MAXIMUM Science-XTH PDF

Class: X 1
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Class: X 2
Class: X 3
Design of question paper
The exam conducting board has brought CBSE New Pattern for Class 10th and changes
in the internal assessment (IA). As per the new pattern.
 The class 10th is consists of total 100 marks which is subdivided as:
Annual Board Exam: 80 Marks
Internal Assessment: 20 Marks
 Important Note -
As per the latest news, there will be 6 types of objective questions in CBSE Class 10th
and 12th Exams.
The 6 objective type questions will be -Multiple Choice, Multiple Response,
Right and Wrong, Fill in the blank, Assertion- Region and Match Making.
Annual Exam -
As per the updated CBSE Class 10 Mark System, maximum marks are 80 for
each subject.
Students need to secure 33% which is the passing marks in CBSE class 10 out of
80 in each subject.
Individual grades and marks will be awarded for each subject.
Total Time Duration – 3 Hours
CBSE Class 10th Marks System - Internal Assessment (IA)
Periodic Tests (PT) - 10 marks each, Notebook Submission - 5 marks
Subject Activities - 5 marks
CBSE Exam Pattern for Class 10th 2019-20 Science Subject
Class 10 Science Subject includes the basic concepts in Physics, Chemistry,
and Biology.
Total 36 questions will be asked in exam.
The new exam pattern for CBSE Board Class 10th is given in the following table -
Type of Questions Questions Marks for Each
Objective Type 20 1
SA 10 3
LA 6 5
There will be 10 MCQ in objective section. This section will also include VSA, Assertion-
Reasoning type questions, etc.
Students must follow the word limit while answering the questions in the paper.
 1 marks question must be answered in one sentence.
 2 marks questions - about 30 words.
Class: X 4
X - SCIENCE (THEORY)
Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 60
The weightage of marks over different dimensions of the question paper shall be as under:
A. Weightage to Content/Subject units
S. No. Content Unit Marks

1. Chemical Substances 25
2. World of living 23
3. Effects of current 13
4. Natural Phenomena 12
5. Natural Resources 07
Total 80
B. Weightage to forms of Questions
Marks for No. of Total
S. No. Form of Questions
each question questions Marks
2. Objective Type 01 20 20
3. Short answer type (SA) 03 10 30
4. Long answer type (LA) 05 06 30
Total 27 80
C. Weightage to difficulty level of questions

S. No. Estimated difficulty level of questions Percentage
1. Easy 15
2. Average 70
3. Difficult 15
Class: X 5
PHYSICS
LESSON
1
LIGHT – REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
Light:
(i) It is an invisible energy, which causes the sensation of sight.
(ii) It is the form of energy, which gives in us a sensation of sight. It, itself is not visible but helps
us in seeing objects.
Laws of Reflection:
(i) Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. ( i =  r)
(ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same
plane.
Laws of refraction:
(i) The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction for a particular
sin i
pair of media is constant, i.e., = constant = . This is also called Refractive Index and also denoted
sin r
by n.
(ii) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane.
Refraction through prism: When light passes through a prism
(i) It always bends towards the base of the prism.
(ii) A prism splits the light passing through it into its corresponding wavelengths. This process is
called dispersion of light. When sunlight passes through prism it disperses into seven colours, i.e.,
seven wavelengths (VIBGYOR).
Cartesian sign convention
In the case of concave In the case of concave In case of convex mirror for
mirror for real and inverted mirror for virtual and erect virtual and erect image :
image image
Focal length (f) = –ve focal length (f) = –ve Focal length (f) = +ve
Radius of curvature (R) = –ve Radius of curvature (R) = –ve Radius of curvature (R) = +ve
Object distance (u) = –ve Object distance (u) = –ve Object distance (u) = –ve
Object height (h) = +ve Object height (h) = +ve Object height (h) = +ve
Image distance (v) = –ve Image distance (v) = +ve Image distance (v) = +ve
Image height (h) = –ve Image height (h) = +ve Image height (h) = +ve
Magnification (m) = –ve Magnification (m) = +ve Magnification (m) = +ve
Class: X 6
SPHERICAL MIRRORS
IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONCAVE MIRROR FOR DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF
THE OBJECT
Position of the Position of the image Size of the image Nature of the image
object
At infinity At the focus F Highly diminished, Real and inverted
point sized
Beyond the centre of Between F and C Diminished Real and inverted
curvature C
At C At C Same size Real and inverted
Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Real and inverted
At F At infinity Infinitely large or Real and inverted
highly enlarged
Between the pole P Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect
of the mirror and
focus F
IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONVEX MIRROR

Position of the object Position of the image Size of the image Nature of the image
At infinity At the focus F, behind Highly diminished Virtual and erect
the mirror point-sized
Between infinity and the Between P and F, behind Diminished Virtual and erect
pole P of the mirror the mirror
The corresponding ray diagrams are included in annexure 4
1 1 1
Mirror Formula :   is called the mirror formula.
f v u
Magnification: The ratio of the size of the image to that of the object is called magnification. For
a mirror, magnification (m) is given by.
v
m
u
LENSES
Lens: A piece of any transparent material bound by two curved surfaces is called a lens. A lens
which is thicker in the middle and thinner at the edges is called a convex lens. A convex lens is also
called converging lens.
A lens which is thicker at the edges and thinner at the centre is called a concave lens. A concave
lens is called a diverging lens.
Optical center of a lens: The centre point of a lens is called its optical center. A ray of light
passing through the optical center does not suffer any deviation.
Power of a lens: Reciprocal of the focal length of a lens measured in meters is called the power. Power
of a lens is described in dioptre (D) units.
Images formed by a lens: A convex lens forms a real and inverted image for all the positions of
an object outside its focus (F). However, when the object is placed between F and O, the image formed
by a convex lens is virtual and erect.
A concave lens always forms a virtual, erect and a diminished image, whatever may be the
distance of the object from the lens.
1 1 1
Lens formula:  
f v u
v
Magnification: m =
u
Class: X 7
Cartesian sign convention
In case of convex lens for In case of convex lens for In case of concave lens
real and inverted image virtual and erect image For virtual and erect image
Focal length (f ) = +ve Focal length (f ) = +ve
Focal length(f ) = –ve
Object distance (u) = –ve Object distance (u) = –ve
Object distance (u) = –ve
Object height (h) = +ve Object height (h) = +ve
Object height (h) = +ve
Image distance (v) = +ve Image distance (v) = –ve
Image distance (v) = –ve
Image height (h) = –ve Image height (h) = +ve
Image height (h) = +ve
Magnification (m) = –ve Magnification (m) = +ve
Magnification (m) = +ve
IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONCAVE LENS

At infinity At focus F1 point-sized Highly diminished Virtual and erect
Between infinity and Between focus F1 and Diminished Virtual and erect
optical centre O of the optical centre
lenses
IMAGE FORMED BY A CONVEX LENS FOR DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF THE OBJECT

At infinity At focus F2 Highly diminished, Real and inverted
point-sized
Beyond 2F1 Between F2 and 2F2 Diminished Real and inverted
At 2F1 At 2F1 Same size Real and inverted
Between F1 and 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and inverted
At focus F1 At infinity Infinitely large or Real and inverted
highly enlarged
Between focus F1 and On the same side of Enlarged Virtual and erect
optical centre O the lens as the object
The corresponding ray diagrams are included in annexure 4
IMPORTANT FORMULAE
1 1 1
Mirror formula  
f v u
where, f = focal length of mirror, u = Distance of the object, v = Distance of the image from pole.
1 1 1
Lens formula  
f v u
where, f = focal length of the lens, v = Distance of the image, u = Distance of the object from
optical centre.
Power of lens
1 100
P 
Focal length (in meters) Focal length (in cm)
1 100
P 
f (m ) f (cm)
size of the image
Magnification by a lens =
size of the object
Class: X 8
hi
m
ho
Distance of the image from the optical centre v
Magnification by a lens = or m 
Distance of the object from the optical centre u
REFRACTIVE INDEX
 Absolute refractive index (n) of a medium is the ratio of speed of light in vacuum or air (c) to the
speed of light in the medium (v) i.e.
c
n
v
 Refraction of light is the phenomenon of change in the path of light in going from one medium to
another.
 In going from a rarer to a denser medium, the ray of light bends towards normal and in going from
a denser to a rarer medium, the ray of light bends away from normal.
sin i n2 1
 Snell’s law of refraction:   n2
sin r n1
 No refraction occurs, when
(i) light is incident normally on a boundary,
(ii) refractive indices of the two media in contact are equal.
speed of light in medium 1 refractive index of medium 2
 Refractive index = n21 = 
speed of light in medium 2 refractive index of medium 1
 21
  23 
31
Class: X 9
MIND MAP
 Light is a form of energy that produces in  Absolute refractive index(n) of a medium

us the sensation of sight. is the ratio of speed of light in vacuum or
air(c) to the speed of light in the
 Reflection of light is the phenomenon of medium(v) i.e.
bouncing back of light in the same c
n
medium on striking the surface of any v
object.  Refraction of light is the phenomenon of
change in the path of light in going from
 The two laws of reflection are : one medium to another.
(i) the incident ray, the reflected ray and
 In going from a rarer to a denser
the normal (at the point of incidence), all
medium, the ray of light bends towards
lie in the same plane.
normal and in going from a denser to a
(ii) the angle of reflection (r) is always
rarer medium, the ray of light bends
equal to the angle of incidence (i)
away from normal.
r = i
LIGHT–REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
 Snell’s law of refraction,
 In a plane mirror, the image of a real sin i n 2 1
object is always   n2
sin r n1
(i) virtual,
(ii) erect  No refraction occurs, when
(iii) of same size as the object, (i) light is incident normally on a
(iv) as far behind the mirror as the object boundary,
is in front of the mirror. (ii) refractive indices of the two media in
(v) laterally inverted. contact are equal.
n2 v 1
 n 21  
n1 v 2
1 1 1
 Lens formula :  
v u f
 New Cartesian Sign Convention for 1 1 1
spherical lenses:  Mirror formula:  
v u f
(i) All distances are measured from
optical centre C of the lens.
 Linear magnification produced by a
(ii) The distances measured in the spherical mirror is
direction of incidence of light are taken
v size of image (h2 )
as positive and vice-versa. m 
(iii) All heights above the principal axis of u size of object (h1)
the lens are taken as positive and vice  For a convex mirror, m is +ve and less
versa. than one, as the image formed is virtual,
 The linear magnification produced by a erect and shorter than the object.
lens is
h v  For a concave mirror, m is +ve when
m 
h u image formed is virtual and m is –ve,
 Power of the combination of lenses when image formed is real.
P  p1  p2  p3 ...
 According to New Cartesian Sign Convention, for spherical mirror.

(i) All distances are measured from the pole of the spherical mirror.
(ii) The distances measured in the direction of incidence of light are taken as positive and vice-versa.
(iii) The heights above the principal axis of the mirror are taken as positive and vice-versa.
Radius of curvature (R )
 In spherical mirror, focal length (f) = .
2
Class: X 10
LESSON
2
HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD
• The ability of the eye to focus both near and distant objects by adjusting its focal length is called
the power of accommodation of the eye.
• The smallest distance at which the eye can see objects clearly without strain, is called the near
point of the eye or the least distance of distinct vision. It is 25 cm for a normal eye.
• The farthest point upto which the eye can see objects clearly is called the far point of the eye. It is
infinity for a normal eye.
• The splitting of white light into its component colours is called dispersion.
• The scattering of light by the colloidal particles of a medium due to which the path of the light
becomes visible is known as Tyndall Effect.
• There are three common refractive defects of vision.
 Myopia or short sightedness.
 Hypermetropia or long sightedness.
 Presbyopia.
MYOPIA OR SHORT-SIGHTEDNESS
• A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see distant objects distinctly.
Causes of Defect: The two possible causes of this defect are:
(a) Excessive curvature of the eye lens or due to the high converging power of eye lens (short
focal length).
(b) Elongation of the eyeball.
Corrective Measures: This defect can be corrected by using spectacles with concave lens of
suitable focal length or power.
HYPERMETROPIA OR LONG-SIGHTEDNESS
• A person with hypermetropia can see distant objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects
distinctly.
Causes of Defect: The two possible causes of this defect are:
(i) Low converging power of eye lens because of large focal length.
(ii) Eye-ball being too short.
Corrective Measures: This defect can be corrected by using spectacles with convex lens of
suitable focal length or power.
PRESBYOPIA OR OLD SIGHT
• Presbyopia is due to decrease in power of accommodation with ageing.
Cause of Defect: Presbyopia arises due to the gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and
diminishing flexibility of the eye lens with age.
Presbyopia is the hypermetropia caused by the loss of power of accommodation of the eye due to
old age.
Class: X 11
Corrective Measures: Presbyopia defect is corrected in the same way as hypermetropia i.e. by
using spectacles having convex lenses. Sometimes when far vision is also affected bifocal lenses are
used.
ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
It can be defined as bending of light while going through various layers of air in the atmosphere.
 Twinkling of stars: They are point source of light and atmospheric refraction causes bending of
light. Apparent image is higher than actual image and causes twinkling effect.
 Planets do not twinkle, as they are not point source of light.
 Early sunrise and late sunset: Sun can be seen two minutes before actual sunrise and two
minutes after sunset due to atmospheric refraction.
SCATTERING OF LIGHT
 Sun appears reddish at sunrise and sunset due to, lower wavelengths (blue) getting scattered
and higher wavelength (red) reaching us.
 Sky appears blue to us due to scattering of lower wavelengths (blue).
 To an astronaut sky appears dark as there is no atmosphere, thus no scattering.
Sun nearly
Blue scattered away, overhead
Sun appears reddish Less blue
scattered
Sun near
Observer
horizon
Class: X 12
MIND MAP
The ability of an eye to focus both near and There are three common refractive defects
distant objects by adjusting its focal length is of vision.
called the power of accomodation of an eye.  Myopia or near sightedness.
 Hypermetropia or long sightedness.
 Presbyopia.
HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD

The smallest distance at which an eye can
see objects clearly without strain, is called A person with myopia can see nearby
the near point of an eye or the least distance objects clearly but cannot see distant objects
of distinct vision. It is 25 cm for a normal distinctly.
eye. The defect can be corrected by using
concave lens of suitable focal length.
The farthest point upto which an eye can A person with hypermetropia can see
see objects clearly is called the far point of distant objects clearly but cannot see near
an eye. It is infinity for a normal eye. by objects distinctly.
The defect can be corrected by using convex
lens of suitable focal length.
The splitting of white light into its component Presbyopia is due to decrease in power of
colours is called dispersion. accommodation with ageing.
The defect can be corrected by using bifocal
lenses.
The scattering of light by the collidal

particles of a medium due to which the path Scattering of light causes the blue colour of
of the light becomes visible is known as the sky, reddening of the sun at sunrise and
Tyndall Effect. sunset.
Class: X 13
LESSON
3
ELECTRICITY
Electricity and its Effect (notations)

Physical Quantity Symbols SI unit
Voltage (potential difference) V Volt (V)
Power P Watt (W)
Charge Q Coulomb (C)
Work or Energy W Joule (J)
Resistance R Ohm ()
Current I Ampere (A)
Resistivity  Ohm metre ( m)
Laws of electric forces:

(i) Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
(ii) Charges of a conductor reside on its outer surface.
Current:
The rate of flow of charges (Q) through a conductor is called current (I) and is given by.
charge Q
Current = or I  . The SI unit of current is ampere (A).
Time t
1 coulomb
1 Ampere 
1 second
The current flowing through a circuit is measured by a device called ammeter. Ammeter is
connected in series with the conductor. The direction of the current is taken as the direction of the flow of
positive charge and opposite to the flow of electrons through the conductor.
Electric cell: It is the simplest form of arrangement to maintain a constant potential difference
between two points.
Electromotive force: The potential difference at the terminals of cells in an open circuit is called
electromotive force (emf) and is denoted by letter E.
Potential difference is the work done in bringing a unit charge from one place to another.
work 1 Joule (J)
Potential Difference  , 1 Volt (V) 
charge 1 Coulomb (C)
Ohms law: At any constant temperature the current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference (V) across it. Mathematically,
I  V vice-versa VI
V V
or V = RI  R  ,I 
I R
where R – Resistance, V – Voltage (P.D.), I – Current
Symbols of a few commonly used components in Circuit Diagrams

Component Symbol Component Symbol
An electric cell Electric bulb
Class: X 14
Battery of cells A resistance
Plug key or switch Variable resistance

or or
(open) (Rheostat)
A closed plug or or + A –
Ammeter
switch
A wire joint Voltmeter + V –
Wires crossing Galvanometer +G –
Resistance: Resistance is a property of a conductor by virtue of which it opposes the flow of

electricity through it. Resistance is measured in Ohms (). Resistance is a scalar quantity.
Conductor: Low-resistance material which allows the flow of electric current through it is called a
conductor. All metals are conductors except Hg and Pb etc.
Resistor: High-resistance materials are called resistors. Resistors become hot when current
flows through them (nichrome wire is a typical resistor).
Insulator: A material which does not allow heat and electricity to pass through it is called an
insulator. Rubber, dry wood etc., are insulators.
Equivalent Resistance: A single resistance which can replace a combination of resistances such
that current through the circuit remains the same is called equivalent resistance.
Law of Combination of Resistances in Series: When number of resistances are connected in
series, the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
V  V1  V2  V3
V  IR, V1  IR1, V2  IR2 , V3  IR3
IR  IR1  IR2  IR3
R  R1  R2  R3 .....  Rn
Law of Combination of Resistances in Parallel: If resistance R1, R2 , R3 , ..... etc are connected
in parallel then the equivalent resistance (R) is given by
I  I1  I 2  I3
V V V V
I , I1  , I2  , I3 
R R1 R2 R3
V V V V
  
R R1 R2 R3
Class: X 15
1 1 1 1 1
   ..... 
R R1 R2 R3 Rn
Electrical energy: Capacity of the flowing electricity to do work is called its electrical energy.
V 2t
Electrical energy (work) = V I t  I 2Rt  Pt 
R
The SI unit of electrical energy is Joule. One Joule is the amount of energy consumed when
an electrical appliance of one watt rating is used for one second. The commercial (practical) unit of
electrical energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh).
W V2
Power, P   VI  I 2R 
t R
The SI unit of electric power is watt (W). The power of a machine doing work at the rate of 1
Joule per second is equal to one watt.
Electrical energy = Electrical power × Time.
Important Formulae:
1. Coulomb’s law
K  q1  q2
F (k is constant of proportionality)
r2
q1 and q 2 = two electric charges
r = distance between two electric charges
F = Force
W W
2. V ;W V Q ;Q 
Q V
V  p.d. W = work done, Q = Quantity of charge transferred
V V
3. V  R I ; R  ;I 
I R
V = pd ; R = Resistance, I = current.
I RA
4. R ; 
A l
R = Resistance; l = length; A = Area of cross section;  = rho, a constant known as resistivity
5. Series combination R  R1  R2  R3 .....  Rn
1 1 1 1 1
6. Parallel combination    ..... 
R R1 R2 R3 Rn
Class: X 16
For equal resistances
Rs  nR (For series connection)
R
Rp  (For parallel connection)
n
Rs
 n2
Rp
Rs = Effective resistance in series
Rp = Effective resistance in parallel
n = number of resistors
R = Resistance of each resistor
W work Energy consumed
7. P ; Power  
t time Time
8. W = V × I × t ; Power = potential difference × current × time
 V 2t 
 (W  I 2 Rt )  W  
 R 
9. P = V × I ; Power = potential difference × current
10. P  I 2  R ; Power = (current) 2  resistance
V2 (potential difference ) 2
11. P ; Power 
R resistance
12. Electric energy = P × t ; electric energy = power × time
Class: X 17
MIND MAP
Electric Current
The amount of charge flowing through a particular area per unit time in a conductor.
Formulae Ammeter
Q  Measures electric current.
I
t  Has low resistance.
W  Connected in series.
V
Q Voltmeter
V  IR (ohm’s law)  Measures potential difference.
  Has high resistance.
R
A  Connected in parallel.
R  R1  R2  R3 .......
S.I. Units
(Series connection)
Current – Ampere (A)
I I I I
   Resistance – Ohm ()
R R1 R2 R3
Potential Difference – Volt (V)
ELECTRICITY
(Parallel connection)
Power – Watt (W)
H  I 2RT
Electric Energy – Kilo Watt Hour (kWh)
2
V Resistivity – Ohm-meter (m)
P  VI  I 2 R 
R
E  W  VIt
Conversions
I – Current 1Joule
1 watt =
Q – Charge 1second
t – Time 1 KW = 1000 W
V – Potential difference 1 KJ = 1000 J
p – Resistivity 1 Horse Power = 746 W
R – Resistance 1 volt
1 Ohm =
A – Area of cross-section 1 ampere
H – Heat produced 1 KWh = 3.6 x 106 J
E – Energy 1 coulomb
1 Ampere =
W – Work done 1 second
Class: X 18
LESSON
4
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
Magnetic Effects of Current

(i) H.C. Oersted: He first proposed experimentally that a magnetic field is developed around a
current carrying conductor. He showed it by deflection of a magnetic needle placed near a closed circuit,
having current.
(ii) Maxwell cork-screw rule or right hand thumb rule: According to this rule imagine yourself
holding a current carrying conductor in your right hand such that thumb points in the direction of flow of
current then the fingers wrapping around it gives the direction of flow of magnetic field.
(iii) Fleming Left hand Rule: Stretch the forefinger, the central finger and the thumb of your left
hand mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger shows the direction of the magnetic field and
the central finger that of the current, then the thumb will point towards the direction of motion of the
conductor.
(iv) Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: Stretch out the forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of
the right hand such that these are mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger shows the
direction of the magnetic field, thumb shows the direction of motion of the conductor then the middle
finger gives the direction of current produced in the conductor (Induced current).
ELECTRIC MOTOR AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
An electric motor is a device for converting electric energy into mechanical energy. Thus,
an electric motor is the reverse of an electric generator. There are two types of electric motors:
(i) AC motor
(ii) DC motor.
Principle of Electric motor: When a conductor or rectangular coil carrying current is placed in
between a magnet, the conductor experiences a force and moves. Thus, its converts electric energy to
mechanical energy.
Electric Generator: A device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is called
an electric generator.
Principle of Electric generator – Electromagnetic induction: When a conductor/rectangular
coil is kept in between a magnet and when there is a relative motion between them, there is a change in
magnetic flux and thus current is induced. Thus, a generator changes mechanical energy to electrical
energy.
Reasons of short-circuiting
Short-circuiting happens due to :
(a) Damage to the insulation of the power-lines
(b) A fault in an electric appliance due to which current does not pass through it.
Consequences of short-circuiting
On account of short-circuiting, resistance of the circuit decreases to a very small value and
Class: X 19
consequently the current becomes very large. This large current results in heating of live wires, which
produces sparking at the point of short-circuiting. This sparking sometimes causes fire in a building.
(Apart from short-circuiting, the increase in current in the circuit and consequent heating may also be due
to overloading of the circuit).
Electric Fuse: A Safety Device

An electric fuse is a device, which is used in series to limit the current in an electric circuit
so that it easily melts due to overheating when excessive current passes through it. A fuse is a
wire of a material with very low melting point.
Electric fuse can avoid incidents like electric shock, fire, damage to an electric appliance due to :
 Short-circuiting or
 Overloading (withdrawing current beyond a specified limit) in a circuit.
Earthing
Many electric appliances of daily use like electric press, toaster, refrigerator, table fan etc. have a
metallic body. If the insulation of any of these appliances melts and makes contact with the metallic
casing, the person touching it is likely to receive a severe electric shock. This is due to the reason that
the metallic casing will be at the same potential as the applied one. Obviously, the electric current will
flow through the body of the person who touches the appliance. To avoid such serious accidents, the
metal casing of the electric appliance is earthed. Since the earth does not offer any resistance, the
current flows to the earth through the earth wire instead of flowing through the body of the person. More
over, due to very low resistance (almost nil) offered by the earth wire, the current in the circuit rises to a
very high value, thereby melting fuse in that circuit and cutting off its electric supply.
Role of Magnetism in Medicine and Organisms

In our body, small electric current travels along the nerve cells due to ions. This current produces
a very weak magnetic field (about one billionth time weaker than the Earth's magnetic field) in our body.
Heart and brain are the two main organs in our body where this magnetic field is quite significant. The
magnetic field in our body enables us to obtain the images of its different parts by using a technique
called MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging). On analysing the images obtained through MRI, we are able
to make a medical diagnosis, e.g., location and size of a tumour in brain etc. Thus, magnetism plays an
important role in modern medical science.
Apart from this, there are certain organisms, which have the ability to sense Earth's magnetic field
and travel from one place to another. For example, some types of fishes are able to detect magnetic field
by using special receptors whereas in certain organisms, crystals of magnetite enable to move along the
Earth's magnetic field.
Class: X 20
MIND MAP
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

 Right hand thumb rule – Imagine a
 A magnet is a substance with attractive
and directive properties. straight conductor in your right hand
such that the thumb points in the
 Magnetic field is a space around magnet direction of current and the curling of
where force of attraction and repulsion fingers gives the direction of magnetic
is detected.
field lines.
 Magnetic field lines represent a
magnetic field.  Fleming left hand rule – On stretching
your left hand, fore finger points in the
a The lines are directed from North pole to direction of the magnetic field, the
South pole.
central finger points in the direction of
b They are parallel and equidistant to current and the thumb points in the
each other and form closed and direction of motion of conductor.
continuous curve.
 Fleming right hand rule – On stretching
 Oersted demonstrated that around every your right hand, such that the central
conductor carrying an electric current
finger and the first finger are mutually
there is a magnetic field.
perpendicular to each other, the first
 The magnitude of magnetic field is (B) finger points in the direction of magnetic
field, the thumb points in the direction of
B  NI
r motion of the conductor and the central
finger points in the direction of induced
 Unit of magnetic field is Tesla.
current.
 The cable supplying power to house

 Electro magnetic induction is the hold has
conversion of mechanical energy into
a Live wire (red).
electrical energy.
b Neutral wire (black)
 Electric motor is used to convert electric
energy into mechanical energy. c Earth wire (green)
 A fuse protects the electric circuits and
 Generator is used to convert mechanical
appliances from short circuiting or from
energy into electrical energy. overloading.
Class: X 21
LESSON
5
SOURCES OF ENERGY
IMPORTANT FACTS:
• A source of energy provides energy in a convenient form over a long period of time.
• Sources of energy can be classified as renewable and non-renewable sources.
• Solar energy is the main source of energy on the earth.
• Solar cookers, solar water heaters and solar concentrators are some devices used for harnessing
solar energy.
• Solar cells are devices that convert solar energy directly into electricity.
• Solar energy also manifests itself in nature as the energy of winds, water flowing through rivers,
ocean waves, besides ocean thermal energy.
• Energy harnessed through wind energy devices is utilized either to do mechanical work, or to
produce electricity.
• Energy derived from the hot spots beneath the earth is called geothermal energy.
• Green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis.
This energy is known as bio-energy.
• Biomass is utilized to produce heat by burning it or to produce biogas through its anaerobic
decomposition in a biogas plant.
• Hydrogen and alcohol could be a source of energy in future.
• Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas are a mixture of hydrocarbons. These are fossil
remains produced by the decay of plants and marine animals that were buried in the earth
millions of years ago.
• Fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas are being utilized at very high rates, resulting in fast
depletion of their known reserves. Fossil fuels may not be available in future, as these are not
being formed now.
• Fuels are characterized by their calorific value and ignition temperature, besides the nature of
product produced by their combustion.
• The three conditions essential for combustion are attainment of ignition temperature, presence of
oxygen and a combustible material.
• The factors that help to choose a good fuel for a given purpose are its availability, cost, its
characteristic and physical properties, besides considerations of the effects of its by-products on
environment.
Class: X 22
TYPES OF ENERGY
1. Wind Energy: The energy possessed due to moving air is called wind energy.
Advantages:
(i) It does not cause any pollution.
(ii) The source of wind energy is air. (Renewable Energy)
(iii) It is available free of cost.
2. Water Energy: The energy possessed due to flowing of water is called the water energy.
Water Wheel: The device used for obtaining energy from flowing water is called water wheel. The
basic principle of water wheel is that the moving water rotates the water wheel and this water wheel can
be made to turn machines, which do work for us.
3. Electric Power Plants: The set-up, which can produce large quantity of electricity, from a few
kilowatts to a few hundred megawatts, are called power plants. There are three types of power stations
(plants). These are:
(a) Hydroelectric power stations;
(b) Thermal power stations;
(c) Nuclear (or atomic power stations)
Principle of hydroelectric power: The potential energy of the water stored at great heights in
the dams is converted into kinetic energy by flowing water to flow at high speeds due to which electricity
is generated. The electric power so generated is called hydroelectric power.
4. Solar Energy: The energy obtained from the sun is called solar energy.
Advantages of Solar Energy
(i) It is inexhaustible source of energy.
(ii) It does not cause pollution.
(iii) It is available free of cost.
Disadvantages of Solar Energy:
(i) It is not available all the time.
(ii) It is very much diffused and scattered.
5. Tidal Energy: The energy obtained from tides is called tidal Energy.
Merits of tidal energy
 It is an inexhaustible source of energy.
 It is independent of uncertainty of rainfall.
 It is a pollution free source of energy.
 It does not require large area of valuable land.
Demerits of tidal energy
 Power generation is intermittent due to variation in tidal range.
 The most difficult problem in the use of tidal power are the barrage construction in areas of
high tidal flow and corrosion of barrage.
6. Merits of wave energy
 It is a renewable and pollution free source of energy.
 It does not require large land areas.
Demerits of wave energy
 The power supply is variable in nature due to variability in wave formation.
 It is expensive.
 Marine life could be affected due to wave energy harnessing structures.
7. Merits of OTEC
 The electric power produced is continuous, renewable and pollution free.
Class: X 23
 OTEC system enriches the fishing grounds by transferring nutrients from the unproductive
deep waters to the warmer surface.
 OTEC system does not have daily or seasonal variations in their output as in case with the
solar energy devices.
Demerits of OTEC
 OTEC system requires a lot of capital investment.
 The conversion efficiency is low as there is small temperature difference between the surface
water and the deep water.
8. Merits of geothermal energy
 It is the most versatile and least polluting renewable source of energy.
 It is relatively inexpensive and power generation level is higher as compared to solar energy
and wind energy.
Demerits of geothermal energy
 Though geothermal energy is inexhaustible, a single bore has a limited life span of about 10
years.
 Geothermal hot spots are scattered.
 Noise pollution is caused by drilling operations at geothermal sites.
9. Advantages of nuclear fusion over nuclear fission
Energy released in fusion reaction is much greater than energy released in fission reaction. The
products of fusion are not radioactive whereas it is radioactive in case of nuclear fission and require
careful disposal.
Hazards of nuclear power generation and safety measures
The major hazards of nuclear power generation are:
 Storage and disposal of spent or used nuclear fuels as they continue to decay into harmful
subatomic particles (radiations). This would lead to environmental contamination.
 There is a risk of accidental leakage of nuclear radiation.
 It has high cost of installation of a nuclear power plant.
Types of Nuclear Reactions:
(i) Nuclear Fusion Reaction: The process in which two or more nuclei of lighter atoms
combine to form a heavy nucleus with the liberation of a large amount of energy is called fusion reaction.
For example:
2
1H 1 H2 2 He 4  Tremendous Energy. (17.3 MeV)
(ii) Nuclear Fission Reactions: The process of splitting of a nucleus of a heavy atom into a
number of nuclei of smaller mass with the liberation of large amount of energy is called nuclear fission.
For example
235
92 U  0n1 56 Ba139  36 Kr 94  3 0n1  Energy (200 MeV)
Cause of tremendous Amount of Energy: The cause of tremendous amount of energy during
the nuclear fission is the loss of mass. The loss of mass is also called mass defect.
Einstein Equation: E  mc2
Where m = The mass lost or mass defect. c = the velocity of light. E = amount of energy.
Chain Reaction: A reaction in which the number of neutrons goes on increasing during fission till
whole of the fissionable material is disintegrated.
Nuclear Reactor: It is a device, which is used for carrying out fission reaction at a controlled rate.
It is used to generate electricity.
Nuclear fuel: The fissionable material used in the nuclear reactor is called nuclear fuel.
For ex., U235, Pu239.
Class: X 24
MIND MAP
Conventional sources of energy Non-conventional sources of energy

(a) Fossil fuels : They meet maximum of (a) Solar energy : The Earth receives
our energy demands.
only 0.1% of the enormous amount of
 Coal : It is the abundant fossil fuel on
Earth and is the principle source of energy radiated by sun.
heat for electricity generation.
 Solar energy devices are used to
 Petroleum : A number of useful
components like kerosene, diesel, harness the heat of solar energy.
SOURCES OF ENERGY
petrol, petroleum gas are obtained
from petroleum by fractional (i) Solar cookers work on the principle of
distillation. green house effect and is used for
(b) Thermal power plant : It generates cooking purposes.
electric power from heat produced by
burning fossil fuels i.e. , coal and (ii) Solar cells and solar panels convert
petroleum.
solar energy directly into electricity.
(c) Hydro energy : The kinetic energy of
flowing water is used to generate (b) Energy from oceans : The oceans
hydroelectricity.
are huge reservoirs of energy. Tidal
(d) Bioenergy : Biomass (plant and
energy wave energy and ocean
animal products) is the source of
bioenergy. thermal energy are the various forms
 Biogas is obtained by the anaerobic of energy harnessed from oceans.
degradation of biomass.
(c) Geothermal energy : Thermal energy
 It is composed of me thane (serves as
a fuel), CO2, nitrogen and phosphorus within rock formations and fluids held
(serves as manures). within those formations.
(e) Wind energy : The kinetic energy
(d) Nuclear energy : The energy
possessed by air due to its velocity is
called wind energy. obtainable from the nucleus of an
 A wind mill converts the wind energy atom is called nuclear energy or
into mechanical or electrical energy. atomic energy.
Class: X 25
PHYSICS
DO’S
 Read the numerical; take out the quantities given and quantity to be found out. Then find
the formula to be used.
 In numericals of light, visualise the ray diagram and then apply sign convention.
 In a ray diagram take “R” double of “f ” e.g. if focal length is taken 3 cm from pole or
optical center then radius of curvature should be 6 cm.
 Always convert focal length in meter (m) when calculating power of lens or mirror.
 Always check the calculations of a numerical while rechecking the answer sheet.
DON’TS
 Never make rough ray diagrams by pen.
 Never forget to write units of v, u and f.
 Never take the signs of v, u and f in haste.
Class: X 26
CHEMISTRY
LESSON
6
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHYSICAL CHANGE AND CHEMICAL CHANGE

Physical Change Chemical Change
(i) Those changes in which no new (i) Those changes in which the original
substances are formed are called substances lose their chemical nature
physical changes and identity and form new chemical
substances with different properties are
called chemical changes
(ii) It is a temporary change (ii) It is a permanent change
(iii) It is easily reversible (iii) It is usually irreversible
(iv) In a physical change the mass of (iv) In a chemical change the mass of the
substance does not alter substance does alter
CHEMICAL REACTION: The process by which two or more chemical substances interact to form
some new substances with different chemical properties. Chemical reactions are represented by
balanced chemical equations with the help of chemical symbols of the substances involved.
Characteristics of chemical reactions: The easily observable changes that take place in a
chemical reaction are called characteristics of chemical reaction.
 Formation of Precipitate: Example
AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl(aq)  AgCl (ppt) + NaNO3 (aq)
 Evolution of gas : Example
Zn(s) + HCl  ZnCl2 + H 2 
dil
 Change in Colour: Example

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + KI(aq)  PbI 2 ppt   KNO 3 (aq)
Yellow
 Change in state: Example
Solid wax burns to form water vapour and carbon dioxide.
 Change in temperature: Example
CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2 + Heat (Exothermic)
Ba OH2  NH Cl  Heat  BaCl  NH OH (Endothermic)
4 2 4
Types of Chemical Reactions
Combination Decomposition Displacement Double displacement Oxidation – Reduction

reactions reactions reactions reactions (Redox) Reactions
Class: X 27
Types of Chemical Reactions:
(i) Addition or combination reaction: Two or more substances combine to form a single
substance.
CaO + CO2  CaCO3
(ii) Decomposition reaction: One chemical substance splits to give two or more substances
either by heat energy (Thermolysis) or light (Photolysis) or by electricity (Electrolysis).
Thermolysis

Pb(NO3 )2 PbO  NO2  NO3
Electrolysis
H2O  H  OH
electric
current
Photolysis
2AgCl  2Ag + Cl2
(iii) Displacement Reaction: More reactive element displaces less reactive element from its
compound or salt.
Fe + CuSO4  FeSO4 + Cu
(iv) Double Displacement Reaction: Two elements interchange their respective salts or ions to
form new compounds.
FeCl3 + CuSO4  FeSO4 + CuCl2
(v)
(a) Oxidation (b) Reduction
 addition of oxygen or  loss or removal of oxygen

 removal of hydrogen or  gain or addition of hydrogen
 loss of electrons  gain of electrons
Natural oxidation in everyday life: Natural reduction in everyday life:
 Corrosion & Rancidity  Hydrogenation
Redox Reactions : Both oxidation and reduction taking place simultaneously in the same
chemical reaction.
Oxidizing agent : A substance which brings about the oxidation of other substance but itself gets
reduced in a reaction.
Reducing agent : A substance which brings about reduction of the other substance but itself gets
oxidized in a reaction
Some examples of redox reactions :
(a) Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu
Loss of electrons : oxidation
Zn + Cu2+ Zn2+ + Cu
Reducing
agent
Oxiding Gain of electrons : Reduction
agent
(b) Cu + 2AgNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag

Gain of electrons : Reduction
Cu + 2Ag+ Cu2+ + 2Ag

oxidising
Reducing agent
agent Loss of electrons : Oxidation
Class: X 28
(c) MnO2 + 4HCl MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
Loss of electrons : oxidation
Mn4+ + 2Cl– Mn2+ + Cl2

Reducing
agent
oxidising
agent
Gain of electrons : Reduction
MIND MAP
The symbolic representation of a  In a chemical equation reactants,

true chemical change or reaction is products and their physical state
called a chemical equation. are represented symbolically
 Physical States of reactants and
products are represented by
notations s, l, g and aq.
 The chemical equations are balanced Reactions are made more

to satisfy the law of conservation of informative by indicating the
mass.  Physical state of reactants and
 Law of conservation of mass : products
“Matter can neither be created nor
 Heat changes
destroyed.
 Conditions under which the
reaction takes place.
CHEMICAL REACTION
AND EQUATION
Types of Chemical reaction Combination reaction

 Combination reaction Reaction in which two or more
 Decomposition reaction substances combine together to
 Displacement reaction form a single substance.
 Double displacement reaction
 Redox reaction.
Decomposition reaction Displacement reaction

In this reaction a single substance In this reaction a more reactive
breaks into two or more simpler element displaces a less reactive
substances. It is of three types : element from its compound.
 Thermal decomposition
 Electrolytic decomposition
 Photolytic decomposition
Redox reaction
In this reaction oxidation and reduction
take place simultaneously.
Corrosion of metals
Double displacement reaction The slow process of eating up of
In this reaction two different atoms metals due to attack of
or group of atoms are exchanged. atmospheric gases.
Rancidity
Oxidation of oils or fats in a food
resulting into a bad smell and bad
taste.
Class: X 29
LESSON
7
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
Indicators
Natural Synthetic
Dyes (Indicators Olfactory Methyl orange Phenolphthalein

of colour) Indicators of
smell
Onion extract Vanilla essence Clove oil
Red litmus Blue litmus
Indicator Colour in acidic solution Colour in basic solution

Blue litmus solution Red No colour change
Red litmus solution No colour change Blue
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink
Methyl orange Pink Yellow
Physical properties of Acids and Bases:

Acids Bases
 Sour taste  Bitter taste
 Turns blue litmus to red  Turns red litmus to blue
 Provides H+ ions  Provides OH– ions
when dissociated when dissociated
 pH less than 7  Bases dissolve in
 strong acids water to give alkalies
HCl, HNO3,  pH more than 7 upto 14
H2SO4  strong base
 weak acids NaOH, KOH
H2CO3  weak base
CH3COOH NH4OH
H3PO4
Class: X 30
Chemical properties of Acids and Bases:
Type of Acid Base

Reaction
1. Neutralization Acid + Base  Salt + H2O Acid + Base  Salt + water

reaction
Example: Example:
HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O CaO + HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O
(l)
2. Reaction with Acid + Metal  Metallic salt + H2(g) Base + Metals  Salt + H2(g)
metals
Example: Example:
Zn(s) + dil H2SO4 (aq)  ZnSO4 (aq) NaOH + Zn  Na2ZnO2 + H2
+ H2(g)
Only active metals like Zn and Al
reacts with bases.
3. Reaction with Acid + Carbonates  Metallic salt + Base + carbonate  No reaction

carbonates CO2(g) + H2O
Example:
Na2CO3+ H2SO4  Na2SO4 + H2O +
CO2
4. Reaction with Acid + Bicarbonates  Metallic salt + Base + bicarbonate  No reaction

bicarbonates CO2(g) + H2O
Example:
NaHCO3+ HCl  NaCl + H2O + CO2
5. Reaction with Acid + Metal Oxide  Salt + H2O Base + Non-metallic oxide  Salt +
oxide water
Example:
Example:
CaO + HCl (aq)  CaCl2 (aq) + H2O
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
6. Dissolution in Acid gives H+ ions in water. Bases gives OH– ions in water.
water
Examples: HCl (aq)  H+ + Cl– Examples: NaOH (aq)  Na+ + OH–
H2SO4 (aq)  2H+ + SO 24  Ca(OH)2 (aq)  Ca2+ + 2(OH)–
Strength of acids & bases

 Strong Acids and strong bases when dissolved in water dissociate completely into (H +) and
(OH–) ions respectively.
 Weak acids and weak bases when dissolved in water dissociate partially into (H +) and (OH–)
ions respectively. Rather then remain in molecular form.
Class: X 31
pH SCALE
pH scale: A scale of numbers from 0 to 14 on which 0 7 14
the strength of an acid or base is measured is known as pH
scale. Neutral
  Acidic Basic
pH is defined as negative logarithm of [H ] or [H3 O ] H2O
Increasing Decreasing
CO
i.e. pH   log [H ] or pH   log[H3 O  ] H+ ions
N2O
H+ ions
Importance of pH in everyday life:

(i) In digestive system  (i) acidic in stomach (ii) basic (alkaline) in duodenum
(ii) Tooth decay
(iii) Nature of soil
(iv) Plants and Animals are pH sensitive
(v) Self defense by animals and plants through chemical warfare
SALTS : They are the neutralization products of acids and bases.

Classification of Salts : Salts can be classified after ‘salt hydrolysis’.
Type of salts Hydrolysis of salts

1. pH = 7 Salts of strong acid and strong bases
Example: NaCl, KCl, Na 2 SO 4 , K 2 SO 4
NaCl(s)  H2O  NaCl(aq)  Na  (aq)  Cl (aq)
2. pH < 7 Salts of strong acids and weak bases
Example: NH 4 Cl, CuSO 4

NH 4 Cl(s)  H2 O  NH 4 Cl(aq)  NH 4 (aq)  Cl  (aq)

NH 4  H 2 O NH 4 OH  H
The solution is acidic due to the H  ion produced by the hydrolysis of


NH 4
3. pH > 7 Salt of weak acid and strong base
Example: Na 2 CO 3 , CH 3 COONa
CH3COONa(s)  H2O  CH3COONa(aq)  CH3COO (aq)  Na  (aq)
CH3 COO  H2 O CH3 COOH OH

The solution is basic due to hydrolysis of CH3 COO (aq)
4. pH  7 Salt of weak acid & weak base
Example: CH 3 COONH 4

CH 3 COONH 4  H2 O  CH 3 COONH 4 (aq)  CH 3 COO   NH 4
CH3 COO  H2 O CH3 COOH OH


NH 4  H 2 O NH 4 OH  H
Common Salt  NaCl  Chemicals obtained from NaCl

(i) NaOH (by chlor-alkali process)
Electric
NaCl  H2O  NaOH  Cl2  H2
Current
Class: X 32
(ii) Bleaching power (CaOCl2)
Ca(OH)2  Cl2  CaOCl2  H2
(iii) Baking soda (NaHCO3)
NaCl  H2O  NH3  CO2  NaHCO 3

  
Brine
(iv) Washing soda (Na2CO3 · 10H2O)


NaHCO 3 Na 2CO3  H2O
Other Important Salts:

1
Plaster of Paris (POP)  CaSO4 · H2O
2
Heat 1
CaSO4 · 2H2O  CaSO4 · H2O
Gypsum 273 k 2
POP
Class: X 33
MIND MAP
Indicator: Substance which shows  Strength of an acid or base  Degree of ionization

one characteristic property in one 1
medium and different property in  Strength of an acid or base 
dilution of an acid or base
another medium are called
indicators.  The properties of an acid or base is due to [H+] ion,
 Natural indicator: Litmus
[OH–] ion, respectively which they give in aqueous
solution, turmeric
solution.
 Synthetic indicator:
 Dilution of an acid or base is an exothermic reaction.
Phenolphthalein, methyl orange
 Olfactory indicator: Onion,
clove oil, vanilla extract. pH scale: A scale of numbers from
0 to 14 on which the strength of an
Acid: Substances which give H+ ion acid or base is measured
in solution. pH = –log[H+] or pH = –log[H3O+]
 Strong acid: dissociate  For a neutral solution
completely, e.g. HNO3, HCl, [H+]= [OH–] = 10–7 mol/L; pH = 7
H2SO4.  For an acidic solution
ACIDS, BASES
 Weak acid: do not dissociate [H+] > [OH–]; pH < 7

AND SALTS
completely, e.g. CH3COOH,  For a basic solution

H2CO3. [H+] < [OH–]; pH > 7
 Concentrated acid: gives more
H+ ion.
Salt: The ionic compound consisting
 Dilute acid: gives less H+ ion.
of two parts, one containing a
 Acid positive charge (cation) and the
Metal other carrying a negative charge
Salt + H2
Metal carbonate (anion)
Salt +CO2 + H2O
Base
 Salt of strong acid and strong
Salt + H2O base: NaCl, KCl
Metal oxide
Salt + H2O  Salt of strong acid and weak
 The properties of an acid is due base: NH4Cl.
to [H+] ion, which it gives in  Salt of weak acid and strong
aqueous solution. base: CH3COONa.
 Salt of weak acid and weak
base: CH3COONH4.
Base: Substances which give OH–
ion in solution.
 Strong base: dissociate
completely, e.g. NaOH, KOH. Some chemical compounds
 Weak base: do not dissociate  Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
completely, e.g. NH4OH.
 Bleaching powder or Calcium
 Base
Oxychloride(CaOCl2)
Metal
Salt + H2  Washing Soda or Sodium
Acid
Salt + H2O Carbonate (Na2CO3)
Non-metal
Salt + H2O  Baking Soda or Sodium
oxide
bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
 The properties of a base are due
to [OH–] ion, which it gives in  Plaster of Paris (CaSO4½H2O)
aqueous solution.  Gypsum (CaSO42H2O)
Class: X 34
LESSON
8
METALS AND NON-METALS
Metals: The elements, which have the properties of luster, malleability and ductility, high thermal
and electrical conductivities. The metals have a good tendency to loose electrons.
Non-metals: The elements, which do not have the above, mentioned properties. These have a
good tendency to gain electrons.
Metalloids: The elements having the properties of metals as well as non-metals.
Difference between metals and non-metals
Properties Metals Non-metals

Physical Properties
1. State Metals are solids at Non-metals exist in all the three
ordinary temperature. states, that is, solid, liquid and
(except mercury, which is a gas.
liquid.)
2. Lustre They possess lustre or They possess no lustre.
shine. (except Iodine and graphite.)
3. Malleability and Metals are generally Non-metals are neither malleable
Ductility malleable and ductile. nor ductile.
4. Hardness Metals are generally hard. Non-metals possess varying
Alkali metals are exception. hardness. Diamond is an
exception. It is the hardest
substance known to occur in
nature.
5. Density They have high densities. They generally possess low
densities.
6. Conductivity Metals are good Non-metals are poor conductors
(Heat & Electricity) conductors of heat and of heat and electricity. The only
electricity. exception is graphite which is a
good conductor of electricity.
7. Melting and boiling They usually have high Their melting and boiling point are
point melting and boiling point. usually low. The exceptions are
boron, carbon and silicon.
Class: X 35
Chemical Properties of Metals and Non-Metals
Properties Metals Non-Metals
Metal + oxygen Metal oxide Non-metal + oxygen  non-metallic
Example: oxide
1. Reaction with 4Na + O22Na2O Example: S+O2  SO2
oxygen Metal oxides are basic (Na2O, CaO, Non-metallic oxides are acidic (SO2,
K2O, etc.) or Amphoteric (Zno and CO2, etc) or neutral (H2O, CO, N2O).
Al2O3)
Metal + oxygen Metal oxide (Al, Zn, Non-metals do not react with water.
Fe) or Metal hydroxide (K, Na, Ca, Non-metals are electronegative
Mg) hence do not lose electrons
Example : (i) 2K +2H2O2KOH+H2 Non–metal + H2O  No reaction
2. Reaction with
water (ii) 2Al +2H2OAl2O3+3H2
Active metals (K, Na, Ca) react with
coldwater, moderate metals (Mg react
with warm water and reactive metals
(Al, Zn, Fe) react with steam.
Metal + Dilute acid  Salt +
Hydrogen
Example :
(i) Mg+ HCl (dil)  2NaCl + H2
Non-metal + Acid  No reaction
3. Reaction with (ii) Mg+ H2SO4  MgSO4+ H2 Non-metals do not displace hydrogen
acids Nitric acid (oxidizing agent) oxidizes from acids.
H2 to H2O and it self gets reduced to
NO, N2O, or NO2
Except for Mg and Mn where nitric
acid forms metal nitrate and liberates
H2
More active Metal A + Salt solution of More reactive non metal A + Salt
less active metal of B Salt solution solution of less reactive non-metal
4. Reaction with salt of metal A + metal B. BSalt solution of non-metal A +
solutions Example : non-metal B
(i) Zn (s) + CuSO4(aq)  ZnSO4 (aq) Example :I) 2 NaBr + Cl2 2NaCl +
+ Cu(s) Br2
Non-metal+ Chlorine  Non-metallic
Metal + chlorine  Metal Chloride chloride
5. Reaction with
Example : i) Mg + Cl2  MgCl2 Example: i) H2+Cl2 diffused
  2HCl
chlorine sunlight
ii) 2Fe+ 3Cl2  2FeCl3
ii) P4+6Cl2  4PCl
3
Metal + Hydrogen metal Hydride Non-metal+ Hydrogen Non-
6. Reaction with Example : i) 2Na + H2  2NaH metallic hydride
Hydrogen Only active metals like Na, K and Ca Example: i) 2H2+O2  2H2O
reacts with hydrogen ii) N2+3H2  2NH3
Oxides of metals are either basic or Oxides of non-metals are either
amphoteric. acidic or neutral.
i) Basic oxides turn red litmus blue i) Acidic oxides turn blue litmus red
and show neutralization reaction with and show neutralization reaction with
acids or acidic oxides. base or basic oxides.
7. Oxides Example : Example:
i) Na 2 O 2HCl  2 NaCl H2 O i) SO2+2NaOH  Na2SO3+H2O
Acid salt
Basic water ii) Neutral oxides do not show
ii) Amphoteric oxide show neutralization reaction with either
neutralization reaction with acids as acids or bases
well as base Example: N2O, CO, H2O
Class: X 36
Al 2 O 3  2NaOH  2NaAlO 2  H2 O
Al 2 O 3  6HCl  2AlCl 3  H2 O
8. Electrochemical Metals are electropositive in

Non-metals are electronegative in
behaviour character. They form cations in character. They form anions in
solution and are deposited on the solution and are liberated at the
cathode when electricity is passed anode when their salt solutions are
through their solution. subjected to electrolysis. Hydrogen in
an exception. It usually forms
positive ions and is liberated at
cathode.
9. Oxidising or Metals behave as reducing agents. Non-metals generally behave as
reducing This is because of their tendency to oxidising agents since they have the
behaviour lose electrons. tendency to gain electrons.
Na  Na + e+ –
1
Cl2  e   Cl–
2
• Metal + Metal  No reaction
• Metal + Non-metal  Electrovalent or lonic compound by complete transfer of electrons
from metallic atom to non-metallic and forming corresponding
positive and negative ions.
• Nonmetal + Non-metal  Covalent compound by sharing of electrons
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IONIC AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS
Ionic compounds Covalent compounds
1. Ionic compounds are usually crystalline 1. Covalent compounds are usually

solids. liquids or gases. Only some of them
are solids.
2. Ionic compounds have high melting 2. Covalent compounds have usually low
points and boiling points. That is, ionic melting points and boiling points. That
compounds are non-volatile. is, covalent compounds are usually
volatile.
3. Ionic compounds conduct electricity 3. Covalent compounds do not conduct

when dissolved in water or melted. electricity.
4. Ionic compounds are usually soluble in 4. Covalent compounds are usually

water. insoluble in water (except, glucose,
sugar, urea, etc.).
5. Ionic compounds are insoluble in 5. Covalent compounds are soluble in

organic solvents (like alcohol, ether, organic solvents.
acetone, etc.).
Relative activities or reactivities of metals

Metals have been arranged in decreasing order of their activities (or reactivities) in the activity
series. After performing displacement experiments, the following series known as the reactivity or activity
series has been developed as follows:
Reactivity series of metals :
Class: X 37
Element Symbol
Metals More Reactive than Hydrogen

Potassium K Most Reactive
Sodium Na
Barium Ba
Calcium Ca
Reactivity decreases downward

Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al
Zinc Zn
Iron Fe
Nickel Ni
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Hydrogen H
Copper Cu
Metals less Reactive
Mercury Hg
than Hydrogen
Silver Ag
Gold Au
Platinum Pt Least Reactive
Activity series of non-metals (Halogens)

F > Cl > Br > I
Occurrence of metals
Free state Combined or compound state
Least reactive metals Reactive metals
Mineral : Metals occurring naturally in the earth’s crust in their inorganic elemental or compound
form are called Minerals.
Gangue: The earthy, sandy and rock impurities associated with minerals are called gangue or
matrix.
Ores: The minerals from which the metals can be extracted conveniently and profitably are called
an ore:
Class: X 38
Minerals
ores
concentration of ore
Highly reactive metals Moderately reactive metals Less reactive metals
Electrolysis of Sulphide ore

Carbonate ore Sulphide ore
molten ore
Roasting
Calcination Roasting
Pure metal
Reduction to metal
Oxide of metal
Reduction to metal Refining
Refining
Corrosion: The slow eating up (natural reaction of oxidation) of metals or metallic objects by the
action of air, moisture etc. is called corrosion.
 Corrosion of iron is called rusting.

 Corrosion is mostly harmful but sometimes it is beneficial too
 Necessary conditions for corrosion:
(i) Presence of air (or oxygen) and
(ii) Presence of moisture (or water)
Prevention of rusting:
(i) by painting
(ii) by applying grease or oil
(iii) by galvanization
(iv) by electroplating or chromoplating
(v) by alloying
Alloys: Homogenous mixture of two or more metals or metal and a non-metal

Amalgam: An alloy in which one of the constituent (metal) is mercury.
Objectives of alloy preparation:
(i) To increase the hardness: example- Gold alloyed with copper or silver.
(ii) To increase the tensile strength : example –Magnalium
(iii) To increase resistance to corrosion: example–stainless steel
(iv) To modify chemical reactivity : example- Sodium amalgam.
(v) To lower the melting point example: solden.
Class: X 39
MIND MAP
METALS NON-METALS
Physical Properties Physical Properties
 Solid.  Solids, liquids and gases.
 Lustrous.  Non-lustrous.
METALS AND NON-METALS

 Malleable and ductile.  Non-malleable and non-ductile.
 Hard and have high density.  Varying hardness and have low density.
 Good conductors of heat and electricity.  Poor conductors of heat and electricity.
 Low melting and boiling points.
 High melting and boiling points.
Chemical Properties Chemical Properties
 Do not displace hydrogen on reaction with dilute
 React with dilute acids to liberate hydrogen gas
acids.
 React with oxygen to form basic oxides.
 React with oxygen to form acidic or neutral
 Do not combine with hydrogen. oxides
 React with water to form metal oxides or metal  Combine with hydrogen to form stable hydrides.
hydroxides.  Do not react with water.
 Electropositive i.e. form positive ions by losing  Electronegative i.e. form negative ions by
electrons. gaining electrons.
 Reducing agents.  Oxidising agents.
Corrosion Rusting
The eating up of metals by the action of air and
The corrosion of iron is known as rusting. Rust is
moisture or a chemical on their surface.
hydrated iron (III) oxide,
Alloys Fe2O3 . xH2O.
It is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals Presence of air and water are the two conditions
(or a metal and a non-metal). For e.g. Brass is an necessary for rust. It can be prevented by painting,
alloy of 2 metals-copper and zinc. applying grease, by galvanization and by alloying.
Ionic Compounds
1. Usually crystalline solids. Covalent Compounds
2. Have high melting point and boiling point. 1. Usually liquids / gases, few are solids.
3. Conduct electricity when dissolved in water or 2. Have low melting and boiling point.
melted. 3. Do not conduct electricity.
4. Usually soluble in water and insoluble in organic 4. Usually insoluble in water and soluble in organic
solvent. solvents.
Ore
Concentration of ore
Metals of medium reactivity

Metals of high reactivity Metals of low reactivity
Carbonate ore Sulphide ore Sulphide ore

Electrolysis of molten ore
Calcination Roasting
Pure metal Roasting
Oxide of metal Metal
Reduction to metal Refining
Purification of metal
Class: X 40
LESSON
9
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
CARBON
Free state Combined state
Crystalline Amorphous In living organisms In non-living system

Diamond Coke Carbohydrates
Graphite Fats
Buckminster Charcoal Proteins

fullerenes
Carbonates CO2 Coal Petroleum Natural gas
Difference between Diamond and Graphite

1. Diamond has a three-dimensional network 1. Graphite has a two-dimensional sheet like
structure. structure consisting of a number of
benzene rings fused together.
2. It is the hardest natural substance known. 2. Graphite is soft and greasy and is used as
solid lubricant for heavy machinery
operating at high temperatures.
3. It is a bad conductor of electricity but is a 3. It is a good conductor of both heat and
very good conductor of heat. Because of electricity. Because of high electrical
hardness and high thermal conductivity, conductivity, graphite is used for making
diamond tipped tools do not overheat and electrodes of battery and arcs.
hence are extensively used for cutting and
drilling purposes.
4. It is a transparent substance with high 4. It is an opaque grayish black substance.
refractive index. Therefore, it is used for
making gemstones and jewellery.
Simplest compounds of carbon are HYDROCARBONS (compounds having atoms of carbon

and hydrogen only).
Class: X 41
HYDROCARBONS
Saturated Unsaturated
ALKANE ALKENE ALKYNE

(Suffix  ANE) (Suffix  ENE) (Suffix  YNE)
General formula General formula General formula
CnH2n + 2 CnH2n CnH2n – 2
Single bond between Double bond Triple bond

carbon atoms between C-atoms between C-atoms
Organic compounds: Hydrocarbons and their derivatives are organic compounds. (Organic
chemical substances of animal or plant origin).
Hydrocarbons: Compounds made of carbon and hydrogen are known as hydrocarbons.
Formula of Name of Formula of compound Name of
functional group functional group containing group compound
– OH Alcohol C2H5OH Ethanol
– CHO Aldehyde HCHO Methanal
– COOH Carboxylic acid CH3COOH Ethanoic acid
>C=0 Ketone H3C CO CH3 Propanone
– X (a halogen) Halogen CH3 – Cl Chloromethane
– NH2 Amino CH3 NH2 Methanamine
– NH2 Nitro CH3 NO2 Nitromethane
Catenation: It is a unique property found in some elements as in carbon in which carbon atoms
have the ability of combining with themselves to form numerous compounds in different ways.
Organic chemistry: Study of hydrocarbons and their derivatives is called organic chemistry.
Aromatic compounds: Organic compounds in which carbon atoms are arranged in a six
membered ring having characteristic properties (Aroma/smell) (Ring or closed chain compounds).
Aliphatic compounds: Compounds in which carbon atoms are arranged one after another in a
chain like fashion (Open or straight chain compounds).
Saturated compounds: Compounds in which all the bonds between the atoms are single bonds.
Unsaturated compounds: Compounds, which contain a carbon-carbon double bond or a
carbon-carbon triple bond.
Functional Group: A characteristic group present in an organic compound. (Eg. aldehyde,
alcohol, acid etc.)
Isomerism: The phenomenon in which different compounds have different structural formulae but
same molecular formula.
Molecular formula: Gives the exact number of atoms of various elements present in a
compound.
Combustion: Burning an organic compound in air or oxygen. Carbon dioxide and water are the
products of combustion of any carbon compound.
Molasses: The mother liquor left after the crystallization of cane sugar.
Rectified sprit: 95.6% pure alcohol.
Class: X 42
Esterification: Formation of an ester by the combination of an acid with an alcohol.
IUPAC SYSTEM OF NOMENCLATURE

1. The longest chain of carbon atoms in the structure of the compound (to be named) is found first.
The compound is then named as a derivative of the alkane hydrocarbon which corresponds to the
longest chain of carbon atoms (This is called parent hydrocarbon).
2. The alkyl groups present as side chains (branches) are considered as substituents and named
separately as methyl (CH3—) or ethyl (C2H5—) groups.
3. The carbon atoms of the longest carbon chain are numbered in such a way that the alkyl groups
(substituents) get the lowest possible number (smallest possible number).
4. The position of alkyl group is indicated by writing the number of carbon atom to which it is
attached.
5. Thus, IUPAC name is given as
Position and name of alkyl group + parent hydrocarbon
6. If two same alkyl derivatives are present on same carbon atom, then prefix ‘di’ or ‘tri’ can be used.
Lets understand with the help of few examples:
Example 1:
1 2 3
CH3—CH—CH3
CH3
The longest chain contains three C-atoms. The saturated hydrocarbon containing three carbon
atoms is propane.
The methyl group (CH 3 –) is attached to C-atom number 2 (numbering from either side gives
number 2 to the C-atom to which the methyl group is attached).
Thus, the name of the compound is 2-methylpropane.
Example 2:
5 4 3 2 1
CH3—CH2—CH2—CH—CH3
CH3
The longest chain contains five C-atoms. The saturated hydrocarbon containing five C-atoms is
pentane.
The numbering of C-atoms in the longest chain is done from the C-atom that is nearest to the
methyl group which is present as the branched chain. Thus,
5 4 3 2 1
CH3
(correct)
This way of numbering is correct, but the way of numbering as shown below is wrong.
1 2 3 4 5
CH3
(wrong)
Hence, the correct name will be 2-methylpentane (and not 4-methylpentane).
The functional groups are summarized in the table below :
S. No. Hetero atom Functional Formula of a Class of Compounds
Group Functional
Class: X 43
Group
1. O Hydroxyl —OH Alcohols, R—OH
2. O Aldehydic —CHO or Aldehydes, R—CHO
O
—C—H
3. O Keto —CO— or Ketones, R—CO—R
O
—C—
4. O Carboxyl —COOH or Carboxylic acids, R—
O COOH
—C—OH
5. Cl, Br Halo (chloro, —Cl, —Br Haloalkanes, R—Cl, R—Br
bromo)
Properties of carbon compounds:

(i) Combustion: to produce CO2, H2O and energy.
O
CH3OH  2  CO  H O  Energy
2 2
(ii) Oxidation: to form other organic compounds.
Alcohol   Acid
Oxidation
Alk. KMnO
CH3OH  4  HCOOH
(iii) Addition reaction: Characteristic property of unsaturated hydrocarbons. Reddish brown

colour of bromine water gets decolourised.
H H H H
| | | |
H  C  C  H  Br2  H  C  C  H
| |
Br Br
(iv) Substitution reaction: Characteristic property of saturated compounds  displacement
reaction.
CH4  Cl2  CH3 Cl  Cl2  CH2 Cl2  Cl2  CHCl3  Cl2  CCl4
methane chloromethane trichloromethane tetrachloromethane
(chloroform) (carbon tetrachloride)
Properties of Ethanol combustion
(CH3CH2OH) CO2 + H2O + Energy
oxidation
oxid. alk. KMnO4
CH3COOH (Ethanoic acid)
or acid K2Cr2O7
Na
CH3CH2ONa (Sodium ethoxide)
CH3COOH
Esterification
CH3COOCH2CH3 (Ethyl ethanoate)
conc. H2SO4
Dehydration
CH2 = CH2 (Ethene)
Class: X 44
Properties of Ethanoic Acid combustion
(CH3COOH) CO2 + H2O + Energy
Na
CH3COONa + H2 (Sodium ethanoate)
NaOH
CH3COONa + H2O
Na2CO3
CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O
CH3OH
Esterification
CH3COOCH3 (Methyl Ethanoate)
Reduction
CH3CH2OH (Ethanol)
Class: X 45
MIND MAP
Name of IUPAC Name

PROPERTIES AND VERSATILE NATURE OF compounds
CARBON Alkene Alkane – ane + ene = Alkene
 Always forms covalent bonds Alkyne Alkane – ane + yne = Alkyne
 Tetravalent Haloalkanes Halo + alkane = Haloalkane
 Tetrahedral Alcohols Alkane – e + ol = Alkanol
Aldehydes Alkane – e + al = Alkanal
 3 allotropes – diamond, graphite and fullerenes
Ketone Alkane – e + one = Alkanone
 Catenation – Unique property of self-linking of
carbon atoms Carboxylic Alkane – e + oic acid =
acid Alkanoic acid
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Chemical properties of Carbon compounds
Combustion Substitution Addition Oxidation

Burning of carbon Replacement of an atom or a Addition of two reactants Addition of oxygen
compound in air group of atoms in a organic to form a single product
molecule by another atoms or
group of atoms
Ethanol Soaps
 Sodium salts (or potassium salts) of the long
 Colourless, distinct smell and burning taste, soluble chain carboxylic acids. The ionic group in
in water in all proportions, neutral to litmus soaps is –COO–Na+.
 Reaction with sodium  Not suitable for washing purposes when water
2CH3CH2OH + Na  CH3CH2ONa + H2 is hard.
 Reaction with concentrated H2SO4
H H
Conc. Detergents
CH3–CH2–OH C=C +H2O
H2SO4  Sodium salts of long chain benzene sulphonic
H H
acids. The ionic group in a detergent is
 Combustion  SO3Na  or  SO 4 Na .
C2H5OH + 3O2  2CO2 + 2H2O + Heat  Can be used for washing even when the water
is hard.
Ethanoic Acid
 Colourless, pungent smelling liquid, soluble in water in all proportions
 Reaction with sodium carbonate
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3  2CH3COONa + CO2 + H2 O
 Reaction with sodium hydrogen carbonate
[
CH3COOH + NaHCO3  CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O

O O
 Esterification CH3–C–OH + H–OCH2–CH3 Conc. H2SO4 CH3–C–OCH2CH3 + H2O

 Hydrolysis NaOH
CH3COOC2H5   C2H8OH + CH3COOH
Class: X 46
LESSON
10
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
Classification of Elements
The need to simplify and organize the study of elements and their large number of compounds
led to the development of the periodic table.
Dobereiner’s Triad
The initial attempt towards classification of elements was made by J.W. Dobereiner, a German chemist.
He tried to arrange the elements with similar properties into groups. He identified certain groups of three
elements with similar properties. He called these groups of three elements as Dobereiner’s Triads. He
showed that when the three elements of a triad were arranged in order of their increasing atomic
masses, the atomic mass of the middle element was roughly the average of the atomic masses of the
other two elements.
Element Atomic Mass

Li 6.9
Na 23
K 39
6.9  39
 22.95
2
For example, Li, Na, K ; Ca, Sr, Ba ; S, Se, Te and Cl, Br, I constitute Dobereiner’s triads. The
idea of Dobereiner’s triad was rejected because it could not be applied to all the elements known at that
time.
Newlands Law of Octaves
Next attempt towards classification of elements was made by John Alexander Newland who gave
Newlands’s Law of Octaves. According to this law, when elements were arranged in increasing order of
their atomic masses, the properties of every eighth element was similar to the first one.
Limitations of Newlands Law of Octaves
1. The Newlands’ law of octaves was rejected because it could be applied only to elements having
atomic masses upto 40 u, i.e., calcium
2. When noble gases were discovered, the properties of the ninth element were now similar to that
of the first.
Mendeleev’s Classification
Mendeleev classified the elements on the basis of similarity in physical properties and similarity in
the formulae of their hydrides and oxides.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law states that the physical and chemical properties of the elements are a
periodic function of their atomic masses.
Salient Features of Mendeleev’s Classification

(a) In Mendeleev’s periodic table, elements are arranged in order of their increasing atomic
Class: X 47
masses in such a way that elements with similar properties are placed in the same vertical column called
the group. To be sure that elements with similar properties fell in the same group, Mendeleev had to
place an element with slightly greater atomic mass (i.e., Te) before an element of slightly lower atomic
mass (i.e., I). Similarly, cobalt was placed ahead of nickel.
(b) Mendeleev even left some gaps in the periodic table for those elements which were yet to be
discovered. For example, gallium and germanium.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table consists of seven horizontal rows called periods and eight vertical
columns called groups. The periods are numbered from 1 to 7 while the groups are designated as I, II,
III, IV, V, VI, VII and VIII. Except group VIII, each group is divided into two subgroups designated as A
and B.
Limitations of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

1. Anomalous position of hydrogen
2. Position of isotopes
3. Wrong order of atomic masses of some elements
4. Uncertainty in prediction of new elements.
Modern Periodic Table

Henry Moseley in 1913 showed that atomic number was a more fundamental property of an
element than its atomic mass. Therefore, atomic number or electron number was adopted as the basis
of classification of elements.
Modern Periodic Law

Mendeleev’s periodic law was thus modified to Modern periodic law which states that the
properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic number.
Salient Features of Modern Periodic Table

1. When the elements are arranged in increasing order of their atomic numbers, the anomalies of
Mendeleev’s periodic table are removed. However, the position of hydrogen still remains
anomalous. It can be placed either along with alkali metals of group 1 or along with halogens of
group 17 of the Modern periodic table.
2. In the Modern or Long form of the periodic table, elements are arranged in increasing order of
their atomic numbers.
3. The Modern periodic table is based upon electronic configuration of elements.
4. The periodicity in properties of elements is due to periodicity in their outer electronic

configurations.
5. The numbers 2, 8, 8, 18, 18 and 32 after which the properties of elements get repeated are the
magic numbers on which this classification is based.
6. The Modern periodic table consists of 18 vertical columns called groups and 7 horizontal rows
called periods.
7. Each period starts with the filling of electrons in a new electronic shell and the elements in a
period have consecutive atomic numbers.
Valence Electron
All the elements in a group have identical outer-shell electronic configuration. However, the
number of inner filled energy shells increases as we go down the group. Further, the elements in a group
do not have consecutive atomic numbers.
Class: X 48
Group No. 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Atomic No. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Symbol Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Electronic Configuration 2, 8, 1 2, 8, 2 2, 8, 3 2, 8, 4 2, 8, 5 2, 8, 6 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
No. of valence electron 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
Atomic Radii 186 136 125 117 116 104 99 190
Element Atomic No. E.C. Atomic Radii

Period Two Li 3 2, 1 152
Period Three Na 11 2, 8, 1 186
Period Four K 19 2, 8, 8, 1 231
Valency
The valency of elements in a group is fixed but in a period first it increases from 1 to 4 and then
decreases to zero.
Valency
Increases and then decreases in a period
Remains the
same down the
group
Atomic size/Atomic Radii

The atomic size decreases across a period from left to right but increases down a group.
Atomic Size / Radii

Decreases from left to right in a period
Increases from
top to bottom in
a group
Metallic and Non-Metallic Character

Across a period, the metallic character decreases while the non-metallic character increases.
Conversely, on moving down a group, the metallic character increases while the non-metallic character
decreases.
Metallic Character
Decreases along a period
Increases down
the group
Nature of Oxides
The oxides of metals are basic while those of non-metals are acidic in nature.
The periodicity in the properties of elements such as valency, atomic size and metallic/non-
metallic character can be explained on the basis of outer-shell electronic configuration of the elements.
Class: X 49
MIND MAP
 Doberiener’s Triads – When elements are arranged in a group of three in increasing order of their
atomic masses, the atomic mass of the middle element is found to be approximately equal to the
arithmetic mean of the atomic masses of the other two elements.
 Newland’s Law of octaves – The properties of every eighth element was similar to the first.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law states Modern Periodic Law

that the physical and chemical
properties of elements are periodic The physical and chemical
function of their atomic masses. properties of elements are periodic
function of their atomic numbers.
Limitations
Modern periodic table
 Anomalous position of hydrogen
 It contains 7 periods and 18 groups.
 Position of isotopes
 All the limitations of Mendeleev’s
 Atomic masses do not increase in a periodic table had been removed
regular manner. except one i.e., anomalous position
of hydrogen.
 Uncertainty in prediction of new
elements.
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
Periodicity in Properties
Properties Across a period Down the group
(a) Valency First increases from 1 to 4 than Remains same

decreases from 4 to zero
(b) Atomic size Decreases Increases
(c) Metallic character Decreases Increases
(d) Non-metallic character Increases Decreases
Class: X 50
CHEMISTRY
DO’S
 Learn the equations by writing again and again.
 Check the numerical/calculations again before submitting the answer sheet.
 Learn the valencies and make the formula for required compounds yourself.
 Do mention the chemical names, chemical formulae and chemical reactions related to the
answer even if it is not asked.
DON’TS
 Never write unbalanced equations.
 Never try to mug-up all the formulae. Formulae and series should be learnt by heart and
preferably by linking them by a story. For example reactivity series can be learnt like this:
Kedar Nath Bali Ca Mali Aloo Zara Feke Se Pakata Hai
(K) (Na) (Ba) (Ca) (Mg) (Al) (Zn) (Fe) (Sn) (Pb) (H)
Class: X 51
BIOLOGY
LESSON
11
LIFE PROCESSES
LIFE PROCESSES
Nutrition Respiration Transportation / Excretion

Circulation
Mode of Nutrition
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
Photosynthesis Parasitic Saprophytic Holozoic

CO2 + H2O
Sunlight
   C6H12O6 + O2   
Chlorophyll Obtain food Obtain Obtain
from living food from food from
All green plants and blue-green algae organisms. dead and complex
They live decaying organic
in or on organisms substances.
the bodies of e.g. fungi, Eat solid food
other organism. bacteria e.g. amoeba,
e.g. lice, leech frog, humans
Light reaction: Photolysis of water to give out H2 and O2.
Photosynthesis
Dark reaction: Formation of C6H12O6. Also called Benson
and Calvin Cycle.
PROCESS OF NUTRITION (HUMAN)
Ingestion Digestion Absorption Assimilation Egestion
Class: X 52
Human Digestive System
Alimentary canal Digestive Glands

 Mouth or Buccal Cavity  Salivary Glands
 Pharynx  Gastric Glands
 Oesophagus  Intestinal Glands
 Stomach  Liver
 Small Intestine  Pancreas
 Large Intestine
 Anus
Digestion in Human Beings

Mouth (or Buccal Cavity)
Saliva or Ptyalin from
Oesophagus Salivary glands
By Peristaltic movement
Stomach
Gastric Juice HCl, Pepsin
From liver
Lipase, Mucus
 Bile Juice
Duodenum Small intestine
From pancreas
 Pancreatic Juice  Intestinal juice
Ileum Digestion completed
Colon Water Reabsorbed
Rectum
Anus
Summary of Digestive enzymes of various glands with their secretion and end products of
Digestion in Man
Name of Secretion Site of Enzymes Food acts upon End product

gland action
1. Salivary Saliva Buccal cavity Salivary Starch Maltose
glands amylase
or Ptylin
2. Gastic Gastic Juice Stomach Pepsin Proteins Peptones and
glands HCl proteoses
Renin Caesein of milk Paracaesein
3. Liver Bile Duodenum - Fats Emulsification of
fats
4. Pancreas Pancreatic Duodenum Amylase Starch and Maltose and
juice Glycogen isomaltose
Trypsin Proteins Peptones and
peptides
Class: X 53
Lipase Emulsified fats Fatty acids and
glycerol
5. Intestinal Intestinal Small Erepsin Peptones and Amino acids
glands juice intestine peptides
Maltase Maltose Glucose
Sucrase Sucorose Glucose and
fructose
Lactase Lactose Glucose and
galactose
Lipase Triglycerides Monoglycerides
and fatty acids
Mucous Large - Lubrication of -
intestine faecal matter
RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS
Respiration involves:
 Gaseous exchange: Breathing
 Breakdown of simple food: Cellular respiration
Respiratory System in Humans
Respiratory Tract Respiratory Organ

 External Nostril  Lungs
 Nasal passage
 Internal Nostril
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Alveoli
Mechanism of Breathing
Inhalation  Lifting of Ribs + Flat Diaphragm  Increase in Volume of Chest Cavity  Air is
sucked inside the Nostrils  Alveoli and Vice Versa for Breathing out
Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration
Absence of O2
Ethanol + CO 2 + Energy
(In yeast) (2-carbon compound)
In Lack of O 2
Pyruvate Lactic acid + Energy
Glucose
cyloplasm (In our muscle cells) (3-carbon compound)
(3-carbon compound)
Presence of O 2
CO2 + H2 O + Energy
(In mitochondria)
EXCHANGE OF GASES CO2 AND O2 BETWEEN BLOOD AND TISSUES
Class: X 54
Air in Alveoli  Blood Vessels  Blood  RBC  Respiratory Pigment (Haemoglobin) 
Oxygen Links with Hb (high pressure of O 2)  O2 is released in tissues from Hb (Low O 2
Aerobic
Pressure in Tissues)   High CO2 in Tissues  CO2 Released into Blood  
CO2
Respiration
Blood Vessels in Alveoli  CO2 Released out Through Nostrils.
TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
Diffusion
Transportation in plants Osmosis
Translocation
Xylem Phloem
Xylem vessels Sieve tubes
Tracheids Companion cells
Xylem parenchyma Phloem parenchyma
Xylem fibres Phloem fibres
Transport of Water
Absorption of ions by roots from soil

Difference in concentration of ions
between root and soil
Movement of water into root xylem from soil (Tracheids or vessels)
Stem Xylem
Suction pull
Water + minerals
Xylem in Leaves
Loss of water through stomata in leaves : Transpiration
Suction pressure develops

CIRCULATION IN ANIMALS
Circulatory system (Blood and Lymphatic System)

(i) Organ – Heart
(ii) Vessels – Artery, Vein and Capillaries
(iii) Connective tissues (fluid) – Blood and Lymph
BLOOD
Blood Plasma Blood Corpuscles
Serum Fibrinogen RBC WBC Platlets

(Erythrocytes) (Leucocytes) (Thrombocytes)
Granulocytes Agranulocytes
Mechanism of Double Circulation
Class: X 55
As the blood passes twice through the heart in one complete cycle in man, it is called double
circulation.
Deoxygenated Oxygenated
Right ventricle Pulmonary aorta Lungs Pulmonary veins Left Auricle
blood blood
Pulmonary circulation Oxygenated

blood
systemic circulation
Right auricle Venae cavae Body tissues

Systemic aorta Left Ventircle
Deoxygenated (Except Lungs)
blood
Capillaries: Occur at the terminals of artery and vein, thin-walled and narrow, only one-cell thick.
EXCRETION
It is the biological process of elimination of harmful metabolic waste products from the body of an
organism.
Excretion in humans
Human excretory system consists of Kidneys (a pair), Ureters (a pair), Urinary bladder, Urethra
Nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. Each nephron consists of a
glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, tubular part and collecting duct.
FORMATION OF URINE
Blood is brought to kidneys by renal arteries
Water and dissolved constituents of blood (nitrogenous wastes, glucose,

amino acids, mineral salts, etc.) filtered out in Bowman’s capsule under
high filtration pressure (glomerular filtrate)
Bowman’s capsule receives glomerular filtrate
Most of the water and much of the glucose and ions reabsorbed
(Selective reabsorption)
Ammonia, urea, uric acid, creatinine etc removed by tubular secretion
Urine is formed
EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Gaseous waste Excess water Falling of Stored as resins Stored in cellular

(O2 & CO2) leaves and gums vacuoles
Through photosynthesis Through transpiration In old xylem

and respiration tissue
By stomata
By stomata
Class: X 56
MIND MAP
Nutrition Respiration
 Aerobic Respiration
(a) Glucose    Pyruvate
Autotrophic Heterotrophic Glycolysis
(e.g. Plants) (e.g. Animals) Cytoplasm
Kreb's cycle
 Photosynthesis (b) Pyruvate 
 CO2+H2O+38 ATP
Mitochondria
6CO2 + 6H2O    C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll
 Anaerobic Respiration
Sunlight
1. In yeast :
 Digestion in human beings (a) Glucose  Pyruvate
(b) Pyruvate  Ethanol + CO2 + Energy
(a) Carbohydrate    Glucose
Amylase
2. In human muscles :
(b) Fats 
 Fatty acids + Glycerol
Lipase (a) Glucose  Pyruvate
(b) Pyruvate  Lactic acid + Energy
(c) Protein  Amino acids
Pr otease
LIFE PROCESSES
The various basic functions
performed by living organisms
to maintain life on this earth.
Excretion
Transportation
 In Plants :
In Plants :
Plants use different techniques for the
(a) Food is transported through phloem
removal of waste products.
(Translocation).
(b) Water and minerals are transported  In Human Beings :
through xylem (Ascent of Sap). Metabolic nitrogenous waste products
are removed by nephrons in the
 In Human Beings : kidneys.
(a) Blood circulatory system consists of
heart, arteries, veins and blood.
(b) Lymphatic system consists of lymph,
lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes.
Class: X 57
LESSON
12
CONTROL AND COORDINATION
CONTROL AND COORDINATION IN PLANTS

Plant Movement
Tropic movement Nastic movement
Directional movement Non-directional movement

(A) Tropic Movement
Phototropism In response to light
Chemotropism In response to chemical
Hydrotropism In response to water
Geotropism In response to gravity
Thigmotropism In response to touch
(B) Nastic Movement

(i) Thigmonasty (e.g. Mimosa Pudica)
(ii) Photonasty (e.g. Dandelion flower)
ROLE OF PHYTOHORMONES
S.No. Hormone
Functions
1. Auxin  Promotes cell enlargement and cell differentiation

(e.g. growth of stem).
 Promotes fruit growth.
2. Gibberellins  Promotes cell enlargement and cell differentiation in
presence of auxin.
3. Cytokinin  Promotes cell division i.e. cytokinesis (e.g. in fruits
and seeds).
 Helps in breaking the dormancy of seeds and buds.
 Promotes opening of stomata.
4. Abscisic Acid  Promotes the dormancy in seeds and buds.
(A growth inhibitor)
 Promotes the closing of stomata.
 Promotes the wilting and falling of leaves.
Class: X 58
Mechanism of Auxin action
Normal growth In experimental condition
Shoot Tip
Shoot tip
incident sun light sun light incident on tip
Auxin distributes down the stem uniformly Auxin starts secreting
Move towards shaded plant part

Shoot grows uniformly
Increases cell division and cell enlargement
Shaded area elongates
Shaded area grows faster than lighted area
Shoot bends
CONTROL AND COORDINATION IN ANIMALS
Types of receptors (specialized cells sensitive to a particular stimulus)
S.No. Receptor Types of Stimulus Sense organ
1. Photo receptors Detects light Eye
2. Phono receptors Detects sound Ear
3. Olfactory receptors Detects smell Nose
4. Gustatory receptors Detects taste Tongue
5. Thermo receptors Detects heat or cold Skin
Three types of Neuron (Nerve cell)
Sensory Neuron Motor Neuron Relay Neuron
Nerve Impulse
(Electrical or Chemical signals)
Transmission of nerve impulse)
Class: X 59
Information detected by dendrite tip of a nerve cell
A chemical reaction sets up
Creates an electric impulse
Electrical impulse travels from dendrite
To cell body of nerve cell
Along the Axon
At the end of the axon, chemicals are released
Chemical cross synapse (gap between 2 neurons)
Transmits nerve impulse to a Starts a similar electrical impulse

muscle cell or gland through in next neuron and so on
neuromuscular junction (synapse)
Action by muscle / gland

Nervous System in Humans
Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

(CNS) (PNS) (ANS)
Brain Spinal cord Cranial Spinal nerves Sympathetic Parasympathetic

Nerves (31 pairs) Nerves Nerves
(12 pairs)
Fore-Brain Mid-Brain Hind-Brain
Cerebrum Olfactory lobes Cerebellum Pons Medulla oblongata
Frontal lobe Temporal lobe Parietal lobe Occipital lobe
Class: X 60
Brain
Fore brain Mid brain Hind brain
Controls reflex
Olfactory lobes Cerebrum movements of the Pons Cerebellum Medulla
(2/3 part of brain) head, neck, eye oblongata
Responsible  Association area muscles, etc. in Regulates Maintain
Controls
for olfaction  Sensory area response to visual respiration posture and
 Motor area balance of involuntary
or auditory stimuli. actions
body
Spinal Cord: It is rod-like structure enclosed in a bony cage called vertebral column and it is
concerned with reflex actions and conduction of nerve impulses to and from the brain.
Sensory neurons
Receptors
(like skin)
Reflex arc Spinal cord
Effectors
Motor neurons
(like muscle)
Endocrine Gland (Ductless glands)

These glands lack ducts and pass their secretions into the surrounding blood for transport to the
site of action.
S.No. Name of Hormones(chemical Functions

Gland messengers)
1. Hypothalamus Releasing Hormones Regulates the secretion of hormones from the

pituitary.
2. Pituitary Growth Hormone Regulates the development of bones and

muscles.
Oxytocin Regulates the secretion of milk during

lactation and regulates uterine contractions.
Vasopressin Regulates the water and electrolyte balance

in the body.
Prolactin Regulates the function of mammary gland.
Trophic Hormones Regulates the secretion of hormones from

other endocrine glands like thyroid, adrenal,
ovary and testis.
3. Thyroid Thyroxin Regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates,

fat and proteins in the body.
Calcitonin Controls calcium and phosphorus balance.
4. Parathyroid Parathormone (PTH) Regulates calcium and phosphorus balance

in the blood.
5. Adrenal Corticoids Regulates carbohydrate, fat and protein

metabolism and maintains electrolyte
balance.
Class: X 61
Adrenaline Regulates heart rate, breathing rate, blood

pressure and carbohydrate metabolism.
6. Pancreas Insulin Lowers the blood sugar level
Glucagon Increases the blood sugar level
7. Testes Testosterone Regulates the development of male

reproductive organs and accessory sexual
characters like beard, moustache, etc.
8. Ovaries Estrogen Regulates the development of female

reproductive organs and accessory sexual
characters like development of mammary
gland.
Progesterone Maintenance of Pregnancy.
FEEDBACK CONTROL OF BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL

Carbohydrate rich meal
Glucose-level rises in Blood

Inhibits insulin synthesis
Pancreas secretes Insulin
Glucose is utilized or stored
Glucose level falls in Blood
Class: X 62
MIND MAP
Phytohormones
 Control and coordination in plants is done by phytohormones.
 They are naturally occurring chemical substances which control one or other aspect of growth.
 Auxin – Cell enlargement and differentiation.
 Gibberellins – In presence of auxin, promotes cell enlargement and differentiation.
 Cytokinins – Promotes cell division, opening of stomata, etc.
 Abscisic acid – Closing of stomata, wilting and falling of leaves, etc.
Not so elaborate, controlled by

phytohormones and external
Tropic Movements Nastic Movements
Coordination in Plants
 Directional plant growth movement in  Non-directional movement of a plant
response to an external stimulus. part in response to an external stimulus.
 Growth of a plant may be towards the
 May or may not be a growth movement.
stimulus (positive tropism) or away from
it (negative tropism).  All parts of the organ of a plant are
 Phototropism – movement in response affected equally irrespective of the
to light. direction of the stimulus.
 Chemotropism – in response to  Thigmonasty – Nastic movement in
stimulus.
chemicals. response to touch of an object.

 Hydrotropism – in response to water.  Photonasty – Nastic movement in
 Geotropism – in response to gravity. response to light.
Control and Coordination

Systematic working of the various organs of an
organism (plants or animals) producing a proper
response to the stimulus is called co-ordination.
Endocrine (chemical) Coordination

Elaborate, very complex and is
controlled by neuroendocrine
Nervous Coordination
Coordination in Animals
 Neuron forms the fundamental unit.  Consists of hormones (chemical

messengers) regulating biological
 Sensory neurons in sense organs processes and secreted by endocrine
receive stimulus and transmit impulses glands.
to CNS.
 Homeostasis is maintained by
 Motor neurons transmit impulses from hormones by their integrated action and
CNS to effectors.
feed back control.
 Relay or connector neurons serve as
links between sensory and motor
system.
neurons.
Nervous System (Human)

 CNS – Consists of brain and spinal cord.
Brain – Controls various voluntary (walking, riding, running, etc.) and involuntary actions
(sneezing, coughing, etc). Also controls thinking, reasoning, and intelligence.
Spinal Cord – Controls reflex action.
 PNS – Consists of cranial nerves (12 pairs) and spinal nerves (31 pairs).
 ANS – Two set of nerves (parasympathetic and sympathetic) supplying visceral organs which
are antagonistic to each other.
Class: X 63
LESSON
13
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
REPRODUCTION: Production of new generation of individuals of same species.
Types of Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
Fission Budding Spore Regeneration Fragmentation Vegetative propagation

e.g. in formation e.g. in e.g. in
Hydra e.g. in Planaria Spirogyra
Binary Fungi Natural Artificial
Multiple
fission fission
e.g. in e.g. in In unisexual organisms In bisexual organisms
Ameoba Plasmodium Eg: Human beings, reptiles, birds Eg: Earthworm, tapeworm
Vegetative propagation in plants
Plant undergoing vegetative reproduction propagates by a part of their body other than a seed.
This part is called propagule. Vegetative reproduction is of different types.
Types of vegetative propagation
Natural vegetative propagation Artificial vegetative propagation
1. Through leaf buds. Eg. Bryophyllum 1. Stem cutting. Eg. rose
2. Through stem. Eg. potato, onion, lemon 2. Micro propagation. Eg. Orchids, Dahlia
3. Through roots. Eg. guava, sweet potato etc. 3. Layering. Eg. rose, jasmine
4. Grafting. Eg. lemon, orange, mango
Class: X 64
Sexual Reproduction
Male organism Female organism
Male reproductive organ (2n) Female reproductive organ (2n)

Stamen (plants) and Testes (animals) Carpel (plants) and Ovary (animals)
Meiosis (reductional division) Meiosis (reductional division)
Male gamete: sperms(n) Female gamete: ovum(egg)(n)
Fusion or Fertilization
Zygote (2n)
New organism(2n)
Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Self Pollination
Pollination
Cross Pollination
Pollen tubes
Fertilization
Syngamy Triple fusion
First male gamete 2nd male gamete

+ +
Egg two polar nuclei
Zygote three nucleated structure
Seed Endosperm
Double Fertilisation
Forms
Ovary  Fruit
Forms
Ovule  Seed
Class: X 65
Sexual Reproduction in Humans
Male Female
Gamete (Sperm) Gamete (Ovum)

from gonads (testis) from Gonads (ovary)
Fusion or Fertilization Not fertilized

(in fallopian tube)
Menstrual flow
Zygote
Mentrual Cycle
Implantation (in uterus)
Gestation Period
(9 months)
Parturition (birth of fully developed child through birth canal)
Population Control
Barrier Method Chemical Method Surgical Method
Condoms, Oral Contraceptives

Diaphragm or Vaginal Pills Vasectomy Tubectomy
(in males) (in females)
Class: X 66
MIND MAP
Asexual Reproduction in Plants Sexual Reproduction in Plants

 Spore formation  eg. Bacteria, fungi  Flower is the reproductive organ.
 Budding  eg. Fungi (yeast)  It has four whorls – Calyx, Corolla,
 Fragmentation  eg. Algae, fungi Androecium, Gynoecuim.
 Vegetative propagation  Calyx and corolla are accessory parts.
 Androecium - Male reproductive organ
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

(a) Natural method
 By roots  eg. Sweet potato producing pollen grains.
 By stems  eg. Ginger, potato  Gynoecium - Female reproductive
organ having ovule (egg).
 By leaves  eg. Bryophyllum
 Pollination – Transfer of pollens from
(b) Artificial method
anther to stigma for fertilization.
 Cutting  eg. Rose
 Fertilization – Fusion of male and
 Layering  eg. Strawberry, lemon female gametes.
 Grafting  eg. Mango, rose.  Double fertilization (Triple fusion and
 Micropropagation  eg. Orchids, dahlia syngamy) – unique events in the
embryo sac of ovules.
Asexual Reproduction in Animals Sexual Reproduction (Human)

 Fission  Human being is heterosexual.
(a) Binary fission  eg. Amoeba  Reproductive system includes:
(b) Multiple fission  eg. Plasmodium (a) Primary sex organs: Testes (males)
 Budding  eg. Hydra and ovaries (females)
 Regeneration  eg. Planaria, Hydra (b) Secondary sex organs: Genital ducts
and glands (males) and fallopian tubes,
uterus, vagina (females)
 Male sex hormone is testosterone and
Reproductive Health female sex hormones are progesterone
and estrogen.
 Birth control prevents unwanted
pregnancies.  Puberty is attained at the age of 13 – 14
(a) Barrier methods years in males and 10 – 12 years in
females.
(b) Chemical methods
(c) Intrauterine contraceptive device  The zygote formed after fertilization
develops into embryo which gets
(d) Surgical method
implanted in uterus.
 Sexually transmitted diseases (STD)
 Placenta (a disc-like special tissue)
are caused by bacteria, protozoa and
develops between uterine wall and
viruses.
embryo for nourishment of the embryo.
 AIDS is an incurable viral disease.
 Gestation period in humans is 280 days.
Class: X 67
LESSON
14
HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
• Heredity – Transfer of characters from one generation to another.

• Variations – Some changes due to environment or habitat changes.
Gregor Johann Mendel (father of genetics) conducted the following crosses :
Monohybrid cross: Cross-between 2 pea plants with one pair of contrasting characters
Tall/short.
Parents
Tall plant X Short plant
TT tt
F1 generation All Tall plants

Tt
Self pollination
Tt X Tt
F1 F1
F2 generation TT Tt Tt tt
Tall Tall Tall Short
Dihybrid cross: A breeding experiment dealing with two characters at the same time.
Class: X 68
Parental Male pea plant with Female pea plant with
Generation round and yellow wrinkled and green
coloured seeds coloured seeds
RRYY rryy
Gametes RY RY ry ry
F1 Generation RrYy RrYy

All pea plants with
round and yellow
coloured seeds
Plants with round Plants with round
and yellow coloured and yellow coloured
seeds seeds
RrYy RrYy
(Self Pollination)
Gametes RY Ry rY ry RY Ry rY ry
RY Ry rY ry
RY RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy

Round, yellow Round, yellow Round, yellow Round, yellow
Ry RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy

Round, yellow Round, green Round, yellow Round, green
rY RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy

Round, yellow Round, yellow Wrinkled, yellow Wrinkled, yellow
ry RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy

Round, yellow Round, green Wrinkled, yellow Wrinkled, green
F2 Generation Plants with Plants with Plants with Plants with

round and round and green wrinkled and wrinkled and
yellow coloured coloured yellow coloured green coloured
seeds seeds seeds seeds
9 : 3 : 3 : 1
Mendel's Interpretation
On the basis of monohybrid and dihybrid crosses, Mendel postulated :
Low of segregation Law of dominance Low of independent assortment
Genes (factors) Appearance of only one Inheritance of factors controlling

segregate during of the two contrasting a particular trait in an organism is
gamete formation. traits in F1 generation. independent of other.
SEX DETERMINATION
Class: X 69
Parents Male Female
(Diploid) 22 pairs of autosomes + XY 22 pairs of autosomes + XX
Gametes 22 + X 22 + Y 22 + X 22 + X
(Haploid) chromosomes chromosomes chromosomes chromosomes
Offspring Female child Male child

(Diploid) 22 pairs of autosomes + XX 22 pairs of autosomes + XY
Evolution: Formation of new species from pre-existed organisms which might be quite different
in their physiology, nutrition, habitat etc.
EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
Morphological and Embryological Evidences Palaeontological Evidences

Anatomical Evidences
 Homologous organs Similarity among the early The fossil Archaeopteryx is

e.g. forelimbs of a frog, a lizard, embryos shows that all the called a missing link
a bird and a human being. vertebrates have evolved between reptiles and birds.
 Analogous organs from a common ancestor.
e.g. wings of an insect and a
bird.
 Vestigial organs
e.g. vermiform appendix.
Artificial selection: The process by which man selects trait(s) useful to him for improving the
qualities of domesticated plants and animals.
Example of artificial selection: Entirely different looking vegetables like cabbage, broccoli,
cauliflower, kohlrabi and kale from Wild cabbage by artificial selection:
1. Cabbage : with short distances between leaves.
2. Broccoli : with arrested flower development.
3. Cauliflower : with sterile flowers.
4. Kohlrabi : with swollen parts.
5. Kale : with larger leaves.
Class: X 70
MIND MAP
Heredity Variation
 Refers to the differences shown by
 Refers to the transmission of the individuals of the same species.
characters from parents to
offsprings.
 Gregor Johann Mendel was the first Genetics

to explain the principles of  It is the study of heredity and
inheritance by conducting variation.
experiments on garden pea plant
(Pisum sativum).
HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

Speciation
 He conducted various crosses such
as monohybrid crosses and dihybrid  Origin of new species from the
crosses etc. and gave rules for the existing one.
inheritance of traits.
 He postulated that there are pair of Evolution

unit ‘factors’ controlling each  Refers to a gradual change from
character, one inherited from each one form to another since the
parent. beginning of life.
 The most accepted theory of
 At the time of gamete formation, evolution now a days is called
these factors segregate so that each synthetic theory of evolution.
gamete receives only one factor of
each character. This is called law of
segregation.
Key factors in Modern Concept of
Evolution
 In F1 generation, only one character
is expressed. Mendel called it as  Genetic variation.
dominant character. The character  Natural selection.
which was not expressed was
 Reproductive isolation.
termed recessive character.
 Based on dihybrid cross, Mendel

gave law of independent Evidences of Evolution
assortment, which stated that  Morphological and Anatomical
inheritance of factors controlling a evidences.
particular trait in an organism are
 Embryological evidences.
independent of each other.
 Palaeontological evidences.
Acquired Traits
Inherited Traits  Involve changes in non-reproductive
 Are controlled by specific genes. tissues.
 Passed on from one generation to  Are not inherited from one
another. generation to other.
Class: X 71
LESSON
15
OUR ENVIRONMENT
ENVIRONMENT
(Physical and Biological world)
Biotic Component Abiotic Component

 
Living component Non-living component
 
Includes living organisms Includes climatic and edaphic factors
ECOSYSTEM
A self contained unit of living things and
non-living environment.
Biotic component Abiotic component

 
 
Includes producers, consumers, decomposers Includes physical environment
ECOSYSTEMS
Natural Artificial
Aquatic Terrestrial
Fresh Water Marine Grassland Desert Forest
Lotic Wetlands Upwelling Open

e.g. rivers, e.g. marshes, Regions Oceans
streams swamps
Lentic Coastal Areas

e.g. ponds, lakes e.g. estuaries, coral
reefs, mangroves
Class: X 72
Food chain
Definition Length Trophic level Characteristics
Sequential interlinking of Different food chains Each step or level of  Repeated eating
organisms involving transfer may have two, three, the food chain forms and being eaten.
of food energy from the four or maximum five a trophic level.  Always straight.
producers, through a series trophic levels. .  Unidirectional flow
of organisms with repeated of energy.
eating and being eaten.  Usually 3 or 4
trophic levels.
Trophic Levels : The different trophic levels are producers, primary consumers, Secondary
consumers and tertiary consumers.
Food web
Definition Characteristics
The network of a large  Interlinking of food chains
number of food chains  Never straight
existing in an ecosystem.  Alternative pathways of food availability
 Stable
 Help in checking the overpopulation
Flow of energy
 The ultimate source of entire energy, used by living organisms is the sun.
 Ten Percent Law: Only 10% of energy of one trophic level is transferred to
next higher trophic level.
Biomagnification
The phenomenon that involves progressive increase in concentration of harmful

non-biodegradable chemicals at different tropic levels in a food chain.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Waste Disposal Ozone Depletion
 Those substances which can be  Ozone (O3) is triatomic molecule of oxygen.

broken down by natural means  It forms a blanket above earth surface
are bio-degradable substances protecting us from the ultra violet radiations.
and which cannot be broken  Chlorofluorocarbons are the compounds
down are non-biodegradable responsible for thinning of ozone layer and
substances. formation of ozone hole.
 Methods of waste disposal  Harmful effects of Ozone Depletion : skin
include recycling, land fills, cancer, damage to eyes, cataract, damage
composting, incineration and to immune system.
production of biogas.  UNEP succeeded in forging an agreement
between nations to freeze CFC production
at 1986 levels.
Class: X 73
MIND MAP
OUR ENVIRONMENT
Biotic Component Abiotic Component

 
 
Includes living organisms Includes climatic and edaphic factors
ECOSYSTEM
A self contained unit of living things and
non-living environment.
Biotic component Abiotic component

 
 
Includes producers, consumers, decomposers Includes physical environment
Food Chain Flow of energy Food Web
A list of organisms showing “who  The ultimate source of The network of a large
eats whom”. In food chain, each entire energy, used by living number of food chains
step representing an organism organisms is the sun. existing is an ecosystem.
forms a trophic level.  Ten Percent Law: Only
10% of energy of one
trophic level is transferred
to next higher trophic level.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Waste Disposal Ozone Depletion
 Ozone (O3) is triatomic molecule of oxygen.

 It forms a blanket above earth surface
 Those substances which can be broken protecting us from the ultra violet
down by natural means are bio-degradable radiations.
substances and which cannot be broken  Chlorofluorocarbons are the compounds
down are non-biodegradable substances. responsible for thinning of ozone layer and
formation of ozone hole.
 Methods of waste disposal include recycling,  UNEP succeeded in forging an agreement
land fills, composting, incineration and between nations to freeze CFC production
production of biogas. at 1986 levels.
Class: X 74
LESSON
16
MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural resources: Those living or non-living substances available in the normal environment
which are being exploited for supporting life and meeting human requirements.
Types of Natural Resources

(Based on their abundance and availability)
Inexhaustible resources Exhaustible resources
These resources occur in such These resources are likely to be

abundance that they are not likely finished due to continuous human use.
to be exhausted by human use. These include minerals, fossil fuels, etc.
These include air, clay, sand, tidal Exhaustible resources are of two types:
energy and precipitation (rain).
Renewable Resources. Non-renewable Resources.
These resources can maintain These get exhausted with use

themselves if managed wisely. because they are not recycled
These include forest, crops, or replenished. These include
ground water, wildlife, etc. minerals, fossil fuels, etc.
Conservation: The controlled utilization of natural resources for the benefit of all life so that it
may yield sustainable benefit to the present generation as well as the future generations.
Three R’s of conservation
Reduce Recycle Reuse
Stakeholders
A person with an interest or concern in something is called a stakeholder. There are four
stakeholders when we consider the management of forests:
1. The local people
2. The forest department of the government
3. The industrialists
4. The nature and wildlife enthusiasts
Class: X 75
Role of local people in management of forest
The case of Khejri tree The Chipko Andolan Arabari sal forest
. In 1731, Amrita Devi The Chipko andolan (hug the tree It was started in the Arabari
Bishnoi led a group of movement) originated from an forest range of midnapore
363 persons who incident in a remote village called district. A.K. Banerjee, the
sacrificed their lives ‘Reni’ in Garhwal, high up in the then forest officer involved
for the protection of Himalayas in the early 1970s. The the villagers of the area
Khejri trees in Khejrali women of the village clasped the around the forest in the
village near Jodhpur. tree trunks with their arms, protection of 1272 hectares
preventing them from cutting. of badly degraded sal forest.
Wild life conservation

1. Protection of natural habits
2. Maintenance of wild life in protected areas
 Biosphere reserves
 National parks
 Sanctuaries
3. Protection through legislation
Water pollution: The pollution of river water is caused by dumping of untreated sewage and
industrial wastes into it. There are two parameters to detect this contamination:
(i) The presence of coliform bacteria in river water. The presence of coliform bacteria indicates
its contamination by disease causing organisms.
(ii) If the measurement of pH of river water is below 7, then the river water is considered
polluted.
 A multicrore, Ganga Action Plan, project was launched in 1985 to clean the river Ganga and
make it pollution free.
Dams: Dams are the large water storing bodies usually built by the government agencies. This
stored water is then allowed to flow downstream at the desired rate.
The problems associated with construction of large dams: These problems can be
categorized into three categories : Social Problems, Economic Problems and Environmental
Problems.
Watershed Management
1. Rain water harvesting: Water harvesting is an age old practice in India. Some of the ancient water
harvesting structures used in different rural regions of our country are :
S. No. Region Water harvesting structure
1. Rajasthan Khadin, Tanks, Nadis
2. Maharashtra Bandharas, Tals
3. M.P. & U.P Bhundhis
4. Bihar Ahars and pynes
5. Himachal Pradesh Kulhs
6. Jammu region Ponds
7. Tamil Nadu Eris (Tanks)
8. Karnataka Kattas
9. Kerela Surangams
2. Treatment of wastewater
3 Storage of water
Class: X 76
MIND MAP
 Natural resources are substances  Forests are biodiversity hot spots.

which are being exploited for  A stakeholder is a person with an
supporting life. interest or concern in something.
 Three R’S – Reduce, Recycle and  The four stakeholders for
Reuse can help to save the management of forest are the
environment in a long term people who live in and around
perspective. forest, the forest department of the
Government, the industrialists who
benefit from the factories and the
forest and wildlife activists.
MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
 Water, a basic necessity for all

terrestrial forms of life should be
managed and conserved.
 Coal and petroleum (fossil fuels) are
 Dams are large water storing bodies non-renewable exhaustible
which provide water for irrigation, resources.
hydroelectric generation and
continuous water supply to the  The products obtained by burning
people in towns and cities. coal and petroleum are harmful.
 Water shed management and water  An alternative to the consumption of
harvesting are the means of fossil fuels can help them last
scientific conservation of fresh water longer.
to recharge ground water levels.
Class: X 77
BIOLOGY
DO’S
 In three marks and five marks questions, always make the relevant diagram even if it is not
mentioned.
 Read the question carefully and give to-the-point answer.
 While differentiating terms, always make the columns and write the important differences
first.
 Practice the diagrams before the exam.
 Be careful about the presentation of the answers (Eg. making the flow charts etc.).
 Wherever possible, mention the examples related to the terms.
 Try to draw the diagrams with the help of pencil. Diagrams should be neat and scientific
(well-labelled). Always try to label the diagram on the right hand side.
DON’TS
 Answers should not exceed the word limit.
 Don’t miss to write the key terms in the answers.
 Never repeat the same points in a different way.
 Labellings of the diagram should not be haphazard.
Class: X 78
ANNEXURE – 1
FULL FORM OF IMPORTANT ABBREVIATIONS
1. RUBP – Ribulose biphosphate

2. NADP – Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate
3. NADPH – Reduced Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate
4. ATP – Adenosine Tri Phosphate
5. ECG – Electrocardiogram
6. OCs – Oral Contraceptives
7. IUCD – Intrauterine Contraceptive Devices
8. STDs – Sexually Transmitted Diseases
9. AIDS – Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
10. HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus
11. WHO – World Health Organization
12. DNA – Deoxyribonucleic Acid
13. RNA – Ribonucleic Acid
14. GMO – Genetically Modified Organism
15. DDT – Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane
16. CFCs – Chloro Flouro Carbons
17. CoHb – Carboxy Haemoglobin
18. UASB – Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket
19. IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources
20. EEG – Electro Encephalogram
21. MRI – Magnetic Resonance Imaging
22. OTEC – Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
23. LPG – Liquified Petroleum Gas
Class: X 79
ANNEXURE – 2
List of Scientists, unit wise along with their discoveries
S.No. Unit Name of Scientist Discovery
1. Some important Joseph Aspdin Portland Cement
chemical compounds
2. Nuclear Fission and J. J. Thomson Electrons

Fusion
R. Henri Becquerel Phenomenon of radioactivity
conducted first nuclear
reactivity in 1919
Rutherford Alfa rays are heavy and

positively charged particles
Albert Einstein Special theory of relativity

regarding convertibility of
matter and energy (E = mc2)
Neil Bohr Combined the nuclear and

the quantum theories and
proposed the Bohr model of
atom
James Chadwick Neutrons
Enrico Fermi Successfully performed first

controlled chain Reaction in
1942
Hans Bethe Proposed that the enormous

amount of energy being
produced in sun in due to
thermo-nuclear reactions
taking place.
Glenn Seaborg Plutonium
H.C. Oersted Wire carrying current is

associated with magnetic field
Ampere Current carrying conductor

placed in a magnetic field will
experience a force
Faraday Electromagnetic induction
Yokov Frenkel, Neils Proposed liquid drop model to

Bohr A. Wheeler explain fission of nuclei
Ottohahn and Fritz Nuclear fission

Strassman
H. Kammerling Onnes Superconductivity
Class: X 80
3. Transportation and Landsteiner Mismatching of blood was
excretion due to a reaction between
antigens of the donor and
antibodies present in plasma
of receiver
4. Heredity and Gregor Johann Mendel Occurrence of contrasting

evolution characters are controlled by
units which are called
“Factors”
Johanssen Principle of inheritance
T. Boveri and W.S. Provided the evidence that

Sutton gene is a part of chromosome
Fredrick Meisher First to isolate DNA from the

nucleus of the pus cells
Griffith, Avery, Mc DNA is the carrier of genetic

Leod and McCarty information
J.D. Watson and F.H.C. Structure of DNA and won

Crick Noble Prize in 1962
Earnst Haeckel Biogenetic law
Charles Darwin Theory of Natural selection

(Darwinism)
Lamarck Theory of use and disuse

(Lamarkism)
Class: X 81
Class: X 82
Class: X 83

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Class: X 1

Type of Questions Questions Marks for Each

S. No. Content Unit Marks

C. Weightage to difficulty level of questions

IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONVEX MIRROR

IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONCAVE LENS

IMAGE FORMED BY A CONVEX LENS FOR DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF THE OBJECT

 Light is a form of energy that produces in  Absolute refractive index(n) of a medium

 According to New Cartesian Sign Convention, for spherical mirror.

HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD

The scattering of light by the collidal

Electricity and its Effect (notations)

Laws of electric forces:

Symbols of a few commonly used components in Circuit Diagrams

An electric cell Electric bulb

Plug key or switch Variable resistance

A wire joint Voltmeter + V –

Wires crossing Galvanometer +G –

Resistance: Resistance is a property of a conductor by virtue of which it opposes the flow of

V  IR, V1  IR1, V2  IR2 , V3  IR3

IR  IR1  IR2  IR3

9. P = V × I ; Power = potential difference × current

10. P  I 2  R ; Power = (current) 2  resistance

Magnetic Effects of Current

ELECTRIC MOTOR AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Electric Fuse: A Safety Device

Role of Magnetism in Medicine and Organisms

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

 The cable supplying power to house

Conventional sources of energy Non-conventional sources of energy

 Never forget to write units of v, u and f.

 Never take the signs of v, u and f in haste.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHYSICAL CHANGE AND CHEMICAL CHANGE

 Change in Colour: Example

Combination Decomposition Displacement Double displacement Oxidation – Reduction

 addition of oxygen or  loss or removal of oxygen

(b) Cu + 2AgNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag

Cu + 2Ag+ Cu2+ + 2Ag

Mn4+ + 2Cl– Mn2+ + Cl2

The symbolic representation of a  In a chemical equation reactants,

 The chemical equations are balanced Reactions are made more

Types of Chemical reaction Combination reaction

Decomposition reaction Displacement reaction

Dyes (Indicators Olfactory Methyl orange Phenolphthalein

Onion extract Vanilla essence Clove oil

Red litmus Blue litmus

Indicator Colour in acidic solution Colour in basic solution

Physical properties of Acids and Bases:

Type of Acid Base

1. Neutralization Acid + Base  Salt + H2O Acid + Base  Salt + water

3. Reaction with Acid + Carbonates  Metallic salt + Base + carbonate  No reaction

4. Reaction with Acid + Bicarbonates  Metallic salt + Base + bicarbonate  No reaction

H2SO4 (aq)  2H+ + SO 24  Ca(OH)2 (aq)  Ca2+ + 2(OH)–

Strength of acids & bases

Importance of pH in everyday life:

SALTS : They are the neutralization products of acids and bases.

Type of salts Hydrolysis of salts

The solution is acidic due to the H  ion produced by the hydrolysis of

CH3 COO  H2 O CH3 COOH OH

CH3 COO  H2 O CH3 COOH OH

Common Salt  NaCl  Chemicals obtained from NaCl

(iv) Washing soda (Na2CO3 · 10H2O)

Other Important Salts: