SOLUTIONS TO ENG 9114/ENG 8690 ASSIGNMENT 2

A1

a. Connate water saturation

Connate water saturation is the irreducible water saturation attached to the grains of the rock for a water-
wet reservoir. It is often represented as Swc and this water saturation is associated to an infinite capillary
pressure in a drainage system.

b. Residual oil saturation

This is often referred to as the immobile oil saturation or the oil saturation that cannot be produced(by-
passed) from an oil reservoir with water or gas displacement hence enhanced oil recovery method is
employed to reduce the amount of oil by passed in the primary or secondary recovery process. A simple
case of a by passed oil is shown in a pore doublet model below for a displacement process.

A pore doublet model Residual oil

model saturation

c. Pore volume

Pore volume is that void space which is occupied by fluid in a porous medium and the ratio between this
volume and bulk volume is the porosity of that medium. This is represented in a generic block below for
porous media.

Bulk volume
Pore volume

A generic block representing a porous media

d. Bulk volume

Bulk volume is the volume per unit mass of solid and volume of air in the spaces. However, the bulk
density is not an intrinsic property of the material as it is dependent on material handling.
e. Dual permeability and Dual porosity

This phenomenon is associated with carbonate reservoirs because of the presence of fracture and matrix
associated with this kind of reservoir. The fracture serves as a transport channel while the matrix aids for
storage. There is a permeability and porosity that is associated with the fracture as well as a permeability
and porosity associated with the matrix. Below shows a generic model illustrating these two phenomena.

Rock

A Cylindrical Carbonate Core

Vf Vm

𝑉𝑓
Vf and Vm represent the fracture and matrix pore volume respectively. The ratio of 𝑉𝑏
would be the
𝑉𝑚
fracture porosity as well as 𝑉𝑏
would be the matrix porosity. In comparison, the permeability of fracture
is greater than that of the matrix 𝐾𝑓 > 𝐾𝑚 and the porosity of fracture is less than that of matrix ∅𝑓 <
∅𝑚 .

f. Conditions under which Darcy’s law is valid;

 Steady state flow
 Flow must be Laminar flow
 Constant flow rate
 Fluid is incompressible
 Permeability K is a rock property
 Rock is homogenous
 There is no chemical reaction between fluid and rock.

g. Reservoir Heterogeneity

Reservoir heterogeneity occurs because of disparities of porosity and permeability distribution across
space and depth. This is often due to overburden pressures, lithological variations during sedimentary
deposition, chemical processes associated with diagenesis, landslides, and other mechanical processes. In
reservoir engineering practice, we do upscaling of reservoir properties in other to remedy the variations
or differences due to heterogeneity.
h. Non-Darcy effect

Non-Darcy effects are those which violates the conditions under which Darcy’s law was formulated. Two
popular effects are those formulated by klinkenberg and forschheimmer for turbulent, high velocity flow
as well as wall slippage.

i. Threshold capillary pressure

This is the minimum pressure required to displace water by oil from the largest pore throat or radius
during flow in a porous media. Conventionally, in a drainage process oil displaces water and this starts
from the widest pores with the smallest pressures until the thinnest pores where the maximum pressure
is required for the displacement process. The least pressure or the minimum pressure required in water
displacement is the threshold capillary pressure and this is associated with the widest or largest pore
throat originally occupied my water. Let’s consider a pore radii distribution in a porous media in the figure
below.

Pore grains

Largest pore throat

pore radii distribution in a porous media radius ( Rmax)

As illustrated above the pressure required for oil to displace water from the largest radius is the
threshold capillary pressure.

j. Wettability

Wettability is the tendency of a fluid to spread on a solid. For there to be wettability there must be fluid
and solid. This fluid could be air, water or oil and depending on the contact angle that each fluid makes
with the solid, it categorizes them into wetting phases and non-wetting phases.

k. Primary drainage curve and Imbibition curve

In a drainage curve, non-wetting phase (oil) displaces wetting phase (water). A primary drainage curve is
use to determine fluid distribution or fluids in place in oil reservoir rock. Let’s consider a water wet
reservoir where initially we have water saturation as 100%. Displacement of water by oil in a drainage
system would start from the widest pore throat with threshold capillary pressure until the thinnest pores
where we have maximum capillary pressure. Also, worthy of note is that as the capillary pressure increases
we have more and more water been displaced by the oil until we get to an irreducible saturation of water
which is connate. The associated value of capillary pressure at this connate water saturation is infinity.
Imbibition curve is that curve along which the wetting phase (water) displaces a non-wetting phase(oil)
and this is associated in a water flood process. Water flood is used to displace oil in a recovery process
until we get to residual oil saturation which is that saturation of oil that cannot be recovery or displaced
further.

Swc 1-Sor

Primary drainage curve and Imbibition curve

The main difference between these two curve is that one is use for fluid distribution and the other is used
for a recovery process.

l. Critical gas saturation

This is maximum gas saturation where gas is immobile. 𝑄𝑔 = 0. Above this critical gas saturation, 𝑄𝑔 ≠ 0
where 𝑄𝑔 is the gas flow rate.

End-point relative permeability are those which are maximum at notable oil and water saturations.
Consider a two-phase flow displacement process of oil and gas;

Kro(swc) is maximum and it is an end-point relative permeability

Krw (1-sor) is maximum and it is another endpoint relative permeability

 Section B

1.1

Pa X – drirection

Z1
Pu

L
H

Pd
Z2
Pa

From Darcy’s general equation;

𝐾𝐴 (𝑃𝑑 −𝑃𝑢 )
𝑄= − ( + 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) …………. eq 1
𝜇 𝐿

θ = angle to the flow direction = 270

𝐻 = 𝑍1 + 𝐿 + 𝑍2 ………….. eq 2

Pressure balance in the set up;

𝑃𝑈 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 …………… eq 3

𝑃𝑑 = 𝑃𝑎 − 𝜌𝑔𝑧2 ………………eq 4

Substitute all the parameters into eq 1,

𝐾𝐴 𝑃 −𝜌𝑔𝑧 2 − 𝑃𝑎 − 𝜌𝑔𝑧1
𝑄= − 𝜇
(( 𝑎 𝐿
)+ 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛270)

‘By multiplying through with the minus sign’

 𝐾𝐴 𝜌𝑔𝑧 +𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝑄= 𝜇
( ( 2 𝐿 1) + 𝑔)
𝜌𝑔
Factorize 𝐿
from the equation we have;
𝐾𝐴 𝑔
𝑄= (𝑍2 + 𝑍1 + 𝐿)
𝜇 𝐿

We can further simplify this substitution H = 𝑍2 + 𝑍1 + 𝐿; Then we have;

𝐾𝐴 𝑔
𝑄= 𝜇 𝐿
𝐻 PROVED

when the apparatus is tilted 50 degrees in the anti-clockwise we have;

From Darcy’s general equation;

𝐾𝐴 (𝑃𝑑 −𝑃𝑢 )
𝑄= − ( + 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) eq 1
𝜇 𝐿

θ = angle to the flow direction = 180

Pressure balance in the set up;

𝑃𝑈 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 𝑠𝑖𝑛40
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑃𝑎 − 𝜌𝑔𝑧2 𝑠𝑖𝑛40

Substitute all the parameters into eq 1,

𝐾𝐴 𝑃 −𝜌𝑔𝑧 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛40− 𝑃𝑎 − 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 𝑠𝑖𝑛40
𝑄= − 𝜇
(( 𝑎 𝐿
)+ 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛180)

‘By multiplying through with the minus sign’

𝐾𝐴 𝜌𝑔𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛40+𝜌𝑔𝑧1 𝑠𝑖𝑛40
𝑄= 𝜇
(( 2 𝐿
))

By Factorizing 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛40 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 we have;

𝐾𝐴 𝑧 +𝑧
𝑄= 𝜇
𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛40 ( 2 𝐿 1 )
Looks Good

Well 1 Well 2

FWL= ? Depth Z
From equations;

𝑃 = 𝑝𝑤 + 𝜌𝑤 𝑔(𝑍𝐹𝑊𝐿 − 𝑍2 ) pressure equation for water at varying depth

𝑃 = 𝑝𝑔 + 𝑔 𝑔(𝑍𝐹𝑊𝐿 − 𝑍1 ) pressure equation for gas at varying depth

At free water level FWL;

We have 𝑃𝑤 = 𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑤 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑔

By equating the above equations, solving in S.I units and assuming a reasonable gas density; we have

𝑝𝑤 + 𝜌𝑤 𝑔(𝑍𝐹𝑊𝐿 − 𝑍2 ) = 𝑝𝑔 + 𝑔 𝑔(𝑍𝐹𝑊𝐿 − 𝑍1 ) ……………………equation 1

Data given;

𝑝𝑤 = 3080psi = 21.236 * 106

𝑝𝑔 = 3050psi = 21.029 * 106

𝑍2 = 5995ft = 1827.28m

𝑍1 = 5910ft = 1810.37m

𝜌𝑤 = 1000kg/m3

𝜌𝑔 = 1.36 kg/m3 (assumed value)

By substituting into equation 1 above; we have

21.236 ∗ 106 + 1000 ∗ 9.8(𝑍𝐹𝑊𝐿 − 1827.28) = 21.029 ∗ 106 + 1.36 ∗ 9.8(𝑍𝐹𝑊𝐿 − 1810)

By solving for 𝑍𝐹𝑊𝐿 ;

𝑍𝐹𝑊𝐿 = 1822.19 m

𝑍𝐹𝑊𝐿 = 5978ft (approximately)

(Note That, this answer is totally subjective and it depends largely on how you determine your gas
density. However, your approach should be technically correct and your answer must lie in the range of
𝒁𝟏 ≤ 𝒁𝑭𝑾𝑳 ≤ 𝒁𝟐 )
B.1.2

X - axis

X - axis

Θ = 310

Another way this core can be set up would be shown below by reversing the flow direction

Θ = -50

𝑠𝑖𝑛310 ≡ sin(−50) ……

Footnote: Remember in trigonometry that sine is negative in the third quadrant

From Darcy’s general law equation;

𝐾𝐴 (𝑃𝑑 −𝑃𝑢 )
𝑄= − ( + 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝜇 𝐿
From the data given and using 𝜃 = 310𝑂 and using S.I units
5∗10−12 ∗1.5∗10−3 (1−1.19)∗105
𝑄= − 10−3
( 1.219 + 1000 ∗ 9.8𝑠𝑖𝑛310)

𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

When flow stops at the lower end of the core, means 𝑄 = 0 hence equation becomes;

𝐾𝐴 (𝑃𝑑 −𝑃𝑢 )
𝑄= − 𝜇
( 𝐿 + 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

Setting 𝑄 = 0
𝐾𝐴 (𝑃𝑑 −𝑃𝑢 )
0= − 𝜇
( 𝐿 + 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

(𝑃𝑑 −𝑃𝑢 )
0= ( + 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝐿

By substituting values in S.I UNITS we have;

(𝑃𝑑 −1.19∗105 )
( 1.219
+ 1000 ∗ 9.8𝑠𝑖𝑛310)

𝑃𝑑 = 128152.82𝑁/𝑚

𝑷𝒅 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟖𝑩𝒂𝒓𝒔
B.1.3

K1 = 2.0D
h1 = 2.0m
K2 = 3.0D
Q
h2= 1.0m
K3 = 4.0D
h3 =1.5m
K4 = 5.0D
h4 = 2.0m

From Darcy’s Equation for horizontal flow;

𝐾𝐴 (𝑃𝑑 −𝑃𝑢 )
𝑄= − equation 1
𝜇 𝐿

𝑃𝑑 − 𝑃𝑢 = 𝑃 (PRESSURE DROP)

Therefore, writing the Darcy equation for the ith layer would be
𝐾𝑖 𝐴𝑖 (𝑃)𝑖
𝑄= − 𝜇 𝐿𝑖

𝑃 = 𝑃𝑖 (pressure drop same for all layers)

Also, taking the width of all layers as constant = 𝑤

Area 𝐴𝑖 = 𝑤𝑖 ∗ ℎ𝑖

Length 𝐿 = 𝑙𝑖

The total flow across the layers would be;

𝑄 =  𝑄𝑖
Total height of reservoir

𝐻 =  ℎ𝑖
Therefore, we can write;
𝐾𝐻𝑤𝑃 𝐾𝑖 𝑤𝑖 ∗ℎ𝑖 (𝑃)𝑖
− 𝜇𝐿
= − 𝜇 𝐿𝑖

Some terms can cancel out if we evaluate all the constraints set above;
𝐾𝐻 =  𝑘𝑖 ∗ ℎ𝑖
By dividing through by H, we have;

𝟏
𝑲 = 𝑯  𝒌𝒊 ∗ 𝒉𝒊 PROVEN

K1 = 2.0D
h1 = 2.0m
K2 = 3.0D
h2= 1.0m
K3 = 4.0D
h3 =1.5m
K4 = 5.0D
h4 = 2.0m

In this case;

𝑄 = 𝑄𝑖
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑖
Also, taking the width of all layers as constant = 𝑤

Area 𝐴𝑖 = 𝑤𝑖 ∗ ℎ𝑖

Length 𝐿 = 𝑙𝑖

By writing Darcy’s law making 𝑃 subject of formula we have;

𝑄𝜇𝐻
𝑃 = 𝐾𝐴
equ a
For the ith layer
𝑄𝑖 𝜇ℎ𝑖
𝑃𝑖 =  𝐾𝐴𝑖
equ b

By equating equation, a and b; and cancelling out some terms that are same we have;

𝑄𝜇𝐻 𝑄𝑖 𝜇ℎ𝑖
𝐾𝐴
= 𝐾𝑖 𝐴𝑖

𝐻 ℎ
𝐾
=  𝑘𝑖
𝑖

By reciprocating
𝟏 𝟏 𝒉
𝑲
= 𝑯  𝒌𝒊
𝒊
PROVEN

Assumptions

 For parallel flow; 𝑄 =  𝑄𝑖 (total flow rate is equal to sum of flow rates through each layer)
 For perpendicular flow 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑖 (total pressure drop is equal to sum of pressure drop across
each layer)
 Viscosity is constant
 Length L is regular.

upscaled horizontal permeability;

1
𝐾 = 𝐻  𝑘𝑖 ∗ ℎ𝑖

𝐻 = ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 + ℎ4 = 6.5𝑚
1
𝐾 = 6.5  (2 ∗ 2 + 3 ∗ 1 + 4 ∗ 1.5 + 5 ∗ 2)

𝑲 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟒𝑫 (2 decimal places)

Upscaled vertical permeability
1 1 2 1 1.5 2
𝐾
= 6.5 (2 + 3 + 4
+ 5)
1 1
𝐾
= 0.3238

By reciprocating

𝑲 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟗𝑫 (2 decimal places)

B.2

From the Corey model given for relative permeability for water and oil respectively, we can generate
values using 16 data points taking 𝑆𝑤𝑐 = 0.15 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑜𝑟 = 0.10 . Take constant a for this case to be 0.75
as was given.
𝑆 −𝑆𝑤𝑐 2
𝐾𝑟𝑤 = 0.68 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ ((1−𝑆𝑤 −𝑆 )
)
𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑐

1−𝑆 −𝑆𝑜𝑟 2
𝐾𝑟𝑜 = 𝑎 ∗ ((1−𝑆 𝑤 )
𝑜𝑟 −𝑆𝑤𝑐 )

By using data points of 0.15 ≤ 𝑆𝑤 ≤ 0.90 and scaling unit of 0.5 we have;

𝑺𝒘 𝑲𝒓𝒘 𝑲𝒓𝒐
0.15 0 0.7500
0.2 0.0023 0.6533
0.25 0.0091 0.5633
0.3 0.0204 0.4800
0.35 0.0363 0.4033
0.4 0.0567 0.3333
0.45 0.0816 0.2700
0.5 0.1111 0.2133
0.55 0.1451 0.1633
0.6 0.1836 0.1200
0.65 0.2267 0.0833
0.70 0.2743 0.0533
0.75 0.3264 0.0300
0.80 0.3831 0.0133
0.85 0.4443 0.0033
0.90 0.5100 0
2

Data

Core length = 7cm = 7 * 10-2m

P = 3.34Psi = 2.27*104 N/m

Cross sectional area = 6cm2 = 6 *10-4

Water viscosity = 0.80cp = 8*10-4pa.s

Core Permeability K = 230mD = 2.30 * 10-13m2

Oil flow rate qo = 0.60liters/day = 6.94*10-9m3/s

Water flow rate qw = 0.70liters/day = 8.10*10-9m3/s

From Darcy’s equation for single phase flow we have for oil;
𝑘𝑜 𝐴 ∆𝑃
𝑞𝑜 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐿
equ 1

𝑘𝑜 is oil permeability
𝐾𝑜
Where 𝐾𝑟𝑜 = 𝐾
equ 2
Substitute 𝐾𝑜 = 𝐾𝑟𝑜 𝐾 into equation 1
𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑘𝐴 ∆𝑃
𝑞𝑜 =
𝜇𝑜 𝐿

By subject of formula
(𝑞𝑜 ∗𝜇𝑜 ∗𝐿)
𝐾𝑟𝑜 = 𝐾𝐴∆𝑃

By substituting;
6.94𝑥10−9 𝑥 6𝑥 10−4 𝑥 7𝑥10−2
𝐾𝑟𝑜 = 2.30𝑥10−13 𝑥 6𝑥10−4 𝑥 2.27 𝑥 104

𝑲𝒓𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟐
Using the same procedure for water
(𝑞𝑤 ∗𝜇𝑤 ∗𝐿)
𝐾𝑟𝑤 = 𝐾𝐴∆𝑃

8.10𝑥10−9 𝑥 4𝑥 10−4 𝑥 7𝑥10−2

𝐾𝑟𝑜 = 2.30𝑥10−13 𝑥 6𝑥10−4 𝑥 2.27 𝑥 104

𝑲𝒓𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟕

Since the flooding follows steady state, we can substitute values for 𝐾𝑟𝑜 , 𝐾𝑟𝑤 𝑆𝑤𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑜𝑟 in the equation
below
𝑆 −𝑆𝑤𝑐 2
𝐾𝑟𝑤 = 0.68 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ ((1−𝑆𝑤 )
𝑜𝑟 −𝑆𝑤𝑐 )

1−𝑆 −𝑆 2
𝐾𝑟𝑜 = 𝑎 ∗ ((1−𝑆 𝑤 −𝑆𝑜𝑟 ))
𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑐

1−𝑆 −0.1 2
𝑤
0.092 = 𝑎 ∗ (1−0.1−0.15) equ 3

𝑆 −0.15 2
𝑤
0.1447 = 0.68 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ (1−0.1−0.15) equ 4

Now we have two equations and two unknowns and we can even simplify further

We can divide equation 3 by 4

1−𝑆𝑤 −0.1 2
0.092 𝑎∗( )
1−0.1−0.15
0.1447
= 𝑆𝑤 −0.15 2
0.68∗𝑎∗( )
1−0.1−0.15

1−𝑆𝑤 −0.1 2
( )
0.75
𝑆𝑤 −0.15
0.63579 = 1.47 ∗ (( 0.75
))
 (1−𝑆𝑤 −0.1) 2
0.63579 = 1.47 ∗ ( 𝑆𝑤 −0.15
)

Dividing both sides by 1.47 we have;

(1−𝑆𝑤 −0.1) 2
0.4325 = ( 𝑆𝑤 −0.15
)

By taking square root of both sides;

(1−𝑆𝑤 −0.1)
√0.4325 = 𝑆𝑤 −0.15

(1−𝑆𝑤 −0.1)
0.6576 =
𝑆𝑤 −0.15

0.6576 ∗ (𝑆𝑤 − 0.15) = (1 − 𝑆𝑤 − 0.1)

0.6576 ∗ 𝑆𝑤 − 0.09864 = 1 − 𝑆𝑤 − 0.1

By collecting like terms

0.6576 ∗ 𝑆𝑤 + 𝑆𝑤 = 1 − 0.1 + 0.09864

1.6576 ∗ 𝑆𝑤 = 0.99864

0.99864
𝑆𝑤 = 1.6576

𝑆𝑤 = 0.6024
𝑺𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎 (2 decimal places)

To get the exponent ‘a’ we substitute the value of 𝑺𝒘 into equation 3 or 4

𝑆𝑤 −0.15 2
0.1447 = 0.68 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ ( 0.75
)

0.60−0.15 2
0.1447 = 0.68 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ ( 0.75
)

0.1447 = 0.68 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ (0.6)2

0.1447 = 0.68 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ (0.36)
0.1447
𝑎 = 0.68𝑥0.36

𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗 (2 decimal places)
B.3

Data

Oil density = 56.18𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 = 899.8𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Water density = 1005𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Capillary pressure at OWC = 𝑃𝑐∗ = 0.11𝐵𝑎𝑟 = 1.1𝑥 104 𝑁/𝑚

Distance between OWC AND FWL = ℎ∗

From equation;

𝑃𝑐∗ = ℎ∗ ∆𝜌𝑔

By substitution;

1.1𝑥 104 = ℎ∗ (1005 − 899.8)𝑥9.8

104
ℎ∗ = 1.1𝑥 (1005−899.8)𝑥9.8

104
ℎ∗ = 1.1𝑥 (1005−899.8)𝑥9.8

ℎ∗ = 10.669𝑚
ℎ∗ = 10.67𝑚 (2 decimal points)

ℎ∗ = 35𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥

ii

from capillary function

𝑃𝐶 = 3.11(1 − 𝑆𝑤 )2 + 0.12 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠

𝑃𝐶 = 𝑔𝐻

𝑆𝑤 = 1 − √(𝑃𝑐 − 0.12)/(3.11)
This can be done simply on excel as shown below
constants
g 9.8
 105.2

Sn Height Pc =hg Pc (bars) Sw =1 -Pc-0.12)/3.11)

1 10 10309.6 0.103096 1*
2 15 15464.4 0.154644 0.894455934
3 20 20619.2 0.206192 0.833523367
4 25 25774 0.25774 0.789549557
5 30 30928.8 0.309288 0.753293071
6 35 36083.6 0.360836 0.721720952
7 40 41238.4 0.412384 0.693382734
8 50 51548 0.51548 0.643399401
9 60 61857.6 0.618576 0.599607909
10 65 67012.4 0.670124 0.579418562
11 70 72167.2 0.721672 0.560154953

Generated graph.

The trend of this graph of depths and water saturation follows an inverse relationship. Increasing depths
YIELDS higher capillary pressure because 𝑃𝑐 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻 .With higher capillary pressure more and more water
can be displaced by the non-wetting phase which could be mostly oil in our study of reservoir Engineering.
As our capillary pressure increases with depths, water saturation reduces as the graph shows clearly and
this could be closely related to the behavior of our drainage curve.