT DJSDVJUPG'JH
240 V
+–
20i 8Ω
v2 20 Ω v3
v1
+– i + Vo –
4A 4Ω 2A
40 Ω 10 Ω 40 Ω
1Ω 2Ω 2Ω 1Ω
Figure 3.69
'PS1SPC Figure 3.73
'PS1SPC
For the circuit in Fig. 3.70, find vBOEvVTJOHOPEBM
BOBMZTJT
Io
5Ω 6TFOPEBMBOBMZTJTBMPOHXJUI."5-"#UPEFUFSNJOF
UIFOPEFWPMUBHFTJO'JH
2Io
20 Ω
v1 v2
20 Ω v4
5Ω
10 Ω 10 Ω
1Ω v2 10 Ω
+– v1 v3
30 V 30 Ω
Figure 3.70 4A 8Ω 20 Ω
'PS1SPC
%FUFSNJOFvBOEvJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
10 Ω
Figure 3.74
'PS1SPC
10 Ω 3A
v1
v2
+ vo – $BMDVMBUFUIFOPEFWPMUBHFTv v BOEvJOUIF
10 Ω DJSDVJUPG'JH
10 V + 20 Ω
–
– 5vo
+
3A
10 Ω io
Figure 3.71
'PS1SPC
v1 5Ω v2 5Ω
v3
Use nodal analysis to find 7PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
3Vo 20 Ω 5Ω 15 Ω
60 Ω 30 Ω
+–
+ +
15 V + 4io –
– – + 10 V
30 V +
– 30 Ω Vo 60 Ω 3A
–

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
6TFOPEBMBOBMZTJTUPEFUFSNJOFWPMUBHFTv v BOE Using nodal analysis, find vPBOEJPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG
vJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH 'JH
4S 96 V
40 Ω
–+
3io 10 Ω io 20 Ω
+
80 V + 4vo + 2io 80 Ω vo
v1 1S v2 1S v3 – –
–
io
Figure 3.79
2A 2S 4S 2S 4A 'PS1SPC
Figure 3.76
'PS1SPC
6TF."5-"# to find the voltages at nodes B C D 'JOEUIFOPEFWPMUBHFTGPSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH

BOEEJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
c
1Ω
+ vo –
10 Ω 5Ω 4Ω
4Io 2vo
20 Ω 8Ω v1 v2 v3 2 Ω
d b –+
Io
4Ω 8Ω + 10 V
16 Ω 1A 4Ω 1Ω 4Ω –
– + 90 V
60 V + –
a
'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
6TF."5-"#UPTPMWFGPSUIFOPEFWPMUBHFTJOUIF
DJSDVJUPG'JH
V4
0CUBJOUIFOPEFWPMUBHFTv v BOEvJOUIFDJSDVJU

2A 3S
1S 1S PG'JH
V1 1S V2 4S 5 kΩ
V3
50 V v2 75 V
5A 2S 2S 6A v1 v3
–+ +–
6A + 120 V 10 kΩ
–
Figure 3.78
'PS1SPC
"OBTUFSJTLJOEJDBUFTBDIBMMFOHJOHQSPCMFN Figure 3.81

'PS1SPC
Problems 117
Sections 3.4 and 3.5 Mesh Analysis 8Ω
8IJDIPGUIFDJSDVJUTJO'JHJTQMBOBS 'PSUIF 5Ω 4Ω

QMBOBSDJSDVJU SFESBXUIFDJSDVJUTXJUIOPDSPTTJOH
CSBODIFT
1Ω 6Ω 3Ω
1Ω 7Ω 2Ω
3Ω
4Ω 5Ω
4A
2Ω
(b)
6Ω Figure 3.83
'PS1SPC
3FXPSL1SPCVTJOHNFTIBOBMZTJT
2A
6TFNFTIBOBMZTJTUPPCUBJOJB JC BOEJDJOUIFDJSDVJU
(a)
JO'JH
20 Ω 5Ω
3Ω
ia ib ic
4Ω 10 Ω
5Ω 15 Ω
30 V +
–
12 V +
– 2Ω –
45 V +
1Ω
Figure 3.84
'PS1SPC
(b)
Figure 3.82 4PMWF1SPCVTJOHNFTIBOBMZTJT
'PS1SPC
"QQMZNFTIBOBMZTJTUPUIFDJSDVJUJO'JHBOE
PCUBJO*P
4Ω 3Ω
%FUFSNJOFXIJDIPGUIFDJSDVJUTJO'JHJTQMBOBS
BOESFESBXJUXJUIOPDSPTTJOHCSBODIFT
60 V +
– 10 A 1Ω
2Ω 2Ω
2Ω Io
+ 22.5 V
1Ω 1Ω –
1Ω 5Ω
7Ω 3Ω
5A 4Ω
10 V + 6Ω
Figure 3.85
–
'PS1SPC
6TJOH'JHGSPN1SPC EFTJHOBQSPCMFNUP

4Ω
IFMQPUIFSTUVEFOUTCFUUFSVOEFSTUBOENFTIBOBMZTJT
(a)
For the bridge network in Fig. 3.86, find JPVTJOH 6TFNFTIBOBMZTJTUPPCUBJOJPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG
NFTIBOBMZTJT 'JH
io 2 kΩ
6 kΩ 6 kΩ
2 kΩ 4A 100 Ω
50 Ω io
56 V +
– 400 V +
–
4 kΩ 4 kΩ 50 Ω 100 Ω
+–
Figure 3.86
'PS1SPC 50 V
Apply mesh analysis to find JJO'JH

Figure 3.90
'PS1SPC
10 Ω
i1
2Ω 6V
+–
'JOEDVSSFOUJJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
i
1Ω
4Ω i2 i3 5Ω 4Ω 8Ω
+ 8V
–
4A
Figure 3.87 2Ω 6Ω
'PS1SPC
i
6TJOH'JH EFTJHOBQSPCMFNUPIFMQTUVEFOUT
30 V +
– 3Ω 1Ω
CFUUFSVOEFSTUBOENFTIBOBMZTJTVTJOHNBUSJDFT
20 Ω 30 Ω 10 Ω
Figure 3.91
'PS1SPC
+ i1 30 Ω 40 Ω i3 –
V1 – i2 + V3
+–
V2 $BMDVMBUFUIFNFTIDVSSFOUTJBOEJJO'JH
Figure 3.88
'PS1SPC
10 Ω 10 Ω
Use mesh analysis to find vBCBOEJPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG
'JH + vo –
40 V + i1 10 Ω i2 + 2vo
20 Ω – –
io
30 Ω
80 V +
– Figure 3.92
20 Ω + 'PS1SPC
30 Ω vab
–
80 V +
– 30 Ω
20 Ω
3FXPSL1SPCVTJOHNFTIBOBMZTJT
Figure 3.89
'PS1SPC
Problems 119
%FUFSNJOFUIFDVSSFOUUISPVHIUIFLΩSFTJTUPSJO Apply mesh analysis to find vPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG

UIFDJSDVJUPG'JHVTJOHNFTIBOBMZTJT 'JH
vo
3 kΩ
400 V +
– 10 Ω
10 Ω 10 Ω
4 kΩ 2 kΩ 5 kΩ +–
100 V
1 kΩ 10 Ω
–
6V +
– + 3V
10 kΩ 10 A
+ 4V
–

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
Use mesh analysis to find J J BOEJJOUIFDJSDVJU

PG'JH
'JOEvPBOEJPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
+ i2
vo 2Ω 8Ω
–
3Ω 3A
12 V +
– i1
1Ω vo 2Ω
io 4Ω i3 + 2vo
–
2Ω 2io + 54 V
–
Figure 3.97
'PS1SPC
Figure 3.94
'PS1SPC
'JOEUIFNFTIDVSSFOUTJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
VTJOH."5-"#
2 kΩ
Use mesh analysis to find the current JPJOUIFDJSDVJU

PG'JH
I5
6 kΩ 8 kΩ
io
I3 8 kΩ I4 3 mA
1 kΩ 4 kΩ
4Ω 2Ω
10 Ω
8Ω
12 V +
– I1 3 kΩ I2
52 V +
– 3io

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
'JOEUIFNFTIDVSSFOUTJ J BOEJJOUIFDJSDVJUJO 'JOEJ J BOEJJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH

'JH
30 Ω
1 kΩ 1 kΩ 1 kΩ i2
10 Ω
1 kΩ
10 Ω
+ i1 i2 1Ω i3 –
12 V – + 12 V
+ i1 i3
10 V – + 120 V
30 Ω – 30 Ω
Figure 3.99
'PS1SPC
Figure 3.103
*OUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH TPMWFGPS* * BOE* 'PS1SPC
10 V 3FXPSL1SPCVTJOHNFTIBOBMZTJT
+–
6Ω
I1 1A
I3 $BMDVMBUFUIFQPXFSEJTTJQBUFEJOFBDISFTJTUPSJOUIF
4A 2Ω
DJSDVJUPG'JH
12 Ω I2 4Ω
0.5io
+–
8V 4Ω 8Ω
Figure 3.100
'PS1SPC io
1Ω + 280 V 2Ω
–
%FUFSNJOFvBOEvJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
20 Ω
Figure 3.104
'PS1SPC
10 Ω +
v1 10 Ω
+ 100 V – $BMDVMBUFUIFDVSSFOUHBJOJP∕JTJOUIFDJSDVJUPG
– 'JH
10 Ω 10 Ω
50 Ω 60 Ω
+
v2 20 Ω io
– +
vo –
is 75 Ω + 9vo 90 Ω
–
Figure 3.101
'PS1SPC
Figure 3.105
In the circuit of Fig. 3.102, find the values of 3 7 'PS1SPC
BOE7HJWFOUIBUJP=N"
10 kΩ Io 'JOEUIFNFTIDVSSFOUTJ J BOEJJOUIFOFUXPSLPG

'JH
+
6 kΩ V1
– 4 kΩ 8 kΩ 2 kΩ
60 mA 10 kΩ +
6 kΩ R V2 + + 40 V
100 V – i1 4 mA i2 2i1 i3 –
–

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
Problems 121
'JOEvYBOEJYJOUIFDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JH 8SJUFBTFUPGNFTIFRVBUJPOTGPSUIFDJSDVJUJO

'JH6TF."5-"#UPEFUFSNJOFUIFNFTI
io
DVSSFOUT
10 Ω 10 Ω
+
0.8io vx 2Ω
– 5A 8Ω 4Ω 8Ω
5Ω 10 Ω i1 i2
3A + + +
0.25 vx 12 V – 6Ω – 24 V – 40 V
Figure 3.107 2Ω 2Ω 6Ω
8Ω 8Ω
'PS1SPC 4Ω i4 4Ω
i3 i5
+ +
30 V –
– 32 V
Figure 3.110
'PS1SPC
Section 3.6 Nodal and Mesh Analyses

'JOEWPBOEJPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH by Inspection
0CUBJOUIFOPEFWPMUBHFFRVBUJPOTGPSUIFDJSDVJUJO
50 Ω 10 Ω
'JHCZJOTQFDUJPO5IFOTPMWFGPS7P
io + vo –
+ 5A
10 Ω – 4io
250 V +
– 40 Ω
4Ω 2Ω
0.2vo 5A + Vo –
3Vo 10 Ω 5Ω 10 A
Figure 3.108
'PS1SPC
Figure 3.111
'PS1SPC
6TJOH'JH EFTJHOBQSPCMFN UPTPMWFGPS7P

UPIFMQPUIFSTUVEFOUTCFUUFSVOEFSTUBOEOPEBM
6TF."5-"#UPTPMWFGPSUIFNFTIDVSSFOUTJOUIF BOBMZTJT5SZZPVSCFTUUPDPNFVQXJUIWBMVFTUP
DJSDVJUPG'JH NBLFUIFDBMDVMBUJPOTFBTJFS
6V I2
10 V
3Ω 4Ω
–+ –+
i4 2Ω i5 R2 R3
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
+
5Ω 6Ω + V
i1 6Ω i2 8Ω i3 I1 R1 Vo R4 1
–
+ – –
12 V – + 9V

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
'PSUIFDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JH XSJUFUIFOPEF #ZJOTQFDUJPO XSJUFUIFNFTIDVSSFOUFRVBUJPOTGPS

WPMUBHFFRVBUJPOTCZJOTQFDUJPO UIFDJSDVJUJO'JH
20 Ω
20 kΩ
i2
40 V 15 V
50 mA 30 Ω
+– +–
20 Ω i1 10 Ω i3 20 Ω i4 + 20 V
v1 10 kΩ v2 5 kΩ –
v3
100 mA 5 kΩ 10 kΩ 40 mA Figure 3.116

'PS1SPC
8SJUFUIFNFTIDVSSFOUFRVBUJPOTGPSUIFDJSDVJUJO
'JH
Figure 3.113
'PS1SPC 10 Ω 10 Ω
+–
10 V
15 V + i1 10 Ω i2
8SJUFUIFOPEFWPMUBHFFRVBUJPOTCZJOTQFDUJPOBOE – 10 Ω
UIFOEFUFSNJOFWBMVFTPG7BOE7JOUIFDJSDVJUPG 10 Ω 10 Ω
10 V
'JH +–
10 Ω i4
i3 10 Ω 10 Ω
4ix
V1 V2 15 V +
–
ix 10 Ω
+–
20 A 1S 2S 5S 7A 10 V
Figure 3.117
'PS1SPC
#ZJOTQFDUJPO PCUBJOUIFNFTIDVSSFOUFRVBUJPOTGPS

Figure 3.114 UIFDJSDVJUJO'JH
'PS1SPC
R1 R2 R3
8SJUFUIFNFTIDVSSFOUFRVBUJPOTGPSUIFDJSDVJUJO i2 R5
V1 + i1 R4
'JH/FYU EFUFSNJOFUIFWBMVFTPGJ J –
BOEJ V2 +
R6 – i4 + V
– 4
i3
R8
+–
5Ω i3 3Ω
R7
V3
1Ω
Figure 3.118
30 V + i1
– 'PS1SPC
2Ω
4Ω i2 Section 3.8 Circuit Analysis with PSpice or
+ 15 V
–
MultiSim
6TF14QJDFPS.VMUJ4JNUPTPMWF1SPC
Figure 3.115
'PS1SPC 6TF14QJDFPS.VMUJ4JNUPTPMWF1SPC
Problems 123
4PMWFGPS7BOE7JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JHVTJOH 5IFGPMMPXJOHQSPHSBNJTUIF4DIFNBUJDT/FUMJTUPGB

14QJDFPS.VMUJ4JN QBSUJDVMBSDJSDVJU%SBXUIFDJSDVJUBOEEFUFSNJOFUIF
WPMUBHFBUOPEF
2ix
V1 5Ω V2
Section 3.9 Applications

5A 2Ω 1Ω 2A
ix $BMDVMBUFvPBOE*PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
Io
Figure 3.119 4 kΩ
'PS1SPC
+
vo +
15 mV +
– 100 – 50Io 20 kΩ vo
4PMWF1SPCVTJOH14QJDFPS.VMUJ4JN –
3FXPSL1SPCVTJOH14QJDFPS.VMUJ4JN
Figure 3.121
'JOEUIFOPEBMWPMUBHFTvUISPVHIvJOUIFDJSDVJUPG 'PS1SPC
'JHVTJOH14QJDFPS.VMUJ4JN
6Io An audio amplifier with a resistance of 9 ΩTVQQMJFT

+–
QPXFSUPBTQFBLFS8IBUTIPVMECFUIFSFTJTUBODFPG
UIFTQFBLFSGPSNBYJNVNQPXFSUPCFEFMJWFSFE
For the simplified transistor circuit of Fig. 3.122,
10 Ω v2 12 Ω
v1 v3 DBMDVMBUFUIFWPMUBHFvP
8A 4Ω
2Ω 1 kΩ
v4 + 20 V
–
Io I
400I
1Ω +
47 mV +
– 5 kΩ vo
–
2 kΩ
Figure 3.120
'PS1SPC Figure 3.122
'PS1SPC
6TF14QJDFPS.VMUJ4JNUPTPMWFUIFQSPCMFNJO
&YBNQMF
*GUIF4DIFNBUJDT/FUMJTUGPSBOFUXPSLJTBTGPMMPXT For the circuit in Fig. 3.123, find the gain vP∕vT
ESBXUIFOFUXPSL
3.5 kΩ 500 Ω
+ +
vs + v1 – vo
– 500 Ω + 80 v1 500 Ω
– –
Figure 3.123
'PS1SPC
160 Chapter 4 Circuit Theorems
Problems
Section 4.2 Linearity Property 'PSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH BTTVNFvP=7 BOEVTF
linearity to find the actual vBMVFPGvP
$BMDVMBUFUIFDVSSFOUJPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
8IBUWBMVFPGJOQVUWPMUBHFJTOFDFTTBSZUPNBLFJP 2Ω 3Ω vo 2 Ω
FRVBMUPBNQT
15 V +
– 6Ω 6Ω 4Ω
5Ω 25 Ω
io
30 V + 40 Ω 15 Ω
– Figure 4.73
'PS1SPC
Figure 4.69 'PSUIFMJOFBSDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JH VTFMJOFBSJUZ

'PS1SPC UPDPNQMFUFUIFGPMMPXJOHUBCMF
&YQFSJNFOU 7T 7P
6TJOH'JH EFTJHOBQSPCMFNUPIFMQPUIFS
7 7
TUVEFOUTCFUUFSVOEFSTUBOEMJOFBSJUZ
7
7
R2 R4
¢7
+
I R1 R3 R5 vo
–
+
Linear
Vs +
– Vo
circuit
Figure 4.70 –
'PS1SPC
B
*OUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH DBMDVMBUFvPBOEJP Figure 4.74
XIFOvT= 7 'PS1SPC
C
'JOEvPBOEJPXIFOvT=7
6TFMJOFBSJUZBOEUIFBTTVNQUJPOUIBU7P=7UP
D
8IBUBSFvPBOEJPXIFOFBDIPGUIFΩSFTJTUPST find the actual vBMVFPG7PJO'JH
JTSFQMBDFECZBΩ SFTJTUPSBOEvT=7
10 Ω
+ Vx –
1Ω
30 Ω 1A 40 Ω
1Ω 1Ω
io
+
vs + 1Ω vo 1Ω Figure 4.75
–
– 'PS1SPC
Section 4.3 Superposition

Figure 4.71
'PS1SPC Using superposition, find 7PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
$IFDLXJUI14QJDFPS.VMUJ4JN
6TFMJOFBSJUZUPEFUFSNJOFJPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
4Ω Vo 1Ω
3Ω 2Ω
3Ω
io 5Ω + 3V
–
+ 9V
6Ω 4Ω 9A –

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
Problems 161
(JWFOUIBU*=BNQTXIFO7T=WPMUTBOE Use superposition to find vPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH

*T=−BNQTBOE*=BNQXIFO7T=WPMUTBOE
*T= VTFTVQFSQPTJUJPOBOEMJOFBSJUZUPEFUFSNJOFUIF 4A
WBMVFPG*XIFO7T=WPMUTBOE*T=BNQT
8Ω
–+
Vs + I Is +
– 12 V vo
2A 10 Ω 5Ω
–

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
Apply the superposition principle to find vPJOUIF

DJSDVJUPG'JH
TUVEFOUTCFUUFSVOEFSTUBOETVQFSQPTJUJPO/PUF UIF
MFUUFSLJTBHBJOZPVDBOTQFDJGZUPNBLFUIFQSPCMFN
FBTJFSUPTPMWFCVUNVTUOPUCF[FSP 6Ω
2A
kVab
R
+ – a 4Ω 2Ω
+
V +
– I Vab +
– 20 V +
– 1A vo 3Ω
b –
Figure 4.78
'PS1SPC Figure 4.82
'PS1SPC
Use the superposition principle to find JPBOEvPJO 'or the circuit in Fig. 4.83, use superposition to find
UIFDJSDVJUPG'JH J$BMDVMBUFUIFQPXFSEFMJWFSFEUPUIFΩSFTJTUPS
io 10 Ω 20 Ω
1Ω 2A
+ vo – 20 V +
– 4Ω
6A 4io –
40 Ω + 30 V i
–
2Ω + 16 V
3Ω
Figure 4.79
'PS1SPC Figure 4.83
'PS1SPCTBOE
%FUFSNJOFvPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JHVTJOHUIF (JWFOUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH VTFTVQFSQPTJUJPOUP

TVQFSQPTJUJPOQSJODJQMF PCUBJOJP
2A 36 A
6Ω 5Ω 4Ω io 4Ω 3Ω 2Ω
+ v –
o
12 V +
– 3Ω 12 Ω + 19 V
– 108 V +
– 10 Ω 5Ω 18 A

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
6TFTVQFSQPTJUJPOUPPCUBJOvYJOUIFDJSDVJUPG 6TJOH'JH EFTJHOBQSPCMFNUPIFMQPUIFS

'JH$IFDLZPVSSFTVMUVTJOH14QJDFPS TUVEFOUTCFUUFSVOEFSTUBOETPVSDFUSBOTGPSNBUJPO
.VMUJ4JN
30 Ω 10 Ω 20 Ω io R1
+ vx – +
V + R2 vo I
90 V +
– 60 Ω 6A 30 Ω +
– 40 V –
–
Figure 4.89
Figure 4.85 'PS1SPC
'PS1SPC
'PSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH VTFTPVSDF

Use superposition to find 7PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
transformation to find J
10 Ω 5Ω 10 Ω
– +
i
2 Vo +
3A Vo 10 Ω 4A 2A 5Ω 4Ω + 20 V
–
–

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
6TFTVQFSQPTJUJPOUPTPMWFGPSvYJOUIFDJSDVJUPG
'JH 3FGFSSJOHUP'JH VTFTPVSDFUSBOTGPSNBUJPOUP
EFUFSNJOFUIFDVSSFOUBOEQPXFSBCTPSCFECZUIF
Ω SFTJTUPS
ix 8Ω 3Ω
+
2Ω 10 A –4 A 8Ω vx
–
– + 3A 10 Ω 6Ω + 15 V
–
4ix
Figure 4.87
'PS1SPC Figure 4.91
'PS1SPC
Section 4.4 Source Transformation

Use source transformation to find the vPMUBHF7YJO
6TFTPVSDFUSBOTGPSNBUJPOUPSFEVDFUIFDJSDVJU UIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
CFUXFFOUFSNJOBMTaBOEbTIPXOJO'JHUPB
TJOHMFWPMUBHFTPVSDFJOTFSJFTXJUIBTJOHMFSFTJTUPS
3A
20 Ω
a
8Ω 10 Ω
10 Ω 1A 20 Ω + Vx –
20 V +
– 20 Ω
20 V + + 30 V 40 V +
– 10 Ω 2Vx
– –
b
'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
Problems 163
0CUBJOvPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JHVTJOHTPVSDF Use source transformation to find vPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG

USBOTGPSNBUJPO$IFDLZPVSSFTVMUVTJOH14QJDFPS 'JH
.VMUJ4JN
2A 4 kΩ
3vo
2 kΩ
9Ω
– +
+
3 mA 1 kΩ vo
3A 4Ω 5Ω 6A –
+ vo –
+– Figure 4.97
2Ω 'PS1SPC
30 V
Figure 4.93
'PS1SPC
6TFTPVSDFUSBOTGPSNBUJPOPOUIFDJSDVJUTIPXOJO
Fig 4.98 to find JY
Use source transformation to find JPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG
'JH
ix 24 Ω 60 Ω
5Ω
12 V + 30 Ω 10 Ω 0.7ix
–
3A io 4Ω
2Ω + Figure 4.98
6A 20 V
– 'PS1SPC
Figure 4.94 %FUFSNJOFvYJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JHVTJOHTPVSDF

'PS1SPC USBOTGPSNBUJPO
Apply source transformation to find vYJOUIFDJSDVJU 3Ω 6Ω

PG'JH
+ vx –
10 Ω 12 Ω 20 Ω +
a b 30 V +
– 8Ω – 2vx
+ vx –
50 V +
– 40 Ω 8A +
– 40 V
Figure 4.99
'PS1SPC
Figure 4.95
'PS1SPCTBOE Use source transformation to find JYJOUIFDJSDVJUPG
'JH
Use source transformation to find *PJO'JH

10 Ω
1Ω Io 4Ω
ix 0.5ix
+ Vo – 15 Ω
8V +
– 3Ω 1
V
3 o
60 V +
– 50 Ω 40 Ω

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
Sections 4.5 and 4.6 Thevenin’s and Norton’s 'JOEUIF/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUXJUISFTQFDUUPUFSNJOBMT

Theorems BCJOUIFDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JH
%FUFSNJOFUIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUDJSDVJU TIPXOJO 30 V

'JH BTTFFOCZUIFPINSFTJTUPS 20 kΩ
+– a
Then calculate the current floXJOHUISPVHIUIFPIN
SFTJTUPS
6 mA 10 kΩ 6 kΩ
13 Ω 60 Ω
b
7Ω 30 Ω + 240 V Figure 4.104

–
'PS1SPC
"QQMZ5IFWFOJOs theorem to find 7PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG

Figure 4.101 'JH
'PS1SPC
4Ω 1Ω
5Ω +
6TJOH'JH EFTJHOBQSPCMFNUIBUXJMMIFMQ 2.5 A 16 Ω 10 Ω Vo
PUIFSTUVEFOUTCFUUFSVOEFSTUBOE5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOU –
DJSDVJUT + 50 V
–
Figure 4.105
'PS1SPC
I
0CUBJOUIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUBUUFSNJOBMTBCPG
R1 R3 UIFDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JH
a
5A
V +
– R2
b 10 Ω 16 Ω
a
Figure 4.102
'PS1SPCTBOE 10 Ω
5Ω
30 V +
–
b
6TF5IFWFOJOs theorem to find vPJO1SPC Figure 4.106
'PS1SPC
4PMWFGPSUIFDVSSFOUiJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
VTJOH5IFWFOJOTUIFPSFN )JOU'JOEUIF5IFWFOJO 'JOEUIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUBUUFSNJOBMTBCPGUIF
FRVJWBMFOUTFFOCZUIFΩSFTJTUPS
DJSDVJUJO'JH
+V –
o
i 10 kΩ 20 kΩ
a
10 Ω 12 Ω +
70 V + 4Vo
40 Ω – –
b
150 V +
–
+ 60 V
–

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
Problems 165
'JOEUIF5IFWFOJOBOE/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUTBU 'JOEUIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUPGUIFDJSDVJUJO

UFSNJOBMTBCPGUIFDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JH 'JHBTTFFOCZMPPLJOHJOUPUFSNJOBMTBBOEC
14 V
14 Ω 6Ω
–+ a a
10 A 6Ω 4Ω
1A 6Ω 3A 5Ω
b
b Figure 4.112
'PS1SPC
'or the circuit in Fig. 4.109, find the 5IFWFOJO
TUVEFOUTCFUUFSVOEFSTUBOE/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUDJSDVJUT
FRVJWBMFOUCFUXFFOUFSNJOBMTBBOEC
20 Ω R2
a
–
20 Ω + 20 V
10 Ω I R1 R3
a b
10 Ω b
5A 10 Ω 10 Ω Figure 4.113
'PS1SPC
30 V +
–
0CUBJOUIF5IFWFOJOBOE/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUDJSDVJUT
Figure 4.109 PGUIFDJSDVJUJO'JHXJUISFTQFDUUPUFSNJOBMT
'PS1SPC BBOEC
'JOEUIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUMPPLJOHJOUPUFSNJOBMT
BCPGUIFDJSDVJUJO'JHBOETPMWFGPSJY
a
10 Ω a 6Ω b Iv
20 Ω
ix 1A 20 Ω
+
20 V +
– 10 Ω 5Ω 2A –
20Iv
Figure 4.114
'PS1SPC
'PSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH PCUBJOUIF5IFWFOJO %FUFSNJOFUIF/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUBUUFSNJOBMTBCGPS
FRVJWBMFOUBTTFFOGSPNUFSNJOBMT UIFDJSDVJUJO'JH
B
BC C
CD
10io
3Ω 1Ω 2Ω
a + – a
io
+ 4Ω
24 V –
5A 4Ω
b
2Ω 5Ω 2A b
c
Figure 4.115
'PS1SPC
Figure 4.111
'PS1SPC 'JOEUIF/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUMPPLJOHJOUPUFSNJOBMT
BCPGUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH-FU7=7
"OBTUFSJTLJOEJDBUFTBDIBMMFOHJOHQSPCMFN *=" 3=Ω 3= Ω BOE3= Ω
0CUBJOUIF/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUPGUIFDJSDVJUJO 'JOEUIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUCFUXFFOUFSNJOBMTBC

'JHUPUIFMFGUPGUFSNJOBMTBC6TFUIFSFTVMU PGUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH
to find current J
6Ω 12 V 1 kΩ
a a
+–
i
Io
+ 40Io +
3V +
–
2Vx
Vx 50 Ω
2A 4Ω 5Ω 4A –
–
b
b Figure 4.120
'PS1SPC
Figure 4.116
'PS1SPC
(JWFOUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH PCUBJOUIF/PSUPO 0CUBJOUIF/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUBUUFSNJOBMTBCPGUIF

FRVJWBMFOUBTWJFXFEGSPNUFSNJOBMT DJSDVJUJO'JH
B
Bb C
DE
a b 8 kΩ I
6Ω 4Ω a
c +
2V + 0.001Vab + 80I 50 kΩ Vab
– –
120 V +
– 3Ω 6A 2Ω –
b
d Figure 4.121
'PS1SPC
'PSUIFUSBOTJTUPSNPEFMJO'JH PCUBJOUIF 6TF/PSUPOs theorem to find 7PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG

5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUBUUFSNJOBMTBC 'JH
3 kΩ
a
io 12 kΩ 2 kΩ 10 kΩ
+ 20io 2 kΩ
21 V – +
b 120 V +
– 24 kΩ 10 mA 20 kΩ Vo
–
Figure 4.118
'PS1SPC
Figure 4.122
'PS1SPC
'JOEUIF/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUBUUFSNJOBMTBCPGUIF
DJSDVJUJO'JH
0CUBJOUIF5IFWFOJOBOE/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUDJSDVJUT
+ Vo –
a BUUFSNJOBMTBCGPSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH
10 Ω
20 Ω
3Ω 2Ω
3A a
2 Vo + +
–
50 V +
– 6Ω vx 0.5vx 10 Ω
–
b
b
'PS1SPC 'PS1SPCTBOE
Problems 167
5IFOFUXPSLJO'JHNPEFMTBCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPS 'JOEUIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUPGUIFDJSDVJUJO

common-emitter amplifier connected to a load. Find 'JH
UIF5IFWFOJOSFTJTUBODFTFFOCZUIFMPBE
0.1io
ib bib
R1 a
+
+ 10 Ω vo
vs R2 RL
– –
io
Figure 4.124 40 Ω 20 Ω
'PS1SPC
+– b
%FUFSNJOFUIF5IFWFOJOBOE/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUTBU
2vo
UFSNJOBMTBCPGUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH
Figure 4.128
'PS1SPC
10 Ω 20 Ω
8A a b 'JOEUIF/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUGPSUIFDJSDVJUJO
'JH
50 Ω 40 Ω
10 Ω
Figure 4.125
'PS1SPCTBOE
+
vo 20 Ω 0.5vo
'or the circuit in Fig. 4.126, find the 5IFWFOJOBOE
–
/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUDJSDVJUTBUUFSNJOBMTBC
2A Figure 4.129
'PS1SPC
18 V 0CUBJOUIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUTFFOBUUFSNJOBMTBC
4Ω 6Ω PGUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH
a +– b
4Ω 1Ω
3A
5Ω a
+– ix
10ix + 2Ω
10 V –
Figure 4.126
'PS1SPCTBOE b
0CUBJOUIF5IFWFOJOBOE/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUDJSDVJUT Figure 4.130

BUUFSNJOBMTBCPGUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH 'PS1SPC
2Ω
a 'PSUIFDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JH EFUFSNJOFUIF
SFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFO7PBOE*o
6Ω 6Ω
12 V +
–
+ 12 V
– Io
4Ω 2Ω
6Ω
+
2Ω 2Ω
– 32 V +
– 12 Ω Vo
+ 12 V –
b
'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
Section 4.8 Maximum Power Transfer %FUFSNJOFUIFNBYJNVNQPXFSEFMJWFSFEUPUIFWBSJ

'JOEUIFNBYJNVNQPXFSUIBUDBOCFEFMJWFSFEUP BCMFSFTJTUPS3TIPXOJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
UIFSFTJTUPS3JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
30 V
2Ω
–+
3Ω R
2 Vx
10 Ω
60 V +
– 5Ω 18 A 3A – +
+
Figure 4.132 Vx 20 Ω 10 Ω 20 Ω
'PS1SPC –
5IFWBSJBCMFSFTJTUPS3JO'JHJTBEKVTUFEVOUJM
JUBCTPSCTUIFNBYJNVNQPXFSGSPNUIFDJSDVJU
B
$BMDVMBUFUIFWBMVFPG3GPSNBYJNVNQPXFS
C
%FUFSNJOFUIFNBYJNVNQPXFSBCTPSCFECZ3 R
Figure 4.136
80 kΩ 20 kΩ 'PS1SPC
100 V
+– R
'PSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH XIBUSFTJTUPSDPOOFDUFE
10 kΩ
BDSPTTUFSNJOBMTBCXJMMBCTPSCNBYJNVNQPXFS
90 kΩ
GSPNUIFDJSDVJU 8IBUJTUIBUQPXFS
Figure 4.133
'PS1SPC
3 kΩ 10 kΩ
$POTJEFSUIFΩSFTJTUPSJO'JH'JSTUDPNQVUF a
UIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUDJSDVJUBTTFFOCZUIFƗ +
SFTJTUPS$PNQVUFUIFWBMVFPGRUIBUSFTVMUTJO5IFWFOJO 8V + vo 1 kΩ
–
120vo 40 kΩ
– +
FRVJWBMFOUSFTJTUBODFFRVBMUPUIFΩSFTJTUBODFBOE –
UIFODBMDVMBUFQPXFSEFMJWFSFEUPUIFΩSFTJTUPS b
/PXMFU3=Ɨ Ω BOE∞ DBMDVMBUFUIFQPXFS
EFMJWFSFEUPUIFΩSFTJTUPSJOFBDIDBTF8IBUDBO Figure 4.137
ZPVTBZBCPVUUIFWBMVFPG3UIBUXJMMSFTVMUJOUIFNBYJ 'PS1SPC
NVNQPXFSUIBUDBOCFEFMJWFSFEUPUIFΩSFTJTUPS
10 Ω
–+
B
'PSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH PCUBJOUIF5IFWFOJO
FRVJWBMFOUBUUFSNJOBMTBC
30 V C
$BMDVMBUFUIFDVSSFOUJO3-=Ω
3A R 30 Ω 60 Ω
D
'JOE3-GPSNBYJNVNQPXFSEFMJWFSBCMFUP3-
E
%FUFSNJOFUIBUNBYJNVNQPXFS
Figure 4.134
'PS1SPC 2A
'JOEUIFNBYJNVNQPXFSUSBOTGFSSFEUPSFTJTUPS3JO
UIFDJSDVJUPG'JH
4Ω 6Ω a
10 kΩ 22 kΩ
+ 4A 2Ω RL
100 V +
–
𝜐o 40 kΩ 0.006𝜐o 30 kΩ R
– +–
b
20 V

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
Problems 169
%FUFSNJOFUIFNBYJNVNQPXFSUIBUDBOCFEFMJWFSFE 6TF14QJDFPS.VMUJ4JN to find the 5IFWFOJO

UPUIFWBSJBCMFSFTJTUPS3JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH FRVJWBMFOUDJSDVJUBUUFSNJOBMTBCPGUIFDJSDVJU
JO'JH
'PSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH VTF14QJDFPS.VMUJ4JN
10 Ω 25 Ω to find the 5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUBUUFSNJOBMTBC
R Section 4.10 Applications

+
60 V –
"OBVUPNPCJMFCBUUFSZIBTBOPQFODJSDVJUWPMUBHF
PG7XIJDIESPQTUP7XIFODPOOFDUFEUP
20 Ω 5Ω UXP8IFBEMJHIUT8IBUJTUIFSFTJTUBODFPGUIF
IFBEMJHIUTBOEUIFWBMVFPGUIFJOUFSOBMSFTJTUBODFPG
Figure 4.139 UIFCBUUFSZ
'PS1SPC
5IFGPMMPXJOHSFTVMUTXFSFPCUBJOFEGSPN
'PSUIFCSJEHFDJSDVJUTIPwn in Fig. 4.140, find the NFBTVSFNFOUTUBLFOCFUXFFOUIFUXPUFSNJOBMTPGB
MPBE3-GPSNBYJNVNQPXFSUSBOTGFSBOEUIFNBYJ SFTJTUJWFOFUXPSL
NVNQPXFSBCTPSCFECZUIFMPBE
5FSNJOBM7PMUBHF 7 7
5FSNJOBM$VSSFOU " "
'JOEUIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUPGUIFOFUXPSL
R1 R3
RL 8IFODPOOFDUFEUPBΩSFTJTUPS BCBUUFSZIBTB
vs +
– UFSNJOBMWPMUBHFPG7CVUQSPEVDFT7PO
BOPQFODJSDVJU%FUFSNJOFUIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOU
R2 R4
DJSDVJUGPSUIFCBUUFSZ
5IF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUBUUFSNJOBMTabPGUIF
MJOFBSOFUXPSLTIPXOJO'JHJTUPCFEFUFS
Figure 4.140
NJOFECZNFBTVSFNFOU8IFOBLΩSFTJTUPSJT
'PS1SPC
DPOOFDUFEUPUFSNJOBMTa-b UIFWPMUBHF7BCJTNFB
TVSFEBT78IFOBLΩSFTJTUPSJTDPOOFDUFEUP
'PSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH EFUFSNJOFUIFWBMVFPG UIFUFSNJOBMT 7BCJTNFBTVSFEBT7%FUFSNJOF
3TVDIUIBUUIFNBYJNVNQPXFSEFMJWFSFEUPUIF B
UIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUBUUFSNJOBMTBC C
7BC
MPBEJTN8 XIFOBLΩSFTJTUPSJTDPOOFDUFEUPUFSNJOBMTBC
R a
Linear
R
network
R b
RL Figure 4.142
1V +
–
+ 2V + 3V
– – 'PS1SPC
"CMBDLCPYXJUIBDJSDVJUJOJUJTDPOOFDUFEUPBWBSJ
Figure 4.141 BCMFSFTJTUPS"OJEFBMBNNFUFS XJUI[FSPSFTJTUBODF

'PS1SPC BOEBOJEFBMWoltmeter (with infinite resistance) are
VTFEUPNFBTVSFDVSSFOUBOEWPMUBHFBTTIPXOJO
Section 4.9 Verifying Circuit Theorems 'JH5IFSFTVMUTBSFTIPXOJOUIFUBCMFPO
with PSpice UIFOFYUQBHF
4PMWF1SPCVTJOH14QJDFPS.VMUJ4JN-FU i
7= 7 *=" 3= Ω 3=Ω BOE A
3=Ω
Black
V R
6TF14QJDFPS.VMUJ4JNUPTPMWF1SPC box
6TF14QJDFPS.VMUJ4JNUPTPMWF1SPC
0CUBJOUIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUPGUIFDJSDVJUJO Figure 4.143
'JHVTJOH14QJDFPS.VMUJ4JN 'PS1SPC
B
'JOEiXIFO3=Ω 5IF8IFBUTUPOFCSJEHFDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JHJT
C
%FUFSNJOFUIFNBYJNVNQPXFSGSPNUIFCPY VTFEUPNFBTVSFUIFSFTJTUBODFPGBTUSBJOHBVHF5IF
BEKVTUBCMFSFTJTUPSIBTBMJOFBSUBQFSXJUIBNBYJNVN
3 Ω
7 7
J "
WBMVFPGΩ*GUIFSFTJTUBODFPGUIFTUSBJOHBVHF
JTGPVOEUPCFΩ XIBUGSBDUJPOPGUIFGVMMTMJEFS
USBWFMJTUIFTMJEFSXIFOUIFCSJEHFJTCBMBODFE

Rs
"USBOTEVDFSJTNPEFMFEXJUIBDVSSFOUTPVSDF*TBOE
BQBSBMMFMSFTJTUBODF3T5IFDVSSFOUBUUIFUFSNJOBMT
2 kΩ 4 kΩ
PGUIFTPVSDFJTNFBTVSFEUPCFN"XIFOBO
BNNFUFSXJUIBOJOUFSOBMSFTJTUBODFPGΩJTVTFE
vs + G
B
*GBEEJOHBLΩSFTJTUPSBDSPTTUIFTPVSDF – 100 Ω
UFSNJOBMTDBVTFTUIFBNNFUFSSFBEJOHUPGBMMUP
N" DBMDVMBUF*TBOE3T
C
8IBUXJMMUIFBNNFUFSSFBEJOHCFJGUIF
SFTJTUBODFCFUXFFOUIFTPVSDFUFSNJOBMTJT Rx
DIBOHFEUPLΩ Figure 4.146
$POTJEFSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH"OBNNFUFSXJUI 'PS1SPC
JOUFSOBMSFTJTUBODF3JJTJOTFSUFECFUXFFO"BOE#UP
NFBTVSF*P%FUFSNJOFUIFSFBEJOHPGUIFBNNFUFSJG B
*OUIF8IFBUTUPOFCSJEHFDJSDVJUPG'JH
B
3J=Ω C
3J=Ω )JOU'JOEUIF TFMFDUUIFWBMVFTPG3BBOE3CTVDIUIBUUIFCSJEHF
5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUDJSDVJUBUUFSNJOBMTBC
DBONFBTVSF3YJOUIFSBOHFPGmΩ
C
3FQFBUGPSUIFSBOHFPGmΩ
+–
V
a 2 kΩ b 5 kΩ
150 Ω Ra
Io
20 kΩ + 60 V
30 kΩ 4 mA – G
Rx Rb
10 kΩ
'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
$POTJEFSUIFCSJEHFDJSDVJUPG'JH*TUIF
CSJEHFCBMBODFE *GUIFLΩSFTJTUPSJTSFQMBDFECZ
$POTJEFSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH B
3FQMBDFUIF BOLΩSFTJTUPS XIBUSFTJTUPSDPOOFDUFECFUXFFO
SFTJTUPS3-CZB[FSPSFTJTUBODFBNNFUFSBOEEFUFS UFSNJOBMTabBCTPSCTUIFNBYJNVNQPXFS 8IBUJT
NJOFUIFBNNFUFSSFBEJOH C
5PWFSJGZUIFSFDJQSPD UIJTQPXFS
JUZUIFPSFN JOUFSDIBOHFUIFBNNFUFSBOEUIF7
TPVSDFBOEEFUFSNJOFUIFBNNFUFSSFBEJOHBHBJO
2 kΩ
3 kΩ 6 kΩ
10 kΩ 20 kΩ
RL 220 V +
– a b
12 V +
–
5 kΩ 10 kΩ
12 kΩ 15 kΩ

'PS1SPC 'PS1SPC
Appendix D
Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems
Chapter 1 B
L$ C
L+ D
DFOUT
B
−N$ C
−N$ D
−$ DFOUT
E
−$

B
U+ $ C
U + UN$
D
TJO U + π∕
+ μ$ $
E
−F−U<DPTU + TJOU>$
$ .8I
" <U<
⏟
"IPVS
ER −" <U<
J = ___=
EU " <U< DFOUT
" <U<
4FFUIFTLFUDIJO'JH%
Chapter 2
5IJTJTBEFTJHOQSPCMFNXJUITFWFSBMBOTXFST
i(A)
10 NN
O = C = M =
0
1 2 3 4 t(s) CSBODIFTBOEOPEFT
" −" "

‒20
Figure D.1 7 7
'PS1SPC
" −" " −"
B
$ C
$ D
$ 7 −"
L$ L+ 7 −7 7
N8 N+
−" 8 −8 8 8
B
N$ C
−F μ8 D
−μ+
−U
7
8BCTPSCFE
−7 8
−" −8 8 8 8
" L7 L8
×FMFDUSPOT $
"

Ω
DFOUT
A-21
A-22 Appendix D Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems
" " " " " Ω
7 " LΩ LΩ
LΩ ∞ Ω CFTUBOTXFS
7 N"
Ω
B
Ω C
LΩ
Ω Chapter 3

B
Ω C
Ω 5IJTJTBEFTJHOQSPCMFNXJUITFWFSBMBOTXFST
B
Ω C
Ω −" −" −" " −7
Ω −7

B
Ω C
3 BO = Ω 3 CO = Ω 3 DO = Ω 7
B
Ω C
Ω
N"
B
Ω C
Ω
7 8 N8 8
N"
7 7
Ω "
" 8 8 8
188 NFBOTUIBUUIJTJNNFEJBUFMZCVSOT
PVU
188 1885IFCFTUXBZUP "
XJSFUIFCVMCTJTUPDPOOFDUUIF8CVMCJOTFSJFT
XJUIBQBSBMMFMDPNCJOBUJPOPGUIF8CVMCBOEUIF 7 7 7
8CVMC
−7 7
6TF3BOE3CVMCT
Ω ≅ 8 7
4P PVSDJSDVJUDPOTJTUTPGUIFNFUFSJOTFSJFTXJUIBO 7 7 7 7

LƗSFTJTUPS
N7 N7 7
B
7 C
7 D
E

−7 7 7 7
B
7 XJUI
7 XJUIPVU

C
7 XJUI
7 XJUIPVU
7 7 −7
D
7 XJUI
7 XJUIPVU
B
BOE C
BSFCPUIQMBOBSBOEDBOCFSFESBXOBT
Ω TIPXOJO'JH%
Ω
Ω 5Ω
3Ω 1Ω
B
'PVSΩSFTJTUPSTJOQBSBMMFM
C
0OFΩSFTJTUPSJOTFSJFTXJUIBΩSFTJTUPS 2Ω 4Ω
BOEBQBSBMMFMDPNCJOBUJPOPGUXPΩSFTJTUPST 6Ω
D
5XPLΩSFTJTUPSTJOQBSBMMFMDPOOFDUFEJO
TFSJFTXJUIUXPLΩSFTJTUPSTJOQBSBMMFM 2A
E
"TFSJFTDPNCJOBUJPOPGBΩSFTJTUPS
ΩSFTJTUPS LΩSFTJTUPS BOEBQBSBMMFM (a)
DPNCJOBUJPOPGUXPLΩSFTJTUPST
Appendix D Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-23
[ ][ ] [ ]
30 −10 −10 0 i1 15
4Ω
−10 40 −10 0 i2 0
3.73 =
−10 −10 50 −10 i3 25
3Ω
0 0 −10 20 i4 −10
5Ω
12 V +
‒ 2Ω 3.75 −3 A, 0 A, 3 A
1Ω 3.77 3.111 V, 1.4444 V
(b) 3.79 −10.556 V, 20.56 V, 1.3889 V, −43.75 V

Figure D.2
For Prob. 3.33. 3.81 26.67 V, 6.667 V, 173.33 V, −46.67 V
3.35 20 V 3.83 See Fig. D.3; −12.5 V
3.37 12 V 1 20 Ω 2 70 Ω 3
3.39 This is a design problem with several different

answers. 20 V +
‒ 50 Ω 2A 30 Ω
0
3.41 1.188 A
3.43 1.7778 A, 53.33 V Figure D.3

For Prob. 3.83.
3.45 8.561 A
3.85 9 Ω
3.47 10 V, 4.933 V, 12.267 V
3.87 −5
3.49 114 V, 36 A
3.89 22.5 μA, 12.75 V
3.51 233.3 V
3.53 1.6196 mA, −1.0202 mA, −2.461 mA, 3 mA, 3.91 0.8078 μA, 8.345 V, 48.79 mV
−2.423 mA
3.93 1.333 A, 1.333 A, 2.6667 A
3.55 −1 A, 0 A, 2 A
3.57 12 kΩ, 120 V, 80 V Chapter 4

3.59 −4.48 A, −1.0752 kV 4.1 600 mA, 250 V
4.3 (a) 0.5 V, 0.5 A, (b) 5 V, 5 A, (c) 5 V, 500 mA

3.61 −0.2813
4.5 4.5 V
3.63 −4 V, 2.105 A
4.7 888.9 mV
3.65 2.17 A, 1.9912 A, 1.8119 A, 2.094 A, 2.249 A
4.9 2A
3.67 −30 V
4.11 17.99 V, 1.799 A
⎡ 0.35 −0.1 −0.05⎤ ⎡ v1⎤ ⎡ 100⎤
4.13 8.696 V
3.69 ⎢
−0.1 0.4 −0.2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
v2 = 50
⎣−0.05 −0.2 0.25⎦ ⎣ v3⎦ ⎣ −10⎦
4.15 1.875 A, 10.55 W
3.71 6.255 A, 1.9599 A, 3.694 A 4.17 −8.571 V
4.19 −16 V
A-24 Appendix D Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems
4.21 This is a design problem with multiple answers. 4.81 3.3 Ω, 10 V (Note, values obtained graphically)
4.23 1 A, 8 W 4.83 8 Ω, 72 V
4.25 −6.6 V 4.85 (a) 80 V, 30 kΩ, (b) 32 V
4.27 −48 V 4.87 (a) 10 mA, 8 kΩ, (b) 9.926 mA
4.89 (a) 99.99 μA, (b) 99.99 μA

4.29 3 V
4.91 (a) 150 Ω, 25 Ω, (b) 150 Ω, 250 Ω
4.31 9.13 V
Vs
4.93 ____________
4.33 80 V, 33 Ω, 2 A Rs + (1 + β)Ro
4.35 −125 mV 4.95 10.667 V, 33.33 kΩ
4.37 5 kΩ, 1 mA 4.97 2 kΩ, 5 V
4.39 20 Ω, −84 V
4.41 4 Ω, −8 V, −2 A Chapter 5
4.43 10 Ω, 0 V 5.1 60 μV
4.45 3 Ω, 15 V 5.3 10 V
4.47 20 V, 20 Ω, 1 A 5.5 0.999990
4.49 28 Ω, 3.286 V 5.7 −100 nV, −10 mV

4.51 (a) 2 Ω, 7 A, (b) 1.5 Ω, 12.667 A
5.9 2 V, 2 V
4.53 10 Ω, −3 A
5.11 This is a design problem with multiple answers.
4.55 100 kΩ, −20 mA
5.13 2.7 V, 288 μA
4.57 10 Ω, 166.67 V, 16.667 A
( R2 )
R1R3
5.15 (a) − R1 + R3 + ____ , (b) −92 kΩ
4.59 22.5 Ω, 40 V, 1.7778 A
5.17 (a) −2.4, (b) −16, (c) −400
4.61 1.2 Ω, 9.6 V, 8 A
5.19 −562.5 μA
4.63 −3.333 Ω, 0 A
5.21 −3 V
4.65 V0 = 24 − 5I0
Rf
5.23 − ___
4.67 25 kΩ, 49 mW R1
4.69 ∞ (theoretically) 5.25 9.375 V
4.71 8 kΩ, 1.152 W 5.27 2.7 V

R2
4.73 20.77 W 5.29 ___
R1
4.75 250 Ω, 12 mW
5.31 4.545 mA
4.77 (a) 3.8 Ω, 4 V, (b) 3.2 Ω, 15 V
5.33 75 mW, −1 mA
4.79 10 Ω, 167 V

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66 Chapter 2 Basic Laws

 'JOEJ J BOEJJO'JH

Figure 2.71 Figure 2.75

 *OUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH PCUBJOW W BOEW  %FUFSNJOF7PJOUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH

 *OUIFDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JH EFUFSNJOF7YBOE

Figure 2.87 Figure 2.91

 %FTJHOBQSPCMFN VTJOH'JH UPIFMQPUIFS  'JOEJUISPVHIJJOUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH

 'JOE3FRGPSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH  Using series/parallel resistance combination, find the

Figure 2.94 130 Ω 50 Ω

 'PSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH EFUFSNJOFJUPJ

Figure 2.95 Figure 2.99

 'JOEJBOE7PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH  &WBMVBUF3FRMPPLJOHJOUPFBDITFUPGUFSNJOBMTGPS

 *G3FR=Ω in the circuit of Fig. 2.105, find 3

 'PSUIFDJSDVJUTJO'JH PCUBJOUIFFRVJWBMFOU  'JOE*JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH

Figure 2.108 Figure 2.110

 'JOEUIFFRVJWBMFOUSFTJTUBODF3BCJOUIFDJSDVJUPG  %FTJHOBQSPCMFNUPIFMQPUIFSTUVEFOUTCFUUFS

 0CUBJOUIFFRVJWBMFOUSFTJTUBODF3BCJOFBDIPGUIF  %FUFSNJOF7JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH

MJHIUCVMCJOTFSJFTXJUIBQBSBMMFMDPNCJOBUJPOPGUIF BOEDFOUTL8I DBMDVMBUFUIFBOOVBMFOFSHZDPTUPG

Figure 2.123  *GBOBNNFUFSXJUIBOJOUFSOBMSFTJTUBODFPGΩ

 *GUIFUISFFCVMCTPG1SPCBSFDPOOFDUFEJO  5IFQPUFOUJPNFUFS BEKVTUBCMFSFTJTUPS

3=Ω DPTU= OPOTUBOEBSETJ[F

5IFTZTUFNTIPVMECFEFTJHOFEGPSNJOJNVNDPTU Figure 2.126

 %FTJHOBDJSDVJUUIBUVTFTBE"STPOWBMNFUFS XJUI

 'JOE7PJOUIFUXPXBZQPXFSEJWJEFSDJSDVJUJO  5IFDJSDVJUJO'JHJTUPDPOUSPMUIFTQFFEPGB

 0CUBJOvPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH  %FUFSNJOF*CJOUIFDJSDVJUJO'JHVTJOHOPEBM

 4PMWFGPS7JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JHVTJOHOPEBM  'JOE*PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH

Figure 3.56 Figure 3.60

 Using nodal analysis, find vPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH  6TJOHOPEBMBOBMZTJT EFUFSNJOF7PJOUIFDJSDVJUJO

Figure 3.57 Figure 3.61

 $BMDVMBUFvBOEvJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JHVTJOH  Using nodal analysis, find current JPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG

 Using nodal analysis, find vPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH Figure 3.66

Figure 3.65 Figure 3.68

Figure 3.72 Figure 3.75

 6TF."5-"# to find the voltages at nodes B C D  'JOEUIFOPEFWPMUBHFTGPSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH

 0CUBJOUIFOPEFWPMUBHFTv v BOEvJOUIFDJSDVJU

"OBTUFSJTLJOEJDBUFTBDIBMMFOHJOHQSPCMFN Figure 3.81

Sections 3.4 and 3.5 Mesh Analysis 8Ω

 8IJDIPGUIFDJSDVJUTJO'JHJTQMBOBS 'PSUIF 5Ω 4Ω

 6TJOH'JHGSPN1SPC EFTJHOBQSPCMFNUP

 Apply mesh analysis to find JJO'JH

 %FUFSNJOFUIFDVSSFOUUISPVHIUIFLΩSFTJTUPSJO  Apply mesh analysis to find vPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG

Figure 3.93 Figure 3.96

 Use mesh analysis to find J J BOEJJOUIFDJSDVJU

 Use mesh analysis to find the current JPJOUIFDJSDVJU

Figure 3.95 Figure 3.98

 'JOEUIFNFTIDVSSFOUTJ J BOEJJOUIFDJSDVJUJO  'JOEJ J BOEJJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH

10 kΩ Io  'JOEUIFNFTIDVSSFOUTJ J BOEJJOUIFOFUXPSLPG

Figure 3.102 Figure 3.106

 'JOEvYBOEJYJOUIFDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JH  8SJUFBTFUPGNFTIFRVBUJPOTGPSUIFDJSDVJUJO

Section 3.6 Nodal and Mesh Analyses

 6TJOH'JH EFTJHOBQSPCMFN UPTPMWFGPS7P

Figure 3.109 Figure 3.112

 'PSUIFDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JH XSJUFUIFOPEF  #ZJOTQFDUJPO XSJUFUIFNFTIDVSSFOUFRVBUJPOTGPS

100 mA 5 kΩ 10 kΩ 40 mA Figure 3.116

 #ZJOTQFDUJPO PCUBJOUIFNFTIDVSSFOUFRVBUJPOTGPS

 4PMWFGPS7BOE7JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JHVTJOH  5IFGPMMPXJOHQSPHSBNJTUIF4DIFNBUJDT/FUMJTUPGB

Section 3.9 Applications

6Io  An audio amplifier with a resistance of 9 ΩTVQQMJFT

Figure 4.69  'PSUIFMJOFBSDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JH VTFMJOFBSJUZ

Section 4.3 Superposition

Figure 4.72 Figure 4.76

 (JWFOUIBU*=BNQTXIFO7T=WPMUTBOE  Use superposition to find vPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH

'JOEJ J BOEJJO'JH

*OUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH PCUBJOW W BOEW %FUFSNJOF7PJOUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH

*OUIFDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JH EFUFSNJOF7YBOE

%FTJHOBQSPCMFN VTJOH'JH UPIFMQPUIFS 'JOEJUISPVHIJJOUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH

'JOE3FRGPSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH Using series/parallel resistance combination, find the

'PSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH EFUFSNJOFJUPJ

'JOEJBOE7PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH &WBMVBUF3FRMPPLJOHJOUPFBDITFUPGUFSNJOBMTGPS

*G3FR=Ω in the circuit of Fig. 2.105, find 3

'PSUIFDJSDVJUTJO'JH PCUBJOUIFFRVJWBMFOU 'JOE*JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH

'JOEUIFFRVJWBMFOUSFTJTUBODF3BCJOUIFDJSDVJUPG %FTJHOBQSPCMFNUPIFMQPUIFSTUVEFOUTCFUUFS

0CUBJOUIFFRVJWBMFOUSFTJTUBODF3BCJOFBDIPGUIF %FUFSNJOF7JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH

MJHIUCVMCJOTFSJFTXJUIBQBSBMMFMDPNCJOBUJPOPGUIF BOEDFOUTL8I DBMDVMBUFUIFBOOVBMFOFSHZDPTUPG

Figure 2.123 *GBOBNNFUFSXJUIBOJOUFSOBMSFTJTUBODFPGΩ

*GUIFUISFFCVMCTPG1SPCBSFDPOOFDUFEJO 5IFQPUFOUJPNFUFS BEKVTUBCMFSFTJTUPS

3=Ω DPTU= OPOTUBOEBSETJ[F

%FTJHOBDJSDVJUUIBUVTFTBE"STPOWBMNFUFS XJUI

'JOE7PJOUIFUXPXBZQPXFSEJWJEFSDJSDVJUJO 5IFDJSDVJUJO'JHJTUPDPOUSPMUIFTQFFEPGB

0CUBJOvPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH %FUFSNJOF*CJOUIFDJSDVJUJO'JHVTJOHOPEBM

4PMWFGPS7JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JHVTJOHOPEBM 'JOE*PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH

Using nodal analysis, find vPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH 6TJOHOPEBMBOBMZTJT EFUFSNJOF7PJOUIFDJSDVJUJO

$BMDVMBUFvBOEvJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JHVTJOH Using nodal analysis, find current JPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG

Using nodal analysis, find vPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH Figure 3.66

6TF."5-"# to find the voltages at nodes B C D 'JOEUIFOPEFWPMUBHFTGPSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH

0CUBJOUIFOPEFWPMUBHFTv v BOEvJOUIFDJSDVJU

"OBTUFSJTLJOEJDBUFTBDIBMMFOHJOHQSPCMFN Figure 3.81

8IJDIPGUIFDJSDVJUTJO'JHJTQMBOBS 'PSUIF 5Ω 4Ω

6TJOH'JHGSPN1SPC EFTJHOBQSPCMFNUP

Apply mesh analysis to find JJO'JH

%FUFSNJOFUIFDVSSFOUUISPVHIUIFLΩSFTJTUPSJO Apply mesh analysis to find vPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG

Use mesh analysis to find J J BOEJJOUIFDJSDVJU

Use mesh analysis to find the current JPJOUIFDJSDVJU

'JOEUIFNFTIDVSSFOUTJ J BOEJJOUIFDJSDVJUJO 'JOEJ J BOEJJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH

10 kΩ Io 'JOEUIFNFTIDVSSFOUTJ J BOEJJOUIFOFUXPSLPG

'JOEvYBOEJYJOUIFDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JH 8SJUFBTFUPGNFTIFRVBUJPOTGPSUIFDJSDVJUJO

6TJOH'JH EFTJHOBQSPCMFN UPTPMWFGPS7P

'PSUIFDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JH XSJUFUIFOPEF #ZJOTQFDUJPO XSJUFUIFNFTIDVSSFOUFRVBUJPOTGPS

#ZJOTQFDUJPO PCUBJOUIFNFTIDVSSFOUFRVBUJPOTGPS

4PMWFGPS7BOE7JOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JHVTJOH 5IFGPMMPXJOHQSPHSBNJTUIF4DIFNBUJDT/FUMJTUPGB

6Io An audio amplifier with a resistance of 9 ΩTVQQMJFT

Figure 4.69 'PSUIFMJOFBSDJSDVJUTIPXOJO'JH VTFMJOFBSJUZ

(JWFOUIBU*=BNQTXIFO7T=WPMUTBOE Use superposition to find vPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JH

Apply the superposition principle to find vPJOUIF

%FUFSNJOFvPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JHVTJOHUIF (JWFOUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH VTFTVQFSQPTJUJPOUP

6TFTVQFSQPTJUJPOUPPCUBJOvYJOUIFDJSDVJUPG 6TJOH'JH EFTJHOBQSPCMFNUPIFMQPUIFS

'PSUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH VTFTPVSDF

0CUBJOvPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JHVTJOHTPVSDF Use source transformation to find vPJOUIFDJSDVJUPG

Figure 4.94 %FUFSNJOFvYJOUIFDJSDVJUPG'JHVTJOHTPVSDF

Apply source transformation to find vYJOUIFDJSDVJU 3Ω 6Ω

Use source transformation to find *PJO'JH

Sections 4.5 and 4.6 Thevenin’s and Norton’s 'JOEUIF/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUXJUISFTQFDUUPUFSNJOBMT

%FUFSNJOFUIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUDJSDVJU TIPXOJO 30 V

"QQMZ5IFWFOJOs theorem to find 7PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG

'JOEUIF5IFWFOJOBOE/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUTBU 'JOEUIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUPGUIFDJSDVJUJO

0CUBJOUIF/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUPGUIFDJSDVJUJO 'JOEUIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUCFUXFFOUFSNJOBMTBC

(JWFOUIFDJSDVJUJO'JH PCUBJOUIF/PSUPO 0CUBJOUIF/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUBUUFSNJOBMTBCPGUIF

'PSUIFUSBOTJTUPSNPEFMJO'JH PCUBJOUIF 6TF/PSUPOs theorem to find 7PJOUIFDJSDVJUPG

5IFOFUXPSLJO'JHNPEFMTBCJQPMBSUSBOTJTUPS 'JOEUIF5IFWFOJOFRVJWBMFOUPGUIFDJSDVJUJO

0CUBJOUIF5IFWFOJOBOE/PSUPOFRVJWBMFOUDJSDVJUT Figure 4.130

Section 4.8 Maximum Power Transfer %FUFSNJOFUIFNBYJNVNQPXFSEFMJWFSFEUPUIFWBSJ

%FUFSNJOFUIFNBYJNVNQPXFSUIBUDBOCFEFMJWFSFE 6TF14QJDFPS.VMUJ4JN to find the 5IFWFOJO

" −" "

" " " " " Ω

7 " LΩ LΩ

LΩ ∞ Ω CFTUBOTXFS

7 N"

Ω Chapter 3

Ω −7

Ω ≅ 8 7

4P PVSDJSDVJUDPOTJTUTPGUIFNFUFSJOTFSJFTXJUIBO 7 7 7 7