T. S.

Eliot
"Journey of the Magi"

Contents
 T. S. Eliot's Struggle and Conversion: The Making of "Journey of the Magi"
 The Text of "Journey of the Magi" with Anchors for Primary Symbols and
Images
 Nature and Conversion Imagery in T. S. Eliot's "Journey of the Magi": A Review
of Criticism in
Books
 Journeying Towards Affirmation of Faith: A Review of Criticism of T. S. Eliot's
"Journey of the
Magi"
 The Magi's Human Conversion Experience: A Review of Selections on T. S.
Eliot's "Journey of
the Magi"
 Works Cited

Group Leader: Mitzi Streeter

T. S. Eliot's Struggle and Conversion:

The Making of "Journey of the Magi"

Alice Lombardo

T. S. Eliot was born on September 26, 1888, in St. Louis, Missouri, with a
congenital hernia which kept him quiet as a child and out of school until he
was seven or eight years old. Eliot remembers these years and the years that
he attended Smith Academy and then Milton Academy in New England as
happy times. After this, Eliot concentrated on philosophy, especially Hindu
and Buddhist philosophy, as a student at Harvard University in order to
know the truth not only of the age but of life as a whole (Pinion 9-12). After
his studies at Harvard were complete, Eliot transferred to Merton College in
Oxford, England, where he met Vivienne Haigh-Wood, whom he married
on June 26, 1915. But by the end of 1915, Vivienne took ill, an event that
was the beginning of health problems for both of them (Pinion 15-26).
In the early years of his first marriage, Eliot would visit churches to admire
their beauty; in later years, he visited them for the sake of peace,
contemplation, and spiritual refreshment (Pinion 31). Ambition seemed to
deepen his sense of marital guilt and, in 1926, while visiting Rome with his
brother and sister-in-law, Eliot surprised everyone by kneeling before
Michelango's "Pieta." "Here was a spiritually humble, contrite man
ritualizing his acceptance of a higher authority" (Pinion 34). According to
Peter Ackroyd, Eliot had a sense of tradition and an instinct for order within
himself and found the church and faith gave him this security within a life of
frustrations and struggles (159-160). "He was aware of what he called 'the
void' in all human affairs--the disorder, meaninglessness, and futility which
he found in his own experience; it was inexplicable intellectually . . . and
could only be understood or endured by means of a larger faith" (Ackroyd
160). Eliot's faith continued to grow and on June 29, 1927, he was baptized
in the Anglican-Catholic church. This great event in Eliot's life was done
privately and behind closed doors. On the next day Eliot was confirmed by
the Bishop (Ackroyd 162).

"Journey of the Magi," the first in a series of poems Eliot later grouped
together as the Ariel Poems, was published in August of 1927 shortly after
his baptism. Caroline Behr suggests that this poem reflects Eliot's state of
mind in transition between his old and new faiths (33). As Lyndall Gordon
suggests, "Journey of the Magi" is one part of Eliot's conversion story in that
it tells about his being "ill-at-ease in the 'old dispensation' after his
conversion" (37).

It has been reported that Vivienne was against his conversion and this added
to their marital problems (Sharpe 116). In 1933, Eliot separated from
Vivienne and then, in 1949, while working for Faber and Faber, Eliot met
Valerie Fletcher, whom he would later marry. After hearing a recording of
"Journey of the Magi," Fletcher had been drawn to Eliot and knew she had
to get to know him (Ackroyd 298). From 1957 to his death on January 4,
1965, Eliot's life with Valerie Fletcher was happy and peaceful.

According to Ackroyd, "Thomas Stearns Eliot, in his last years, declared

that there had been only two periods of his life when he had been happy--
during his childhood, and during his second marriage" (13). Eliot's baptism
and writing of "Journey of the Magi" come in between these periods of
happiness during times of struggle and uncertainty.

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T. S. Eliot's "Journey of The Magi"

 with anchors for the primary symbols and images
James Dixon
'A cold coming we had of it,
Just the worst time of the year
For a journey, and such a long journey:
The ways deep and the weather sharp,
The very dead of winter.'
And the camels galled, sore-footed, refractory,
Lying down in the melting snow.
There were times we regretted
The summer palaces on slopes, the terraces,
And the silken girls bringing sherbet.
Then the camel men cursing and grumbling
And running away, and wanting their liquor and women,
And the night-fires going out, and the lack of shelters,
And the cities hostile and the towns unfriendly
And the villages dirty and charging high prices:
A hard time we had of it.
At the end we preferred to travel all night,
Sleeping in snatches,
With the voices singing in our ears, saying
That this was all folly.

Then at dawn we came down to a temperate valley,

Wet, below the snow line, smelling of vegetation;
With a running stream and a water-mill beating the darkness,
And three trees on the low sky,
And an old white horse galloped away in the meadow.
Then we came to a tavern with vine-leaves over the lintel,
Six hands at an open door dicing for pieces of silver,
And feet kicking the empty wine-skins.
But there was no information, and so we continued
And arrived at evening, not a moment too soon
Finding the place; it was (you may say) satisfactory.

All this was a long time ago, I remember,

And I would do it again, but set down
This set down
This: were we led all that way for
Birth or Death? There was a Birth, certainly,
We had evidence and no doubt. I had seen birth and death,
But had thought they were different; this Birth was
Hard and bitter agony for us, like Death, our death.
We returned to our places, these Kingdoms,
 But no longer at ease here, in the old dispensation,
With an alien people clutching their gods.
I should be glad of another death.

Major Images Found in "Journey of the Magi"

First Five Lines: The first five lines were "lifted from Lancelot Andrewes's
Nativity Sermon of 1622, and modified"; Eliot happened to be himself
steeped in Andrewes at the time . . . but basically he used them because he
needed a second voice to precipitate the poetic drama. They must be
understood as being read by, or to, the magus and thereby occasioning his
own flow of memory" (Barbour 190-91). Return to Text.

Cities Hostile: According to Dean, these are "all places which remind the
travellers, by their violent contrast, of the place of contentment they have
deserted" ("Confrontation with Christianity" 76). Traveling through these
forboding places, "Eliot's Magus hastens to end an unpleasant journey; what
he 'regretted' is the vanishing of 'the silken girls bringing sherbet'" (Harris
840). Return to Text.

Temperate valley: Dean points out that the early morning descent into a
"temperate valley" evokes three significant Christian events: "The nativity
and all the attendant ideas of the dawning of a new era . . . the empty tomb
of Easter . . . as well the image of the Second Coming and the return of
Christ from the East, dispelling darkness as the Sun of Righteousness"
("Confrontation with Christianity" 77). Wohlpart adds that the Magi's dawn
arrival is "symbolic of the new life attained from their penance" (57). Return to
Text.

Beating the darkness: Dean notes Elizabeth Drew's view that "'beating the
darkness' can refer to the triumph and victory of Christ, a conquering that
could occur in the events of Christ's earthly life, or in His resurrection, or in
His return in glory at the end of time" (Quoted in Dean, "Confrontation with
Christianity" 77). Return to Text.

Three trees: To Dean, the image of the three trees "seems clearly to be a
reference to the crosses of Calvary" ("Confrontation with Christianity" 78).
Barbour writes, "It is appropriate that his [the Magus'] language . . .
unwittingly evoke [sic] the Crucifixion" (195). Return to Text.

White horse: Dean refers to Robert Kaplan and Richard Wall's suggestion
that "the white horse is 'perhaps a reference to the militaristic and
conquering Christ of Revelation . . .'"; "However," he continues, "there is
nothing in the poem to indicate that the horse is being ridden; on the
contrary, it seems more natural to assume that the horse is riderless . . ."
("Confrontation with Christianity" 78). Dean also quotes Kaplan and Wall's
speculation that the horse is symbolic of the "death of paganism under the
onslaught of Christianity," and notes Nancy Hargrove's suggestion that "the
horse's 'being old . . . perhaps represents the old dispensation that will fade
away with Christ's birth'" (78). Return to Text.

Satisfactory: R. D. Brown writes that "the obvious meaning [of the word
"satisfactory"] is 'expiatory,' payment for a debt or sin" (137). Barbour,
however, sees a more complex connotation: "The parenthetical
remark/gesture dramatizes a certain drawing back at the end into something
between understatement and velleity. The key word is the ambiguous
'satisfactory,' emphasized by rhythm and position, which for us, though not
the magus, evokes the Thirty Nine Articles, expiation, and the Atonement"
(194). In addition, E. F. Burgess sees the word "satisfactory" as evidence
that "every condition of prophecy was met, leaving the alienated magus . . .
stranded, suspended between the realization and the consummation of God's
plan" (36). Return to Text.

Old dispensation: Dean quotes Geneviene Foster's comment that "The birth
of the new era involves the destruction of the old" ("Confrontation with
Christianity" 79). Barbour writes that "The Birth he [the magus] saw began
the death of his old world, old life, but did not, with the same certainty, give
him anything new"; the magus is therefore "alienated from everything 'in the
old dispensation'" (195). Return to Text.

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Nature and Conversion Imagery in T. S. Eliot's "Journey of the Magi":

A Review of Criticism in Books

Preston D. Finley

Criticism of T. S. Eliot's "Journey of the Magi" suggests that the images of

nature and conversion are representative of the ambiguity of the world. The
images of nature are at times beautiful--as in the "fertile valleys" and
"running streams"--but are also ominous and dark in other portions of the
poem. Images of conversion are also both positive and negative, as they are
intended to convey a sense of hope and uncertainty--just as conversion had
left an enigmatic feeling in Eliot's own life.
Sean Lucy, in T. S. Eliot and the Idea of Tradition, suggests that "Journey of
the Magi" is a poem about the unclear nature of conversion. Reading the
poem in the context of other religious poems, Lucy suggests that

"Journey of the Magi," "A Song for Simeon" and "Animula" . . . are
all poems of the Christian perspective, they are all poems of
acceptance and of resignation to a destiny which is the only
possible answer, but which seems to the protagonists, as human
beings, almost impossibly hard and painful. They are purgatorial
poems. (145)
Here, Lucy uses "acceptance" in the same sentence as "hard," "painful,"
and "resignation" to demonstrate the grayness of the world. Nothing is
black and white; even the glory of the birth of Christ may have negative
consequences to some people: "'The Magi' and 'A Song for Simeon'
show little of that high joy which the birth of Our Lord can often inspire
even in the most austere artists" (148). The Magi don't feel any of that
"high joy" because their comfortable place in the world has been
changed and they no longer feel at peace.

Leonard Unger discusses "Journey of the Magi" in detail twice in his

book T. S. Eliot: Moments and Patterns, both times in reference to the
nature and conversion imagery. In the first instance, Unger compares both
Eliot's and Conrad's use of the word "regret." Unger feels that their
definition of the word is to "miss poignantly" and, in the case of Eliot, this
would complement the theory of ambiguity in conversion (147). The Magi
miss the "old dispensation" in which they were at ease before the birth of
Christ. Unger also points out that "Images of smell in Eliot's later poetry . . .
are for the most part references to the smell of growing things and of earth
and sea . . . [and are similar to] the 'valley . . . smelling of vegetation' in
'Journey of the Magi"' (l80). He concludes that the smells of nature are
important in all of Eliot's work and represent "the deepest and most intense
kind of awareness" (181). In "Journey of the Magi" this awareness is of the
vague nature of the world and the knowledge that conversion will be painful
as well as rewarding.

Martin Scofield, in T. S. Eliot: The Poems, makes note of the fact that the
three Ariel Poems, which includes "Journey of the Magi," should be read in
the context of Eliot's baptism and confirmation. This poem is an attempt to
describe, poetically, what this experience means:

Eliot clearly chose the magus as a persona because he

represented the experience of being caught "between two
worlds", of having had an intimation of faith but now being left
 "No longer at ease here, in the old dispensation"--the experience
of conversion without the full benefit of assured faith. (146)
In discussing the magi's reactions after the birth of Christ, Scofield
suggests that the tone is deliberately anti-climactic and that the reason
for the Magi's lack of animated reaction to Christ's birthplace is that the
loss of the old ways has put them into a world that has lost its meaning
(146).

According to Elizabeth Drew in T. S. Eliot: The Design of His Poetry,

nature and conversion are the foundations of the "Journey of the Magi."
Drew maintains that the dominant feeling in the poem about conversion is
faith without revelation and that "The meaning of the new birth is obscure,
full of doubt, accompanied by pain, not joy, and perplexing in the extreme"
(118-119). Her analysis of the conversion imagery is typified by statements
like "a bewildering sense of paradox" and "great weariness and
disillusionment" (121-122). These are not images of a joyous experience or
conversion. They reflect the indefinite nature of a world in which positives
and negatives often coalesce. Drew also discusses the inexactness of the
nature imagery. To her, the positive nature imagery--the fertile valley and
the trees, the old white horse galloping away in the meadow, the vine-leaves
over the door of the tavern--speak of "hope and freedom and fruitfulness"
(120-121). However, Drew also reflects on the grimmer images, noting "the
hindrances of nature; the cold, the bad roads, the sore-footed camels 'lying
down in the melting snow"' and "the implied vision of the three 'trees' on
Golgotha" (120, 121). Drew's juxtaposition shows the ambiguity of the
images and the poem itself.

As many critics point out, the three trees foreshadow Christ's crucifixion--on
the one hand, a negative image relating to Christ's death but, on the other, a
positive image relating to Christ's sacrifice for humanity. Many critics have
demonstrated that the ambiguity of the nature and conversion imagery in
"Journey of the Magi" is reflective of the author's view of the world as an
inexact place.
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Journeying Towards Affirmation of Faith:

A Review of Criticism of T. S. Eliot's "Journey of the Magi"

Rena Braun

T.S. Eliot's poem "Journey of the Magi" describes the journey of the "Wise
men from the East" towards Christ and thus, symbolically, towards
Christianity. Many critics parallel the Magi's journey with Eliot's own
journey in search of "satisfaction" in Christianity. Critics suggest that Eliot's
"Journey of the Magi" focuses on the affirmation of Christ that comes from
the Magi's journey towards faith through birth, death, and rebirth, a journey
that parallels Eliot's own struggles with his faith.

Brian Barbour, in "Poetic Form in 'Journey of the Magi,'" approaches the

events in T.S. Eliot's dramatic monologue as a journey of perplexity and
spiritual anguish in search of "satisfactory" faith. Barbour suggests that
Eliot's poem "presents two journeys related through paradox: it narrates the
arduous physical journey and then dramatizes the even more difficult and
uncomplete spiritual one" (193). The spiritual journey "leads us to the
deepest perplexity and, indeed, alienation" (193). At the physical journey's
end the spiritual perplexity remains. Referring to the "old dispensation" of
birth and rebirth, Brian Barbour writes "The Birth he saw began the death of
his old world, old life, but did not, with the same certainty, give him
anything new" (195). The Magi are caught in the middle between birth and
death, moving towards the center of the Christian mystery where death is
the way to birth through Christ. Barbour's interpretation of the poem
suggests that St. Matthew is "the audience that gives the poem its greatest
richness and deepest meaning. His search for background information about
Jesus is the poem's occasion, and speaker, audience, and occasion all
cooperate to define the full poetic significance" (196).

T.S. Eliot's journey to faith is like that of the magus, a purposeful struggle to
attain faith in God's power to save sinners. Michael Dean, in "'T.S. Eliot's
'Journey of the Magi': Confrontation with Christianity" focuses on a
confrontation that Eliot creates between the reader and the theme. Dean
begins with the "Christian allusions in the poem and will conclude with an
examination of the purpose behind Eliot's use of these allusions: the creation
of a confrontation between the reader and Eliot's affirmation of the truth
revealed in Jesus Christ" (75). The imagery suggests that a "difficulty arises
from the mixing of the old and new dispensations, as the Magus,
transformed by the revelation at the end of his journey, lives on
uncomfortably as a man of the new dispensation among people of the old"
(79). T.S. Eliot, just like the old Magus, knows the difficult road one must
travel in a spiritual pursuit of faith against those who scorn along the way.
In Eliot's poem the magus tells us "I would do it again" in the same way
Eliot would make that same bold statement (84). Dean goes on to say that he
believes Eliot "challenges others, in such ways as writing 'Journey of the
Magi,' to join him in that affirmation" (84).

In "The Sacrament of Penance in T.S. Eliot's 'Journey of the Magi,'" A.

James Wohlpart focuses on a parallel between the three part structure of the
poem and a reordering in the stages of the Sacrament of Penance to
emphasize the idea of a continuing spiritual journey. Wohlpart concludes:
"Instead of beginning with contrition and ending with satisfaction, an order
which might connote fulfillment of the sacrament and an end to the process
of perfection, Eliot opened with contrition in stanza one, moved on to
satisfaction in stanza two, and then concluded with confession in stanza
three, suggesting that the soul, in its journey towards Christ and heavenly
perfection, akin to the journey of the Magi, can never rest in the certainty of
perfection but must be continually engaged in the process of becoming
perfect" (57). According to Wohlpart, "The journey becomes, then, not only
a physical movement towards Christ, but also the first step in the Magi's
spiritual progress as they truly regret their previous spiritual stasis" (56).
This spiritual journey takes us in search of perfection, but in order to obtain
perfection on a higher level, Christ's death is the only way that satisfaction
can occur.

E. F. Burgess, in his Explicator article "T.S. Eliot's 'Journey of the Magi,'"

bases the magi's "satisfactory" journey in conditions of a prophecy hundreds
of years before. Burgess first notes that the Magi were not Kings but priests:
"holy Zoroastrian astronomers who followed the signs of the heavens.
'Yonder Star' the Magi followed was a sign prophesied 600 years before by
Zoroaster. The prophecy not only described the celestial occurrence, but
also specifically named Bethlehem as the birthplace of the new prophet"
(36). Burgess then offers a reinterpretation of the "satisfaction" image in the
poem: "it simply means that every condition of the prophecy was met,
leaving the alienated magus, a priest no more, secure in his knowledge of
Zoroaster's truth, and in that knowledge stranded, suspended between the
realization and the consummation of God's plan" (36). Burgess suggests that
with the prophecy met, the old magus was satisfied in Zoroaster's truth.

At the end of Eliot's long and difficult journey he concludes his poem with
"I should be glad of another death," thus bringing"satisfactory" to his search
for a life of faith. The spiritual perplexity of the meaning of birth, death, and
rebirth is the journey that the magi and Eliot himself underwent in their
attempt to find a new faith. In the end, the magi moved to the center of
Christian faith and found that death is the way to rebirth.

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The Magi's Human Conversion Experience:

A Review of Selections on T. S. Eliot's "Journey of the Magi"

Mitzi Streeter
T. S. Eliot's "Journey of the Magi" was first published in 1927, the same
year that "Eliot was received by baptism into the Anglican Church" (Basu
15). Critics suggest that the significance of Eliot's religious conversion
cannot be understated for an analysis of "Journey of the Magi," as it
recounts Eliot's personal conversion experience. While analyzing different
aspects of the poem, the critics agree that Eliot's "Journey of the Magi" is
about his own personal and spiritual conversion experience.

In "The Infirm Glory of the Positive Hour: Re-Conversion in 'Ash

Wednesday,'" Melissa Eiles considers Eliot's "Journey of the Magi" as a
beginning to Eliot's exploration of the theme of religious conversion. Eiles
writes "The essence of a religious conversion . . . in Eliot's poetry is change-
-almost torturous intellectual and spiritual growth that pushes the soul into a
conflict between its old life of sin and its new life of grace" (118). This
process of conversion produces a new "convert," while only suppressing the
material interests of the "old life"; the struggle between physical and
spiritual worlds still continues (118). Eiles goes on to explain her view of
Eliot's poem as an examination of the better understood "type of conversion:
a gradual and bitter death to oneself and a growth into Christ" (119). Eliot's
Magus engages in "a physical and spiritual journey to the . . . Christ Child
and experiences conversion in the form of a spiritual death and rebirth"
(119). Eliot's own journey to Christ and conversion was not without
struggles between the physical world of life and the spiritual world of God.
Eiles sees conversion as "vital" to Eliot's poem: "it is the difference between
animals and men. Without conversion, man risks loss of passion and
hollowness--both in life on earth and in life after death" (119).

In A Reader's Guide to T.S. Eliot: A Poem-by-Poem Analysis, George

Williamson analyzes Eliot's "Journey of the Magi" as a perpetual story of
the process of conversion. In the poem, "one of the Magi recounts the
journey to Christ," a journey that brought death to their "old life" and their
"rebirth" to a new experience, the experience of conversion (164). Eliot uses
symbols and images, significant to him, that "recur, charged with emotion,"
such as the "water-mill and the six ruffians," to bring connection and
continuation to the journey (165). "The description of the journey--in nature
from death to life--not only projects the inner struggle of the Magi, but
foreshadows events to come in the life of Christ . . . " in the lives of the
Magi and in Eliot's personal life as well (164). According to Williamson,
Eliot has taken an old Bible story, added personal symbols and imagery, and
changed it to reflect his personal "journey to Christ" (164).

In T.S. Eliot's Theory of Poetry: A Study of the Changing Critical Ideas in

the Development of His Prose and Poetry, Rajnath explores Eliot's "Journey
of the Magi" in relation to the metaphysical poets, focusing on the theme of
discord between the physical and spiritual worlds. Rajnath holds that the
similarity between Eliot and the metaphysical poets extends beyond the
common theme of struggle between two worlds to similar religious
experiences and expression of conversion within their poetry. The
contradictory division "of body and soul that one finds in the metaphysicals
. . . is at the very centre of Eliot's poetry" (152). Eliot's "Journey of the
Magi" displays this "conflict between two lives, one worldly and the other
Divine," placing him "in line with the metaphysicals, particularly Herbert"
in its descriptions of the discomforts endured and the pleasures left behind
when undertaking a spiritual journey "to glimpse the infant Christ" (152-53).
Eliot's "Magi are simply caught up between two worlds and cannot decide
whether they were led all the way for Birth or Death" (153). They realize
their journey was to see "the birth of Christ," but not that it would cause a
painful death to their old ways (153). "They fail to realize that Death which
was so painful to them is the prerequisite of birth, the spiritual rebirth" (l53).
Eliot's "Journey of the Magi" is an exploration of the spiritual battles fought
while undergoing the religious experience of conversion.

In T. S. Eliot: A Study in Character and Style, Ronald Bush agrees with

other critics on the meaning of the "Journey of the Magi," and goes on to
examine the influences of Eliot's borrowing from St. J. Parse and Lancelot
Andrewes and their effect upon the poem. According to Bush, Eliot's
"Journey of the Magi" is a dramatization of "the period in Eliot's life that
followed his official conversion, when his old ways of thinking and feeling
seemed irrevocably alien and his new life as a Christian existed more in
intention than fact" (127). Eliot begins the poem by borrowing from a
sermon by Andrewes and sets up a rhythm using elements from both
Andrewes and Parse to lull the reader into a transcendence of reality. Eliot's
adoption of Perse's syntax and style enhances the poem's "incantatory
power" and produces "a Persean world of Imagination" (127). However,
Eliot casts doubt upon the experience by mixing imagery from the "three
realms of reference--the fictional frame, the correspondences of Christian
typology, and his own deepest and most troublesome feelings" throughout
the poem, thereby testing the significance of the experience (128). The poem
"Journey of the Magi" is Eliot's testing of his conversion experience.

Regardless of the specific focus, critics agree that Eliot's "Journey of the
Magi" is about the personal and spiritual aspects of his religious conversion
experience. In "Journey of the Magi," Eliot displays the depth to which his
journey affected his life by relating his own conflicts with conversion to the
struggles of the original Magi on the first journey to Christ.

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 Works Cited

Preston D. Finley

Ackroyd, Peter. T. S. Eliot: A Life. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984.

Barbour, Brian M. "Poetic Form in 'Journey of the Magi."' Renascence:

Essays on Value in

Literature 40 (Spring 1988): 189-196.

Basu, Tapan Kumar. "T. S. Eliot: In His Time and In Ours." T. S. Eliot: An
Anthology of Recent

Criticism. Ed. Tapan Kumar Basu. Delhi: Pencraft Intl., 1993. 7-25.

Behr, Caroline. T. S. Eliot: A Chronology of his Life and Works. New York:
St.Martin's P,

1983.

Brown, R. D. "Revelation in T. S. Eliot's 'Journey of the

Magi.'" Renascence:Essays on Value in

Literature 24 (Spring 1972): 136-140.

Burgess, E. F. "T. S. Eliot's 'The Journey of the Magi.'" Explicator 42

(Summer 1984): 36.

Bush, Ronald. T. S. Eliot: A Study in Character and Style. New York:

Oxford UP, 1984.

Dean, Michael P. "Eliot's 'Journey of the Magi,' 24-25." Explicator 37

(Summer 1979): 9-10.

---. "T. S. Eliot's 'Journey of the Magi': Confrontation with

Christianity." Xavier Review

1 (1980-81): 75-84.

Drew, Elizabeth. T. S. Eliot: The Design of His Poetry. New York: Charles
Scribner's

Sons, 1949.
---. Poetry: A Modern Guide to its Understanding and Enjoyment. New
York: Norton, 1959.

Eiles, Melissa A. "The Infirm Glory of the Positive Hour: Re-Conversion

in Ash-Wednesday."

T. S. Eliot: An Anthology of Recent Criticism. Ed.Tapan Kumar Basu.

Delhi: Pencraft
Intl., 1993. 118-131.

Gordon, Lyndall. Eliot's New Life. New York: Oxford UP, 1988.

Harris, Daniel A. "Language, History, and Text in Eliot's 'Journey of the

Magi.'" PMLA 95 (1980):

838-856.

Lucy, Sean. T. S. Eliot and the Idea of Tradition. New York: Barnes &
Noble, 1960.

Pinion, F. B. A T. S. Eliot Companion. Totowa, NJ: Barnes & Noble, 1986.

Rajnath. T. S. Eliot's Theory of Poetry: A Study of the Changing Critical

Ideas in the

Development of His Prose and Poetry. Atlantic Highlands, NJ:

Humanities P, 1980.

Scofield, Martin. T. S. Eliot: The Poems. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1988.

Sharpe, Tony. T. S. Eliot: A Literary Life. New York: St. Martin's P, 1991.

Unger, Leonard. T. S. Eliot: Moments and Patterns. Minneapolis: U of

Minnesota P, 1966.

Williamson, George. A Reader's Guide to T. S. Eliot: A Poem-by-Poem

Analysis. 2nd Ed.

New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1966.

Wohlpart, A. James. "The Sacrament of Penance in T. S. Eliot's 'Journey of

the Magi.'"

English Language Notes 30 (Sept. 1992): 55-60.