FRICTION AND WEAR IN ROLLING

Friction and wear are products of solid contact between moving surfaces. In most of the
common mechanical systems, friction is seen as an enemy and one is always interested to
minimise it for reducing the wear of components as well as for saving energy. Unlike
conventional sliding surfaces, friction is a necessity of the rolling process. Here, it is not
seen as an undesirable phenomenon, and instead of minimising it, needs to be optimised.
We have seen in the previous chapter, that a minimum friction should be present to ensure
traction in the roll bite. If friction is very low, there will be no biting of the metal and this
will result in skidding of rolls over the strip. However, a very high level of friction is also
not desirable, as otherwise, it will lead to very high roll force, large mill motor power
requirement and promote the occurrence of shape and surface quality problems.

Since friction and metal contact are necessary for the rolling process to proceed, wear of
rolls and strip is a normal consequence. Although friction is not visualised as an enemy in
rolling, war is nevertheless always waged against wear. There is no simple direct
relationship between friction and wear. However, it is normally believed that higher the
friction, larger is the wear rate. There can be a case when even with small increase in
friction there is very large increase in wear. The mechanisms of friction and wear are
different. Let us discuss in brief these mechanisms in this chapter.

3.1 Friction
3.1.1 Definition
Friction is described as the resistance to motion, when one body slides over another. In
rolling, the roll-strip interface is continuously subjected to high pressure and temperature.
Due to relative motion of the two surfaces, there is generation of shear force at the
interface due to friction. It is common to describe the level of friction in terms of the
friction coefficient, which is defined as the ratio of force required to move the body (F) to
normal force (P), i.e.
Flat Rolling Lubrication

F
 …(3.1)
P

Dividing the numerator and denominator by area of the interface (A), the above equation
becomes,
F / A i
  …(3.2)
P/ A p

Where, i is frictional shear stress and p is normal pressure.

In actual case, friction coefficient varies along the arc of contact. Therefore, a mean value
of the friction coefficient is defined as ratio of the sum of elemental friction forces F i,
acting in the interface, to the sum of corresponding normal forces P i. In other words, it is
a ratio of the average frictional force Fa to the average normal force Pa:

 F i

Fa
…(3.3)
P i Pa

3.1.2 Classification of Friction

The roll bite may experience two types of friction: sliding friction and sticking friction.
When frictional condition at the bite is such that frictional shear stress is below the flow
stress or yield strength of the material in shear, it is called sliding friction. Condition for
sliding friction is thus given as
 i  p  k …(3.4)
Where, k is shear yield strength of the workpiece material at the interface.

When frictional shear stress at the interface is higher than the shear yield strength of the
material, then it will be energetically easier for the material to deform by shear inside the
body of the workpiece, rather than to slide against the roll surface. Friction under such a
condition is called sticking friction. In the sticking friction condition, diffusion across the
interface may become significant; it is however, not necessary, that actual sticking of
material may take place over the roll surface. Mathematically, the condition for sticking
friction is
Chapter III Friction & Wear in Rolling

 i  p  k …(3.5)

In rolling, friction coefficient may further be classified as:

(a) Entry friction coefficient (e),
(b) Transient friction coefficient (t), and
(c) Steady state friction coefficient ().

As soon as the workpiece is fed into the roll bite, the requirement of friction is high so
that biting takes place. Friction coefficient under this condition is called entry friction
coefficient. Once the leading edge of the workpiece has entered the roll bite, mill speed is
slowly increased and end-tensions may also be applied. For a small moment of time,
rolling remains in unsteady state and the friction coefficient drops from its entry level.
The decreased friction coefficient is called as transient friction coefficient. With further
passage of time, all the rolling parameters are stabilised and requirement of friction is
minimum. Friction during steady state of rolling is represented by steady state friction
coefficient. The value of friction coefficient thus gradually decreases during threading
operation from the level of entry friction coefficient to the steady state friction
coefficient, i.e. e  t   .

3.1.3 Requirement of Friction

Forces acting on the workpiece in
the roll bite during its initial entry
Nx 
(point A) are shown in figure 3.1. Fx
N is the normal force applied A
N F
through the roll and F is the
frictional force acting in the Figure 3.1 Forces acting at the roll bite entry
tangential direction. Since at this
point linear velocity of roll is higher than that of the workpiece, the direction of frictional
force on the roll is such that it opposes the rotary motion of roll. An equal but opposite
force acts on the workpiece, so the direction of this force is in inward direction as shown
in figure 3.1. Taking horizontal components of the two forces, it can easily be seen that
Flat Rolling Lubrication

while the component of frictional forces Fx pull the work piece into the roll bite, the
component of normal forces Nx resist the process. Considering equilibrium of the forces
at the point A, the condition for biting to take place is,
N x  Fx

Considering the geometry of figure 3.1, where  is roll bite angle, the above expression
can further be written as,
N sin   F cos
F sin 
or, 
N cos
or,  i  tan  …(3.6)
This expression shows that the requirement of friction coefficient for biting to take place
very much depends on roll bite geometry.

3.1.4 Dependence of Neutral Plane Position on Friction

The speed of the roll is higher than that of the workpiece before the neutral plane and it is
reverse after this point. Due to this, the direction of frictional forces changes at the neutral
plane (Figure 3.2). In steady state rolling conditions, the friction force F i assists rolling in
the entry zone AN. Contrary to this, friction forces acting in the zone NB as well as
normal forces Pi, acting along the overall length of the arc of roll contact hinder rolling.

By considering equilibrium of forces, Ekelund proposed following equation for the

neutral angle:

  
 1   …(3.7)
2  2  

For rolling with strip tension, Ford et al proposed following equation for calculation of
neutral angle:

A = Entry to roll bite

 B = Exit from roll bite
A  N = Neutral point
Pi
 = Angle of bite
Fi  = Neutral angle
S1 N B S2 Fi = Friction forces
Pi = Normal forces
Si = Tensile forces

Figure 3.2 Forces acting along the arc of contact

Chapter III Friction & Wear in Rolling

 S ( h1  h2 )  h1s1  h2 s2
  …(3.8)
2 4SR ' 
Where, s1, s2 are entry and exit tensile stresses, respectively, h 1, h2 are entry and exit
thickness of strip, respectively, and S is mean constrained yield stress of work piece.

From the above equations it can be seen that the friction level decides the position of
neutral plane at roll bite. With increase in friction level, neutral point shifts towards
centre of the arc of contact. The neutral plane shifts towards the exit of bite with
decreasing friction coefficient.

3.1.5 Measurement of Friction Coefficient

There are several methods suggested for measurement of steady state friction coefficient.
Equations have been derived in these methods based on varying assumptions for
calculation of the friction coefficient. Some of the suggested methods and their equations
are:

(a) Method of forced skidding: When the entry tension (S 1) is gradually increased until
the rolls start to skid,
S1  2 P tan( / 2)
 …(3.9)
2 P  S1 tan( / 2)

Where, P is vertical force applied at the centre of arc of contact, and  is roll bite angle.

(b) Roll torque method: When back tension is sufficient to move the neutral plane to the
exit point,
M
 …(3.10)
PR
Where, M is roll torque, P is roll force and R is roll radius.

Similarly, friction coefficient can also be calculated from any equation for calculation of
roll force that has a friction term.
Flat Rolling Lubrication

(c) Method of maximum draft: When draft is gradually increased until rolls start
skidding,
  tan  …(3.11)
Where, roll bite angle  can be calculated (neglecting flattening of rolls) as,
  
  cos 1 1   …(3.12)
 2R 

Where  is draft.

(d) Forward slip method: Friction coefficient can be calculated from the equation of
forward slip (neglecting strip tension), proposed by Ekelund
( / 2) 2

 2S f
 …(3.13)
2  2 R 
  1
 h2 

Where,  is bite angle, R’ is radius of flattened roll, S f is forward slip (Vexit –Vroll)/Vroll,
and h2 is strip thickness at the exit of roll bite.

(e) Rolling parameter method: Friction coefficient can be calculated from the rolling
parameters

2h1  f (1  r ) 2 
2   1.25r  1 …
D'.r  c  1 D '.h1 .r 
(3.14)
Where, h1 is entry thickness, f is specific force per unit width, r is reduction ratio, D is
deformed roll diameter, c is constrained yield strength, and 1 is average tensile stress.

(f) Friction coefficient in Hot Rolling: Various researchers have proposed empirical
equations for friction coefficient as a function of temperature. Some of these relations are
given below.

(i) Robert’s equation:  = 2.7 x 10-4 T – 0.08

Chapter III Friction & Wear in Rolling

Where T is the temperature of workpiece in oF.

(ii) Gelegi’s equations:  = 1.05 – 0.0005T – 0.056v; for steel rolls

 = 0.94 – 0.0005T – 0.056v; for cast rolls
 = 0.82 – 0.0005T – 0.056v; for ground steel rolls
Where, T is temperature in oC and v is velocity in m/s.

(iii) Rowe’s equation:  = 0.84 – 0.0004 (T – 700)

Where T is temperature of workpiece in oC.

3.1.6 Factors Affecting Steady State Friction

The steady state friction in rolling is affected by various factors as listed in Table 3.1.
Effect of some of these parameters are briefly discussed below mainly for cold rolling.

Table 3.1 Important Factors Influencing the Friction Coefficient in Rolling Process

Rolling Condition Strip Roll Lubricant

Reduction Size Diameter Film Strength
Speed Shape Hardness Viscosity
Tension Deformation resistance Elastic constant Compressibility
Oil supply mode Surface roughness Roughness Wetting
Cooling mode Weldability Surface Texture Cooling
Temperature Thermal Conductivity
Scale formation Material

(a) Viscosity of lubricant: Normally, film thickness of lubricant at the roll bite
increases with increasing viscosity of lubricant. This results in decreased frictional
coefficient.

(b) Workpiece temperature: Increase in workpiece temperature decreases the viscosity

of lubricant in cold rolling and thus increases the friction coefficient. In hot
rolling too, friction is known to directly affect the friction. The reason could be
effect of temperature on the diffusion at the interface.
Flat Rolling Lubrication

(c) Surface roughness: Friction coefficient increases with increasing surface

roughness of roll as well as of strip. In fact, higher the roughness, more is the
availability of contact surface areas and hence more boundary contacts.

(d) Rolling speed: In cold rolling, the entrained film thickness is proportional to
rolling speed, mainly where hydrodynamic component of the mixed lubrication is
significant. Therefore friction decreases as rolling speed increases.

For hot rolling, Gelegi’s empirical equations also express the fact that friction
coefficient decreases with increasing speed of rolling.

(e) Pass reduction: Effect of pass reduction on friction coefficient generally depends
on the level of surface roughness and work hardening of the workpiece. Normally,
friction reduces with increasing reduction for a rough strip surface of both the
annealed and work hardened types. In case of smooth strip surfaces, friction
coefficient increases with increasing reduction for annealed workpiece and may
not have much effect for work-hardened workpiece.

Increase in friction coefficient with increasing draft is verified from equation 3.11
and 3.12.

(f) Work-roll diameter: The oil film thickness increases with decreasing roll bite
angle. Since increasing the work-roll diameter results in smaller bite angle, and
thus thicker film formation, it is expected that this would yield a lower friction
coefficient.

It can also be verified from equations 3.11 and 3.12 that for a given draft friction
coefficient decreases with increasing diameter of work rolls.

(g) Chemical composition of workpiece: There is no general rule for the effect of
steel chemistry on friction coefficient. Some steels, like carbon steel, do not show
Chapter III Friction & Wear in Rolling

any appreciable effect on the friction coefficient. However, some grades of alloy
steel, like austenitic stainless steel, exhibit a tendency of sticking to rolls, which
consequently may result in higher friction coefficient.

(h) Quality of rolls: Highly wear resistant rolls are responsible for higher friction
coefficient. For example, high speed steel (HSS) rolls generate higher friction
compared to that of high-chrome rolls in hot strip mills.

3.2 Wear Mechanism

Wear of work-roll and backup roll during rolling has been a subject of concern for the
mill operators because it directly affects the production, quality of products and operating
cost. There are a number of defects associated with high friction and/or wear in rolling.
These include friction mark, surface finish or mottling, crossbow, twist, buckling,
pinholes, stickers or wrench marks and shudder or chatter. Roll wear modifies the original
condition of rolls by changing their geometry (crown, diameter, shape) and surface
roughness. The changes in roll geometry, combined with the influence of thermal
expansion, affect the profile and flatness of the rolled strips. To ensure that strip surface
quality is not affected by the roll wear, the mill operator has to design a smaller rolling
schedule. Certainly, with more number of roll changes, there is loss of production and this
inevitably increases the operating cost. The cost is further increased by loss of roll
material in wear as well as in further grinding of rolls.

Roll

Chemical Abrasive
film Strip wear debris

Plastic Hydrostatic Hydrodynamic Adhesion

deformation pressure pressure

Figure 3.3 Typical roll-strip contact at roll bite

Flat Rolling Lubrication

Wear occurs by surface interactions at the asperities (Figure 3.3). It is controlled mainly
by phenomena like chemical and physical reactions between the constituents of the
interface, transmission of the forces at the interface through asperities and loose particles,
and the response of the two materials of the mating surfaces to the forces. In rolling, one
can find all the major modes of wear, that is, abrasive, adhesive, corrosive, fatigue and
erosive wears. We know that in industrial processes, almost in 50% cases, wear occurs by
the abrasion mode. The next major type of wear is adhesion wear. Compared to these two
modes, the occurrence of wear by other modes is very small. So in rolling too, adhesive
and abrasive wear dominate the cause of material wear. However, there can be more than
one type of wear in any one situation and one type wear can also change to another type.

3.2.1 Adhesive Wear

Adhesive wear occurs, when surfaces slide against each other under load. The original
theory proposed for the mechanism of adhesive wear is the following. When the interface
pressure is sufficiently high, there is formation of atomic bond between the contacting
asperities. This bond is stronger than the softer parent material. Due to the sliding of one
surface over the other this bond gets broken by tearing asperities of the softer material. In
this way there is metal pick up on the harder surface.

The above theory of adhesive wear does not justify the practical aspects of wear in
rolling. Let us examine the following:
(a) From the above mechanism, asperities of softer material, i.e. strip, should get tore
and get picked up on harder material, i.e. roll. Thus there should not be wear of
rolls. This is not the fact.
(b) On the similar reason, there should not be generation of loose wear particles but
only metal pick-ups. This is also not the fact.
(c) For formation of a bond stronger than one of the mating materials requires very
intimate contact between the asperities. This may not be possible in case of
rolling, as there are host of foreign particles and defects at the mating surfaces.
(d) If wear particles are generated in adhesive wear through interactions of asperities
alone, then it should be a direct function of surface roughness. However, it has
Chapter III Friction & Wear in Rolling

been seen that other factors, such as microstructure and mechanical properties of
the materials, also affect the wear rate.

Some of these disputes could be resolved with the wear mechanism suggested by Schey.
He suggested that the bond between the asperities could not only be stronger than the
softer material, but also be stronger than or equal to the strength of harder material. This
gave a possibility of metal transfer from the softer to the harder material or vice versa
depending upon the prevailing condition. Even if the bond strength of adhesion is
stronger than the workpiece only, there will be metal pickup on rolls. The size of the
adherent particles can grow with subsequent adhesions and there can be strain hardening
of these particles under rolling load. These particles can get separated from the rolls,
through the process of fatigue, generating loose particles.

Another mechanism of work roll wear suggested by Schey was diffusion of some
alloying elements of the rolls into the workpiece. This was possible at elevated
temperature, especially in case of hot rolling, after some adhesion had already taken
place. The diffusion of alloying elements can reduce the strength of rolls, leading to its
wear.

3.2.2 Abrasive Wear

Abrasive wear occurs, when hard surface projections slide relative to another contacting
surface under load. This process produces loose wear particles, which can further act as
hard surface projections and increase wear. It is reported that for abrasion to take place,
the Vickers hardness of these particles should be at least 1.5 times of the hardness of the
softer material. When the hard particles are part of one of the surfaces, it is called two-
body wear and when these are loosely held between the two surfaces, it is called three-
body wear. In the both the cases, material is removed from one or both the surfaces
through microcutting by hard particles. This process may be accelerated in presence of
subsurface cracks, generated by the hard particles under load.
Flat Rolling Lubrication

The abrasive wear phenomena depend on geometry of the abrasive particles (shape, size,
distribution and orientation with the abraded surface), geometry of the contact, and
properties of the materials in contact. The particles having spherical shape and smaller
attack angle cause smaller surface penetration and therefore do not result in any plastic
deformation. Although these types of particles cannot cause abrasive wear, they may
however, cause localised heating with smaller surface damage or failure of the lubricant
film. When penetration increases, abrasive particles plough through the surface causing
material to chipped or dug out. The effect of ploughing depends on the ductility of the
workpiece. If material is less ductile or susceptible to strain hardening, then worn out
particles stay between the surfaces acting as third body wear particles. Otherwise, in case
of ductile materials, the worn out particles may get embedded in some of the wear
grooves and may be removed subsequently. When attack angle of the abrasive particle
become steep, the material is not removed by digging, but by cutting action. In this case,
the material is removed instantly from the surface.

The abrasive wear of rolls has also been observed to depend upon some rolling
parameters such as roll force, speed, slip, temperature, etc. There are critical values of roll
force and speed at which wear rate is most severe. It is reported that roll wear rate is
highest in the temperature range of 850-900 oC, which is typical for the finishing stands
of hot strip mill.

In rolling, oxides and the inter-metallic of precipitation hardened alloys constitute the
main abrasive particles. Abrasive wear is predominant in hot rolling and it can also be
significant in cold rolling, typically when the lubricant film fails. The abrasive wear of
rolls can be reduced by increasing their hardness through heat treatment. Several hot
rolling mills have reported a reduction in wear depth by as high as 75% by using high
speed steel (HSS) rolls in place of high chrome cast iron rolls.

3.2.3 Corrosive and Fatigue Wears

Chapter III Friction & Wear in Rolling

Corrosive roll wear may occur with some lubricants and can become localised, when rolls
are left unturned for a prolonged period of time with a lubricant film between them.

The most severe damage to rolls is caused by a fatigue failure, called spalling. A spall can
be deep enough to destroy the hard surface layer of a roll. Spalling usually takes the form
of shallow flakes or circumferential cracks. It is promoted by an uneven stress
distribution, that is due to localised wear, grinding cracks, residual stress in the roll, and
hydrogen embrittlement resulting from contact with emulsion.

Thermal cracking is an operational and fundamental cause of roll failure in hot rolling
mills. During hot rolling, the rolls extract heat from the metal at the contact zone and are
cooled during the rest of their revolution by air or water sprays. Thus rolls undergo cyclic
heating and cooling. In course of heating, initially, there is a steep rise in temperature in
the vicinity of the surface. This is accompanied by high tangential and longitudinal
compressive stresses on the outside and low tensile stress on the inside layers due to
thermal expansion of the outer layers. As rolling progresses, a part of the heat from the
surface penetrates into the roll body while the rest is dissipated. Thus the bulk roll
temperature gradually rises. Due to thermal expansion of the core, considerable tangential
and longitudinal tensile stresses develop at the roll surface causing tearing action of the
outer layers. Since the surface layers undergo cyclic heating and cooling, thermal cracks
occur on the roll surface.

These cracks form a network called fire-cracks on the roll surface. Bending stresses add
to the propagation of these cracks. These cracks propagate radially and result in poor
surface finish of rolled products. Sometimes, the severity of the cracks is so high, that the
rolls break due to high stress concentration. Highly alloyed and high-hardened rolls are
more susceptible to these conditions.

3.2.4. Factors Affecting Roll Wear

From the above deliberations, it is very clear, that wear in both hot and cold rolling
depends upon many factors such as composition of roll material, grade of steel being
Flat Rolling Lubrication

rolled, surface roughness of roll and strip, rolling pressure, temperature and its
distribution, quality of rolling lubricant, etc. The level of friction at the roll bite decides
the position of the neutral point. In case friction is high, neutral points shift towards the
entry plane, resulting in increased area of travel of strip at speed higher than the rolls.
This leads to increase in the wear rate of rolls.

Heat build-up and temperature rise at roll bite also causes loss of mechanical properties
of roll material. This directly influences the wear resistance property of the rolls.
Development of the fire cracks at the roll surface increases the frictional condition and
enhances the wear rate. The excessive friction also unnecessarily increases the
deformational load, torque and energy.

3.2.5 Effect of Wear on Surface Roughness of Strip

Due to wear, the strip surface roughness gets modified in successive rolling passes,
resulting into varying frictional condition. The transverse strip surface roughness in a
production mill operating at low speed tends towards a value close to the transverse roll
roughness. However, the longitudinal strip roughness is further reduced, by the relative
surface sliding, to approximately a third of the transverse value. Figure 3.4 depicts
modification in longitudinal surface roughness of sheet rolled in an experimental rolling
mill. It can be seen, that after giving about 50% reduction, the sheet surface roughness
becomes constant and equal to the roughness of work roll.

1.60

1.20
Roughness, m

0.80

0.40

0.00
0 20 40 60 80 100
Cumulative Reduction, %

Figure 3.4 Typical modification in surface of strip with progressive

reduction in experimental rolling mill