Physical Science Handout: The fusion of 2814Si produced radioactive 5628Ni, which

then decayed to iron. More nuclear fusions happened

The Big Bang
- The existence of all matter is believed to have
started with the birth of the universe. The most widely
accepted explanation to the origin of the universe, the
big bang postulates that approximately 14 billion years
ago, a hot, dense mass matter experienced a huge
explosion, spreading its products as fast moving cloud of
gas. Within the first second after explosion, small units
called quarks are formed. as quarks combined
subatomic particles such as protons, neutrons, and
electrons were formed.
between different nuclei to form the other elements.
However, the production of elements stopped when
iron was formed.
Supernova Nucleosynthesis (Stellar Explosion)
– as the red giant star exhausted the nuclear fuel
of light elements, its core started to collapse that
eventually led to the explosion called supernova released
a huge amount of nuclear energy and produced, through
neutron capture and radioactive decay, other elements
heavier than iron are formed.

- As the expanding universe cooled, the protons and Stable isotopes continued to capture neutron
neutrons started to fuse (combine) to form heavier and formed other heavier isotopes of the seed nuclei. For
nuclei of deuterium (an isotope of hydrogen with 1 seed nuclei with few relatively few neutrons (from iron
neutron and 1 proton), and some into helium. Isotopes to bismuth), neutron capture occurred so slowly that
are atoms of an element that have the same number of beta decay of the product isotope happened before it
protons but different numbers of neutrons leading to captured another neutron, this is referred as slow
different amount of mass. process or s-process. An example of this process is the
- astronomers believed that a few minutes after the formation of copper(Cu), and zinc (Zn) nuclei from a
big bang, the universe was composed of approximately nickel nucleus.
75% hydrogen, 25%helium, and trace amount of lithium.
62
ϒ – gamma ray 28Ni + 10n 63
28Ni neutron capture
Atomic mass
4
Atomic number 2 He
Element Symbol
α – alpha particle
β – beta particle
63
28 Ni
63
29Cu + 0-1 β beta decay of unstable 6328Ni

63
29Cu + 10n 64
29Cu neutron capture
Types of the processes in the formation of
elements (Nucleosynthesis) 64
29Cu
64
30Zn + 0-1 β beta decay of unstable 6429Cu

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis However, some series of neutron capture

– give rise to the formation of light elements occurred very fast that the seed nucleus turned into a
like hydrogen, helium, and some traces of lithium. relatively heavier nucleus before beta decay took place.
reaction Product/ formed element Such process is referred to as the rapid process or r-
process, which is exemplified in the formation of cobalt
1 1 2 0
Reactions: 1p + on 1H + 0ϒ (p- proton, n- neutron) (Co) from iron (Fe).
2
1H + 21H 3
2He +ϒ (H+H = Helium) 56
26 Fe + 10n 57
26 Fe series of neutron of Fe
3 2 4 1
1H + 1H 2He + 0n (also written as
56 1 59
26 Fe + 3 0n 26 Fe
Stellar Nucleosynthesis – the stars made of hydrogen 57
26 Fe + 10n 58
26 Fe
become hotter and denser. During this stellar evolution,
nuclear reactions continued, which produce elements 58
26 Fe + 10n 59
26 Fe
heavier than lithium. The light elements combined to
forms atoms of carbon, neon, oxygen, silicon, nickel,
and iron.
-1 β
59 59 0
26 Fe 27Co + beta decay of unstable 5926Fe
2
Reactions: 1H + 11H 3
2He +ϒ
4
2He + 42He 8
4Be Atoms from the Eyes of the Philosophers and
8
4Be + 42He 12
6C
Scientists
12
6C + 126C 20
10Ne + 42He Empedocles (450 BC) – asserted that all things are
12
+ 126C 23
+ 11H composed of four principal substances: earth, air, fire,
6C 11Na
and water.
12
6C + 4 2He 16
8O +ϒ
20
+ 42 He 24 Democritus (400 BC) – proposed that all matter is made
10Ne 12Mg +ϒ
up of very small particles called atoms, which cannot be
16
8O + 16 8O 28
14Si + 42He divided into smaller units.

Prepared by: NEIL JOHN E. BOGO

Aristotle (380-320 BC) – propose that all matter was
continuous and can be further divided into smaller
pieces.
John Joseph Dalton (1808) - elements are made up of
small indivisible particle called atoms.
Dmitri Mendeleev (1869) – arranged the known
elements in a periodic table based on their atomic mass.
Wilhelm Roentgen (1895) – discovered X-rays
John Joseph Thomson (1897) – discovered electrons
S –block
Ernest Rutherford (1910-1911) – discovered protons
Valence Electron – refers to the electrons found in
the outermost shell of an orbital; that is ones
responsible in bonding.
Electronic Configuration – uses the symbols of the
orbitals and the number of electrons (written as
superscripts/written like exponents located at the
top most part of the block symbol s,p,d,f).
1s2 1 = principal quantum number
S = subshell
2 = number of electrons in the orbital

Niels Bohr (1913) – improve Rutherford’s model by d –block p –block

placing each electron on a specific energy level. proposed
an atomic model that shows electrons move in
concentric orbits around the nucleus.

Henry Moseley (1913) - used X-Ray spectra to study

atomic structure.
James Chadwick (1932) – discovered neutrons.

Polar and Non- Polar Molecules

Electronegativity – is a measure of tendency of an

atom to attract electrons itself. The greater the f –block
electronegativity of an atom or element the greater Equivalent of Each Orbital:
force of attracting electron. Thus, making it partially S=2
negative. P=6
d = 10
f = 14
Non-Polar – is the bond between atoms whose
difference in electronegativities is less than 0.5.
Ex:
EX: Cl + Cl Cl = 3.0, Cl = 3.0 3.0 – 3.0 = 0
O = 1s2 /2s2 2p4 total number of electrons = 8 which is
Al + Si Al = 1.5, Si = 1.8 1.5 – 1.8 = 0.3
equivalent to the atomic number of Oxygen, the valence
electron = 6 .
Polar – is the bond between atoms whose difference
in electronegativity is 0.5 – 1.9, lastly if the the valence electron is the total number of electrons
electronegativity difference between two atoms in a located at the outermost subshell, can be identified by
bond is more than 2.0 the molecular bond is adding all the superscript or exponent starting from the
considered as Ionic. last S until the succeeding orbitals.
Ex: I + Cl I = 2.5, Cl = 3.0 2.5-3.0 = 0.5 In this case of O count the number of valence e starting
Si + N Si = 1.8, N = 3.0 1.8 – 3.0 = 1.2 from the last S to the last orbital which is p,
/2s2 2p4 = 6
Identifying the Partial negative and positive in a
molecule. Ge – 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 /4s2 3d10 4p2 = 32 e
Total # of electrons = 32 equivalent to the atomic # of Ge
- The element/atom containing the greater/ /4s2 3d10 4p2
greatest amount of electronegativity in a molecule
will become the partially negative, while the Total # of valence e = 4s2+ 4p2 = 6 e
atom/element that has the lesser electronegativity
will become the partially positive in a molecule In the case of Ge, there is 3d in between 4s and 4p, since
Ex: H2O = H-O-H H= 2.1, O= 3.5 +H-O--H + its quantum number is not 4, then do not include it as you
+Cl-F-
total the valence e from 4s to 4p.
Cl-F = Cl = 3.0, F = 4.0
I + Cl I = 2.5, Cl = 3.0 +l-Cl-

Prepared by: NEIL JOHN E. BOGO

Bohrs Model - an atomic model that shows electrons
move in concentric orbits around the nucleus.

Covalent bond: This bond is formed between atoms

that have similar they share electrons in order to
achieve octet configuration and become more
stable.
nonpolar covalent bond is formed between same
Na – has total of 11 electrons which correspond to the atoms or atoms with very similar
atomic number of Na. the valence electron of Na is 1 since
electronegativities—the difference in
the number of electrons at outermost shell is only one.
electronegativity between bonded atoms is less than
Cl – has total of 17 electrons which correspond to the 0.5.
atomic number of Cl. the valence electron of Cl is 7 since
the number of electrons at outermost shell is seven.

polar covalent bond is formed when atoms of slightly

different electronegativities share electrons. The
difference in electronegativity between bonded
atoms is between 0.5 and 1.9.

Lewis dot Symbols – a dot is placed in each of the four Metallic bonding: This type of covalent bonding
sides of an element symbol before pairing it with
specifically occurs between atoms of metals, in
another as needed. The dots around the element
which the valence electrons are free to move
shows the valence electron of an element or the
through the lattice.
outermost # of electrons in a subshell.

Types of Intermolecular force

Difference between Intramolecular and
Intermolecular Force
Intramolecular force - attraction of atoms within a
compound, stronger than intermolecular forces.
Types are:
Intermolecular force
- attraction between two or more molecule.
Dipole-dipole interactions: These forces occur when
the partially positively charged part of a molecule
interacts with the partially negatively charged part of
the neighboring molecule.

Ionic bond
- This bond is formed by the complete
transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms.
Prepared by: NEIL JOHN E. BOGO

Hydrogen bonding: This is a special kind of dipole-
dipole interaction that occurs specifically between a
hydrogen atom bonded to either an oxygen,
nitrogen, or fluorine atom.
London dispersion forces, under
category of van der Waal forces:
- These are the weakest of the
intermolecular forces and exist between all
types of molecules, whether ionic or
covalent—polar or nonpolar. The more
electrons a molecule has, the stronger the
London dispersion forces are.
Applications of Intermolecular force
Medical Devices – medical implants and prosthetics,
which are devices with tissues placed inside or on the
surface of the body. Some metal implants are produced
as alloys (mixed with other materials) to provide strength
and better compatibility to the biological system. Other
materials used for medical implants, such as silicone, have
soft, rubber-like or jelly properties. The materials used in
implants may be held together by van der Waals forces,
hydrogen bonds, or covalent bonds. Some form
permanent covalent networks, while others are weakly
held to make them more adaptive to certain
temperatures.
results from the van de Waals force between cement
particles.
Sports Equipment – aside from the structural design of
sports equipment, it is equally important to choose the
correct materials to use for each part of equipment to
achieve its optimum performance. For example, materials
used for tennis rackets and bicycle frames are lightweight
to allow for the easy movement of the user, but at the
same time durable enough for a longer time of usage,
especially since great force is applied when using them.
Composites are materials that have two or more
the constituents joined together by different bonding forces
and have properties that are distinct from those of the
constituent materials. Example are the fiber composites,
whose durability results from its webbed fibers, providing
additional strength and structural stability. For gym
equipment, which require high strength, pure metals or
alloys (metals mixed with another metal or a nonmetal to
reinforce its strength) are specifically used.
Electronic Devices – many of the latest devices are
created from solid state materials, in which electrons flow
through solid semi-conductor crystals. The synthesis of
slid state materials requires of the physical properties,
particularly conductivity, of the starting material. Metal
alloys are used for electrical conduction, while light
plastics are used for coverings. These plastics are
normally covalently bound hydrocarbons called polymers.
Some polymers may be hard and tough, while others may
be flexible depending on the predominant interactions in
the polymer material.
Structure of an atom

Construction Materials – the correct combination of

materilas provide strength and stability of a structure. For
example, building frameworks are made of pure metals or
metal alloys to provide a string foundation. Metals
generally have a high tensile strength and very high
melting point because of the strong metallic bonding
between its atoms. Alloys such as bronze, brass, and steel
are normally used in construction.

Another material use in construction is concrete, which is

hardened mixture of rocks, gravel, cement, and water.
The strength of the cement paste (cement and water)

Prepared by: NEIL JOHN E. BOGO