INTRODUCTION

Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-
evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaic, solar thermal energy, solar
architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis. Extracting energy from
solar panels is of current interest due to a global attempt to decrease the use of limited resources,
such as oil and gas.
They can be used for a variety of applications including remote power systems for cabins,
telecommunication equipment, remote sensing and of course for the production of electricity
by residential and commercial solar electric systems.
This project will look closer at solar panels, starting with the product need in India. It will also
include a review of the development process of solar panels and their product specifications
considering structure, strength, materials, efficiency and cost. To get an understanding of the
product realization process of solar panels,
This project shall be divided into two phases, phase one will include the study of existing
techniques and there will first be a general investigation of solar panels journey from idea to a
complete product. It will also include study about the financial aspects of the solar energy
harvesting.
Emphasis is given on research and analysis for the use of solar panels as the building material
in residential, industrial as well as commercial buildings. Considerations on the feasibility and
space modification according to design, structure and direction of sun for maximum efficiency
was also studied.
There are four chapter which shall be discussing the phase one in detail. Chapter 1 deals with
the generic product development process has also been studied and an attempt to combine this
method to the production of solar panels has been made. To increase the information input, a
survey was sent out to manufacturers of solar panels. Subsequently in Chapter 2 the
manufacturing of solar panels is covered. Chapter 3 contains the concluding report on the solar
energy harvesting and it also including the discussion of the results of the project. The future
scope of the solar harvesting is discussed in Chapter 4.
In phase two, the civil engineering aspect of the solar panel harvesting will be done including
testing and feasibility study for the use of solar panel as load bearing walls.
 Solar Energy and SOLAR CELL

A solar cell is a solid-state electrical device (p-n junction) that converts the energy of light
directly into electricity (DC) using the photovoltaic effect. The process of conversion first

Figure 1 Showing A typical Solar Cell

requires a material which absorbs the solar energy (photon), and then raises an electron to a
higher energy state, and then the flow of this high-energy electron to an external circuit. Silicon
is one such material that uses such process.
A p-n junction: It is formed by joining p-type (high concentration of hole or deficiency of

electron) and n-type (high concentration of electron) semiconductor material. Due to this
joining, excess electrons from n-type try to diffuse with the holes of p-type whereas excess
hole from p-type try to diffuse with the electrons of n-type. Movement of electrons to the p-
type side exposes positive ion cores in the n-type side, while movement of holes to the n-type
side exposes negative ion cores in the p-type side, resulting in an electron field at the junction
and forming the depletion region.
A light-generated current: Generation of current in a solar cell, known as the “light-generated
current,” involves two important processes:-
 Absorption of incident photons to create electron-hole pairs. Electron-hole pairs will
generate in the solar cell provided that the incident photon has an energy greater than
 that of the band gap. However, electrons (in the p-type material), and holes (in the n-
type material) are meta-stable and will only exist, on average, for a length of time equal
to the minority carrier lifetime before they recombine. If the carrier recombines, then
the light-generated electron-hole pair is lost and no current or power can be generated.
 Collection of these carriers by the p-n junction prevents this recombination by using a
p-n junction to spatially separate the electron and the hole. The carriers are separated
by the action of the electric field existing at the p-n junction. If the light-generated
minority carrier reaches the p-n junction, it is swept across the junction by the electric
field at the junction, where it is now a majority carrier. If the emitter and base of the
solar cell are connected together (i.e., if the solar cell is short-circuited), then the light-
generated carriers flow through the external circuit.
Photovoltaic effect: The collection of light-generated carriers does not by itself give rise to
power generation. In order to generate power, a voltage must be generated as well as a current.
Voltage is generated in a solar cell by a process known as the “photovoltaic effect.” The
collection of light-generated carriers by the p-n junction causes a movement of electrons to the
n-type side and holes to the p-type side of the junction. Under short circuit conditions, the
carriers exit the device as light-generated current.
There are several different cell sizes and configurations available which offer different levels
of efficiency and performance.
The 6 main types of solar panels which use different sizes and
types of solar cells
Most residential solar panels contain 60 mono or polycrystalline cells linked together via
busbars in series to generate a voltage between 30-40 volts depending on the type of cell
used. Larger solar panels used for commercial systems and utility scale solar farms contain
72 or 96 cells and in turn operate at a higher voltage. The electrical contacts which
interconnect the cells are known as busbars and allow the current to flow through all the
cells in a circuit.
Solar cell busbar
Silicon solar cells are metalized with thin rectangular-shape strips printed on the front and
back sides of a solar photovoltaic cell.These metallic contacts are called busbars and have a
significant purpose: they conduct the direct current generated by the solar photovoltaic
cell.Frequently, solar cell busbars are constructed from copper, coated with silver. The silver
coating is necessary to enhance current conductivity (front side) as well as to lower
oxidization (rear side).

Solar cell fingers

Perpendicular to the busbars are the metallic and thinner grid fingers, also called solar cell
fingers, which collect the generated current for delivery to the busbars.
These contacts – the busbars and the fingers – are printed onto the surface of solar
photovoltaic cell via a technology called screen printing.
Tab wires
The solar photovoltaic cells have to be connected in series which form rows, to obtain
suitable voltages.The tab wire is brazed either manually or automatically to the solar cell
busbar, which connects the individual cells in series with a low series resistance.The tab wire
is also made from round copper wire, by a rolling process and is coated with a layer of solder
to permit easy soldering.

Bus wires
Clusters of tab wired cell strings are connected in parallel by bus wires which then deliver the
cumulative current from all the cells to the PV junction box.Because the bus wire has to carry
more current than the tab wire, it must also have a larger thickness and width to allow less
resistance per unit length.The bus wire is also made of the same material as the tab wire.
Contact design development
The key trade-off in top contact design is to strike an optimal balance between the increased
resistance losses associated with a widely spaced grid and the increased reflection caused by
a high fraction of metal coverage of the top surface.In this regard, the required parameters are
the height and width of the busbars, the width of the fingers, distances between the fingers
and the busbars, as well as the metal type and quality.An increasing way in the industry is to
re-think cell design and manufacturing which will further improve efficiency and reliability
and significantly reduce the material costs – especially regarding the silver paste used in
making busbars.

Multi busbar solar cells

3BB busbar solar cells
The most common solar cell design involves three busbars (3BB) printed onto the cell.
5BB busbar solar cells
Five busbars (5BB) cells are currently one of the leading trends in solar cell and module
design.Some sizeable solar panel manufacturers, such as Trina Solar, SolarWorld, and
CSUN, increasingly focus their manufacturing on PV solar panels using PERC solar cells
with 5BB busbars.
This higher number of busbars reduces the distance between the busbars, which decreases the
internal resistance losses.Even if the higher quantity of busbars increases the shading of the
solar photovoltaic cell, the overall performance of multi busbar cells remains much better
than that of conventional 2BB or 3BB cells.
The higher number of busbars reduces the effective finger length between the busbars, which
decreases finger resistance losses, as well as the impacts of microcracks. Solar cells are made
of very thin wafers, usually about 0.20 mm thick. They have some flexibility but can suffer
from pressure induced cracks which are so small they are impossible to see with the eye.
These are called microcracks.
LG’s CELLO wire technology
The multi busbar design with thinner busbars also enables a cost reduction of the expensive
silver paste.An example of this is the LG’s CELLO wire technology. The term CELLO
stands for “Cell connection with Electrically Low loss, Low stress, and Optical absorption
enhancement.”LG Electronics has replaced the three standard busbars with 12 round thin
circular-shaped wires, which cover the whole surface of the solar cells.
LG’s prime CELLO technology product is its NeON 2 PV module.
Busbar-less solar cells
Contrary to the multi busbar concept, other manufacturers such as Solaria are going the entire
busbar-less way; the company uses overlapping solar photovoltaic cell segments that are
directly electrically connected with each other.
The advantages of busbar-less cells are apparent:
Reduce inactive space between solar cells.
More flexible module size design – standard module design is restricted by cell size and
spacing requirements
Significant reduction of power loss caused by shading
Fewer microcracks, often due to cell soldering
Saving of busbar material costs
Reduction of busbar material costs
While the multi busbar and busbar-less designs focus on increasing performance and
reliability, other approaches focus on the reduction of material costs.
They do this either by minimizing the silver metallization in the busbars – such as with the
dash-line busbar designs – or by the entire replacement of silver for the solar cell
metallization with alternative materials such as tin or nickel.
Dash-line pattern busbars
In recent years, the industry has come up with a more cost-effective alternative to the
standard full line busbars: dash-line pattern busbars, reducing the use of the expensive silver
paste.
There are different types of dash-line busbars, such as 3-dash, 5-dash, 6-dash and even 8-dash
busbars.
Research has shown that dash-pattern busbars are more sensitive to potential cracking and
power degradation – problems that increase with the number of dash lines, with thermal
stress accumulating and cracking happening at the corners of a solar cell busbar and thus
increasing the number of dashes.
Tab wire optimization: Round wires
Tab wires can also provide an optimizing of the performance of solar cells. This is possible
by using round tab wires, which ensure – in comparison to the rectangular-shaped wires –
less shading due to their reduced space.
What is the Difference Between Mono and Poly Solar Panels?
The two big technologies in silicon-based solar are still MONO and POLY solar
panels.

Mono Crystalline Panels

The difference between mono and poly solar panels comes down to the cells that they are made
from. The silicon in mono and poly cells undergo different manufacturing processes, making
panels with slightly different performance characteristics. Understanding these differences will
help you to choose the right panel for your project.

Mono crystalline panels (mono-si, mono) are made from silicon that has been ‘grown’ in a
single crystal through the ’Czochralski process’. The crystal is then trimmed, sliced into wafers
and treated to form solar cells. Because of the shape of the crystal, mono cells tend to have
distinctive ‘cut off corners’.

Mono cells are easy to identify by these cut off corners and a smooth even black color.

The Mono panels that they make tend to be more efficient than poly panels but also more
expensive. This means that if you take a mono panel and a poly panel of the same size and
leave them in exactly the same light conditions, the mono panel will generate more power.
However, that power will have cost you more per watt because the panel that generated it was
more expensive.

This trade off in output and cost is often worth it in projects where space is restricted. For
example, a home owner with a small roof might choose to use more expensive mono panels in
order to squeeze the maximum power from his system in the long run.

Poly Crystalline Panels

Poly crystalline panels (poly-Si, poly) do not use silicon from a single crystal. Instead, silicon
is taken from multiple sources, and subjected to intense heat and pressure to ‘cast’ a silicon
‘ingot’. This ingot can then be sliced into wafers and treated to make poly cells.

Poly cells used to be quite easy to recognize by their reflective ‘flaky’ blue surface but newer
manufacturing processes are making them look more and more like mono panels every year.

The Poly solar panels they make have tended to be less efficient and less expensive than the
same sized mono panels. This makes them better suited to installations where the most
important consideration is not overall output but reduced cost per unit or accelerated return on
investment. For example, many larger commercial and utility scale solar power plants use poly
panels to produce electricity at a lower cost per watt in order to shorten the payback period of
their system.

Poly panels have also tended to have slightly higher failure rates and slightly shorter life spans
than mono panels, their output slowly degrading over a period of twenty-five to thirty years.
This has generally been seen as an acceptable maintenance cost for larger installations. Solar
investors realize that after twenty five years, their panels will have paid for themselves many
times over in electricity generated and sold. Also, that far in the future, solar technology may
well have advanced to the point where the replaced panels will be many times more efficient
and less expensive than the originals.

Non Crystalline Panels

As well as mono and poly, there are many other emerging poly technologies that are not made
from silicon at all. These are often grouped together as non-crystalline or ‘thin film’ solar.

The technologies receiving the most attention at the moment are:

 Cadmium telluride (CdTe)

 Copper induim gallium selenide (CIGS)
 emerging ‘organic’ and ‘quantum’ technologies
These technologies hold great promise for the future. Some of them have proved more versatile
and more tolerant to partial shading than either mono or poly in the lab. However, they are not
yet able to compete with the availability, price or reliability of good old mono and poly solar
panels. For this reason they have yet to be widely adopted in home, business or utility solar
power systems.
 SOLAR PANELS
Solar energy begins with the sun. Solar panels (also known as "PV panels") are used to convert
light from the sun, which is composed of particles of energy called "photons", into electricity
that can be used to power electrical loads.

Solar panels collect clean renewable energy in the form of sunlight and convert that light into
electricity which can then be used to provide power for electrical loads. Solar panels are
comprised of several individual solar cells which are themselves composed of layers of silicon,
phosphorous (which provides the negative charge), and boron (which provides the positive
charge). Solar panels absorb the photons and in doing so initiate an electric current. The
resulting energy generated from photons striking the surface of the solar panel allows electrons
to be knocked out of their atomic orbits and released into the electric field generated by the
solar cells which then pull these free electrons into a directional current. This entire process is
known as the Photovoltaic Effect.

The solar array sends direct current (DC) electricity through the charge controller to the battery
bank. The power is then drawn from the battery bank to the inverter, which converts the DC
current into alternating current (AC) that can be used for non-DC appliances. Assisted by an
inverter, solar panel arrays can be sized to meet the most demanding electrical load
requirements.

The AC current can be used to power loads in homes or commercial buildings, recreational
vehicles. An average home has more than enough roof area for the necessary number of solar
panels to produce enough solar electricity to supply all of its power needs excess electricity
generated goes onto the main power grid, paying off in electricity use at night. In a well-
balanced grid-connected configuration, a solar array generates power during the day that is
then used in the home at night. Net metering programs allow solar generator owners to get paid
if their system produces more power than what is needed in the home. In off-grid solar
applications, a battery bank, charge controller, and in most cases, an inverter are necessary
components. The AC
current can be used to
power loads in homes or
commercial buildings,
recreational vehicles
and boats, remote
cabins, cottages, or
homes, remote traffic
controls,
telecommunications
equipment, oil and gas
flow monitoring, RTU,
SCADA, and much
more.

Fig.1 Depiction of process of conversion of photon to electric energy

MATERIAL USED AND THEIR PROPERTIES TO HARVEST SOLAR
ENERGY

Special materials are used for the construction of photovoltaic cells. These materials are called
semiconductors. The most commonly used semiconductor material for the construction of
photovoltaic cells is silicon. Several forms of silicon are used for the construction; they are
single-crystalline, multi-crystalline and amorphous. Other materials used for the construction
of photovoltaic cells are polycrystalline thin films such as copper indium diselenide, cadmium
telluride, and gallium arsenide.

Silicon - The Most Popular Material for Solar Cells

A number of the earliest
photovoltaic (PV) devices
have been manufactured
using silicon as the solar cell
material and it is still the
most popular material for
solar cells today.

The molecular structure of

single-crystal silicon is
uniform. This uniformity is
ideal for the transfer of electrons efficiently through the material. However, in order to make
an effective photovoltaic cell, silicon needs to be "doped" with other elements.

Multi-crystalline silicon is normally considered less efficient than single-crystal silicon. On the
other hand, multi-crystalline silicon devices are less expensive to produce. The casting process
is the most common means of producing multi-crystalline silicon on a commercial scale.

Amorphous silicon can absorb 40 times more solar radiation than single-crystal silicon. This is
one of the main reasons why amorphous silicon can reduce the cost of photovoltaics.
Amorphous silicon can be coated on low-cost substrates such as plastics and glass. This makes
amorphous silicon ideal for building-integrated photovoltaic products.

Polycrystalline Thin Films - Reducing Material Required in Solar Cells

Numerous thin-film technologies are currently being developed to decrease the amount of light
absorbing material required to produce solar cells. This could lead to a reduction in the
processing costs; however, it could also lead to a reduction in energy conversion efficiency.
Copper Indium Diselenide

Copper indium diselenide, CIS for short, has an

extremely high absorptivity. This means that
99% of the light illuminated on CIS will be
consumed in the first micrometer of the material.
The addition of a small amount of gallium will
improve the efficiency of the photovoltaic
device. This is commonly referred to as copper
indium gallium diselenide or CIGS photovoltaic
cell.

Gallium Arsenide
Gallium arsenide or GaAs is a compound of two elements:
gallium and arsenic. Gallium is rarer than gold and is a by
product of the smelting of other metals, particularly
aluminum and zinc. Arsenic, on the other hand, is not rare,
however, it is poisonous. Gallium arsenide also has a very
high absorptivity and it only requires a cell of a few
microns thick to absorb sunlight. GaAs cells are
unaffected by heat and are highly resistant to damage from radiation. This makes it suitable for
concentrator systems and space applications.

Newer materials
Several new solar cell materials have been developed recently. However, most of these are still
in the research stages. Apart from inorganic materials, several polymer-based materials and
light-absorbing dyes have been used.
Perovskite materials
Perovskite structured materials used in solar cells
are generally hybrid organic-inorganic lead or tin-
halide materials, such as methylammonium lead
halide. These materials can be solution-processed,
hence enable inexpensive and simple fabrication.
The efficiency of perovskite-based solar cells has
been steadily increasing and is reported to be more
than 20% in the lab currently. One of the key
advantages of these materials is their ability to
absorb sunlight across the entire visible spectrum.

Quantum Dots
Nanoparticles, a few nm in size, called quantum dots are another type of emerging materials
used in solar cells. They are low bandgap
semiconductor materials such as CdS, CdSe,
and PbS. Their bandgaps can be tuned over a
wide range by changing the size of the
particles. Many common materials used for
fabricating quantum dots such as Cd and Pb
are considered toxic, hence other alternative
materials such as copper indium selenide are
being developed.

Organic/Polymer materials
Semiconducting polymers such as polyphenylene
vinylene (PPV) and small organic small molecules
such as phthalocyanines, polyacenes, and squarenes
are also used in solar cells. These highly conjugated
organic molecules have a broad absorption in the
visible and near infrared region. These materials are
deposited as thin films either by vacuum deposition
methods or solution processing, and solar cells using
these materials are usually thin and flexible. However, the efficiency of these cells is still low,
just a little more than 10%, hence they have not been commercialized yet.
 Dye-Sensitized Materials
Another type of solar cell material is a small molecule dye, such as
a ruthenium metalorganic dye, that can absorb a broad range of the
visible region of sunlight. An inorganic mesoporous nanoparticle
layer, usually titanium dioxide, increases the area for light
absorption. Solar cells using these materials can be made using
solution processing, making them inexpensive to fabricate.

Cost of Material
Project cost of manufacturing facility for solar cells and panels3
Project phases Cost4 (INR/W)

Polysilicon* 22
Wafer* 17
Cell* 20
Module* 9

Total 68
The cost of manufacturing facility will differ as per the production inputs. For instance, the cost for an
integrated plant (from Polysilicon to Module) will be INR66/W while the cost for manufacturing Solar
Modules (with input as solar cells) will be INR13/W.
 Quantum of incentives
% of eligible fixed
Category of Project % of Net VAT % of Net VAT to be
capital investment Incentive period
Location (Taluka) reimbursement to the paid to Government
entitled for Incentive (no. of years)
unit

1 100 90 10 10
2 80 80 20 10
3 70 70 30 10
Net VAT incentives

Net VAT incentive will be reimbursed to the industrial undertaking in one financial year will not exceed one-tenth of the total amount
of eligible incentive.

Classification of the Project Amount (in INR crore)

Ultra Mega Industrial Unit 500

Mega lndustrial Unit 400

Large Industrial Unit 150

Micro, Small or Medium Industrial Unit 50

Method Of calculation of surface area required by solar panels
Lets assume that you want to install 10 solar panels rated at 100 Watts each and having a
conversion efficiency of 18%. The total power output of the solar system can be calculated as:
Total Power Output = Total Area x Solar Irradiance x Conversion Efficiency

We know the required Total Output Power is 1000 Watts (10 panels x 100 Watts), the Solar
Irradiance for a surface perpendicular to the Sun’s rays at sea level on a clear day is about 1000
Watt/m2 and the Conversion Efficiency is 18%. Plugging these number in the above equation
we get:

1000 Watts = Total Area x 1000 Watts/m2 x 0.18

or

Total Area = 1/0.18 = 5.56 m2

I you are going to install all the panels in one line you would need a space of approximately 1
m x 5.56 m (each panel having a size of 1 m x 0.556 m) on your rooftop. There you go. You
have a rough estimate of the space required by the solar panels of your system.

Note:-

1. Do remember that solar panels are usually installed at an angle to the earth surface and this
may change the results somewhat.

2. Imagine a solar panel has a conversion efficiency of 100% i.e. it converts all the solar energy
into electrical energy then all you would need is a 1 m2 solar panel to produce 1000 Watts of
electrical energy.
 Circuit and Connectivity of Material

Solar panel construction

Solar photovoltaic or ‘PV’ panels are made using the 6 main components described below
and assembled in advanced manufacturing facilities with extreme accuracy. In this article we
will focus on panels made using silicon crystalline solar cells which are by far the most
common and highest performing solar technology available today. There are other solar PV
technologies available such as thin film and screen printed cells but we will not be discussing
these as they have limited use or are still in development.

The 6 Main components of a solar panel

1. Solar photovoltaic cells
2. Toughened Glass - 3 to 4mm thick
3. Extruded Aluminium frame
4. Encapsulation - EVA film layers
5. Polymer rear backsheet
6. Junction box - diodes and connectors
Many well known solar panel manufacturers are ‘vertically integrated’ which means the
one company supplies and manufactures all the main components including the silicon ingots
and wafers used to make the solar PV cells. However many panel manufacturers assemble
solar panels using externally sourced parts including cells, polymer back sheet and
encapsulation EVA material. These manufacturers can be more selective about which
components they chose but they do not always have control over the quality of the products
so they should be sure they use the best suppliers available.
Basic construction diagram of a common (P-type) silicon solar cell

Tempered Glass

The front glass sheet protects the PV cells from the weather and impact from hail or airborne
debris. The glass is typically high strength tempered glass which is 3.0 to 4.0mm thick and
is designed resist mechanical loads and extreme temperature changes. The IEC minimum
standard impact test requires solar panels to withstand an impact of hail stones of 1 inch (25
mm) diameter traveling up to 60 mph (27 m/s). In the event of an accident or severe impact
tempered glass is also much safer than standard glass as it shatters into tiny fragments rather
than sharp jagged sections.
To improve efficiency and performance high transmissive glass is used by most
manufacturers which has a very low iron content and an anti-reflective coating on the rear
side to reduce losses and improve light transmission.

Aluminium Frame
The aluminium frame plays a critical role by both protecting the edge of the laminate section
housing the cells and providing a solid structure to mount the solar panel in position. The
extruded aluminium sections are designed to be extremely
lightweight, stiff and able to withstand extreme stress and
loading from high wind and external forces.

The aluminium frame can be silver or anodised black and

depending on the panel manufacturer the corner sections
can either be screwed, pressed or clamped together
providing different levels of strength and stiffness.

EVA Film
EVA stands for ‘ethylene vinyl acetate’ which is a specially designed polymer highly
transparent (plastic) layer used to
encapsulate the cells and hold them in
position during manufacture. The EVA
material must be extremely durable and
tolerant of extreme temperature and
humidity, it plays an important part in the
long term performance by preventing
moisture and dirt ingress.

The lamination either side of the PV cells provides some shock absorption and helps protect
the cells and interconnecting wires from vibrations and sudden impact from hail stones and
other objects. A high quality EVA film with a high degree of what is known as ‘cross-
linking’ can be the difference between a long life or a panel failure due to water ingress.
During manufacture the cells are first encapsulated with the EVA before being assembled
within the glass and back sheet.

Backsheet

The backsheet is the rear most layer of common solar panels which as acts as a moisture
barrier and final external skin to provide both mechanical protection and electrical insulation.
The backsheet material is made of various polymers or plastics including PP, PET and PVF
which offer different levels of protection, thermal stability and long term UV resistance. The
backsheet layer is typically white in colour but is also available as clear or black depending
on the manufacturer and module.

The ‘Tedlar’ PVF material from Dupont is known as one the leading high performance back
sheets for PV module manufacturing.

Dual glass panels - Some panels such as bifacial and frameless panels use a rear glass panel
instead of a polymer backsheet. The rear side glass is more durable and longer lasting than
most backsheet materials and so some manufacturers offer a 30 year performance warranty
on dual glass panels.

Junction Box and Connectors

The junction box is a small weather proof enclosure located
on the rear side of the panel. It is needed to securely attach
the cables required to interconnect the panels. The junction
box is important as it is the central point where all the cells
sets interconnect and must be protected from moisture and
dirt.

Bypass diodes
The junction box also houses the bypass diodes which are needed to prevent back current
which occurs when some cells are shaded or dirty. Diodes only allow current to flow in one
direction and a typical 60 cell panel has 3 rows of 20 PV cells and in turn there are 3 bypass
diodes, one for preventing reverse current to each of the 3 sets of cells. Unfortunately bypass
diodes can fail over time and may need to be replaced, so the cover of the junction box is
usually able to be removed for servicing, although many modern solar panels now use more
advanced long lasting diodes and non-serviceable junction boxes.

Inside a junction box of a typical 60 cell solar panel showing the 3 bypass diodes:-

Solar MC4 Connectors

Almost all solar panels are
connected together using
special weather resistant
plugs and sockets called
MC4 connectors. The term
MC4 stands for multi-
contact 4mm diameter
connector. Due to the
extreme weather
conditions the connectors
must be very robust,
secure, UV resistant and maintain a good connection with minimal resistance at both low and
high voltages up to 1000V.

The connectors are designed to be used with the standard 4mm or 6mm double insulated solar
DC cable with tinned copper multi-strand core for minimum resistance. To correctly
assemble the connectors a special crimping tool is used to crimp the multi-strand cable to the
inner terminal which is then inserted and snapped into the MC4 housing.

Solar MC4 connectors - Male and female with internal crimped terminals

There are several varieties of MC4 connectors which may look similar but do not always
fit together securely. The same type and make of connector must always be used to reduce
potential water ingress or plug failure which can result in arcing and even fire.
Solar panel assembly and manufacturing
Solar panels are assembled in advanced
manufacturing facilities using automated robotic
equipment and sensors to precisely position the
components with extreme accuracy. The
manufacturing plants must be extremely clean and
controlled to prevent any contamination during
assembly.

Throughout the manufacturing process the panels

and cells are checked and inspected using advanced
optical/imaging sensors to ensure all the components
are located correctly and the cells wafers, which are
very delicate, are not damaged or cracked during the
assembly process. Depending on the manufacturer the final panel assembly is thoroughly
checked using a number of tests including electroluminescent (EL) or flash testing to identify
any defects in the cells which could lead to failure once exposed to sunlight and high
temperatures for many years .
 Manufacturing of Solar Panels
Physical Size
Length and Width – Although length and width varies slightly, most companies are
manufacturing solar panels in standard sizes. The most typical size used for residential
installations is 65 inches by 39 inches, while the common size for commercial applications
is 77 inches by 39 inches. The smaller size is a better fit for residential projects to maximize
available roof space. Most commercial projects have hundreds of panels and this is why the
slightly larger panel is a more ideal choice.
Depth – The depth of solar panels range between 1.4 inches to 1.8 inches, although we are
seeing more manufacturers move to a 1.8 inch depth.
Weight – Residential solar panels weigh about 40 pounds while the slightly wider commercial
panels weigh closer to 50 pounds. In Massachusetts, we always do a structural analysis to
calculate if a roof can withstand the additional weight of the solar equipment. The weight
of the solar panels may be important in scenarios where reinforcement is needed and there is
no access to the framing.
Number of Solar Cells
Cells are the electrical device that converts sunlight into electricity. In order to generate a
useful amount of power, cells are connected together in a solar panel. 60 cell modules are
the industry standard for residential applications, but slightly larger commercial panels are
generally 72 cells. Solar installation companies often look at the number of cells when
determining compatibility with micro-inverters.

Raw Materials
The basic component of a solar cell is pure silicon, which is not pure in its natural state.

To make solar cells, the raw materials—silicon dioxide of either quartzite gravel or crushed quartz—are first placed
into an electric arc furnace, where a carbon arc is applied to release the oxygen. The products are carbon dioxide and
molten silicon. At this point, the silicon is still not pure enough to be used for solor cells and requires further purification.

Pure silicon is derived from such silicon dioxides as quartzite gravel (the purest silica) or
crushed quartz. The resulting pure silicon is then doped (treated with) with phosphorous and
boron to produce an excess of electrons and a deficiency of electrons respectively to make a
semiconductor capable of conducting electricity. The silicon disks are shiny and require an
anti-reflective coating, usually titanium dioxide.
The solar module consists of the silicon semiconductor surrounded by protective material in a
metal frame. The protective material consists of an encapsulant of transparent silicon rubber or
butyryl plastic (commonly used in automobile windshields) bonded around the cells, which
are then embedded in ethylene vinyl acetate. A polyester film (such as mylar or tedlar) makes
up the backing. A glass cover is found on terrestrial arrays, a lightweight plastic cover on
satellite arrays. The electronic parts are standard and consist mostly of copper. The frame is
either steel or aluminium. Silicon is used as the cement to put it all together.
The Manufacturing Process

Purifying the silicon

 The silicon dioxide of either quartzite gravel or crushed quartz is placed into an electric
arc furnace. A carbon arc is then applied to release the oxygen. The products are carbon
dioxide and molten silicon. This simple process yields silicon with one percent
impurity, useful in many industries but not the solar cell industry.
 The 99 percent pure silicon is purified even further using the floating zone technique.
A rod of impure silicon is passed through a heated zone several times in the same
direction. This procedure "drags" the impurities toward one end with each pass. At a
specific point, the silicon is deemed pure, and the impure end is removed.

Making single crystal silicon

 Solar cells are made from silicon boules, polycrystalline structures that have the atomic
structure of a single crystal. The most commonly used process for creating the boule is
called the Czochralski method. In this process, a seed crystal of silicon is dipped into
melted polycrystalline silicon. As the seed crystal is withdrawn and rotated, a
cylindrical ingot or "boule" of silicon is formed. The ingot withdrawn is unusually pure,
because impurities tend to remain in the liquid.

Making silicon wafers

 From the boule, silicon wafers are sliced one at a time using a circular saw whose inner
diameter cuts into the rod, or many at once with a multiwire saw. (A diamond saw
produces cuts that are as wide as the wafer—. 5 millimeter thick.) Only about one-half
of the silicon is lost from the boule to the finished circular wafer—more if the wafer is
then cut to be rectangular or hexagonal. Rectangular or hexagonal wafers are sometimes
used in solar cells because they can be fitted together perfectly, thereby utilizing all
available space on the front surface of the solar cell.
 After the initial purification, the silicon is further refined in a floating zone process. In this process, a
silicon rod is passed through a heated zone several times, which serves to 'drag" the impurities toward one
end of the rod. The impure end can then be removed.
Next, a silicon seed crystal is put into a Czochralski growth apparatus, where it is dipped into melted
polycrystalline silicon. The seed crystal rotates as it is withdrawn, forming a cylindrical ingot of very pure
silicon. Wafers are then sliced out of the ingot.

 The wafers are then polished to remove saw marks. (It has recently been found that
rougher cells absorb light more effectively, therefore some manufacturers have chosen
not to polish the wafer.)

Doping
 The traditional way of doping (adding impurities to) silicon wafers with boron and
phosphorous is to introduce a small amount of boron during the Czochralski process in
step #3 above. The wafers are then sealed back to back and placed in a furnace to be
heated to slightly below the melting point of silicon (2,570 degrees Fahrenheit or 1,410
degrees Celsius) in the presence of phosphorous gas. The phosphorous atoms "burrow"
into the silicon, which is more porous because it is close to becoming a liquid. The
temperature and time given to the process is carefully controlled to ensure a uniform
junction of proper depth.

A more recent way of doping silicon with phosphorous is to use a small particle
accelerator to shoot phosphorous ions into the ingot. By controlling the speed of the
ions, it is possible to control their penetrating depth. This new process, however, has
generally not been accepted by commercial manufacturers.
Placing electrical contacts
 Electrical contacts connect each solar cell to another and to the receiver of produced
current. The contacts must be very thin (at least in the front) so as not to block sunlight
to the cell. Metals such as palladium/silver, nickel, or copper are vacuum-evaporated

This illustration shows the makeup of a typical solar cell. The cells are encapsulated in ethylene vinyl
acetate and placed in a metal frame that has a mylar backsheet and glass cover.

through a photoresist, silkscreened, or merely deposited on the exposed portion of cells

that have been partially covered with wax. All three methods involve a system in which
the part of the cell on which a contact is not desired is protected, while the rest of the
cell is exposed to the metal.

 After the contacts are in place, thin strips ("fingers") are placed between cells. The most
commonly used strips are tin-coated copper.

The anti-reflective coating

 Because pure silicon is shiny, it can reflect up to 35 percent of the sunlight. To reduce
the amount of sunlight lost, an anti-reflective coating is put on the silicon wafer. The
most commonly used coatings are titanium dioxide and silicon oxide, though others are
used. The material used for coating is either heated until its molecules boil off and travel
to the silicon and condense, or the material undergoes sputtering. In this process, a high
voltage knocks molecules off the material and deposits them onto the silicon at the
opposite electrode. Yet another method is to allow the silicon itself to react with
 oxygen- or nitrogen-containing gases to form silicon dioxide or silicon nitride.
Commercial solar cell manufacturers use silicon nitride.

Encapsulating the cell

 The finished solar cells are then encapsulated; that is, sealed into silicon rubber or
ethylene vinyl acetate. The encapsulated solar cells are then placed into an aluminum
frame that has a mylar or tedlar backsheet and a glass or plastic cover.

Quality Control

Quality control is important in solar cell manufacture because discrepancy in the many
processes and factors can adversely affect the overall efficiency of the cells. The primary
research goal is to find ways to improve the efficiency of each solar cell over a longer lifetime.
The Low Cost Solar Array Project (initiated by the United States Department of Energy in the
late 1970s) sponsored private research that aimed to lower the cost of solar cells. The silicon
itself is tested for purity, crystal orientation, and resistivity. Manufacturers also test for the
presence of oxygen (which affects its strength and resistance to warp) and carbon (which causes
defects). Finished silicon disks are inspected for any damage, flaking, or bending that might
have occurred during sawing, polishing, and etching.
During the entire silicon disk manufacturing process, the temperature, pressure, speed, and
quantities of dopants are continuously monitored. Steps are also taken to ensure that impurities
in the air and on working surfaces are kept to a minimum.
The completed semiconductors must then undergo electrical tests to see that the current,
voltage, and resistance for each meet appropriate standards. An earlier problem with solar cells
was a tendency to stop working when partially shaded. This problem has been alleviated by
providing shunt diodes that reduce dangerously high voltages to the cell. Shunt resistance must
then be tested using partially shaded junctions.
An important test of solar modules involves providing test cells with conditions and intensity
of light that they will encounter under normal conditions and then checking to see that they
perform well. The cells are also exposed to heat and cold and tested against vibration, twisting,
and hail.
The final test for solar modules is field site testing, in which finished modules are placed where
they will actually be used. This provides the researcher with the best data for determining the
efficiency of a solar cell under ambient conditions and the solar cell's effective lifetime, the
most important factors of all.

RAW MATERIALS
Firstly, for producing solar cells we need to have sand, because naturel sands are main
components of silicon . In this step as shown in Fig. 1, sand and coal placed in an arc furnace
and we heat them until 1,800 C. Then, the products are carbon dioxide and metallurgical grade
silicon. . It has %98 purity, but it is not enough. So that, with the help of next step we can
achieve more purity.
Fig.2 Sand to Mg-silicon process.

POLYSILICON
In this process, our input materials are MG-silicon and HCI (Hydrochloric acid). We mixed
them at the Silane (SiH4) tank, then we can distillate the silicon for making pure. At the last
step silicon moves to heated zone many times and after that we will have 99.99% pure
polysilicon ingots.

CZOCHRALSKI PROCESS
In this step, we increase the temperature until the silicon melts.After that we dip
monocrystalline silicon into melted polycrystalline silicon. When we take out slowly, we create
monocrystalline ingot. This process known as Czochralski Process(Cz) invented by Jan
Czochralski. By rotating melted tank, controlling temperature and take out speed, we can made
specific monocrrystalline silicon. This process works for monocrystalline silicon.

Fig.4 Czochralski Process

CRYSTAL FORMATION
In this step, we increase the temperature for melting the silicon like step 3.1. After that, when
we cool the tank, at the bottom crystals form. By controling the temperature we can make a
silicon with the size of a tank. In this way, we will have a big block of multicrystalline silicon
at the end .

Fig.5 Crystal Formation

SILICON WAFER
In this step, we cut into slices the ingots. Because of the sturdiness of silicon ingots, with the
help of diamond edge multiwire saw use for make it slice.

TEXTURING
The reason why we need the texturing is that it ensures better light traveling inside the solar
cell. Before texturing the wafers, they have a flat surface so that incoming lights can easily
reflected back. For decreasing the reflection losses, we have to do texturing process. With the
texturing wafer’s surfaces have pyramid structure. In this way, when the incoming lights hit
the one pyramid also it must hit the next pyramid. So that we minimize the reflection losses in
this process.

Fig.6 Scanning electron microscope photograph of a textured silicon surface.

DOPING
The most common way to doping is adding impurities to silicon wafers. If we want to do this
process we have to add impurities (phosphorous).In order to do this, we have to put wafers and
phosphorus gas in a furnace. Then, when we heat the furnace (900 C), phosphorus atoms diffuse
into silicon wafer’s top side. In this way, our silicon wafers become a p-n junction.

ANTI-REFLECTIVE COATING
This step is very significant. If we do not have anti-reflective coating, lights will stay under
mirror effect because pure silicon is shiny. For anti-reflection coating we can use titanium
dioxide and silicon oxide. Generally 75 nanometers thick and combined the front surface of
the solar cells.

PRODUCING SOLAR PANELS

Before starting production of solar panels, what is the differences between monocrystillane
(mono-c) and polycrystalline (p-ci)? The easiest way to distinguish these cells from each other
is to look at the corners of the cells. As shown in Fig.6 , Poly cells are 4 corners, but there are
8 corners in mono cells. Also, monocrystalline cells do not have color difference over the
surface, but polycrystalline cells have some crystal areas. Monocrystalline cells can provide
less sunlight, more production than the other. They have better performance than poly cell
panels in low light conditions. The disadvantage of monocrystalline panels is that they are
expensive. In addition, when the panel is shadowed, or the panel is covered with snow, its
performance is very badly affected. While the productivity of monocrystalline cell panels was
between 16% and 20%, polyacrylic cell the efficiency of the panels is between 13% and 16%.

Fig.7 Poly-Crystalline and Mono-Crystalline Solar Cells.

STRINGER MACHINE
After having a solar cells now our aim is making them a solar panel. Stringer machine is the
first machine of this process. Stringer machine’s mission is combining the cells which is called
string. The strings vary generally 10 or 12 pieces of solar cells. It can be changed from the
stringer machine’s screen. The settings are entered manually on the screen of the stringer
machine; cell size, cell space, string cells, such as soldering power and soldering time. These
settings have significant role because if settings are more or less than it should be, solar cells
will broke. Then solar cells are placed in cell slot carefully. Since the cells are so sensitive in
the stringer machine, it is necessary to use gloves to prevent them from breaking. After settings
and place the cells, vacuum arms align the cells to band. While combining the cells, the fluid
called flux is being used to bond the ribbons and the ribbons to the cells. With the high heat
given to flux, the flux sticks to the cell. In this step, some problems can occur which are broken
of cell, cracked cell or ribbon shift. Before passing the next machine, stringers check carefully
and if there is no issue, they can pass the other machine. Whether stringers have problem, they
collect and dispatched the small solar panel production line.

LAY-UP AND GLASS LOADING MACHINE

After having a string is the next step it is align the strings according to the desired panel’s
voltage. At this process, Glass loading machine sends the glass with the eva sheet to lay-up
machine. Eva(ethylene vinyl acetate) is protect solar cells from the weather conditions. The
lay-up machine is responsible for placing strings to eva sheet. Each Lay-up machine has two
vacuum arms so that strings from two stringer machines are arranged in one Lay-up machine.
We can adjust all the settings as if they were the same string on the monitor of the layout
machine. Also, if the wrong string is sent from the stringer by mistake, the string can be restored
with the lay-up machine.

EL-TESTER MACHINE
El tester(electroluminescence test) is the next step. In this section, the general panel is controlled
again. The anode and cathode ends of the incoming panel are connected to the current terminals of
the el tester. DC current is given to the panel and by the glow in the panel mistakes are clearly shown
in el tester machine’s screen as shown in Fig.7. These mistakes are;

 Broken Cell
 Cracked cell
 Solder failure
 Short circuit
 Ribbon shift
 Foreign matter detection

If one of these faults comes to the cell, the error determination form is put on the panel, taking
note that the panel is in trouble and the problem is in the string. Subsequently, the products are
barcoded and the ones that are faulty are sent to the other station, not the next one.
Fig. 7. Screen of el tester machine and it shows three cracked solar cells.

LAMINATOR

Products that are error-free and barcoded at EL Tester, are placing in the elevator, respectively.
Since the process in the laminator takes a long time, it is necessary to wait until end of process.
The purpose in this section is to completely empty the air in the panel and to melt the eva,
which is laid under and over the cell, to fill the spaces between the cells. The small cracks are
covered by eva. Panels are entering each laminator as four. The process in the laminator
consists of four steps.

 Vacuum
 Lamination
 Press
 Cool down

Vacuuming takes about three minutes and the air in the panel is emptied and then laminated at
about 160 degrees for about six minutes. Then, with a press operation for about three minutes,
the melted eva completely surrounds the panel. In the next period, with the help of the
propellers, the panel leaves the laminator and starts to cool down.

FRAMING AND SANDING

The backsheet and glass surface are cleaned properly by pouring alcohol onto the panes that
come into the glass. After the panels are cleaned, aluminum frames are placed on all four sides
of the panel and the pane is fixed with the aid of a sledgehammer. Frames need to be fixed
exactly because they can be cut when not fully seated, which can cause problems for the
company in any accident after the panel is sold. After the frame operation is finished, the four
corners of the panel are sanded. The purpose of sanding is to reduce the sharpness of the corners
of the panel.

FLASHER
It is the last step of production of solar panels. After this part, panels are ready for the
utilization. In this process flasher check the data of the panel. The positive and negative poles
of the solar panel is connected to the flasher and the barcode of the product is entered on the
computer. Then the current given to the panel and these results shown in the flasher’s monitor;

 Max Power
 Efficiency
 Fill Factor
 Light intensity
 Power Load
 Voltage Load
  Current Load

If the values come less than they should be, the products are written "heavy solar" on the
backsheet . Heavily solar panels produce much less energy than normal panels, so they are sold
in very cheap quantities. Than the junction box is fitted to cover the positive and negative poles
of the panes and the anode and cathode ends of the panel are soldered. The Junction box has
an important role: housing all the electric bits on a solar panel and protecting them from the
environment. Wires are connected to diodes inside, providing an easy way to link panels
together. Also, junction box are prevent current flowing. The Junction Box generally consists
of five parts:

 Bypass Diode
 Conducting Strip
 Bypass Diode Terminals
 Connection for PV-Cable
 Suitable Suitable Connectors.
 FUTURE OF SOLAR PANELS

Implementation of transparent solar cell technologies

Recently, transparent solar cells caught the attention of scientists due to their variety of
possible applications in our daily lives. Transparent solar cells are already in use for these
applications in some countries, while others are for the far future, once their efficiency is
improved. Transparent solar cells can transform crowded cities from exclusively power
consumers into power plants. Building integrated photovoltaics, also known as BIPV, is the
nearest application for transparent solar cells. If all the buildings with 90% glass on their
surface used transparent solar cells printed on the surface of the glass, the solar cells have the
potential to power more than 40% of that building's energy consumption.

Another application of transparent solar cells is in automobile and electronic devices. If these
applications used TSC in their glass surfaces, people could have cars that do not need fuel or
devices that can be self-charged from the sun. Solar-powered vehicles are a desired application
of TSC, with cars, air planes, trains, and boats potentially being powered with solar energy.
TSC has the potential to power all the electronic devices that we use in our daily lives, from
tablets, MP3 players, cell phones, and e-readers, to laptops and other portable devices.
Transparent solar materials and semi-transparent materials started to be developed in the past
few years. Some companies have implemented transparent solar cells with reasonable
efficiency but not enough to compete with silicon solar panels. However, this invention has a
high potential of turning every glass surface in the advanced world into a solar panel.
Researchers are now working to improve the efficiency of TSC without sacrificing
transparency; this is expected to be achieved in the next 5 years.

Transparent solar cell technologies

There are approximately nine technologies that apply to the fabrication of transparent solar
cells, and they are a focal point of current research due to market demand and the potential
applications of transparent solar cells (TSC). The centres of research that report some success
with TSC are in Japan, Germany, the USA, and India. It should be noted that 90% of these
technologies use an FTO or ITO conductor on glass, which has a layer with almost 10 Ω/sq
resistance, using a thin film with a thickness of less than 20 nm. Combined with intrinsic optical
losses of the glass itself, these layers reduce the transparency by approximately 15–20% before
the deposition of any other materials. Thus, the best transparency achieved currently is less
than 80%. The technologies that achieved more than 20% transmittance with at least 1%
efficiency are elaborated in chronological order below.

Thin film photovoltaics (TPVs)

Thin film photovoltaics (TPVs) are one of the most prolific technologies in TSC and achieved
via different methods. Some of these methods depend on the fabrication of the material and
pastes to accomplish transparency, and others depend on the deposition method of pastes on
FTO glass. In this section, categorisation will be based on the deposition methods, and in each
method, the fabrication of pastes and the type of material will be clarified.
TPV is basically a thin film that has a thickness ranging from a few to tens of micrometres of
active material deposited on glass in different ways. Thin film technology reduces the cost of
solar cells by conserving the materials used in fabricating the cell; it is easy to deposit thin
films on many different substrates, from rigid to flexible and from insulators to metals, which
allows for new applications. By reducing the thickness of the film, the transparency increases
in some materials, such as titanium dioxide. Thin film solar cell TFSC is fabricated by
combining material layers that are usually used to make solar cells, but as thin films, which
reduces the cost of the solar cell's materials, by depositing the optimal amount of material that
allows the solar cell to function properly .The properties of these materials are different from
each other, and the overall performance of the cell is affected by each layer. The interaction
between these layers is important due to the variety in their crystal structures. There are many
ways to deposit thin films on a substrate, such as chemical bath deposition (CBD) technique
physical vapour deposition (PVD) technique or sputtering, electro deposition, screen-printing,
pulsed laser deposition (PLD) , and spray and atomic layer deposition (ALD).
Transparent thin film solar cells mostly depend upon the thickness of the film, the material
used, the process of fabrication and the deposition method. Screen printed thin films are the
first reported transparent thin films; other thin film deposition methods will be further
explained in subsequent sections.
Screen printing is the preferred method for depositing thin films and is widely used in thin film
applications; it provides an easy way to control the thickness and the position of the film.
Screen printing depends on the quality of the paste used to make the layer of the thin film. With
most DSSC, titanium dioxide nanoparticles (commercially known as P25) are used for making
the paste for screen printing. After depositing the desired quantity of paste into the frame, the
paste is swiped at a constant velocity using a squeegee across the surface of the screen. The
paste will eventually flow from the screen to the substrate surface. While the squeegee passes
above the screen, the left part of the screen is separated from the substrate, and only a thin film
of the paste is deposited and dried.shows an example of screen printing a polymer film on a
substrate.

Fig. 3. Schematic diagrams of screen-printing polymer film.

Transparency is controlled by screen printing through a screen made from a mesh stretched
over a frame, and its properties (mesh count, mesh opening, thread diameter, open surface and
fabrication thickness) control the thickness and porosity of the film. Transparency is also
controlled by the pressure and speed applied on the squeegee. In 2007, researchers reported a
transparent solar cell by experimenting with 3 commercially available TiO2 nanoparticle pastes
called P25, ST21, and ST41. Each of the pastes was printed on FTO glass, using a fabric of
83 µm thickness, and the results showed that P25 was the most transparent and that ST21 was
hazy, while ST41 was totally white and opaque. The resulting thickness of P25 TiO2 as a
screen-printed thin film was 17 µm, the light transmission obtained was 60%, and the efficiency
of the DSSC at the end of the fabrication of P25 TiO2 thin film was 9.2%.
In 2008, another study from Korea reviewed different types of TDSSC. One of the reviewed
methods used a bilayer TiO2 DSSC in order to improve photocurrent density in the TSC. The
material used was nanocrystalline with a wide band gap. This material improved the
performance of DSSC through increasing the amount of dye per unit volume of the
nanocrystalline film. The film was made of small particles that increased the surface area of
the film and allowed for more dye absorption. Nevertheless, the smaller particles did not mean
better performance due to the recombination of electrons, which requires a balance when
choosing the design. The study reported efficiencies of approximately 7.8% and 8.4% for 6 µm
and 12 µm thick nanocrystalline films, respectively, while both films had an average
transmission range of 20–23% over a wavelength of 400–700 nm. However, this result is not
satisfying, which led to the addition of a light-scattering layer. The bilayer contains a light-
scattering layer and a nanocrystalline semi-transparent TiO2 layer and/or sub micro-meter-
sized particles with nanocrystalline TiO2; adding the scattering particles led to an 18%
improvement in light scattering efficiency. The diagrams of light-scattering layers on top of
TiO2 nanocrystalline particles are shown in Fig 4. Light-scattering particles can gain more
photons because they capture incident light. Transparency is controlled by engineering the
particle size, film thickness, structure of the semiconductor oxide material and dye colour,
which can contain different colours to absorb more light at different wavelengths. Further
research and experimentation must be done to improve from previous methods.

Fig. 4. Schematic diagrams of light-scattering layer on top of TiO2 nanocrystalline

particles.

Near-Infrared transparent solar cell

As mentioned before, the main function for a solar cell is to absorb photonic energy, while the
main characteristic of transparency is to let photons pass through, which makes it hard to
encompass both features in one material. Most research is directed towards making thin layers
to achieve some amount of transparency and focus on absorbing the visible spectrum; this
results in producing cells with an average transparency of less than 30% in order to maintain
reasonable efficiency. In 2011, Richard Lupnt's research group took a different direction by
changing the molecules of the dye in order to absorb ultraviolet and near-infrared (NIR)
wavelengths (650– 850 nm), instead on focusing on the active layer's thickness to achieve a
transparent solar cell. A hetrojunction organic PV (OPV) is transparent to visible light with a
transmission of more than 65% and will absorb in the near-infrared spectrum with an efficiency
of 1.3 ± 0.1%. The OPV contains chloro-aluminium phthalocyanine (ClAlPc) as a molecular
organic donor and C60 as a molecular acceptor.
The anode of the cell is coated with indium tin oxide (ITO), ClAlPc , C60, bathocuproine (BCP)
and MoO3, while the cathode is coated with Ag via thermal evaporation. The transparent NIR
mirror is grown separately on a quartz substrate and is called a distributed Bragg reflector
(DBR). TiO2 and SiO2 layers are sputtered to a selected thickness to produce a stop band of
approximately 88 nm. On the other side of the quartz, a broadband antireflection (BBAR) layer
is coated. The schematic of the OPV is shown in Fig 5; the main objective of this TSC model
is to allow for visible light to pass through and absorb ultraviolet and near-infrared NIR
wavelengths.

Fig. 5. Transparent OPV .

Polymer solar cell (PSC)

In 2012, a research team from the University of California investigated the possibility of
producing TSC using solution processing. To obtain an ideal TPV, the absorbing materials
must harvest all the light in the ultraviolet (UV) and near infrared (NIR) regions and allow for
visible light to pass through. There are some materials with these properties, such as carbon
nanotubes and graphene, which are transparent conducting materials. It is inefficient to only
use these materials to build a TPV. Thus, it is suggested to combine a transparent polymer solar
cell with a transparent conducting material, such as silver nanowires (AgNWs) combined with
a transparent polymeric PV cell, which is non-transparent for UV and NIR light but transparent
to visible light.
There are three reported TPV technologies that employ polymers to absorb within the NIR
spectrum. They are different in terms of their combined materials. For instance, the first study
reported a TPV combining a polymeric material, which is sensitive to NIR light and is highly
transparent to visible light, with a conductor made of AgNW.

Visibly transparent polymer solar cells (PSCs) are another TPV technology that involves a
polymer that can harvest near-infrared light and allow visible light to pass. The visible electrode
is coated with a silver nanowire metal oxide through a mild solution process. The efficiency is
4%, and the transparency at 550 nm wavelength is 66%. Fig.6 shows the design of the
transparent PSC. It includes 2 transparent electrodes that have active materials sandwiched
between them, which are sensitive to UV and NIR light. The active material has a polymer
heterojunction as an electron donor and PCBM as an electron acceptor; the combination makes
PBDTT-DPP: PCBM. This photoactive material has 68% AVT in the visible region. However,
it strongly absorbs light in the UV and NIR regions. ITO is the electrode anode substrate coated
with PEDOT: PSS as a modification and is placed at the bottom of the PV cell. The electrode
placed on the top must be chosen well because organic materials are sensitive and might not
survive the deposition process. To solve this problem, AgNW is spray coated on top of the
active material, while a TiO2 sol-gel solution is used to connect and confirm the adhesion of
AgNW to the photoactive layer. The previous step is performed using mild processing .

Fig. 6. Transparent PSC.

A study reported an efficiency of 7.56% and an average transmission of 25%. This TPV
contains a low band gap polymer (PBDTTT-C-T) based on thieno [3,4-b] thiophine (TT) and
benzo [1,2-b: 4,5-b´] dithio-phene (BDT) alternating units with PC71BM as an active material.
The substrate used is ITO glass with spin-coated ZnO sol–gel, and above that was a C60-based
self assembled monolayer. The MoO3 and Ag anode was thermally evaporated. PBDTTT-C-
T: PC71BM bulk-heterojunction (BHJ) is a promising polymer material that gives a high
efficiency of 7.6% in the visible light spectrum. In another study, an alternative way was
presented, which used a PTB7: PC71BM polymer as well and reported a 30% transmittance
and 5.6% efficiency. The structure of the solar cell combines 5 layers that harvest a region in
the light spectrum to cover the whole wavelength (to see architecture of the cell, refer to ). The
side effect of the five layers is lack of periodicity.

Transparent luminescent solar concentrator (TLSC)

Michigan State University has reported another approach in 2014 called TLSC, which is based
on organic salts, and these take a totally different direction to realise a solar cell design with a
different structure, which combines efficiency with transparency. NIR fluorescent transparent
dyes are used in order to capture UV and NIR light, convert them into visible light, and then
guide it to the edge of the glass where the solar cell is placed. TLSC is developed from
luminophore blends of canine and cyanine salts and has synthesised cyanine salt-host blends
with quantum yields, combined with spectrally selective NIR harvesting. The solution is drop
cast on a glass substrate. The transparency exhibited by TLSC is 86%, and the efficiency is
0.4%.

Perovskite solar cell

Researchers focus on improving the semi-transparent nature of organic solar cells by utilising
an absorbing material that has a lower band gap than the photons, which means it will allow
for visible light through and absorb near infrared light. By improving the transparency,
efficiency is affected. This led to trying to find a transparent material that improves the
efficiency of the cell, such as methyl ammonium lead halide perovskite. Most of the highly
efficient perovoskite solar cell are made out of a sandwich of a metal oxide material, such as
TiO2 or Al2O3, and organic transport materials. Perovskites are abundant organic materials that
have good electric properties suitable for solar cells, such as a high absorption coefficient, high
carrier mobility, direct band gap, and high stability. Most solar cells with perovskite crystal
structure can achieve a power conversion efficiency of over 13%, which makes perovskite a
good alternative to DSSC.
Semi-transparent perovskite was achieved in 2014 by the University of Antioquia, Spain, with
6.4% PCE – 29% AVT and 7.3% PCE – 22% AVT, using perovskite evaporation deposition,
which is a robust process that enables the continuous deposition of layers with low thickness
(less than 40 nm). This strategy implemented an ultra-thin gold electrode with 6 nm thickness
capped with an LiF layer for protection and to reduce energy loss. The reduction in thickness
in this method caused an increase in transmission. In addition to protection, the LiF layer also
modifies the electric field circulation inside the cell. The methyl ammonium lead halide is
between the electron-blocking material and the hole-blocking material. The electron-blocking
material contains two layers with 95 nm thickness.
The semi-transparent single-junction perovskite solar cell is composed of several layers,
namely, (in increasing order from the bottom): poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene): poly
(styrenesulfonic acid) (PEDOT: PSS), which is spin-coated onto an ITO covered glass
substrate with a thickness of 75 nm, and poly [N,N0-bis(4- butylphenyl)-N,N0-bis (phenyl)
benzidine] (polyTPD), which is deposited with a thickness of 20 nm. In a high vacuum
chamber, the CH3-NH3PbI3 layers are deposited using the co-evaporation of the two starting
materials, PbI2 and CH3NH3I. Consequently, using the meniscus coating, the hole-blocking
material is deposited with a thickness of 20 nm. From a chlorobenzene solution, the hole-
blocking material, [6,6]-phenyl C61-butyric acid methylester (PCBM60) Solenne BV, is
deposited. The order of the layers is represented in Fig. 7. A 2014 study from Stanford
University reported a tandem solar cell design with semi-transparent perovskite (1.7–1.8 eV
band gap) on the top and opaque electrode perovskite (1.1 eV band gap). The semi-transparent
device on the top of the tandem solar cell combined a mesoporous titanium dioxide (TiO2) layer
infiltrated with perovskite and is contacted from one side by electron-selective and hole-
selective (2,2 ´,7,7 ´-tetrakis(N,N ´ -di-p-methoxyphenylamine)− 9,9 ´ -spirobifuorene,
spiroOMeTAD). For compatibility with these existing electron and hole selective contacts,
MAPbI3 perovskite was used. The front electrode is fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) coated
glass. AgNW is deposited on the spiroOMeTAD or perovskite, and the semi-transparent solar
cell is finalised by depositing two lithium fluoride (LiF) anti-reflective (AR) coats onto the
glass surface and on top of the AgNW electrode for better transmission through the cell. The
semi-transparent perovskite solar cell achieved a peak transmission of 77% approximately
800 nm and an efficiency of 12.7%. The architecture of the semi-transparent solar cell is the
same as the one reported by Burschka et al.

Fig. 7. Perovskite solar cell layers.

Electrophoretic deposition (EPD)

Electrophoretic deposition is another method for obtaining thin films. This method can be
easily applied in two steps to deposit a thin film on FTO glass. First, particles are deposited on
glass by applying direct voltage across two electrodes, which creates an electric field. One of
the electrodes acts as a cathode and the other as an anode, and they are immersed in a solvent
that contains the particles. The cells are separated by a small distance; Fig.9 below
demonstrates the EPD components. In the second step, the synthesised particles will gather and
deposit on one of the electrodes, forming a thin layer of titanium dioxide.

Fig. 8. Illustration of TiO2 nanotubes.

Fig. 9. Schematic of the electrophoretic deposition (EPD) setup.

In 2015, Xi’an Technological University, China, suggested using EPD for the production of
TSC using TiO2 nanotubes. A nanotube structure is one of the shapes of TiO2 that has good
catalytic properties. These properties fit very well with solar cell applications due to the ability
to construct layers that possess a high surface area with low thickness. In addition, there is the
tubular nature of the grown oxide, which is aligned in a way that is beneficial for transparency
reasons. Transparency is accomplished by controlling the thickness of the tube wall, the length
of the tubes, and the inner diameter of the tubes. Fig.8 below shows the shape of the nanotubes.
TiO2 nanotubes can be synthesised in many ways; the most reliable way is anodisation, which
is a process in which TiO2 tubes grow on conducting glass by anodising it in an electrolyte
containing fluoride at high positive potentials. The structure of nanotubes can be controlled by
controlling some electrochemical factors, such as anodisation time, applied potential, sweep
rate of the potential ramp and temperature.
The anodisation voltage and solution properties such as the concentration of HF, the pH and
the water in the electrolyte affect the structure of the layers and the morphology. One of the
challenges that affect solar cell efficiency is the loss of electrons caused by recombination.
TiO2 nanotubes overcome that through providing a short, quicker and direct path for the
electrons to be delivered, as it is known that the longer the electrons spend on the film, the
higher the probability of recombination happening. The deposition of the TiO2 nanotubes film
is carried out after the formation of the TiO2 nanotubes powder, which is prepared through
anodisation and ultrasonic oscillation. First, by rapid anodisation, the TiO2 NT-bundle powder
is synthesised from Ti foil in the electrolyte. Through ultrasonic oscillation assistance, the
TiO2 tubes are disaggregated into individual tubes. The TiO2 thin film is then deposited on the
glass through electrophoretic deposition (EPD). EPD is a simple method, it requires two
electrodes FTO glass for the electrophoretic cell, and the thickness of the film can be controlled
through varying the voltage from (20–80 V). The electrodes are connected to the voltage source
and immersed in the solution, that contains the TiO2 nanotubes, with 22 mm distant between
them Fig. 9. The thin film deposition rate is controlled by varying the concentration of the
solution and the voltage. Jin Zhang and his colleagues have reported in 2015 a transparent
DSSC with average transmittance of 55% and an efficiency of 7.1%. The thin film was
fabricated using EPD and had 5 µm thickness. However, more tests and studies are required to
support this study for real applications in TDSSC.

Dip-coater

A research study on thin films in 2015 (Hamedan University of Technology, Iran) reported
using coral-like TiO2 nanostructure as a photoanode and transparent poluaniline (PANI) films
as counter electrodes (CEs) to make a thin film. TiO2 and PANI were chosen due to their
matched energy band gap levels (TiO2 (3.2 eV) and PANI (2.8 eV)). TiO2 paste was chemically
synthesised using a sol-gel method, and PANI-based CEs were prepared by a facile in situ
polymerisation, but the deposition of the TiO2 thin film was done using a dip-coater. The
transmittance of the thin film obtained out of this report was ~70%, and the DSSC was bifacial
with an efficiency of 8.22% .

Sputtering deposition

Sputtering deposition is another method to deposit nanotube thin films; a thin titanium
nanotube layer is deposited on fluorine doped tin oxide FTO using sputtering. The process
includes two main steps: fabrication of thin films of TiO2 nanotubes by anodisation and
sputtering and then an oxygen annealing process at 459 °C on the nanotube arrays. Finally, the
remaining Ti islands are oxidized until they become transparent. However, further
experimentation must be done to validate the above approach towards TSC, as no specific
conclusion was drawn from this particular source.

Quantum dot (QD) solar cell

QDs have recently garnered attention due to their outstanding opto-electronic properties. By
carefully cutting QDs in different sizes, their absorption spectrum changes, which makes them
suitable for solar cell applications. There are several fabrication techniques employed for QD-
based solar cells. Here, we focus on transparent or semi-transparent QD-sensitized solar cells.
Xiaoliang Zhang (Uppsala University, Sweden) in 2016 reported 2 models of TSC using QD.
The first model uses PbS QD, which has a tuneable band gap, e.g., in the infrared range. This
makes PbS QD a perfect light absorber for solar cell applications. Some heterojunction PbS
QD solar cells were reported to have a 9% power conversion efficiency . Additionally, PbS QD
has an interesting property of multi excitation generation, in which one photon excites more
than one hole-electron pair, crossing the Shockley–Queisser restriction for a single-junction
solar cell.
In addition, PbS QD has a transparent property that can be used in semi-transparent
heterojunction solar cells. A semi-transparent solar cell (SCQDSCs) is fabricated on
transparent FTO glass, combining TiO2 film as an electron transporting layer (ETL) and an
MoO3 film as a hole transporting layer (HTL). First, TiO2 film is deposited as an electrode;
then, a PbS QD thin film is deposited on the TiO2 film as a light absorber, which has a band
gap energy of 1.3 eV, by the spin-cast method. To increase the mobility of the charge carrier
inside the QD, the bifunctional ligand 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA) is treated. Finally, a
thin film of 10 nm Au is thermally evaporated on the QD layer; Fig.10 shows the design of the
cell. By changing the thickness of the QDs, the PCE varies from 2.04% to 3.88%, and AVT
ranges from 32.1% to 22.7%. In summary, a semi-transparent solar cell is fabricated using PbS
QDs, achieving 3.88% PCE and 22% AVT. The second model reported a 5.4% efficiency and
an average visible transmittance of 24.1% . The architecture and the materials used to build
this device help to decrease the optical loss, which eventually increases the efficiency. This
device is suitable for applications with low transmittance requirements.

Discussion
The transparent solar cell is a highly desirable invention, applicable to more than 5 applications
used in our daily lives, such as buildings, car windows, trains, cell phones, laptops, etc.
However, the process for realising this technology is faced with a group of four obstacles and
challenges, starting from synthesising the transparent material to be used in building the TSC
to the design of a new TSC structure, while at the same time maintaining high efficiency. The
main obstacle is the selection of materials that allow for the transmission of the visible
wavelength of the absorbed light, while at the same time allowing for the absorption of photons
that lie in the invisible section of the wavelength. It is difficult to find such materials because
the main characteristic of a solar cell is to absorb light and not let it through. The second
obstacle is the fabrication process used to prepare the materials needed to build the TSC, which
must have high transmission with good efficiency. The third obstacle is the architecture of the
TSC and the substrate used to protect the cell. The final challenge is the cost of the
fabrication and materials, which must result in building a cheaper solar cell.
 To overcome the challenges highlighted above, there has been ongoing research studies in more
than ten directions; some are focused on finding alternative materials that can obtain an
acceptable transparency for specific applications, while others are focused on UV absorption
and near infrared radiation NIR while transmitting visible light. Moreover, research was
engaged in finding new structures that would be translucent yet supply a good amount of
electricity. In general, 80% of the solutions are still under development or at the pre-
commercializing stage.
Transparent solar cells are built using different ways deposition methods of theactive material.
Table 1 below summarises each transparent solar cell based on the method of fabrication.
Screen-printing DSSC, electrophoretic deposition (EPD) and dip coating are all methods of
depositing a thin film of TiO2 on FTO/ITO glass. With screen printing, the transparency is
controlled by the screen mesh design. Table 1 shows a 60% transmission reported by with 9.2%
efficiency using TiO2 as a photoanode. On the other hand, the electrophoretic method is a
difficult process to control, as the structure of the TiO2 nanotube requires a separate procedure
for it to be synthesised, which adds more steps to the manufacturing process; additionally, the
factors that control thickness are not precisely understood. However, one study reported a 55%
transmission with 7.1% efficiency. Overall, there have not been many reports published using
an electrophoretic technique for depositing thin films. Using a dip-coater to deposit coral-like
TiO2 nanostructure as a photoanode and transparent polyaniline (PANI) film as a counter
electrode (CE) to fabricate TSC, an approximately 70% transmission was achieved, with 8.22%
efficiency. Coral-like TiO2 is prepared using sol-gel chemical methods, which increases the
complexity and fabrication cost.
Table 1. comparisons between different TPV based on process.

Jscb (mA
Name of Solar Cell Year T%a (%) Vocc (V) FFd Ƞ%e (%)
cm−2)
Screen printing DSSC 2007 60% 16.25 0.779 0.73 9.2%
Near-Infrared OPV 2011 55 ± 3% 4.7 ± 0.3 0.62 ± 0.02 0.55 ± 0.03 1.7 ± 0.1%.
Polymer Solar cell 2012 66% 9.3 0.77 56.2 4.02%
Transparent luminescent
2014 86 ± 1% 1.2 ± 0.1 0.5 ± 0.01 0.66 ± 0.02 0.4 ± 0.03%
solar concentrator (TLSC)
Perovskite 2014 30% 10.30 1.074 57.9 6.4%
77%
Tandem Semi-transparent Perovskite 2014 17.5 1.025 0.71 12.7%
peakf
Electrophoretic Technique 2015 55% 14.83 0.68 0.71 7.1%
Dip-coater 2015 ~70% 16.17 0.738 0.688 8.22%
Quantum Dot Solar cell 2016 22.74% 12.83 0.58 0.52 3.88%
Quantum Dot Solar cell 2016 24% 0.56 18.2 0.53 5.4%
A. Transmission rate percentage of the light through the solar cell.
B. Current short circuit in one cm2 active area of the solar cell.
C. Voltage open circuit in one cm2 active area of solar cell.
D. Fill factor which equal to the maximum power divided by the theoretical power.
E. The efficiency percentage of the solar cell.
F. The peak of the transmission at 800 nm wave length.
In contrast, near-infrared OPV followed a different direction to fabricate a TSC through design,
which focused on absorbing the UV and NIR light spectrum and transmitting visible light
through the structure. This method achieved approximately 55% transparency and more than
1% efficiency; the low Voc in Table 1 is due to the low absorption of light in the visible region.
Transparent luminescent solar cells use a different structure, in which the solar cells are placed
on a frame, and NIR fluorescent transparent dyes are pasted on the active area. This meant that
fluorescent paste would absorb NIR light and direct it to the edge of the glass, where it is
converted to electricity. This method achieved high transparency, which exceeds 86%, but very
low efficiency of less than 1%. The transparent luminescent solar cell procedure is still under
experimentation and has a very high potential to achieve 10% efficiency. Polymer solar
cells have the heterojunction structure of an NIR polymer material and PCBM. Some
researchers have achieved 66% transmission with 4.2% efficiency from this design.
Quantum dot semi-transparent solar cells were fabricated using PbS QD and MoO3 in,
achieving 3.88% PCE, 22% AVT and 5.4% PCE, 24.1% AVT, respectively. This type of solar
cell is suitable for applications that require low transparency, such as tandem solar cells. The
discovery of perovskite materials opens a big avenue of potential development for PV cells in
general and especially for TPV. A new semi-transparent perovskite achieved 6.4% PCE and
29% AVT; the perovskite was applied using evaporation deposition. Tandem semi-transparent
perovskite used a semi-transparent device in a tandem solar cell. The idea of the device is that
the top solar cell is semi-transparent, and the bottom is an opaque solar cell. In this way, the
top cell absorbs light in the UV and NIR regions, and the bottom absorbs whatever passes
through the top cell from the light wave. The top cell achieved 77% transmission peak at
800 nm wavelength and 12.7% efficiency. In summary, TPV can be achieved in many ways;
however, most of these methods are still under development at the laboratory bench scale. It is
noticeable that most photoanode materials are made from TiO2 due to its good photocatalytic
properties and its suitable band gap.
The complexity of the manufacturing process is reduced by using screen printing as a
deposition method for thin films because this method can be applied at room temperature and
does not need a highly decontaminated environment for building a TSC, compared with silicon-
based PVs, which need a special environment with a specific temperature. In addition, the
manufacturing process is environmentally friendly. However, in regard to other thin film
deposition methods such as EPD and dip-coating, the environment is contaminated, and
chemical reactions increase the complexity of the manufacturing process; in addition, the EPD
method needs more adjustment and standardisation to suit large-scale manufacturing. The
DSSC design is very simple, whereby a lab-scale PV cell can be built within 24 h (Table 2).
Transparent luminescent solar concentrators (TLSC) increased the design complexity, whereby
the number of elements included in the device building is more than twice the elements used
to build DSSCs. Similarly, transparent perovskite solar cell have a complicated production
process, despite their high efficiency, as the process involves depositing many layers via
complex techniques. Finally, the complexity of the manufacturing of polymer solar cells is
decreased using a roll-to-roll technique, which makes it easy to mass-produce transparent
polymer solar cells.
Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of TDC technologies.

Name of Solar Cell Advantages Drawbacks

1.
1.
Low reliability, live time quality,
law complexity in terms of
and power output dropping rate
manufacturing process and final
need to be tested and improved.
Screen printing DSSC design. Can be produced at industrial
scale.
2.
Not practical for large-scale
2.
deployments where higher-cost
Name of Solar Cell Advantages Drawbacks
Materials used to build the solar cell and higher-efficiency cells are
are organics like titanium and essential.
abundant.
3.
3. Liquid electrolyte is not stable at
Cost of manufacturing is almost half variable temperatures.
price of silicon based solar cell.

4.
Efficient usage of architectural
space.

5.
Manufacturing process is
environmentally friendly

6.
Have a homogeneous appearance

7.
Shading and high temperatures do
not have any major effect on
performance.

1.
The architecture of the device is
more complex compared with
DSSC.
1.
2.
Organic semiconductor,
Low efficiency not more than
environmentally friendly.
1.7%.
Near-Infrared OPV
2.
3.
High transmission more than 55%.
Low supporting resources.

4.
Not ready for Industrial
manufacturing.

1.
Flexibility.
1.
2.
Low efficiency
Low material cost compared with
silicon.
2.
Polymer Solar cell Low stability
3.
Environmentally friendly.
3.
Short operational lifespan.
4.
Flexible and lightweight.

5.
Name of Solar Cell Advantages Drawbacks
Low band gap.

6.
Easy manufacturing for industrial
request using Roll-To-Roll
technique.

1.
Improve energy harvesting
efficiency.
1.
In case in complexity and
2.
Transparent manufacturing stamps.
Increase electronic device
luminescent solar
autonomy.
concentrator (TLSC) 2.
Low efficiency less than 1%.
3.
Reduce the traditional PV module
cost.

1. Low transmission
1. Close to the market. 2. Most material used are scarce
2. Environmentally friendly. elements like tellurium (as rare as
gold), indium, and gallium.
3. Can be made flexible in shape.
4. Doesn’t require high temperature 3. Liquid electrolyte has the
Perovskite processes. temperature stability problems.
4. Expensive compounds
5. Uniform perovskite layers
5. Highly volatile
6. High efficiency
6. Low stability. Rapid
degradation
1. Complicated process that
includes chemicals and need to be
standardized for transparent solar cell.
1. The transparency can be increased with
1. The its difficult to control the
the use of nanotubes without affecting the
homogeneity.
Electrophoretic efficiency.
2. It can be used for laboratory
Technique 2. Manufacturing cost reduce with the
scale however mass-production
reduction in the waste of active material
is complicated.
used.
3. Reports supported this process
are few compare to other
process.
1. Capable of absorbing photovoltaic
waves from infrared region of the spectrum.
Quantum Dot Solar 4. Low transmission
2. Low complexity in manufacturing
cell 5. Quantum dots are inorganic
and installing.
3. Better stability than DSSC.
In general, when comparing all these technologies in terms of maturity and closeness to market,
80% of these technologies are still under development and need more improvements in order
to be compatible with market PVs. In addition, these studies are limited to transparent solar
cells, not transparent solar panels. The only available technology that provides solar panels is
the semi-transparent solar cell, which can provide 20–40% AVT, with an efficiency that is not
more than 8%. However, some of these technologies are closer than other technologies to the
market, such as polymer, perovskite, and transparent luminescent solar conecntrater (TLSC).
These technologies can be found in developed countries around the world, such as Heliatek in
Germany, one of the leading companies in the world in the manufacture of organic solar films.
Heliatek released in a press conference in 2014 that they have reached a new 7% efficiency of
40% transparent solar cells of perovskite solar panels. Moreover, at Michigan State University,
USA, the Lunt team is optimistic to reach a 10% efficiency from TLSC while maintaining an
average transmission of more than 70% by enhancing and configurating materials to build a
careful design of TPV. It is expected for this technology to be ready for small applications such
as electronic devices in the coming 5 years. These developed countries and others such as
China, Japan, and Switzerland are leading the research on transparent solar cells, and great
improvements are expected to happen in the coming 10 years that will help solve the problems
facing the world with regards to transparent solar cells.
Efficiency and transparency are not the only parameters that decide which technology would
be better to implement; cost is an important factor that markets care about. The cost of each
technology is divided into 3 types. The first cost is that of the materials used to produce the
solar cell. The second cost is that of the process of manufacturing the solar cell, and the third
cost is that of system instalment. For the third cost, the cost of system instalment is difficult to
estimate at this stage because this technology has not yet reached a level of maturity. However,
this cost varies based on applications and the efficiency required for supplying these
applications with energy; it can be expected that TSC would be economical in regard to
instalment and installation spaces via architecture layout design optimisation. Some
technologies such as TLSC reduce the installation cost by easily coating existing glass by
depositing the active layer on one of the inner surfaces of double-paned windows, along with
standard low-emittance or solar-control coatings. Moreover, the cost of the materials is
economical compared with the cost of silicon. Most of the materials used to make the active
layers in TDC are cheap and abundant, such as titanium and perovskite. Furthermore, the cost
of TDC in general is considerably lowered by using thin photoactive TiO2 layers and by
decreasing the number of production steps. For example, producing TDC using screen printing
does not need highly complex machines that are normally used in the fabrication of
conventional systems. Moreover, using existing glass and window frames reduces the
manufacturing cost by almost 50% compared with a conventional PV system. As seen in Table
2, the cost of TSC manufacturing can be more economical compared to traditional solar
systems.
The idea of combining transparency and energy generation is unique, and this widens the
market potential. The future for this technology is very wide, starting from electronics to
skyscrapers. These applications that gather energy from a free source and renewable one will
deliver important benefits, including accessibility and better use of space. Current work in this
technology is concerned with the scale of the solar cell; however, it is projected that in the
coming 10 years, this technology would scale up to the transparent solar panel size. The idea
is challenging, but the benefits are significant. For example, if this technology reaches its
potential application and replaces most of the windows in a skyscraper, it is possible to supply
a quarter of the energy demand of that building. Table 2 shows the advantages of these
technologies.
Nevertheless, these technologies still have challenges and disadvantages that researchers are
trying to overcome. One of these challenges is stability. Most organic solar cells degrade when
exposed to oxygen or water vapour. This is one of the reasons that organic solar cells in the
market do not have a lifetime warranty such as silicon PVs. In addition, electrolytes are affected
by temperature changes, as they may freeze at low temperatures, and the sealing of the panels
becomes a difficult task when the liquid expands at higher temperatures. Another major
challenge that most of these technologies are facing is the low efficiency. The idea of TSC is
very unique; however, it is very challenging to combine high transparency with high efficiency,
and most of these technologies have low efficiency. To apply TSC and produce it for the
market, its efficiency must be compatible with traditional solar cell efficiency. This implies
that most of these technologies are not yet ready to be commercialized. Although most of the
material used to build TSCs are abundant, this is not the case for perovskite solar cells, which
use scarce elements such as tellurium (as rare as gold), indium and gallium for the active layers
in TSC. Lastly, despite the complexity of manufacturing, the TSC is reduced in some solar
cells such as DSSC; however, it has been increased in others, such as TLSC, which added more
steps to the manufacturing process. In summary, all the methods listed in Table 2 lack sufficient
research, while supporting reports on each method and testing of the transparent solar cell have
been done in few places only. Moreover, all these technologies must be tested under different
conditions, such as snow, dirt on the window, and temperature changes. Further
experimentation must be done in different weather conditions and environmental impacts to
increase the possibility for TSC to be compatible with traditional PVs.

Conclusion
Transparent solar cells are very challenging devices to fabricate and have the potential to be
used for a large number of applications. The challenge lies in the fact that transparency
intrinsically conflicts with the concept of photonic absorption. The photovoltaic principle is to
absorb photons and convert these to power, while transparency means to let through as many
photons as possible. However, TPV is a very desirable technology, especially for architects, as
well as equipment and automotive designers. Nevertheless, in regard to defining the required
transparency, this varies by application. For example, a 50% optical transmission in some
buildings could be desirable; on the other hand, mobile screen applications would require more
than 80% transmission. This paper has reviewed nine technologies towards TSCs that have
achieved transmissions of more than 20% through different attempts and methods that have
been developed to achieve high transparency with the maximum possible efficiency,
comparing their advantages and disadvantages. After analysing these methods, it can be
concluded that the main directions were either to reduce the thickness of the component of the
solar cell using thin film methods with different deposition techniques or to use transparent
absorbing materials that absorb light in the infrared and UV regions, such as polymers,
perovskites, QD, and TLSC. All the applications used transparent substrates, such as ITO, FTO
glass or polymer. The highest transparency reported was 86% with a TLSC technology, but
this was less than 1% efficient. On the other hand, the highest efficiency to transparency ratio
was 8.2%:70% using a nanotube thin film of TiO2 for transparent DSSC. TPV is not yet
commercially available and is still under research. It is expected that this research will result
in the integration of TPV in most electrical applications. Soon, mobile devices will self-charge,
and skyscrapers will have zero net energy consumption without needing additional roof space
for solar panels.