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Ionic Bonding
Attraction occurs between + and – ions, i.e. between Cations
and Anions:
Ø  Requires electron transfer
Ø  Large difference in electronegativity required
Ø  Non-directional (with some packing considerations)
Ø  Classic example: NaCl

Na (metal) Cl (non-metal)
unstable unstable
Electron

Na+ (cation) + - Cl- (anion)

stable Coulombic stable
attraction
Chapter 2 - 30

Ionic Bonding
For stability, nearest neighbors:
Ø  Must have?
Ø  Opposite charges

For NaCl:
Ø  Na+ has the e- structure of?
Ø Ne (1+)
Ø  Cl- has the e- structure of?
Adapted from Fig. 2.11b,
Ø Ar (1-)
Callister & Rethwisch, 9e.

Chapter 2 - 31

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Details of Ionic Bonding -

(Not in Book)
The information on the next 3 slides is taken from the
handout “Bonding in Solids” by Dr. M. W. Barsoum…posted
on the DrexelLearn page…please download and read it!

Note on units used in this course:

SI unit system preferred
Ø  m, s, kg, C, N, Pa, etc.

Chapter 2 - 32

Energy of Interaction Between 2 Charges

Z1eZ 2 e
E pot = Whose Law is this???
4πε 0 r Coulomb’s Law!

Z1 and Z2 are the net charges (valences) of ions

e = charge on electron = 1.61 x10-19 C
ε0 = permittivity of free space = 8.85 x 10-12 F/m
r = distance between the ions (m)

If Z1 and Z2 are of the same sign,

Epot = +ve which means it is repulsive!

If Z1 and Z2 are of opposite signs,

Epot = -ve which means it is attractive!
Chapter 2 - 33

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B Z1Z 2 e 2
E rep = n Epot =
r 4π ε 0 r
n≈8
(6-12)

Z1Z 2 e 2 B
Enet = + n
4π ε 0 r r Chapter 2 - 34

Z1Z 2 e 2 B
Enet = + n
4π ε 0 r r

To find the minimum of a function… what do you do?

Z1Z 2 e 2 " 1 %
$1− '
You need to be able to
Ebond =
4π ε 0 r0 # n &
derive/solve this equation…
Chapter 2 - 35

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The 2 most important characteristics

of ANY bond are:

Bond Energy, Ebond (or E0) = depth = B/rn

of the energy well…
+
r0 = equilibrium interatomic/ionic
distance

which is the distance between the

2 cores of the two atoms (or ions) r0
making up the bond
= -A/r

r0 = rNa+ + rCl-
For NaCl: r0 is the sum of the ionic radii of Cl- and Na+

For Na metal: r0 = 2 x atomic radius of Na

Chapter 2 -

Examples: Ionic Bonding

• Predominant bonding in Ceramics
NaCl
MgO
CaF2
CsCl

Give up electrons Acquire electrons

Adapted from Fig. 2.9, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond,
3rd Ed., Copyright 1939 and 1940, Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.
Chapter 2 - 37

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Ionic Bonding - Back to Textbook

•  Energy…minimum energy (E0) = most stable
–  Energy balance between attractive and repulsive terms
A B
EN = EA + ER = − +
Repulsive energy ER
r rn

Interatomic separation r

Net energy EN

Attractive energy EA
LONG-RANGE ATTRACTION
Adapted from Fig. 2.10 (b), Callister
& Rethwisch, 9e. +
SHORT-RANGE REPULSION
Chapter 2 - 38

True for ALL Bonds

LONG-RANGE
•  Energy…minimum energyATTRACTION
(E0) = most stable
+
–  Energy balance between attractive and repulsive terms
SHORT-RANGE REPULSION
A B
EN = EA + ER = − +
Repulsive energy ER
r rn

Interatomic separation r

Net energy EN
JUST REMEMBER:
IF YOU ARE NOT ATTRACTED FROM ACROSS THE
ROOM,Attractive
YOU WILL NEVER
energy EA MATE!

Adapted from Fig. 2.10 (b), Callister

& Rethwisch, 9e.
MATE! Chapter 2 - 39

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Energy & Force vs. Distance

Sometimes convenient to work in energy, other times we consider forces
between atoms/ions
Energy and force are related as follows:

E= ∫ Fdr
Chapter 2 - 40

V. Important: Energy & Force vs. Distance

Ø  Some key material

properties can be
obtained from these
two diagrams
Ø  Potential Exam Q
material…

Chapter 2 - 41

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Which of the following electron

configurations is/are stable?
1.  Hydrogen 1s1 ✗

2.  Helium 1s2 ✓

3.  Carbon 1s22s22p2 ✗

4.  Neon 1s22s22p6 ✓

Why?
Valence (outermost) shells are completely filled
Chapter
Chapter 2 – 242-

Covalent Bonding
•  Similar electronegativity ∴share electrons to get
stable octet of e-
•  Bonds determined by valence… s & p orbitals dominate
bonding
• Shared electrons
•  Example: CH4 CH from carbon atom
4 H
C: has 4 valence e-,
needs 4 more (like Ne)
H C H
H: has 1 valence e-,
needs 1 more (like He)
• Shared electrons
H from hydrogen
Electronegativities are comparable atoms
Adapted from Fig. 2.10,

Covalent bonds are directional

Callister & Rethwisch, 8e.

Ø  Between specific atoms participating in e- sharing

Chapter 2 - 43

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The 8 - N’ Rule (Not in Book)

# of possible covalent bonds for atom = 8 - N’

Where N’ is number of valence electrons:

Examples:
–  Cl, N’ = 7 === 1 bond === HCl
–  O, N’ = 6 === 2 bonds === H2O
–  N, N’ = 5 === 3 bonds === NH3
–  C, N’ = 4 === 4 bonds === CH4

Chapter 2 - 44

Covalent Bonds
•  Strong to weak…
-  Diamond: hard, high Tm (>3,550 °C)
-  Bismuth: low Tm (270 °C)
•  Typical in:
-  Non-metallic elemental molecules (H2, Cl2, etc.)
-  Molecules comprising dissimilar elements (CH4,
H2, HNO3)
-  Polymers…in the -C-C-C-C- “backbone”)

Chapter 2 - 45

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sp3 Bond Hybridization

§  Associated w. covalent bonding in C & other non-metallics:
§  sp3 Hybridization:
Ø  Combining (mixing) of 2 or more orbitals
Ø  Results in orbital “overlap” during bonding
Ø  Carbon: 1s22s22p2
Ø  One 2s e- promoted to empty 2p orbital à1s22s12p3
Ø  2s & 2p orbitals mix à four equivalent sp3
hybrid orbitals w. parallel spins
Ø  Can covalently bond w. other atoms…
Ø Directional
Ø C: 4 symmetric sp3 hybrid orbitals – tetrahedral
(CH4, diamond)

Chapter 2 - 46

sp2 Bond Hybridization

§  sp2 Hybridization:
Ø  Carbon: 1s22s22p2
Ø  One s orbital + two p orbitals hybridize
Ø  Third p orbital (2pz) remains unhybridized
Ø  Results in three equivalent sp2 hybrid orbitals in
same plane, 120° between them (triangular)
Ø  Unhybridized 2pz is ^ to plane of sp2 hybrids
Ø  Graphite (C):
Ø  // layers of interconnecting hexagons
Ø  Formed from planar sp2 triangles
Ø  3 strong in-plane sp2 bonds; weak interplanar VdW
from unhybridized 2pz orbitals

Chapter 2 - 47

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Now, Let’s Make Some Na Metal

Start with 6 x 1023 atoms of Na…
Q. How many grams is that? +Z +Z +Z
A. 22.99 g
Strip them of their valence electrons +Z +Z +Z

Q. How many electrons is that?

A. 6 x 1023 +Z +Z +Z

Place the ions in a box…

Q. Is that stable??
What is the value of Z ?
+1
Now add the electrons…
Q. Is that physically stable?
A. Yes…very stable…
Chapter 2 - 48

Electrostatic Model of Metallic Bonding

Metallic Atoms:
Ø  1, 2 or 3 valence e-
Ø  e- not bound to specific atoms
Ø  Belong to metal as a whole
Ø  Non-valence e- & nuclei = ion
cores…net +ve charge
Ø  = magnitude to total valence e-
charge/atom
Ø  Z is # valence electrons per ion
core
Ø  In principle, for
-  Na, Z = 1,
-  Mg, Z = 2,
-  Al, Z = 3, etc.
Ø  Non-directional bond
Ø  Weak (Hg) to strong (W)
Ø  Tm: -39 °F and 3,414 °C,
respectively
AKA: “delocalized” electrons; “electron gas”; “glue” Chapter 2 - 49

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Now Let’s Make Some Mg Metal

Start with 6 x 1023 atoms of Mg…
Q. How many grams is that? +Z +Z +Z
A. 24.31 g
+Z +Z
Strip them of their valence electrons +Z

Q. How many electrons is that?

What is the value of Z? +Z +Z +Z

+2
Place the ions in a box…
Is that stable?
Now add the electrons…
Which is more stable? Mg or Na? Why?

Chapter 2 - 50

Valency of Copper?
§  Electron configuration of Cu… 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1

§  May lose 4s1 electron à Valency of 1

§  May also lose 1 of the ten 3d electrons à Valency of 2

§  For transition metals, often talk more of “Oxidation

State” rather than valency…esp. since generally these
atoms are not forming ionic bonds:
-  When copper reacts with a strong oxidizer, an electron will
leave the 3d-orbitals to give a 4s2 configuration.
-  These 2 electrons can then react to give the +2 value

Chapter 2 - 51

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