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Weld residual stresses effects in the design of welded plate girders:

Simulation and Implementation

Conference Paper · September 2017

DOI: 10.1002/cepa.144

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EUROSTEEL 2017, September 13–15, 2017, Copenhagen, Denmark

Weld residual stresses effects in the design of welded plate

girders
Simulation and Implementation

Benjamin Launert*,a, Hartmut Pasternaka

a
Brandenburg University of Technology, Dept. of Steel and Timber Construction, Germany
benjamin.launert@b-tu.de, hartmut.pasternak@b-tu.de

ABSTRACT
Eurocode 3 offers different possibilities on a numerically-aided design of welded plate girders. In
this, a geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis of the imperfect structure (GMNIA) provides
the theoretically highest possible degree of realism. A correct implementation of “imperfections” is
of critical importance in the practical application of this method. The current design rules are based
on long term experience in terms of traditional (“old”) welding procedures and regular (“low
strength”) steel grades. Thus, they provide very approximate (but safe) rules for these structures.
With the introduction of modern shop welding operations and materials, many of these assumptions
seem to be over-conservative. A revision of these rules is being processed in different national and
international research projects. This particular study focusses on the weld residual stresses and their
effects in conventional steel S355 and high strength steel S690. Metal active gas (MAG) welding
under shop welding conditions was used. The measurement of weld residual stresses on
component-like samples (carried out by the BAM Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung
und -prüfung in Berlin) has been widely published. The hereupon based (simplified) welding
simulation as part of a subsequent structural analysis is shown here. A novel numerical approach
how to directly incorporate the results into large structural components models is presented. The
capacity analysis is performed on a simple example for weak-axis buckling. The results indicate
significant improvements in the utilization of load-bearing capacity and underline the superior
buckling assignment for the S690 compared to conventional S355. The experimental validation of
the findings is currently being prepared.

Keywords: Weld residual stresses, Welding simulation, Mechanical models, Load-bearing capacity
1 INTRODUCTION
Welded I-girders are used in numerous applications in steel construction (e.g., industrial buildings,
bridge construction) due to certain demands in terms of either dimensions or efficiency. This is
realized by the tailored mixture of different plate thicknesses, shapes or also materials (e.g., hybrid
sections). Residual stresses are present in all these plated structures. They are mainly caused by
welding and it is typically impractical to anneal these structures. Eurocode (EC) does not provide
any specific residual stress patterns but requires their effect to be adequately considered. Hence, the
decision for a particular problem is on the designer. For the cases, where the residual stress
influence is of interest, their effect is indirectly considered in the design concepts. These concepts
are based on available measurements from decades ago [1]. Hence, they are based on “old” welding
procedures. Due to considerably greater modern shop welding operations, these provisions are
considered over-conservative. On the other hand, they are also based on materials with
comparatively low yield strength. In the meantime, there are numerous advancements in the steel
production. Nowadays, steels with yield strengths of 1100 MPa and above are available on the
market. They are successfully used, e.g., in crane constructions. Economic benefits of their use are
weight savings, and consequently, larger possible assembly units, but also less filler materials and a
reduction in weld time. In steel constructions, steels up to S700 have been approved by the building
authorities. These steels show significantly more favourable residual stress behaviour in relation to
their yield strength [2], [3]. However, until today, no adequate models exist.
© Ernst & Sohn Verlag für Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin · ce/papers 1 (2017), No. 2 & 3
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2 RESIDUAL STRESS MODELS

Many codes, including EC 3, permit the use of non-linear finite element analysis (FEA) for the
design of structures. Experiments can thereby be similarly performed in the computer. These are
confirmed by just a few validation experiments. The result accuracy depends on whether the
influencing variables for a particular case have been equivalently considered. The residual stresses,
e.g., are such a variable. Systems with coupled deformation and strength characteristics, such as
structural components susceptible to global as well as local instability modes, are negatively
influenced by the compressive residual stresses. Since residual stress measurements are costly,
these are typically detected by simplified residual stress distribution functions. A very common
approach is a model found in the Swedish Design Code [4], Fig. 1. In this, the maxima of the tensile
residual stresses are assumed equal to the yield strength of the base material. Accordingly, high
strength steel is being treated conservatively [2], [6]. The width in tension, which depends only on
the plate thicknesses (valid only till plate thicknesses of 40 mm) in this model, also defines the
value of the offsetting compressive residual stresses. A thickness gradient as well as a stress
reduction towards the edges (especially for wide flanges [5]) are not considered. Investigations on
mild steel showed partly good, e.g., [5], but also partly unusable results, e.g., [6], suggesting a more
or less random match.

Fig. 1. Idealized residual stress distribution function according to [4]

Newer investigations on high strength steels have been provided, e.g., by Beg [7], by Lagerqvist [8]
and Clarin [2] and since 2006 increasingly by Shi and his research group [9]. Nevertheless, all of
these models are empirical. Hence, they are restricted to a certain set of experimentally varied
parameters. The difficulty in such specifications is a huge variety of different weld types and
welding techniques and in mechanization of processes. In addition, modern materials (or also
material combinations) are being increasingly used. This supports the thesis that an empirical model
cannot meet the diverse demands. Furthermore, capabilities on component-like specimens are also
restricted due to immense experimental efforts. And so is the number of experiments. Clarin writes
appropriately: “Even though extensive work has been put into the cause of establish rules for
estimating the residual stresses in a member, and many suggestions have been presented, the topic
is still somewhat dwelled in fog” [2]. A new opportunity to overcome this problem came up by
different now available welding simulation tools. However, the modelling and the computational
effort for large structural components are still in a less practicable range [5]. For this reason,
alternative numerical methods were tested as part of a national research project [10]. A promising
approach was found by so-called mechanically analogous models. The method and their application
scheme for the use in the design are exemplified for welded I-sections in the following.

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3 MECHANICALLY ANALOGEOUS MODELS

A mechanically (or physically) based model provides the great advantage of a more general solution
and is hence applicable to various welding cases. The starting point is to reduce the complex
thermo-mechanical problem to the pure mechanical level (i.e. analogous forces, stresses or strains).
This eliminates the time dependency (given by individual welding and subsequent cooling cycles).
Consequently, even large structural components can be calculated easily provided that these
mechanical “loads” are somehow known. The basic mechanism of residual stress formation is
illustrated by elasto-plastic 1-D bar models (or rod element models [11]), e.g. a three bar model. In
this, a middle bar representing the weld zone is restricted by two side bars representing the
surrounding cooler areas (Fig. 2). The residual stress mechanism is therefore described as a result of
pushing and pulling action between the bars. The adjacent regions may be equivalently modelled as
a spring in a single bar model. Assuming a sufficiently high stiffness (only in longitudinal
direction), the spring is tending towards a fixed support. In a simple case, the total strain in this bar
is composed of only elastic strain, plastic strain and thermal strain. Assuming the temperature load
to be within the elastic limit, the generated (elastic) stress is a temporary thermal stress that fully
disappears after cooling to room temperature, see Fig. 2 a) → b) → a). Accordingly, the condition
for residual stress is that the yield strain is exceeded during temperature loading. Thus, it is the
remaining misfit or plastic strain (generally incompatible, permanent strain, also eigenstrain [12] or
inherent strain [13], [14]) that causes residual stresses, see Fig. 2 a) → b) → c).

Fig. 2. Three bar model, a) –c) individual states before, during and after welding, d) residual stresses

Although residual stresses can have different origins, they are all the result of local misfit [15]. The
origin of this misfit, on the other hand, can be mechanical, thermal, or plastic, or can arise from a
transformation. In case of welding, it is mainly thermal. This misfit may be interpreted as local
deformation or, as in the following, local (inherent) strain. This is only produced in a limited region
near the weld. Welding residual stress (or elastic strain) is however produced over the whole
weldment. This relation is expressed by elastic response equations. The inherent strain distribution
can be computed, e.g., by thermal elastic-plastic finite element (FE) models of simple weld
geometry. Subsequently, those (initial strains) are mapped to larger FE models and a linear-elastic
analysis is carried out. This method (also known as Local-Global Approach [16]) requires a
sufficiently large proportion of the quasi-stationary range of the temperature field at the entire weld
seam as well as comparable stiffness conditions along the weld. This requirement is fulfilled in a
vast majority of cases. Another common procedure is to use equivalent forces and moments. This
so-called Equivalent Load Method is successfully used in the shipbuilding sector to forecast
welding distortions, e.g. [17]. The calculation of residual stresses however requires strains (or
stresses), because forces create correct deformations but meaningless stress fields. In the following,
a (modified) Local-Global approach is used. The difference is in the calculation of (only
longitudinal) plastic strain as well as in the implementation into subsequent FE-models. Besides, the
coupling along with a hereupon based load-bearing analysis is of interest, but has not been realized
to date.
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4 PROPOSED MODELLING
The modelling using 3-D solid elements in welding simulation is not always required in case of
constant cross sections through the length. Following comparative 2-D and 3-D simulations on
T-joints [18], the 2-D model gives nearly identical results for the longitudinal residual stress
(analogously, the longitudinal plastic stain). Thus, the use of 2-D models (see 4.1) will provide
quicker results allowing iterations or optimization in the same time required to perform a single 3-D
analysis. A larger difference was noticed only in the prediction of angular distortion (due to
transverse plastic strain) but was not of interest in this study. Based on the results, the inherent
strain distribution is approximated as functions. A direct strain transfer (mapping) is theoretically
possible but seems impractical. Even in complex cases, the plastic strain distribution is of somewhat
simple shape (and mainly depends on the weld joint and the weld type). This suggests a certain
simplification. In this example, only fillet welds are considered due to their quite common use in
T-joints. According to [14], the inherent strain zone in fillet welds may be idealized by three partial
ellipses and the fillet weld metal. This approach is further simplified in 4.2 to increase the
applicability of the method. The implementation is then exemplary shown in 4.3. The analysis also
provides (bending) deformations. These were however only verified qualitatively. Eventually, the
(residual stress) results are used in a subsequent load-bearing analysis on a simple example for
weak-axis buckling in 5.
4.1 2-D Thermal Elastic-Plastic Analysis
The plastic strain distribution is initially needed from a 2-D thermal elastic plastic analysis (TEPA).
An exemplary case is shown in Fig. 3. The model details were already published in [19]. The
results were verified against validated 3-D models, published, e.g., in [6], [20]. A sufficient match
of (longitudinal) residual stresses was fond. A noticeable phase transformation (PT) effect was only
observed for the S690QL. However, this minor influenced the compressive residual stresses.
Generally, it was shown that compressive residual stresses are comparable for S355 and S690QL. If
the appearing residual stresses are related to the material’s yield strength, this ratio was remarkably
different for both materials. The relative reduction of (longitudinal) residual stresses in S690
implies a necessary adjustment of the recent classifications in EC 3 for calculations of load-bearing
capacity, see also [21]. In 5, a (numerical) proof of this thesis is given based on the previously
proposed modelling.

 Dimensions:
= 150 mm
= 25 mm
= 220 mm
= 15 mm

 Materials:
S355 (463.9 MPa)
S690QL (831.3 MPa)

 Weld type:
subsequently welded
fillets

 Weld heat input:

1.37 kJ/mm

Fig. 3. Exemplary 2-D model and calculated residual stresses in MPa for S355 and S690QL

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4.2 Definition of Initial Strain Distributions Patterns

A certain regularity of plastic strain distribution patterns is generally noticed. In case of fillet welds,
functional descriptions are given, e.g., by [14]. These are comparatively complex. For this reason, a
simplified approach was developed which is suitable also for an easy implementation in subsequent
steps. By the residual stress mechanism (see 3) it is known that the plastic strain is estimated by the
yield strain in good approximation, or see [11]. This value is nearly constant within the borders of
an ellipsoid in comparative models. As an approximation, a single ellipsoid (radii are indicated by
and ) is proposed for each weld. The application point of the weld torch is chosen as a center
point of this ellipsoid. A second ellipsoid is used to set apart the areas free of plastic strain. A linear
function is assumed between these ellipsoids. In case of intersecting ellipsoids, the larger value is
assigned. The model is exemplary shown for S690 in Fig. 4a). A good match with the calculated
plastic strain is observed. Due to similar compressive residual stresses in thermo-mechanical and
thermo-metallurgical-mechanical models (see 4.1), only the former is referred in the following (e.g.
in 5). This results in a slight overestimation of residual stresses in case of S690 but is on the safe
site.

a) b)
Fig. 4. a) Plastic strain approximation (in /) and b) Maximum temperatures (in °C), exemplary for a T-joint in S690

A close link between plastic strain in Fig. 4a) and maximum temperatures in Fig. 4b) is observed. A
thermal analysis may therefore be used for a fast (and safe-sited) approximation of the plastic zone.
For simple cases, analytical models provide (more or less) equivalent temperature solutions. A
particular advantage is then that these directly indicate the parameter dependence. The relevant
temperatures isotherms drawn in Fig 4b) are specified, e.g., by bar models and are given by Eq. (1)
and (2) under the assumption of a single bar model.
2 y 2  fy
T1   , 630.5 °C in Fig. 4a) (1)
  E
fy
T2  , 315.3 °C in Fig. 4b) (2)
 E
Where, the temperature difference Δ (in K) to cause plastic strain is the greater, the higher the
yield strength (in MPa) and the lower the Young’s modulus (in MPa) and the thermal
expansion coefficient (in 1/K). Young’s modulus and thermal expansion coefficient are the same
in this example. Accordingly, the plastic zone generally narrows with an increase in yield strength
provided that similar welding parameters are applied (the maximum temperatures are largely
independent of the grade, e.g., S235-S700, due to similar thermo-physical properties in all
low-alloyed steels and depend mainly on welding parameters). In particular, the corresponding
temperature differences are almost twice as high for S690 as for S355.

© Ernst & Sohn Verlag für Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin · CE/papers (2017)
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4.3 Elastic Analysis Imposing Initial Strain

If the inherent strain for each weld is known, the same result which could be obtained by a
computationally expensive (3-D) TEPA can be generated by conducting a linear-elastic analysis
(LA) in a single step. In this, material properties not dependent on temperature can be used. The
inherent strain is assumed to be interchangeable with the (accumulated) plastic strain when all
members are completely cooled down. In this proposal, this is previously taken from 2-D TEPA
(see 4.2). The inherent strain is implemented in the global (3-D) full-structure FE model using the
“inistate” command in Ansys. This term refers to the state of a structure at the start of an analysis
(by default is it an undeformed, unstressed structure). Options for applying initial state to materials,
elements, layers, sections and integration points exist. However, in commercial software, there are
not always options to directly input strain as an external “load”. An alternative approach is possible,
e.g., by introducing artificial temperatures or thermal expansion coefficients in a corresponding
manner in order to produce equivalent thermal strains. In this context, it is important how to closely
describe the inherent (initial) strain region. A (locally) sufficiently fine mesh is required.
Accordingly, the same mesh is required in capacity models. An appropriately modified
cross-section mesh was built and then extruded in longitudinal direction. The element type is then
changed to structural solid (e.g., 185). An element-based assignment of initial strain is subsequently
applied, Fig. 5a).

a) b)
Fig. 5. a) Initial state (t=0) and b) Residual stresses (in MPa) and deformations (t=1), exemplary for weld 1

Finally, a LA is carried out. The result after only one weld is shown exemplary in Fig. 5b).
Longitudinal residual stresses and bending deformations are reproduced qualitatively correctly.
Only the stresses are validated by the results from the 2-D TEPA (see 4.1). The generated output
(considering all 4 welds) is utilized in subsequent steps (see 5). The applicability in terms of
deformations was only exemplified. Besides, a comparatively accurate implementation of the
inherent strain patterns is then needed to accurately reproduce the bending about both axes. It is
only slight differences due to a stepwise welding of the seams and thereby also the influence of
initial stresses on the resulting plastic strain in subsequent welds that eventually causes remaining
deformations. Nevertheless, even a girder which was welded simultaneously with theoretically the
same weld heat input from all four sides would not be ideally straight. It should therefore be taken
into account that the deformation in real components is not only due to welding. The straightness of
the plates to be welded and the assembly are expected to have additional strong influence, see [21].
This becomes particularly obvious for cross sections where the positioning of welds is otherwise
symmetric. On the other hand, there are certainly many cases where the weld impact is dominant.
However, in case of the herein considered welded (compact) I-girders, only the residual stresses are
subsequently used.
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5 NUMERICAL CAPACITY ANALYSIS

Stability failures are often decisive in the design of steel beam and column members. Nonlinear
FEA have repeatedly shown that the residual stresses strongly affect the plastification process and,
thereby, the bearing behaviour [22]. In support of the development of corresponding design
methods, the residual stress influence on the structural behaviour is directly considered by means of
adequate simplified welding simulation models. Due to only demonstrative purpose, only the
weak-axis failure of axially loaded hinged columns is studied. Nevertheless, this method (GMNIA)
can be easily adapted to other loading situations and boundary conditions respectively. The cross
section and the materials are the same as in 4. A special focus is on the residual stresses effects in
equivalently welded columns made of S355 and S690 respectively. The importance of this effect is
closely connected with the slenderness and is particularly visible in stocky columns [5]. For this
reason, the relative slenderness, set by the particular length, is varied in steps of 0.2 from 0.6 to 1.4.
Two cases, without (1) and with residual stresses (2), are compared. Geometrical imperfections are
taken as L/1000 in accordance with the first eigenmode determined from a linear buckling analysis
(LBA). This represents the theoretically permitted manufacturing tolerances. A lower value in the
calculation requires careful reasoning (see 4.3). The final results are given in Fig. 6 in comparison
with the European buckling curves, see also [6]. For the investigated case, curve “c” applies for
comparison. Due to higher yield strength of the investigated materials, the results are not exactly
comparable. However, the greater susceptibility towards residual stresses of S355 compared to
S690 becomes visible.

Fig. 6. Results of capacity analysis in comparison with European buckling curves, (1) without, (2) with residual stresses

The results without residual stresses (1) show slightly increased (but comparable) values for S690
compared to S355. With residual stresses (2), the result can differ more significantly. This was
illustrated in a larger numerical parameter study [21]. In terms of residual stresses distribution, the
local residual stresses are seen highly variable through the thickness (even for these comparatively
thin plates). Nonetheless, this minor influences the balancing compressive residual stresses in other
parts being approximately constant through the thickness. Especially the residual stresses near the
flange tips influence the load-bearing capacity. The generally favourable behaviour of S690 in this
are the relatively decreased compressive residual stresses compared to S355. In this example, the
generated (compressive) residual stresses are, however, comparatively small. And so is the
difference between the materials. On the other hand, the buckling curve between the materials still
differs by at least one line (indicated by curve “b” for S355 and curve “a” for S690). A larger shift
is expected at increased weld heat input (e.g. in case of other welding procedures). In this context,
the advantage in comparison to available simplified residual stress distribution functions is, in
particular, the applicability of the model under changing welding conditions. In addition, the
method is not restricted to any cross section geometry or material.
© Ernst & Sohn Verlag für Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin · CE/papers (2017)
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6 OUTLOOK
An approach how to implement welding imperfections, in particular residual stresses, in large
structural components models was presented in this study. The concept directly relates the
mechanical source of residual stresses, which is inherent strain (or analogously accumulated plastic
strain). A preceding 2-D TEPA can provide the required input in sufficiently short calculation
times. An easy approximation for fillet-welded T-joints was presented. The definition in a
full-structure 3-D model was subsequently shown to reproduce residual stresses (and deformations).
Due to only qualitative verification of the (weld-induced) deformation as well as due to additional
(not considered) influencing factors (see 4.3), the permitted manufacturing tolerances were used in
subsequent steps. The capacity analysis was eventually on a simple example for weak-axis
buckling. The results showed significant improvements in comparison to available simplified
methods. The main benefit, however, is the more general applicability of the presented method. An
easy adaption for different cases is possible. A certain restriction is yet given by the required mesh
densities in the inherent strain region. In addition, for practitioners instead of solid element models
the use of shell and possibly beam element models will be of greater interest. For this reason,
studies on an adequate implementation in these element types were begun in [6]. These principles
offer great potential for further optimization and can be very useful in future practical calculations
as well. An additional experimental validation of these models for application in steel construction
is currently being planned.

7 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study was done in preparation of the works on the IGF project No. 18104 BG of the German
Research Association for Steel Application (FOSTA). This project is kindly funded by the German
Federal Ministry of Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi) by the AiF (German Federation of
Industrial Research Associations) as part of the program for support of the Industrial Cooperative
Research (IGF) on the basis of a decision by the German Bundestag.

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