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INTERNATIONAL LAW
and THE WORLD TODAY
Concept of State, international Relations, Minorities, War and Jihad
I n s t i tu t e o f P o l ic y S t u d i e s , I s l a m a b a d
Copyright © 2011 Institute of Policy Studies, Islamabad
All rights reserved.
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CONTENTS
Preface ……………………………………………………………………………………...... v
Chapter One
Islamic State in the Contemporary International Scenario ………….... 01
Chapter Two
Islamic Law of International Relations: Origin and Development …. 55
Chapter Three
Question of Minorities ……………………………………………………………… 97
Chapter Four
War and Concept of Jihad in Islam ………………………………………...….. 145
[v]
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
vii
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
viii
Pr e f a ce
ix
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
xi
Islamic State in the Contemporary
International Scenario
1
Many a concept and principle relevant to politics and statecraft
mentioned in the Qur’an have undergone different interpretations in
different periods of Muslim history. Today’s political realities and
constitutional concepts call for a fresh understanding of concepts such
as shura, khilafah, ummah, justice, etc.
[1]
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
3
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
2
Mawdudi, 1992, and Mawdudi’s Islami Riyasat, 1982.
3
Taqi al-Din al-Nabhani, founder of Hizb al-Tahrir, authored several
treatises on issues related to the Islamic state.
4
Sayyid Qutb, a leading ideologue of al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun or Muslim
Brotherhood, dealt with the issues of the state in his many writings,
particularly his magnum opus, Fi Zilal al-Qur’an, a commentary of the
Qur’an.
5
This popular movement was led in the 1920s by the late Mawlana
Muhammad Ali Jawhar (d. 1931) and a group of activist ulema.
6
This aspect figures supreme in the popular literature produced during
the Pakistan Movement (1940–1947). See for example, Ahmad, 1966;
also Qureshi, 1974.
4
Is l a m i c S ta te i n th e Co nte m po r a r y I nte r na ti o na l S ce n a r i o
7
Yusufi, 1996, p. 2643.
8
The term dawlah came into popular use after the downfall of the
Umayyads and the rise of the Abbassids in the first half of the second
century. It was then used to connote ‘turn,’ i.e. Abassid’s turn to rule.
It was much later that dawlah became synonymous with state; in fact,
right up to the seventh century of Hijrah, the term had not been used
to denote state (cf. Ibn Manzur, Lisan al-Arab in loco).
9
See, for example, the following Qur’anic verses, 2:128, 143; 3:104,
110; 21:92 and 23:52.
5
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
10
Al-Qur’an, 22:41.
11
This is evident by the Qur’anic use of the word if in Al-Qur’an, 22: 4.
For a longer discussion, see the present writer’s Muhadarat-i-Fiqh,
Lahore, 2005, pp. 41-46.
6
Is l a m i c S ta te i n th e Co nte m po r a r y I nte r na ti o na l S ce n a r i o
12
Qureshi, 1977, Chapter one.
13
The origins and expansion of these communities has been
acknowledged by Arnold, 1979.
7
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
14
Al-Qur’an, 8:72.
15
Ahmad ibn Hambal al-Musnad, Vol. V, p. 183; Darimi, al-Sunan,
Introduction, 34; al-Musnad, Vol. II, 327, 360 and 367; Vol. IV, pp. 80
and 82, etc.
9
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
16
Quoted, among others, by ‘Ali al-Muttaqi, Hadith no. 3803.
10
Is l a m i c S ta te i n th e Co nte m po r a r y I nte r na ti o na l S ce n a r i o
17
For a masterly treatment of the subject see, Mahdi, 2002.
11
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
18
For a good discussion on Rousseau’s concept of social contract, see
Harmon, pp. 302-313; Sabine, 1961, Chapters 27 and 28.
12
Is l a m i c S ta te i n th e Co nte m po r a r y I nte r na ti o na l S ce n a r i o
13
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
Structure of Government
The Qur’an is not concerned with the form or the
structure to be adopted for the establishment of the state. It
refers only to its functions and responsibilities. The
question of form has been left to be decided by the
community. Through the 1,400 years of the Islamic era,
Muslim scholars, rulers and jurists have been discussing
different forms of government in the context of their
respective times and climes. This is why, what we call the
traditional or classical Islamic state — the Umayyad or the
19
Al-Zarqa, 1968, pp. 784-5 and 1088.
14
Is l a m i c S ta te i n th e Co nte m po r a r y I nte r na ti o na l S ce n a r i o
15
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
20
References to these terms are found mostly in the criticism directed
by some Companions at the nomination by the Caliph Mu’awiyah, of
Yazid, his son, as his successor.
21
Al-Zarqa, op. cit., pp. 1050-1051.
16
Is l a m i c S ta te i n th e Co nte m po r a r y I nte r na ti o na l S ce n a r i o
22
See for examples, inter alia, Ibn Nujaim, Beirut, 1980, pp. 123-126.
23
Ibid, p. 124.
24
Ibid, p. 125.
17
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
25
Mawardi, 1996, p. 5.
26
Jurjani, p. 345.
27
Mawardi, op. cit.
18
Is l a m i c S ta te i n th e Co nte m po r a r y I nte r na ti o na l S ce n a r i o
Question of Sovereignty
At this stage an important question that needs to be
addressed is the question of sovereignty. It is true that
Muslim scholars in the twentieth century have used the
word ‘sovereignty’ under the influence of Western
writings. The term is undoubtedly Western: it has been
19
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
20
Is l a m i c S ta te i n th e Co nte m po r a r y I nte r na ti o na l S ce n a r i o
Representative Government
Those in authority cannot justify their position if
they do not represent the people and the Muslim ummah.
The Qur’an makes reference to this principle. The Sunnah
of the Prophet (PBUH) has clearly laid down that the persons
in authority should be those who enjoy the confidence,
respect and support of the masses of the Muslim ummah.31
This has been upheld by Muslim scholars and jurists from
the earliest days. There is a saying of the Prophet (PBUH),
quoted by Imam Muslim, one of the most authoritative
28
Al-Qur’an, 42: 38.
29
For the role of Shura in the process of Ijtihād and ijmā‘ see, among
other sources, Abu Faris, 1989, pp. 989-1012.
30
Al-Qur’an, 4: 59.
31
See, for example, Al-Salih Muslim, 1349, Vol. II, p. 129.
21
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
32
Muslim (a), 1998, Hadith no. 4804.
33
Taftazani, 1981, p. 272.
34
Baqillani, 1987, p. 476.
22
Is l a m i c S ta te i n th e Co nte m po r a r y I nte r na ti o na l S ce n a r i o
35
Ibn-Taymiyyah, 1976, p.141.
36
Baghdadi, p. 271.
37
Ibn Qudamah, 1992, p. 243.
38
Al-Qur’an, 3: 159.
23
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
39
Abu Hanifah, Shāfi‘ī, Malik, Ja’far Sadiq, Ahmed ibn Hanbal and Zaid
bin Ali were the founders of leading schools of Islamic jurisprudence,
namely Hanafi, Shāfi‘ī, Maliki, Ja’fari, Hanbali and Zaidi, respectively.
24
Is l a m i c S ta te i n th e Co nte m po r a r y I nte r na ti o na l S ce n a r i o
40
See for further details, Ghazi, 2006, pp. 110-119.
41
See the full text in Ghazi, 1983, Chapter Four.
25
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
42
For example, the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan,
Article 184(2); Also Constitution of India, Article 131.
26
Is l a m i c S ta te i n th e Co nte m po r a r y I nte r na ti o na l S ce n a r i o
43
The dictum provides the basis for review of a judgment issued by a
court.
44
Al-Qur’an, 4: 135.
45
Al-Qur’an, 5: 8.
27
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
46
Al-Qur’an, 16: 90.
47
Al-Qur’an, 16: 91.
48
Al-Qur’an, 17: 33.
49
Al-Qur’an, 17: 34.
50
Al-Qur’an, 17: 35.
28
Is l a m i c S ta te i n th e Co nte m po r a r y I nte r na ti o na l S ce n a r i o
51
Al-Qur’an, 35: 18.
52
Al-Qur’an, 42: 40.
53
Al-Qur’an, 42: 41.
54
Al-Qur’an, 42: 42.
29
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
55
Al-Qur’an, 57: 25.
30
Is l a m i c S ta te i n th e Co nte m po r a r y I nte r na ti o na l S ce n a r i o
56
Al-Qur’an, 5: 47.
57
See chapters on the marriages of the Abl al-Dhimmah in any legal
compendium, for example, Kitab al-Umm, Mabsut, Hidayah, or al-
Mughni.
58
Khulafa-i-Rashidin, meaning “right guided caliphs,” is a collective
title for the first four caliphs of Islam, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali
(may Allah be pleased with them).
59
Zailiee’, Nasb al-Rayah li Ahadith al-Hidayah, Vol. IV, p. 55.
31
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
60
Hamidullah, 2000, pp. 159-161 and pp. 37-38.
61
This commitment was reiterated by the leaders of the Pakistan
Movement too frequently to be quoted. See, for example, the
statement of Quaid-i-Azam, in Ahmad (ed.), 1960, p. 363.
62
See for reference to such statements: Mujahid, 2000.
63
See, for example, letter dated 28 May 1937 in: Allana, 1988, p. 142.
64
Ibid.
32
Is l a m i c S ta te i n th e Co nte m po r a r y I nte r na ti o na l S ce n a r i o
65
Mujahid, op. cit.
33
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
35
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
36
Is l a m i c S ta te i n th e Co nte m po r a r y I nte r na ti o na l S ce n a r i o
66
H. E. Janis Bjorn Kanavin served as Ambassador of Norway to
Pakistan (2004-2007).
37
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
39
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
41
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
43
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
45
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
47
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
48
Is l a m i c S ta te i n th e Co nte m po r a r y I nte r na ti o na l S ce n a r i o
49
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
References
51
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
53
Islamic Law of International Relations:
Origin and Development
[55]
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
1
Various scholars have expatiated upon the pros and cons of the
positivist theory of the law. For its relevance to international law, see
Starke, 1992, pp. 20-24.
56
Is l a m i c La w o f I n te r na ti o na l R e l a ti o ns : Or i g i n a nd D e v e l o p m e n t
2
Modern-day Iraq, some parts of northeastern Syria, southeastern
Turkey and Southwestern Iran.
3
For some details about the views of ancient Indian philosophers, see
Kapoor and Tandan, 1980.
4
See, inter alia, Nussbaun, 1954.
57
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
5
Jus Gentium, literally law of nations, was a term of Roman law. It
was not equivalent to international law in its modern sense. It was,
rather, opposed to civil law and meant the laws recognized as such by
the civilized nations of the ancient times. In the absence of any
international law proper, Jus Gentium was relied upon to regulate
international dealings.
58
Is l a m i c La w o f I n te r na ti o na l R e l a ti o ns : Or i g i n a nd D e v e l o p m e n t
6
Oppenheim, 2003, p. 87: “…The predominant strain of modern
international law was in its origins largely a product of western
European Christian civilization…”
7
Hamidullah, 1364 AH, p. 30.
8
Ibid.
59
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
9
For a short discussion on the recognition of individuals as subjects of
international law, see Levy, 1991, pp. 72-74.
10
Ibid., pp. 69-70.
60
Is l a m i c La w o f I n te r na ti o na l R e l a ti o ns : Or i g i n a nd D e v e l o p m e n t
11
Ibid.
61
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
62
Is l a m i c La w o f I n te r na ti o na l R e l a ti o ns : Or i g i n a nd D e v e l o p m e n t
12
Dixon, 2000, p. 325.
13
See, for example, Joshi, 2006, pp. 304-372.
14
See PCIJ Sev. A 9(1927): 4-33
63
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
15
Dixon, op. cit., p. 325.
65
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
66
Is l a m i c La w o f I n te r na ti o na l R e l a ti o ns : Or i g i n a nd D e v e l o p m e n t
17
See, for example, Al-Qur’an, 2:21; 4:1; 49:13; etc.
18
See, for example, Al-Qur’an, 7: 26, 27, 35; etc.
19
For reference to some good qualities of Christians, see Al-Qur’an, 5:
82-83.
20
Tirmidhi, al-Jami‘, Kitab al-‘Ilm, 19; Ibn Majah, al-Sunan, Kitab al-
Zahd, p. 15.
67
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
21
The details of this alliance have been preserved by, among others,
Ibn Hisham in his Sirat an-Nabi.
22
See Suhaili, al-Rawd al-Unuf, in loco.
23
“The People of the Book” is a term frequently used by Al-Qur’an to
denote those who subscribe to a Divine Book or a religion of Divine
Origin. More particularly, it is a reference to the Jews and the
Christians.
24
Al-Qur’an 3:64.
68
Is l a m i c La w o f I n te r na ti o na l R e l a ti o ns : Or i g i n a nd D e v e l o p m e n t
25
Hamidullah, 1987, p. 14.
26
See, for example, Al-Qur’an, 2:62, 5:69; 22:17; etc.
27
See, for example, Al-Qur’an, 9: 4-5, 7; 4: 90, 91; etc.
69
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
28
The science of siyar and maghazi was developed and codified by the
early doctors of Islam for this very purpose, see Hamidullah, op. cit.,
Chapter II.
29
Ghazi, 1998, pp. 7-17.
30
For details, see Ghazi, 2007, pp. 154-163.
70
Is l a m i c La w o f I n te r na ti o na l R e l a ti o ns : Or i g i n a nd D e v e l o p m e n t
31
Laleli collection, no. 1156 Arabic MSS, now preserved in Sulemaniye,
along with 113 other collections.
71
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
a) to prevent a war;
b) to resolve the dispute peacefully with
compromise;
c) to contain the war to the minimum;
d) to contain the effects of war; and
e) to protect the affectees of war.32
32
Modern international humanitarian law is also based on the premise
that its main purpose is to protect the affectees of war.
33
For elaborate details, see Zemmali, 1997.
72
Is l a m i c La w o f I n te r na ti o na l R e l a ti o ns : Or i g i n a nd D e v e l o p m e n t
34
Cf. Starke, 1972, pp. 18
73
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
75
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
35
For a detailed discussion, see Hamidullah, op. cit., 1987, pp. 74-76.
36
Ghazi, 2006, pp. 92-94.
37
One aspect of this is Al-Qur’an’s emphasis on the fulfillment of
obligations and pledges in, for example, 8: 55-56; 9: 4 and 7; etc.
38
Al-Qur’an, 8: 55-56; 9: 4; etc.
77
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
39
Reported by Abu Daud, Tirmidhi, Ahmad and Hakim.
40
Al-Sarakhsi, p. 297.
78
Is l a m i c La w o f I n te r na ti o na l R e l a ti o ns : Or i g i n a nd D e v e l o p m e n t
41
Oppenheim, 1958, p. 77.
79
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
80
Is l a m i c La w o f I n te r na ti o na l R e l a ti o ns : Or i g i n a nd D e v e l o p m e n t
42
H. E. Mark Lyle Grant served as Ambassador of United Kingdom to
Pakistan (2003-2006).
81
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
82
Is l a m i c La w o f I n te r na ti o na l R e l a ti o ns : Or i g i n a nd D e v e l o p m e n t
provide support and help to the poor and the weak among
human family.
83
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
85
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
87
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
88
Is l a m i c La w o f I n te r na ti o na l R e l a ti o ns : Or i g i n a nd D e v e l o p m e n t
89
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
91
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
92
Is l a m i c La w o f I n te r na ti o na l R e l a ti o ns : Or i g i n a nd D e v e l o p m e n t
References
93
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
94
Is l a m i c La w o f I n te r na ti o na l R e l a ti o ns : Or i g i n a nd D e v e l o p m e n t
95
Question of Minorities
Defining Minority
What is the definition of a minority? Linguistically,
any community that is distinct from the majority of the
people living in a territory is a minority. However, in a
discussion of the jurisprudence, constitution, or rights and
privileges of minorities, a further elaboration is necessary:
in what way does a community need to be distinct to be
considered a minority? For example, a society may include
a small group of bearded people among mostly clean-
shaven people, or vice versa, but such differences do not
qualify the group to be considered a minority. Therefore,
for the purposes of the discussion in this chapter, the
[97]
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
1
See, for example, Shaw, 1997, pp. 218–223.
98
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
99
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
101
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
2
See, among others, Hamidullah, 1987, pp. 111–118.
103
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
105
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
106
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
3
Bukhari, Al-Jami’ as-Sahih, “Kitab al-Janā’iz”, Hadith. no. 1263.
107
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
4
Hamidullah, 1986.
108
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
109
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
5
For a complete text, see Abu Ubaid n.d., 188.
6
This statement has been quoted by several authorities. See, among
others, Zailiee’, Nasb al-Rayah li Ahadith al-Hidayah, Vol. IV, p. 55.
110
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
7
Hamidullah 1987, pp. 112.
8
See chapters on “Ankihah Ahl al-dhimma” in the major fiqh
compendia.
111
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
112
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
9
Sarakhsi, 1957, p. 306 and Zailiee op. cit., p. 55.
113
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
10
Abu Daud, al-Sunan, “Kitab al-Malahim”, Bab Zikr al-Habasha,
Hadith no. 4309, Dar al-Salam, Riyadh.
11
See, for more details, Ghazi, 2007, pp. 483–521.
114
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
12
See Ahmad, and Bukhari, 2008.
115
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
13
Ghazi, op. cit.
116
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
14
Al-Qur’an, 22:41.
117
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
15
Ghazi, pp. 38–40, pp. 46–47 and pp. 511–515.
118
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
Minorities in Pakistan
Non-Muslims in Pakistan have been living
peacefully without facing any difficulty or problem at the
social or political level. They have been given rights and
guarantees that are protected in the Constitution of
Pakistan. The founder of the country, the Quaid-i-Azam
Mohammad Ali Jinnah, repeatedly assured the non-
Muslims in Pakistan, and is on record to have said, that
they would have equal rights and privileges as their Muslim
co-citizens as granted to them by the Shari‘ah. This
assurance was in conformity with the above-cited Islamic
principle expressed by the fourth caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib.
119
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
16
Khan, 1996, p. 2609.
120
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
17
Justice Alvin Robert Cornelius (1903-1991).
121
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
Conclusion
Muslims as well as non-Muslims have so much to
learn from the injunctions of Islam on the question of
minorities. It contemplates that a person should not be
deemed different on account of ethnicity, complexion or
language; rather it should be the faith and character that
should define the personality and status of an individual. It
also underlines that despite varied choice of individuals
with respect to the religion, he must be respected as a
member of human community and his rights should not be
violated only because he dares to differ. In modern context
of statehood, Pakistan offers a model of national cohesion
and mutual cooperation on the basis of humanity. There is
ample room for improvement but Pakistan’s society as well
as the law offers similar opportunities to Muslims of all
faiths, ethnic communities and linguistic groups.
18
Justice (R) Bhagwan Dās.
122
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
123
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
124
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
125
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
126
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
127
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
128
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
129
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
130
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
131
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
20
PLD FSC, 1991, Vol. XLIII, p. 10.
132
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
133
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
134
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
135
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
136
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
21
Narrations about Prophet’s life.
137
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
138
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
139
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
141
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
References
142
Qu e s ti o n o f Mi n o r i ti e s
143
War and Concept of Jihad in Islam
[145]
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
i) to prevent war;
ii) to ensure that international or inter-state
disputes are resolved peacefully;
iii) if war becomes inevitable, to contain it to a
bare minimum;
iv) to minimize the effects of war, particularly
for those who are not belligerent and are not
taking active part in any belligerent activity;
and, finally,
v) to provide protection to those accidentally
affected by war.2
2
Dixon, 2001, p. 293.
146
W a r a nd Co n ce p t o f J i h a d i n Is l a m
3
The question of what constitutes a just war and the distinction
between a just and unjust war have been debated in legal circles for
centuries. Discussions on jus and bellum and jus in bello have engaged
the attention of writers in the East as well as the West since time
immemorial. St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas and Hugo Grotius
tried to justify the use of force under Christian theology as well as
under natural law theory. See Elshtain (ed.), 1992.
147
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
4
See Wilson, 1988.
149
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
5
Humanitarian intervention is a comparatively recent term, coined to
differentiate this type of action from other forms of intervention, such
an internal or external interventions and punitive interventions
prohibited or discouraged by international law. The only permissible
form of intervention was contemplated in Article 2(4) of the UN
Charter. See, for a good discussion of humanitarian intervention,
Brownlie, 1974.
6
For a brief treatment see, Levi, 1991, pp. 69-70.
150
W a r a nd Co n ce p t o f J i h a d i n Is l a m
7
See, American Society of International Law, 1986, pp. 1023-1091.
151
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
8
Khadduri, 1960.
9
For a brief note on the concept of “Dār,” see Thanwi, 1996, pp. 778-
779. For details, see the work cited below.
152
W a r a nd Co n ce p t o f J i h a d i n Is l a m
153
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
Concept of Jihad
Jihad is basically a struggle and endeavor to
achieve an objective. Literally, jihad means an ongoing
struggle and a continuing endeavor. Those who are familiar
with Arabic would be aware that words in the language
have different scales: words in the same scale have a
continuity in their meaning but each has a different nuance.
Etymologically, the scale of the term jihad includes terms
like qital (fighting), nizal (duel), nisab (fixed standard), etc.
There are two similar terms that are relevant to the concept
of jihad and have the same root: one is mujāhadah, which
means a mutual struggle, and the other is the derivative,
ijtihād, which means concentrated struggle. If a struggle is
10
Zaidan, 1963, pp. 18.
11
Al-Qur’an, Al Imran 3: 64.
12
Al-Qur’an, Yunus 10: 25.
154
W a r a nd Co n ce p t o f J i h a d i n Is l a m
13
A comprehensive discussion on ijtihād is found in Mawsu’at al-Fiqh
al-Islami, Cairo, pp. 5-12.
14
Raghib al-Isfahani has defined this term as “struggling against one’s
self”; see Al-Mufradat fi Gharib Al-Qur’an, Karachi, in loco.
15
Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 538.
16
Al-Qur’an, 22: 39-40.
155
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
17
According to a number of commentators of the Qur’an, each surah
or chapter of the Qur’an has a major theme that runs through its
verses and integrates all its contents in a certain order. The placement
of the verses related to the Day of Resurrection, the Hajj and jihad in
one surah should, therefore, be based on a logical order.
18
For another interpretation of this placement, see Islahi, 1997, pp.
204-206.
19
Al-Qur’an, 2:256.
156
W a r a nd Co n ce p t o f J i h a d i n Is l a m
20
See, for example, Al-Qur’an, 8: 72, 74, 75; 9: 20, 88 and 49: 15.
21
For different aspects of this all-round struggle, see the chapters on
jihad in the major hadith collections. For example, Bukhari, Kitab al-
Jihad wa’l-Siyar, particularly, Chapters 1, 2, 3, 37, 38 and 62.
157
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
22
Bukhari, Kitab al Iman, Chapters no. 39, Hadith no. 52.
23
This is based on a Hadith, considered weak, cited by Baihaqi, Kitab
al-Zuhd al-Kabir, Hadith no. 384.
158
W a r a nd Co n ce p t o f J i h a d i n Is l a m
24
Muslim, al Sahih, Kitab al-Iman, Bab biyan al-Iman, Hadith no.8.
25
Tabarani, al-Mu’jam al-Ausat, vol V, Dar al-Haramain, Cairo, 1995,
Hadith no. 4875, p. 96.
26
For an account of his life and work, see Ghazi, 2002.
27
Wali Allah, 2004, p. 298
159
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
28
See, for example, Al-Qur’an, 16: 110; 2: 249; 3: 120, 125, 142,
200; 8:46 and 47: 31.
29
See chapters on jihad in Bukhari, Muslim, Abu Daud, etc., for
example, Bukhari, Kitab al-Jihad, Chapter 32 and Abu Daud, Kitab al-
Jihad, p. 49.
30
Al-Qur’an, 25: 52.
160
W a r a nd Co n ce p t o f J i h a d i n Is l a m
the words of the Qur’an, “So that those who want to live,
they should live on the basis of an argument and those who
want to perish, they should perish with an argument.”31 It is
always for individuals to decide for themselves whether to
accept this message or not; they themselves shall have the
last word. Whether they decide to live by the Divine
Wisdom contained in the Qur’an or not, is their decision.
31
Al-Qur’an, 8: 42.
32
For example, Al-Qur’an, 8: 72 and 9: 20.
161
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
33
Raghib al-Isfahani, p. 101.
162
W a r a nd Co n ce p t o f J i h a d i n Is l a m
34
Al-Qur’an, 22: 39-40.
163
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
164
W a r a nd Co n ce p t o f J i h a d i n Is l a m
37
Sarakhsi, p. 3.
38
Al-Qur’an, 47: 4.
165
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
39
Al-Sharbini, p. 210.
40
Sarakhsi, Op. cit.; see also Fath al-Qadir, Vol. IV, p. 277.
41
Sarakhsi, Op. cit., p. 3.
42
The Qur’an allows the use of force only against those who initiate
aggression (Al-Qur’an 2: 190, etc.).
166
W a r a nd Co n ce p t o f J i h a d i n Is l a m
43
See the instructions given to his commanders by Abu Bakr, quoted
by, among others, Tabari in Tarikh al-Umam Wa’l-Muluk.
44
Al-Hamid, 2000, pp. 287-306.
45
Texts of such instructions have been presented, with English
translation, in Hamidullah, 1973, pp. 310-323.
46
Some of these documents have also been translated into French by
Dr. Hamidullah under the title “Les Documents Sur la Diplomatie de
l’Islam, published in 1934 in Paris.
47
See, for example, Musnad Ahmed, Hadith no.2648; Sahih Muslim,
Kitab al jihad, Hadith no.3348.
48
For an elaborate modern exposition of the Islamic law of war, see
Zuhaili, 1981, pp. 788-798.
167
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
168
W a r a nd Co n ce p t o f J i h a d i n Is l a m
53
Hamidullah, 1973, pp. 212-215.
54
See, for example, Al-Qur’an, 8: 56-58 and 9:4 and 7.
55
Badr ad-Din al-Ayni, Umdah al-Qari, Vol. XV, p. 94.
169
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
170
W a r a nd Co n ce p t o f J i h a d i n Is l a m
56
Abu Daud, al Sunan, Kitab al jihad, Dar al Salam, Riyadh, Hadith no.
2759.
57
Al-Qur’an, 8: 59.
171
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
then can Muslims take action against those with whom they
have had peace agreements. The Muslim army, including
the Caliph Mu‘āwiyah (602-680) accepted this
interpretation and, aborting the action immediately,
returned to Damascus.
173
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
58
H.E. Ilkka Ositalo served as Head of the EC delegation in Pakistan
(2004-2006).
174
W a r a nd Co n ce p t o f J i h a d i n Is l a m
175
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
59
Zailiee’, p. 381.
176
W a r a nd Co n ce p t o f J i h a d i n Is l a m
177
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
178
W a r a nd Co n ce p t o f J i h a d i n Is l a m
60
Bukhari, Book of Jihad.
179
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
180
W a r a nd Co n ce p t o f J i h a d i n Is l a m
181
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
References
183
Is l a m , I n te r na ti o na l L a w a n d th e W o r l d T o d a y
184
Index
--A-- American(s) 41, 62, authors 62,
Abbasids 7,15,18, 105, 127, 153 constitutional tradition and
Abrahamic tradition ix principles 62
Abu Hanifah 24, 70, 71, 127, Amr ibn Anbasah 170, 171
152, 153 Anglo-Saxon, law 39, legal
Abu Musa Ash’ari 25 tradition 39, 40, 59
Abu Nasr al-Farabi 10, 11 al-Aqabah 11
Abu Yūsuf 168, dictum of 16 Arab(s) 66, Bedouins 68
Adab al-Qadi 25 Arabia 100, 170, 176
Adam and Eve, sons and Arabic 5, 71, 126, 154, source
daughters of/Children of vii, 27
67, 104, 126 armed conflict(s) 58, 61, 66
’adl 27 armed struggle 177, 178
Afghanistan vi, 64, American Armenia 172
policy in 90 armistice 153
Africa 102 Asad, Muhammad 40
African and Asian countries 150, Asia 90
151 Association of Asian
agreement(s) 59, 64, 69, 108, Parliamentarians for Peace
111, 127, 147, 171, between (AAPP) 134
the Muslim country and the atheists 69
persecuting non-Muslim Austin, John 73
power 164, between two authority viii, 15, 16, 17, 20,
principalities of region 57, of 21, 22, 23, 28, 30, 31, 38, 39,
friendship 153, of peace 171, 43, 74, 75, 89, 117, 118, 132,
172, prepared by the Prophet 175, 178, and power viii, 6,
(PBUH) 109, with a non- 14, 75, to elect 41, central
Muslim people 109, 170, of 179, Papal 8, 20, scriptural
neutrality 172, with non- 12, external 13, of the state,
Muslims 108 17, judicial 17, legal 73, of
Ahl al-dhimma 107, 109 the Prophet 162, of the
Ahmad, Khurshid xi Qur’an 169
Ahmad ibn Hanbal 24 Ayatul Idhn 155, 163
Akbar, great Emperor 120 Ayesha, the Mother of the
Algeria 177 Believers 41
Ali Ibn Abi Talib, fourth caliph
31, Islamic principle --B--
expressed by 119, dictum al-Baghdadi, Abdul Qadir bin
phrased by 110 Tahir 23
All India Muslim League 32, 88, Bangladesh 59, 87, 130
leaders of 5, 48 Banu Taghlib 127
Allah the Almighty/God viii, ix, al-Baqillani 22
x, 16, 27, 28, 29, 30, 126, battle x, between the Muslims
154, 155, 158, 171, and His and Iranians 169, of Ohud 178
Messenger 21, 109, covenant bay’ah 11
of 28, witnesses to 27, Bentham 73
believe in 157, complex Bible/the Four Gospels 136
creation of 157, sovereignty Bihar [in India] 87
of 20 Biharis 87
Allahabad 44, Address 33 Birmingham 136
ālim 35 black people 101
Islam, International Law and The World Today
186
Index
groups/communities --G--
101, 104, 122, identities gender, issue 42, plurality 41
and references 100 Geneva Conventions v, 174
genocide 65, 101
ethnicity 99, 100, 101, 102,
global, challenges 174, security
105, 107, in Apartheid South
system vi, civilization vii,
Africa 99, 100
system 84, peace v, scene 89,
Euro-centric 84
environment 90, religious
Europe 8, 20, 59, 90, 115, 118,
coordination 134,
141, 151, 170, countries 99,
cooperation between
Western 74, Eastern 100,
civilzations 134
115, Christian states of 58
globalization 123
European Parliament 75,
good governance ix
European Union (EU) 74, 75,
government(s) 24, 37, 116, 123,
history 12, mrdieval sense 15,
124, 130, 131, 132, 133, 138,
nations/states 59, 74
157, 162, 168, 175, 181,
Evangels 136, 137
Islamic 175, of Western
Evangile, followers of 31 nations vi, Muslim 49, 76,
Executive 73, power of 38 107, 108, 112, 118, 124, 163,
extremism 123 165, 168, 170, 173, 175, 175,
180, forms of 14,
--F-- Representative 21, Structure
faith(s) 122, 135, 136, 138, of 14, undemocratically
assimilation of all ix, of elected 45, verdict of 25,
Abrahamic tradition ix of/in Pakistan 32, 49,86, 122,
Far East 7, 176 130, 132, British 44, 130,
fascist idea vii Chinese 138
Federal Public Service Grant, Mark Lyle 81
Commission 122 Greek 58, history 78, ideas 10,
Federal Shariat Court 39, 131, [hilosophy and logic 11,
132, 133 thought 10, 11, 19, city-state
female scholars 42 of 19
fiqh 13, collections 41, Grotius, Hugo 71, 73, 148
principles and injunctions in Group of Eight 84
13, material/books/literature Guantanamo Bay 64
of/on 44, 106, 181, Shi’ah
168 --H--
First World War 3, 87 hadith 22, 114, 159, 175, 176,
foreign policy vi, 63 179, compilers 22, 42, 160
France 141 Hajj 11, 49, 156, 40
free market economy 3 Hamidullah, Muhammad 167
freedom(s) 20, 30, 68, 85, 105, Hanafi(s) 30, judges 30, jurist
121, 132, 138, 140, 180, basic 152, 153, 168, law 30, school
109, of worship 119, religious 168
129, political 6, 116 Hanbal, Ahmad ibn 24
French, Republic 3, (language) Hanbali, jurist 23, theologian 22
79, 108, 110, system 111 Harb 152
fundamental rights 39, 62, 121 Harvard 35, 39, 91
Fuqha 13, 127 Helaslasi 114
Hijāb 139, 140
188
Index
194
Index
right(s) 38, 111, 120, 121, 122 Section 295 of Indian Penal
rights and obligations of non- Code 130
Muslim co-citizens 110 self-defense 149, 163, 164
rights and privileges of a Senate of Pakistan 132
minority 97, 101 Session Court 134
rights and privileges of non- Shaf’i jurist and theologian 22
Muslims 31, 106 Shafa’i 24
rights and privileges of Shah Wali Allah of Delhi 3, 159
permanent minorities 98 Shaibani 71
rights of minorities 137 shari’ah 13, 14, 17, 21, 23, 27,
rising trend of secularism in the 32, 43, 44, 77, 83, 107, 119,
West 56 180
Roman contribution to law and Shari’ah Appellate Bench 39,
constitution 19 132
Romans 19, 58, 79 sheikh or the spiritual guide 11
Rousseau 12 Shi’as 30, judges 30, law 30,
Rousseau’s exposition 12 jurist 168
rule of Islam in Spain 123 shūra 19, 23
Russian Revolution 3 significance of the study of
Shari’ah Law, 91
-- S -- Sirat-un-Nabi 137
Sa’ad al-Din Taftazani 22 situations that justify the use of
Sabians 69 force 149
sabr, 160, 178 siyar 70
Sabr, 178 social contract 12
Saudi Arabia 111, 140 society 48, 97, 99, 104, 123,
Saudis 30 140, 141
saying(s) of the Prophet (PBUH) society and state in Islam 100
9, 21 society based on economic
saying of the second caliph, interest 140
Umar 16 source of Islamic law 23, 107
saying reported from the third sources of biography of the
caliph, ’Uthman ibn Affan 9 Prophet 137
Sayyid Mawdudi 4, 40 sources of law 107
Sayyid Qutb 4 South Africa 101, 102
Sayyid Sharif Jurjani 18 South Africa’s apartheid days 99
science of siyar 72, 76 southwestern border of Saudi
scope of international law 82 Arabia 109
scriptural foundations of Islam 2 sovereignty 19, of Allah 20, of
scriptures of ancient religions British Parliament 75
55 Spain 30, 123
second basic principle of the Spanish Muslim Community 118
Islamic law of war 168 spiritual jihad 160
second caliph 16, 25, 31, 127, spoils of war 76
169, 170 St. Augustine 148
second category of non-Muslim stance of Pakistan regarding
co-citizens 108 recognition of Israel 86
Second World War 147 state 2, 4, 5, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15,
second-rate minority 87 17, 19, 34, 37, 48, 49, 78, 98,
109, 110, 139, 168, and its
197
Islam, International Law and The World Today
200
1, St # 8, F-6/3, Islamabad (Pakistan)