Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, 2006

Pure appl. geophys. 163 (2006) 209–227

0033–4553/06/010209–19 Pure and Applied Geophysics
DOI 10.1007/s00024-005-0001-2

Integrated Geophysical Studies in the East-Indian Geothermal

Province
V. C. BARANWAL,1 and S. P. SHARMA1

Abstract—Integrated geophysical surveys using vertical electrical sounding (VES), very low frequency
(VLF) EM, radiation counting, total magnetic field and self-potential (SP) measurements are carried out to
characterize the geothermal area around a hot spring in the Nayagarh district, Orissa, India that lies in the
East Indian geothermal province. The study was performed to delineate the fracture pattern, contaminated
groundwater movement and possible heating source. VES interpretations suggest a three- to four-layer
structure in the area. Resistivity survey near the hot spring suggests that weathered and fractured
formations constitute the main aquifer system and extend to 60 m depth. Current flow measured at various
electrode separations normalized by the applied voltage suggests that fractures extend to a greater depth.
Detailed VLF study shows that fractures extend beyond 70 m depth. VLF anomaly has also very good
correlation with the total magnetic field measured along the same profiles. Study results suggest that a
gridded pattern of VLF survey could map the underground conductive fracture zones that can identify the
movement of contaminated groundwater flow. Therefore, precautionary measures can be taken to check
further contamination by delineating subsurface conducting structures. Self potential (SP) measured over
the hot spring does not show a large anomaly in favor of the presence of a sulphide mineral body. A small
positive (5–15mV) SP anomaly is measured which may be streaming potential due to subsurface fluid flow.
A high radiation is measured about four kilometers from the hot spring, suggesting possible radiogenic
heating. However, the exact nature of the heating source and its depth is not known in the area. Deep
resistivity followed by a magneto-telluric survey could reveal the deeper structures.

Key words: Geoelectric, VLF EM, radioactivity, magnetic, geothermal, East Indian province.

1. Introduction

Geothermal reservoirs can be characterized by electrical and electromagnetic

surveys by delineating high conductivity contrasts between reservoir and neighboring
formations. Use of these methods in characterization of thermal reservoir is well
documented in the literature (BENSON et al., 1997; ZLOTNICKI et al., 1998; CAGLER
and DEMIRORER, 1999; MAJUMDAR et al., 2000; SAVIN et al., 2001; RASHED et al.,
2003; YASUKAWA et al., 2003). Geothermal reservoir’s steam, water or heat can be
used for electricity generation and other commercial purposes. Further, groundwater

1
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, 721302, India.
E-mail: spsharma@gg.iitkgp.ernet.in
210 V. C. Baranwal and S. P. Sharma Pure appl. geophys.,

in the vicinity of such reservoirs may be contaminated by mixing of harmful

minerals. This is due to higher solubility of the hot water (KUNDU et al., 2002) than
the normal groundwater. People residing in such areas may suffer from various
diseases using contaminated groundwater. Therefore, there could be two objectives
for studying geothermal reservoirs; one is its commercial utilization and another is to
avoid the adverse effect of subsurface pollution on civilization.
Hot water of the thermal spring flows through the fractures and makes suitable
vertical and dipping two-dimensional sheet like electrical conductors. When the
fractures are of limited areal extent, then such structures can be simulated by three-
dimensional conductors. Such conducting zones can be predicted by very low
frequency (VLF) electromagnetic method (EM) (BERNARD and VALLA, 1991;
MCNEILL and LABSON, 1991; BENSON et al., 1997). Efficacy of the method in
delineating the dipping nature of fracture zones has been discussed by OGILVY and
LEE (1991). VLF EM method is capable of delineating fractures in a lateral direction
effectively compared to resistivity sounding (SHARMA and BARANWAL, 2005). In
addition, magnetic surveys over fractured formations filled with nonmagnetic fluid
will show a low magnetic anomaly (HENKEL and GUZMAN, 1977; SINGH et al., 2002).
Hence a combined study of VLF EM, resistivity and surface magnetic observation
provide immense help in mapping of the subsurface structure.
Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt in Eastern India consists of high-grade metamorphic
rocks. The area has many hot springs. Surface manifestations exist at several places,
however, detailed geophysical studies of these hot springs are rather limited. Most of
the previous studies carried out by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) (SHANKER,
1996; THURSU, 2002) are restricted to surfacial studies and very little is known about
the subsurface geology related to the hot spring activity. Chemical analysis of
groundwater samples, carried out by KUNDU et al. (2002) around one of the hot
springs located near the village of Tarbalu, Nayagarh, Orissa, India shows a high
concentration of fluoride. High fluoride concentration in groundwater causes serious
health problems in surrounding villages. In the present study, an integrated
geophysical survey (VLF EM, resistivity sounding, self potential, magnetic and
radiometric surveys) is carried out to study the subsurface structure around Tarbalu
hot spring (Fig. 1). Aims of the survey were to delineate the fracture pattern,
contaminated groundwater movement and a possible heat source making the hot
springs alive.

2. Geology of the Area

The area is comprised of Eastern Ghats metamorphic provinces bounded by

latitudes 2013¢N and 2017¢N and longitudes 8515¢E and 8521¢E. It lies in a second
category zone of high heat flow zones in India (SHANKER, 1996). Aerial photographs
reveal the presence of NW-SE and NE-SW fractures or lineaments. Eight spouts over
Vol. 163, 2006 Integrated Geophysical Studies 211

Figure 1
Location map of the study area.

an area of 0.01 sq km, with temperatures ranging between 47C to 85C, have been
seen in the area. Location of the main spout is 2015.12¢ and 8519.39¢ (Fig. 1).
Thermal water of the area is reported as Na-HCO3-Cl type (THURSU, 2002). The
silica thermometry carried out by GSI indicates a reservoir temperature of 121C.
Lithologically, high-grade metamorphic rocks such as khondalite, charnockite and
leptynite within a vast granite-gneiss country rock characterize the area, and are also
the major lithological units exposed in the area. The topography of the area is slightly
undulating and the hot springs are located on an elevated area surrounded by
212 V. C. Baranwal and S. P. Sharma Pure appl. geophys.,

Eastern Ghat hills. The soil cover varies in thickness from 2–4 m, and is thinner over
elevated ground because of the low rate of sedimentation.

3. Geophysical Surveys

(a) Resistivity Survey

Electrical resistivity of subsurface structures changes significantly in the presence
of groundwater. Electrical resistivity further decreases in the presence of thermal
water due to increased mobility of ions. Therefore, fracture zones filled with thermal
water make a very good electrical resistivity contrast with the surrounding bed rocks
and can be depicted easily by a resistivity survey. Schlumberger resistivity soundings
(S1 to S9) were performed near the hot spring and surrounding villages along lines
AA¢ and BB¢ (Fig. 1) to delineate the subsurface resistivity distribution. Direct
current resistivity meter was used with the provision to increase the power supply.
We increased applied voltage at 15 volt intervals up to a maximum of 450 volt,
whenever, either the current flow in subsurface was less than 10 mA or the potential
difference between potential electrodes was less than 10 mV. Applied voltage at
various current electrode separations was also recorded. For uniformity, we
normalized the measured current flow (Imeas) by applied voltage (Vappl) and
computed normalized current flow (Inorm ) for various current electrode separations
as shown in Equation (1).
Imeas
Inorm ¼ : ð1Þ
Vappl
Over homogeneous half-space current flow in subsurface will decrease with the
increase of current electrode separation at the same applied voltage (TELFORD et al.,
1976). An increase in normalized current flow at a particular current electrode
separation reveals the presence of a conducting body in the path of the current flow.
Further, a similar amount of current flow observed with an increase of current
electrode spacing also indicates the presence of conducting features in the subsurface.
The normalized current flow may also increase due to near-surface conductive
inhomogeneity and ground saturation around the electrodes. However, a sudden
increase in the normalized current flow with the increase in current electrode
separation should be observed only if any conductive feature comes in the current
flow path. Therefore an increase in the amount of normalized current flow in the
subsurface may indicate the presence of conductive features. Such current flow study
has not been reported in earlier literature dealing with resistivity soundings.
However, we tried to study normalized current flow pattern in the area to learn its
relationship with subsurface features or to obtain any additional information which
might be helpful in qualitative or quantitative interpretation of conventional
Vol. 163, 2006 Integrated Geophysical Studies 213

Schlumberger sounding data. To interpret the sounding data, decisions about the
number of layers and layer resistivities are also taken on the basis of normalized
current flow pattern revealed for each sounding. The maximum distance of current
electrode separations for various soundings varies in the range of 600 to 1000 m.
Sounding data were interpreted using a global inversion approach, Very Fast
Simulated Annealing (SHARMA and KAIKKONEN, 1999). To invert the observed data,
a possible minimum and maximum range for each model parameter (resistivity and
thickness) is provided. A total of 10 solutions are derived and finally a mean model is
calculated for each sounding. Covariance matrix is also computed from these 10
solutions. The square root of the diagonal elements of covariance matrix yields
uncertainty in each model parameter.

(b) Very Low Frequency EM Survey

The Very Low Frequency (VLF) EM method employs signals transmitted for
navigation purposes ranging from 15 to 30 kHz, as a passive source. The transmitted
primary magnetic field, which is almost horizontal, induces a secondary magnetic
field in the Earth (PARASNIS, 1973). Interaction of the primary and secondary field
makes an ellipse of polarization around any conducting body. In practice, tilt angle
and ellipticity of the ellipse of polarization are measured. For small secondary field
strengths, real and imaginary component of the complex quantity Hz / Hx can be
approximated as tilt angle and ellipticity, respectively (PATTERSON and RONKA,
1971), where Hz ð¼ Hzs Þ is the vertical component of secondary field and
Hx ð¼ H p þ Hxs Þ is the combination of horizontal primary (Hp) and horizontal
component of secondary field (Hxs ). Expressions for tilt angle, h and ellipticity, e given
by SMITH and WARD (1974) are as follows:
2ðHz =Hx Þ cos D/ Hz Hx sin D/
tan 2h ¼
and e¼ ; ð2Þ
1  ðHz =Hx Þ2 H12

where Hz and Hx are the amplitudes of the vertical and horizontal components of the
magnetic fields; phase differenceD/ ¼ /z  /x , in which /z is the phase of Hz and /x
is the phase of Hx ; and H1 ¼ Hz eiD/ sin h þ Hx cos h. The percentage of real and
imaginary anomalies is computed from tilt angle and ellipticity and given by the
expressions 100  tan h and 100  e, respectively. Real and imaginary anomalies can
be filtered out using filter coefficients developed by KAROUS and HJELT (1983) to get
a pseudo-current density cross section of the subsurface. However, only real anomaly
is enough to prepare pseudo-current density sections as both real and imaginary
anomalies yield almost similar results (OGILVY and LEE, 1998; SHARMA and
BARANWAL, 2005). First, measured real anomaly data are interpolated at 1 m
interval. Interpolated data are processed with Karous-Hjelt filter to engender
apparent current densities corresponding to various pseudo-depths. Higher current
density represents the conducting subsurface structures.
214 V. C. Baranwal and S. P. Sharma Pure appl. geophys.,

VLF survey (magnetic field mode) is always carried out in E-polarization, i.e.
transmitter should be selected in strike direction of the formation and measuring
profiles should be perpendicular to strike direction. In the area where strike direction
is not known, VLF survey should be performed in two perpendicular directions.
Almost no VLF anomaly will be observed when the measuring profile is parallel to
the strike (SHARMA and BARANWAL, 2005). This feature of VLF can be used to
ascertain approximate strike direction in the area.
We have used ABEM-WADI VLF instrument for VLF measurements. First, we
selected a VLF transmitter of 19.8 kHz frequency in E-W direction and carried out
measurement along profile P1 (passing exactly over the hot spring, Fig. 1) at 10 m
interval in N-S direction. Afterward a VLF transmitter of 18.2 kHz is being selected
in N-S direction and measurement along profile P6 in E-W direction is carried out at
the same interval. Profile P6 also passed over the hot spring. Very low anomalies are
observed in profile P6 in comparison of profile P1. Therefore, we assumed E-W
(direction of transmitter for profile P1) as strike direction for VLF survey. This also
accords with the Eastern Ghats Hills that is elongated in E-W direction.
Signal at two frequencies, 19.8 and 22.2 kHz, in E-W direction were available in
the area to work in E-polarization. VLF signal with larger amplitude was selected to
perform the survey. VLF data were collected as a gridded pattern, making traverses
in the area along the profiles P1 to P5 (Fig. 1) in N-S direction with station interval
of 10 m. Separation between two profiles was 50 m. Profile P1 exactly passes over the
main spout and encountered it at distance of 300 m from the starting point (north to
south). Length of profile lines varies from 600–1100 m according to availability of
the space for surveying.
VLF survey can also map the trend of groundwater movement through the
fractures in hard rock areas by delineating conductive zones. Groundwater in
Singhpur and Balasinghi villages that lie in NE direction (Fig. 1) from the hot spring
is highly contaminated with fluoride (KUNDU et al., 2002). Therefore, another set of
VLF data were collected as a gridded pattern towards NE of the hot spring to map
the groundwater flow in the area between hot spring and Balasinghi (Fig. 1). These
profiles, P7 to P14, were taken along S-N direction and separated by a distance of
100 m with station interval of 10 m, covering the area from hot spring to Singhpur.

(c) Magnetic Survey

The area is characterized by two major lithological units, a thick overburden and
compact crystalline basement rock. Fractures are present in the basement rock near
and around the hot springs (KUNDU et al., 2002). Such fracture zones can be depicted
by magnetic measurements if magnetic field in the area varies due to the presence of
fractures in basement rock. Low magnetic anomalies are observed over fractured
formations filled with groundwater in hard rock area (HENKEL and GUZMAN, 1977;
SINGH et al., 2002). Hence a low magnetic anomaly can also refer to the presence of a
Vol. 163, 2006 Integrated Geophysical Studies 215

fractured region suitable to form a hot water reservoir. Total magnetic field was
measured at the same station interval of 10 m along the profile lines P1 to P5 using a
Proton precession magnetometer simultaneously with VLF survey (Fig. 1). At each
survey location, sensor of magnetometer was placed in E-W direction and then
energized to measure the total magnetic field.

(d) Self-potential Survey

The presence of massive sulphide mineral body in the subsurface may produce
heat by chemical reactions and such mineral bodies are commonly investigated by
self-potential (SP) survey. Generally negative SP anomaly of magnitude 300 mV to
800 mV is observed over sulphide mineralization (TELFORD, 1976). Positive SP
anomalies (up to 150 mV) generally suggest upflow of the hot water in the area
(CAGLER and DEMIRORER, 1999; YASUKAWA et al., 2003). Smaller magnitude
positive SP anomaly is associated with the streaming potential and suggests a lateral
flow of groundwater (POZDNYAKOVA et al., 2001).
Two non-polarizing electrodes (trailing and leading), a voltmeter, and a long
connecting wire were utilized for the SP survey. We used Cu-CuSO4 type non-
polarizing electrodes and a voltmeter with 0.1 mV accuracy. SP survey is carried out
exactly over the hot spring along profile P1 (Fig. 1). We used gradient (Leapfrog)
measurement procedure (CORWIN, 1990) as well as fixed electrode potential
measurement by keeping one potential electrode quite distant (500 m away) and
moving another electrode at 25 m interval along the profile P1.

(e) Radiometric Survey

An in situ radiometric survey was conducted using a Geiger-Muller (GM) counter.
The GM probe was comprised of a thin end window (thickness 2.3 mg/cm2) halogen
quenched counter with a dead time of 200 ls with display being a six-digit LCD. The
system was operated for 100 seconds at various locations which were selected
according to suitability of survey locations. Coordinates of the survey points are
measured using portable geo-positioning system equipment. Sensor of the GM counter
was always kept approximately one foot above the ground to facilitate counting the
total radiation in the area. Radiometric survey points are not shown in Figure 1,
however, survey points are plotted on the radiation contour map and shown in
Figure 9.

4. Results and Discussion

(a) Resistivity Data Interpretation

First, the observed resistivity sounding data (S1 to S9) are interpreted using the
VFSA global inversion approach. Figures 2a and 3a present the observed data (solid
216 V. C. Baranwal and S. P. Sharma Pure appl. geophys.,

Figure 2
(a) Fittings between the observed data (solid symbols) and computed data (corresponding continuous
lines), AB/2 is half of current electrode separations. (b) Resistivity cross-section prepared from interpreted
model, for various soundings along AA¢. (For details of models, see Table 1.)

symbols) and computed data (solid lines) for interpreted mean models of various
soundings. Computed data for all 10 solutions (models) for each sounding are also
plotted by solid lines on the same figure. Fittings between the observed and
computed data are good, therefore most of the 11 solids lines (corresponding to 10
Vol. 163, 2006 Integrated Geophysical Studies 217

models and one average model) exactly pass over eachother. Table 1 summarizes the
average model parameters with uncertainties for all soundings.
Interpreted results of all soundings show three- to four-layered formations.
Resistivity soundings S1, S2, S3, S5, S7 and S9 lie approximately along the line AA¢
(Fig. 1). A resistivity cross section along line AA¢ is prepared using these sounding
results and shown in Figure 2b. Similarly from the interpreted model parameters of
the soundings S3, S4, S6, S8, a resistivity cross section along line BB¢ is prepared and
presented in Figure 3b. Both the subsurface resistivity cross sections along line AA¢
and BB¢ (Figs. 2b and 3b) show maximum depth of a relatively low resistive zone
exactly below the hot spring. This low resistivity zone can be interpreted as a fracture
zone filled with hot water. Receding from the hot spring, the thickness of the low
resistive zone reduces.
A bore hole drilled previously up to 30 ft only at the location of the hot spring
started yielding hot water. This is in accordance with the interpreted results of
resistivity sounding S1 (Table 1 and Fig. 2b). Uncertainties in the model parameters
interpreted for various soundings are quite small (Table 1). However, there is very
high uncertainty in the resistivity of the last layer of sounding S6. Interpretation of
sounding S6 indicates very low resistivity value (0.03 Wm) for the bottom layer. Such
a low value should not be geologically feasible in this metamorphic hard rock area.
This is a problem caused by an optimization algorithm which included a very small
resistivity value to reduce the misfit error. Uncertainty in this layer’s resistivity is
almost 100%. Sounding S6 is interpreted by a four-layer model keeping the bottom
layer conductive. The apparent resistivity data for S6 shows saturation in sounding
curve (Fig. 2b) at large current electrode spacing. The normalized current also
remains the same at large electrode separations (for more than 100 m AB/2 in
Fig. 4b). It is justified therefore to keep the last layer as a conductive layer. This
sounding data can also be interpreted as a three-layer model with similar fittings.
However, saturation in sounding curve S6 as well as stable (almost similar) current
flow at large current electrode separations suggest for a four-layer structure. We were
unable to increase the current electrode separation further due to space limitation.
Further increase in spread could have resulted in a sharp increase in apparent
resistivity due to highly resistive basement present in the area. The interpreted
bottom layer may be a thin fracture zone filled with groundwater in a highly resistive
basement rock causing saturation in sounding curve. Therefore we have shown this
layer by question mark (?) in cross section along BB¢ (Fig. 3b).
Figures 4a and 4b show a histogram plot of current flow in the subsurface
normalized by the applied voltage vs current electrode separations for sounding S1
and S6, respectively. Sounding location S1, selected very near the hot spring, is
showing maximum current flow at deeper depth (corresponding to current electrode
spacing 100 m to 300 m). However, S6, selected away from the hot spring in SW
direction is showing diminished current flow at the shallower as well as at the deeper
depth compared to sounding S1. Normalized current flow data are also contoured at
 218

Table 1
Interpreted mean model parameters with their uncertainties for soundings S1 to S9. ‘q’ represents layer resistivity in Ohm.m and ‘h’ represents layer thickness
in meter

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9

q1(Wm) 7.97 ±0.00 8.22 ±0.01 16.23 ±1.36 11.63 ±1.54 21.51 ±0.13 18.79 ±1.26 9.27 ±0.01 8.16 ±0.22 10.84 ±0.42
q2(Wm) 27.12 ±0.03 16.92 ±2.64 7.10 ±1.23 6.93 ±0.04 9.87 ±0.01 7.50 ±0.20 75.44 ±1.24 13.23 ±1.29 5.07 ±0.23
q3(Wm) 199553 ±414 325.56±4.25 14.45 ±0.19 9.52 ±0.84 296.05±0.48 8346 ±1028 9993 ±5.0 8.57 ±0.67 15.93 ±1.52
q4(Wm) - - 473.40±7.75 422.00 ±12.29 - 0.03 ±0.04 - 398.72 ±13.08 351.8 ±12.48
h1(m) 11.95 ±0.01 12.59 ±1.02 0.87 ±0.19 0.39 ±0.05 0.70 ±0.01 0.78 ±0.07 6.62 ±0.03 0.50 ±0.01 0.83 ±0.08
h2(m) 46.26 ±0.03 17.63 ±0.73 2.30 ±0.87 7.81 ±1.38 13.28 ±0.02 6.21 ±0.23 33.26 ±0.35 2.25 ±1.08 3.98 ± 0.52
h3(m) - - 44.42 ±0.06 20.38 ±0.19 - 22.45 ±2.95 - 14.08 ±1.89 16.48 ±0.90
V. C. Baranwal and S. P. Sharma
Pure appl. geophys.,
Vol. 163, 2006 Integrated Geophysical Studies 219

Figure 3
(a) Fittings between the observed data (solid symbols) and computed data (corresponding continuous
lines), AB/2 is half of current electrode separations. (b) Resistivity cross section prepared from interpreted
model, for various soundings along BB¢. (For details of models, see Table 1.)

various current electrode separations (AB/2) viz. 20 m, 100 m and 300 m to show the
current flow pattern in the area (Fig. 5). Hot spring is located at (0, 0) position in
Figure 5. Higher current flow in a wide area has been observed corresponding to
100 m and 300 m current electrode spacings (AB/2) compared to the current flow for
220 V. C. Baranwal and S. P. Sharma Pure appl. geophys.,

Figure 4
Normalized current flow versus electrode separations for (a) sounding S1 and (b) sounding S6 (AB/2 is half
of current electrode separations).

20 m spacing. At deeper depth, higher current flow has been observed at the hot
spring’s location and it spreads in the E-W direction as retreating from the hot spring
towards north. Figure 6 shows that normalized current flow lines are approximately
parallel in E-W direction. This direction coincides with the strike of the formation
exposed in the area. Thus such normalized current flow study may help in identifying
the strike direction of the formation at deeper depth.
Resistivity cross sections suggest that the width of the low resistive zone reduces
with depth. Thickness of the low resistive zone is most substantial at the hot spring.
Normalized current flow is also largest at the hot spring. Since apparent resistivity is
the bulk resistivity of the medium, therefore, deeper conducting zones of limited areal
Vol. 163, 2006 Integrated Geophysical Studies 221

Figure 5
Plan view of normalized current flow in the area for various half current electrode spacings (AB/2)
(approximate positions of the soundings are also shown on the plot).

extent, or conducting zones associated with thin fracture zones in hard rock areas
may not be seen in the resistivity sounding curve. However, measurement of
normalized current flow may aid in identification of such conducting zones. Though
the apparent resistivity curve of S1 is interpreted as three layers with a highly resistive
bottom layer, nonetheless larger current flow indicates that the low resistive zone
may extend to further depth.

(b) VLF Data Interpretation

To investigate the possible interconnection of fracture zones we computed the
current density for a number of apparent depths from profiles P1 to P5 and
contoured it. Plan views at various apparent depths viz. 5 m, 10 m, 20 m, 40 m and
222 V. C. Baranwal and S. P. Sharma Pure appl. geophys.,

Figure 6
Plan view of pseudo-current density computed from percentage real anomaly at various apparent depths
(a) 5 m, (b) 10 m, (c) 20 m, (d) 40 m, and (e) 70 m over the hot spring. The digits 1000, 1100, 1200, 1300,
14000 on Y axis indicate profiles P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively (distance between two profiles is
50 m).

70 m, are shown in Figure 6. To show profiles P1 to P5 on y-axis, they are assigned

numerical values, 1000 to 1400. However, the distance between any two profiles
is 50 m. Therefore, profile P1 (1000) to P5 (1400) is shows a distance of 200 m on
y-axis. Higher current density regions shown by dark regions in Figure 6, indicate the
Vol. 163, 2006 Integrated Geophysical Studies 223

Figure 7
Plan view of pseudo-current density at 20 m apparent depth showing the fluid flow pattern in the area
depicted by the real VLF anomaly (solid lines XX¢, YY¢ and ZZ¢ show the trend of conducting feature).
Dashed lines show VLF profile lines.

presence of conductive zones. These could correspond to fluid-filled fracture zones.

Plots for various depths display two conductive zones extending from profile P2
(1100) to P4 (1300) between 50 to 100 m location and from P3 (1200) to P5 (1400)
between 150 m to 200 m location. At an apparent depth of 40 m, only one
conductive zone appears which is wider than the upper ones and limited from profile
P3 (1200) to P5 (1400) between 150 m to 250 m location. These conductive zones are
most prominent at apparent depths of 10 m to 40 m, where the magnitude of the real
anomaly is around 35%. At 70 m apparent depth it is narrowed in the same manner
as depicted by resistivity interpretation in Figures 2b and 3b. Hence resistivity data
as well as VLF EM data both support the idea that a fracture zone in the area
extends to more than 70 m depth.
To delineate fluid flow pattern as well as interconnectivity of fractures from the
hot spring to Singhpur and Balasinghi, pseudo-current density data of VLF real
anomaly corresponding to 20 m apparent depth from profiles P7 to P14 are
computed and contoured. Figure 7 displays a plan view of apparent current density
at 20 m apparent depth. This figure can be interpreted as dark regions showing a flow
pattern in the form of conductive features. The approximate flow pattern depicted by
VLF data are marked by solid lines XX¢, YY¢ and ZZ¢ on the Figure 7. The trend
shown by lines XX¢ and YY¢ is towards Singhpur village in NE direction and the
trend shown by the line ZZ¢ is towards SE direction (Fig. 1).
224 V. C. Baranwal and S. P. Sharma Pure appl. geophys.,

Figure 8
Contour map of magnetic data measured along the profile lines P1 to P5. Low magnetic field area along
WW¢ indicates fractures. Dashed lines are magnetic profile lines. Distance between profiles P1 to P5 is
200 m.

KUNDU et al. (2002) have shown that fluoride concentration at the hot spring is
the highest. Further, fluoride concentration is also high in Singhpur, Balasinghi and
Sagargaon villages (Fig. 1). They have concluded that deep-seated hot water mixes
with non-thermal groundwater and mixed water moves towards these villages.
Therefore, conducting features depicted by VLF interpretations in Figure 7 express a
good correlation with geochemical study presented by KUNDU et al. (2002).

(c) Magnetic Data Interpretation

Magnetic data were also collected along the VLF profiles P1 to P5. After
correcting the data for diurnal variation, they were contoured and are shown in
Figure 8. Lower values of observed magnetic field (whitish region in Figure 8) can be
interpreted as fracture zones in a crystalline basement lying at larger depth. There is
some correlation with conducting subsurface regions near the hot spring. A magnetic
low is observed over the conducting zones believed to be subsurface fractures. This
zone is marked by a solid line WW¢ on Figure 8. This pattern also correlates with the
pattern shown by pseudo-current density of VLF at 40 m apparent depth (Fig. 6).

(d) Self-potential Data Interpretation

We observed small positive and negative (< ±20 mV) SP anomaly along profile
P1. The small positive (5–15 mV) SP value observed exactly over the hot spring could
Vol. 163, 2006 Integrated Geophysical Studies 225

be streaming potential due to subsurface fluid flow. Observed low SP anomaly in the
area suggests the absence of any mineral body as well as the absence of the upflow of
hot water below the hot spring. Therefore, SP data suggest that hot water comes to
the hot spring by lateral flow and heat source may not be exactly below the hot
spring.

(e) Radiometric Data Interpretation

Total radiation in the area was measured by using a simple Geiger-Muller
counter. The isorad map has been plotted of the area and is shown in Figure 9. We
observe a very high radiation anomaly (maximum up to 10–12 times greater than the
background radiation) at Chakradharprasad, 4 km to the west of the hot spring.
There is no evidence for recent tectonic (tectonothermal) events in the area. Since
radioactive heat production is advocated by ROY and RAO (2000) in the Indian
shield, the possibility of radiogenic heat cannot be ruled out in the Eastern Ghats
Hills area also. The nature of radioactive elements present in the area can be
explained only after gamma ray spectrometry of soil and rock samples of the area.

5. Conclusions

Integrated geophysical studies were performed around a hot spring in the East
Indian Geothermal Province. Interpretation of resistivity sounding data suggests that

Figure 9
Contour map of radiation counting measured in the area (total counts per 100 sec). Solid squares show the
locations of the measured data. X- and Y- axis show variation of longitude and latitude in minutes. Exact
value should be read as 2014¢ N and 8515¢ E.
226 V. C. Baranwal and S. P. Sharma Pure appl. geophys.,

the thickness of fractured formation is maximum at the hot spring and the depth of
the fractured formation extends up to 60 m from the surface. Since the fracture zone
becomes narrower at depth, it may not be detected by conventional resistivity
sounding. VLF EM interpretation suggests that the fracture zone near the hot spring
extends beyond 70 m apparent depth. The higher normalized current flow observed
at large current electrode separations (corresponding to considerable depths) also
supports this interpretation. Low magnetic field strength near the hot spring also
indicates the presence of a fracture zone in the area. Conducting zones depicted by
VLF data interpretation suggest the movement of fluoride contaminated ground-
water through these fracture zones towards NE and SE direction from the hot spring.
Self-potential survey carried out in the area does not suggest the presence of any
mineral body. SP data also do not support any upflow of hot water from a greater
depth below the hot spring. Small positive SP anomaly suggests possible lateral
movement of hot water. Tectonothermal activities and deep magma chamber have
not been reported in earlier geological studies carried out in the area. We have
observed a very high total radiation anomaly, approximately 10–12 times greater
than the background at a location 4 km from the hot spring. Hence, radiogenic heat
production may take place in the area. A detailed analysis of the soil and rock
samples could reveal the nature of radioactive elements present in the area.

Acknowledgements

We extend thanks to the Editor Dr. Graham Heinson, Reviewer Dr. Lachlan
Gibbins and two anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions
enhancing the quality of the manuscript. Gratitude is owed to Prof. D. Sengupta
for various support and discussions. The study is a part of the project ESS/23/VES/
099/2000, DST Govt of India.

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(Received July 7, 2004; accepted February 15, 2005)

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