UNIT 4: BECOMING A MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY

Lesson 1: Socialization and Enculturation B. Religion

 It encompasses all moral standards contained
Socialization within the entirety of ethical beliefs.
• It is the lifelong process of by which an individual is  It affects our judgements on what is moral or
oriented and taught by his/her society’s norms. immoral, good or evil.
• This starts from the moment a human being is born  Most of the time directed to an omnipotent
and continues until he dies. being.
• Through the process of socialization, man forms his  This makes religion very influential in the process
principles in life as well as his personal outlook of his of socialization.
social environment.
• This takes place when man interacts with another man C. School
and through this man learns culture.  A community of academician students and
teachers alike united in the pursuit of intellectual
Enculturation endeavors.
• It is the process whereby individuals learn their  The school is composed of heterogenous mixture
group’s culture, through experience, observation and of different people having different personalities
instruction. and cultural orientation.
• It is the process of being socialized into a particular
culture. D. Peer group
• You were enculturated to your specific culture by your  Man is inclined to be in the company of others in
parents and other people who raised you. order to fulfill social needs.
 This is a group of people more or less of the same
Note: age and status in life who are together in a
• Early childhood is the period of the most intense particular activity and such activity creates a
socialization. social bond among them.
• It is then when we acquire language and learn the
fundamentals of our culture. E. Government
• And we become influenced by society through social  It is the instrumentality by which the will of the
interactions sovereign state is realized and formalized
• It is necessary process so that man can fulfill his full
 It influences the conduct of the people through
potential as a social creature.
the enactment and the enforcement of the law.
In instances when a person does not get socialized or
F. Mass media
enculturated, it is possible that his or her behavior would
 It helps connect people even in the far-flung
resemble to that of the other animals.
places.
 Information are disseminated through the use of
FERAL CHILD (wild children)  Animalistic attitudes
different medias where it reaches all kinds of
upon their discovery; Victor of Aveyron in France is the
people.
first feral child.
Identity Formation
Agents of Socialization
• The set of values, attitudes, and beliefs that individuals
The significant people, groups and institutions that
receive from their family, peers and community,
shape our sense of self and social identity, help us realize our
enables them to create a personal identity that
human capacities, and teach us to negotiate the world in which
simultaneously separates them from the other
we live. - Joan Ferrante (2014)
members of the group and incorporates them in its
system.
A. Family
 The basic unit of the society which is primarily
Individuation (Personal Identity) – this is the differentiation from
composed of the mother, the father and the
the general social template
children.
 Basic social concepts such as religion, morality,
Social Identity – the person’s notion of who he or she is in
norms and customs are introduced first in the
society performing the roles and statuses in accord to what the
family.
society expects of him or her.
 This is the most important agent of socialization *Primary Identity – this consists of the roles and
because it is the family where all individuals statuses that an individual learns as a child. (sex, age,
started their social lives. and ethnicity)
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 *Secondary Identity – roles and statuses that are
achieved such as occupation, educational background,
economic status and gender
MODEL OF CONSCIOUSNESS (WILBER, 1997)
Your cultural background plays an important role in
enabling you to identify which part of your identity is for display
to your peers and which is for display to your parents. This is
the reason that you play different roles for different groups of
people.
Cultural Competence
• It is the ability to understand, communicate with and
effectively interact with people across cultures.
• This encompasses:
*being aware of one’s own world view
*developing positive attitudes towards
cultural differences
*gaining knowledge of different cultural
practices and world views
*developing skills for communication and
interaction across cultures.
• Therefore, cultural competence is about our will and
actions to build understanding between people, to be
respectful and open to different cultural perspectives,
strengthen cultural security and work towards
equality in opportunity.
To become culturally competent, you must…
1. Learn About Yourself
 self-assessment makes participants realize the
pervasive role of culture plays in their lives
 It also makes people aware of their own biases
while sparking open-minded curiosity about other
cultures.
2. Learn About Different Cultures
 “One of the most minds-expanding experiences is
to learn a word or concept that doesn’t exist in
your own language, plus, learning a language
means you’re more able to reach out and connect
with people who speak that language” - Pamela
Hays
3. Interact with Diverse Groups
 Instead of solely interacting with members of
diverse groups who are seeking for help, get a
fuller picture by interacting with them as peers at
parties, religious services and cultural events.
 “Put yourself in social situations where you’re the
only one of your cultural groups.” -Pamela Hays
4. Attend Diversity-Focused Conferences
5. Lobby Your Department
 If your program isn’t giving you the training, push
the faculty to do better. In that way, the program
gets the message that it is something important
to students.
 “You have to keep finding ways to expand your
learning.” -Helms
Lesson 2: Norms and Values, Status and Roles, Conformity
Values
• This concept of cultural values refers to all those ideas
held in the society that are considered good,
acceptable, and right.
• These values inform the types of aspirations that
members of society aspire for which is referred to as
social goals.
Norms
• It is a cultural product which represents individual
basic knowledge of what others do and think that they
should do.
(values, customs, and traditions)
• Collective group conduct as well as individual
perceptions of particular group conduct.
How do we learn norms?
• We learn norms in a variety of settings and from
various actors, including our families, from teachers
and peers in school, through the media, and simply by
interacting with others as we go about our daily
business.
Although societies may have similar values and goals,
the norms that are created in reference to these values may
vary.
The values place on family are displayed differently
across cultures. The act of placing an aging family member in a
nursing home may be a norm for Western societies, but Is
almost unacceptable, or even unthinkable, in most Asian
societies.
Categories of Norms
American sociologist William Graham Sumner
1. Folkways
 socially approved behaviors that have no moral
underpinning
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  Folkways are the customs or conventions of daily
life
 Folkways emerged out of repetition and routines
 We engage in them to satisfy our daily needs, and
they are most often unconscious in operation,
though quite useful to the ordered functioning of
society
 folkways are norms that stem from and organize
casual interaction
 For example some societies(Americans) consider
it rude for a visitor to make slurping sounds when
consuming soup, whereas others
(Chinese,Korean) encourage it.
 The practice of waiting in (or on) line in many
societies is an example of a folkway.
 This practice creates order in the process of
buying things or receiving services, which
smooths and expedites the tasks of our daily lives
2. Mores
 norms related to moral conventions. These
includes behaviors that are acceptable related to
religious practices.
 Mores are stricter than folkways, as they
determine what is considered moral and ethical
behavior
Folkways vs. Mores
• Folkways are mildly enforced social expectations,
while mores are strictly held beliefs about behaviors
• Mores dictate right and wrong, while folkways
distinguish between proper and rude behavior
• Mores are met with severe punishments from society
• The reactions to violation of social norms, including
folkways and mores, are called sanctions
3. Taboos
 behaviors that are absolutely forbidden in a
specific culture
4. Laws
 rules and regulations that are implemented by
the state, making them the prime source of social
control.
Social Norms Regarding Public Behavior
• Do not curse in polite conversation
• Be kind to elderly, like opening a door or giving up your
seat
• Do not stand close enough to someone to touch arms
or hips 
• In the Philippines, drive on the right side of the road.
• Don’t invade someone’s personal space
Social Norms on Using the Phone
• Say hello when answering the phone and goodbye
when you hang up
• Do not refuse to take messages
• Do not lie if someone has the wrong number
• Do not pretend you are an answering machine
Social Norms When Dining
• Chew food with your mouth closed
• Men usually pay for dinner, unless invited by the
woman
• Do not order something that is not on the menu
• Do not eat soup with a fork
• Leave a tip for the waiter, if you can afford
Social Norms on Elevators
• Nod or say hello to others on the elevator
• Never push extra buttons, only the one for your floor
• Face the front
• Do not say “I’ll wait for the next one” if only one
person is on board
• Do not go elevator surfing
Social Norms in the Classroom
• NEVER USE CELL PHONE
• Come to class prepared with paper, book and pen
• Never read other materials during class
• Do not stare at the teacher
Social Norms Regarding Personal Behavior
• Pay groceries after you shop
• Shower or bathe
• Brush your teeth
• Apply sun screen at the beach
Consequences of Ignoring Social Norms
• It can make people very uncomfortable being around
them and can mark them as “weird” or different.
• Normative behavior is what is required to maintain the
cohesion of society
• If you are somehow inclined into breaking social
norms, be prepared for criticism and opposition.
• By breaking social norms, you will isolate yourself from
the society, and it shall invariably hit back at a rebel
• You will encounter the true arrogance of mankind
• You will end up alone because the society is not
comfortable of you
Status and Roles
Status
• This is an individual’s position in his or her society,
which carries with it a set of defined rights and
obligations.
• This is to say that we speak and behave differently
toward different sets of people.
• Two Types of Status:
• Ascribed Status
• It is assigned to a person by society
without regard for a person’s
unique talent or characteristics
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 • It takes place at birth thus; a
person’s racial background, gender,
and age are all ascribed statuses
• Achieved Status
• It comes to us largely through our
own efforts
• We must do something to acquire
an achieved status
Roles
• These are the sets of expectation from people who
occupy a particular status
• It is a cluster of norms which tells us how to carry out
the status
• It serves important functions for society:
o Roles regulate behavior
o Roles allow me to predict other’s behavior
o Roles facilitate social control
Conformity
• Every person in the group eventually conforms to
some decisions, or the group remains to
standoff/stalemated
• Normative systems prescribe the behavior required of
members to maintain order and stability and to
coordinate the people’s activities in the pursuit of
group goals and objectives.
• It is an act of following the roles and goals of one’s
society
• This is often met with rewards and acceptance from
the other members of the society.
• This occurs when members choose the course of
action that the majority favors
• Since members of a social group are bound together
by their adherence to a common culture, it is easy to
understand why some degree of conformity to group
norms is necessary.
• Socialization effectively develops conforming citizens
Lesson 3: Deviance
Deviance
• The act of violating the prescribed social norms and
this act is often associated with stigma
• STIGMA is a strong sense of disapproval of
nonconforming behavior from members of society
• For the most part, human behavior does follow the
social norm, but there are occasional individuals
whose behavior does not agree with the practices of
society.
• Deviance is a behavior that some people in society find
offensive
• Deviance is not simply behavior, it involves a moral
judgment
• When deviance is within the context of legal
structures, it may even be considered a crime or a
violation of law.
The actions that are considered deviant vary per
society and per social status.
Traditional Society
*Individuals are often shunned and/or isolated by group
members.
Democratic Society
*Individuals are tolerated and have some chance to influence
the values of the group.
Authoritarian Society
*Individuals become frustrated or persecuted victims of strict
adherence to traditional norms and standards.
Deviance, furthermore, is relative to time and place.
Deviance in Different Context:
Class Context
• If a poor woman shoplifts, people call her a common
criminal
• On the other hand, if a rich woman steals; her deviant
status is kleptomaniac -- a form of mental illness
Sexual Context
• If a woman is promiscuous, she might find herself
labeled as a nymphomaniac
• While a man is a stud, macho, swinger, etc
Time Context
• People used to be burned at stake for engaging in such
behavior that most twentieth-century people see as
normal
Sociological –Cultural Context
• Describes actions or behavior that violate social norms
• Deviance is an alleged breach of social order
(Rubington 1981)
• It is any act that violates social expectations
• Deviance is universal(Goode,1994) every society
establishes rules and regulations to punish offenders
• In Eskimo societies, the practice of “sexual hospitality”
– offering one’s wife to a guest is normal, but in our
society it is an abnormal act
• In the sociological context, the social definition of
deviance is highly variable
• In Thailand, transgender and prostitution are allowed
but in our society it is considered perverse (awkward)
Horton and Hunt (1984) classify them as individual or
group deviants, cultural or psychological deviants, primary or
secondary deviants. From these definitions, all lead to one thing
– it is a violation of the norms. Sociologist classify people who
violate these norms into different types such as: prostitutes,
criminals, delinquents, hippies, mentally insane and the genius.
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Theories of Deviance:
Biological Theories
• Biological abnormalities provided valid explanations
for deviance
• Genetic predispositions create inborn tendencies to
commit deviant acts
• Deviant behavior is dictated by forces beyond the
control, or even the awareness, of individuals
• Deviance is assumed not just as social pathology
(disease) or mental illness but an unhealthy biological
organism as well
• This assumption may be attributed to certain defects
or weaknesses of an individual’s physical condition
Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909)
• Italian physician-psychiatrist who became interested
in the scientific study of crime and believed that the
physical characteristics of the criminal should be
thoroughly analyzed
• His findings were that the prisoners displayed physical
abnormalities such as deviations in:
• Head size and shape
• Eye defects
• Receding chins
• Excessively long arms
• Lombroso called these criminal types Atavists.
William Sheldon
• attempted to link body type to behavior by classifying
people into three categories
• endomorphs- who are soft,round, and usually
fat
• mesomorphs- who are mascular, stocky and
athletic
• ectomorphs who are skinny and fragile
• The general argument here is that it requires stamina
to be a criminal so those people with the most stamina
will be more likely to commit crimes (This would
include the young and men)
• According to him, a disproportionate percentage of
criminals were found to be mesomorphs
Psychological Theories
• Focus on factors such as personality, learning, goals,
interests, motivations, will power, frustrations and
other psychic conditions
• The psychological theories of deviance are often
rooted in a person’s mind rather than in his body
• It associates deviance with a sickness which is the
result of a psychological abnormality or a mental
illness
• Not all deviant acts account to people who are
mentally ill but also to people who are not fulfilled that
results to frustration which leads to anti-social deviant
behavior
Sigmund Freud
• linked deviances to defects of the super ego
(conscience)
• People with weak egos are unable to control their
impulses
• These psychological theories, however, are not very
useful, because theories involving instincts (reflexes)
and unconscious needs are difficult to test empirically
Sociological Theories
• Sociological theories of deviance look at the socio-
cultural processes and organizational structures of
society
• Proponents: Durkheim and Merton
• In sociological theories, the argument is that the
differences in social status and cultural belief in the
society create deviant behaviors among individuals
The Anomie Theory
• “a” (without) “nomos” (law)
• The cause of deviance is found in disturbances in the
social norms, structure and goals
• There are many sociological theories of deviance but
we will discuss two among the many
• Defined and discussed by Durkheim and Merton
• Disturbances in the sense that the social structure
puts stress (social problems) on individuals in the
society,
• Individuals tend to violate the accepted social goals
(norms) because they do not want the means to
achieve the goals
The Control Theory
• An assumption of Control Theory is that people have a
strong desire to be deviant
• Significant others reinforce the idea that deviance is
wrong
• Control theory assumes that people are hedonists
(pleasure-seeker) and when they cannot get the
pleasure, they can make actions to get the pleasure
(even if the means to achieve it is bad) which make
them deviant
• But sociologists suggest that people often do not
engage in deviance because they have outer
containments emanating from a supportive family and
friends
• People also have inner containments such as self-
control and a sense of responsibility that reduce
deviance
Other sociological theories of deviance:
• The Neutralization Theory
• The Labelling Theory
• Conflict Theory
• Functionalist Theory
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Forms of Deviance
A. According to Violation of a Societal Norm
1. Primary and Secondary Deviance – the
individual disagrees with the prescribed
norms but is tolerated by others or his
behavior is concealed by others.
Example/s: throwing pieces of
papers on the floor; urinating in a
non-urinating zone; cheating during
exam
In Secondary deviance, the
individual is labeled as a criminal or
deviant because of his previous
behavior – that forces him to
commit delinquent acts.
2. Individual and Group Deviation – the person
commits a deviant behavior of his own group
or sub-culture.
Example/s:
A member of the group who does
not have a police record is not a real man;
An individual belonging to a
conservative family has illicit
relation with someone that is
tabooed by his own group.
In group deviance, the individual
may conform to the group’s norm
which is in disagreement or in
contradiction to the expectation of
the larger society.
B. According to Acceptance of the Cultural Goals and the
Means to Achieve Them
1. Conformity - both goals and means are
considered as acceptable to the individual
Merton identified five ways that
individuals adapt to the goals of a
culture.
*Cultural Goals – it consists of the
values that are important for the
society.
*Institutional Means – processes
that have been established through
social structures such as the
government, school, church, and
even family.
2. Innovation- accept social goals and reject the
prescribed means of achieving them
3. Ritualism- rejects society’s goals, but accept
society’s institutionalized means
4. Retreatism- considered by sociologist as
more drastic behavior; they reject both the
goals and the means to achieve them
5. Rebellion- somehow similar to retreatism,
because rebellion also rejects both the
cultural goals and means, but they go one
step further
Lesson 4: Social Groups, Social Control
Social groups
• This consists of two or more people who regularly
interact on the basis of mutual expectations and who
share a common identity.
Characteristics of a Group:
1. Members of a group share interests, values and
norms.
2. Members of a group interact.
3. People identify with a group.
4. Groups have structure.
Social category
• A social category is a collection of individuals who
have at least one attribute in common but otherwise
do not necessarily interact.
Social aggregate
• It is a collection of people who are in the same place
at the same time but do not necessarily interact,
except in the most superficial of ways, or have
anything else in common.
• These collections of people are not a social category,
because the people are together physically, and they
are also not a group, because they do not really
interact and do not have a common identity unrelated
to being in the crowd or audience at that moment.
Primary groups
• A primary group is usually small, is characterized by
extensive interaction and strong emotional ties, and
endures over time.
• Charles Horton Cooley, whose looking-glass-self-
concept called these groups primary, because they are
the first groups we belong to and because they are so
important for social life.
Characteristics:
- It is a relatively small.
- It is held together by strong ties of affection
- It is where we are emotionally invested.
- It gives us emotional and social support
- We feel strong personal identification with our
primary group.
- It is characterized by multidimensional relationship.
- It depends on continuous face-to-face interaction
- It is very durable group that can even be called a
permanent group.
- It is based on trust.
- Social control is based on informal means.
Secondary groups
• Groups that are larger and more impersonal and exist,
often for a relatively short time, to achieve a specific
purpose.
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 • Secondary group members feel less emotionally
attached to each other and do not identify as much
with their group nor feel as loyal to it.
Characteristics:
- It is relatively large collection of people.
- It is held together by weak ties of affection.
- It involves little or no personal identification.
- It is one-dimensional relationship.
- It is characterized by limited face-to-face contact.
- It is not permanent group.
- We do not put the same trust in the people in our
secondary group that we do in our primary group.
- It uses formal sanctions to ensure conformity.
Reference groups
• Primary and secondary groups can act both as
our reference groups or as groups that set a standard
for guiding our own behavior and attitudes.
• Some of our reference groups are groups to which we
do not belong but to which we nonetheless want to
belong. A small child, for example, may dream of
becoming an astronaut and dress like one and play like
one.
In-Group
• It refers to any group or category to which people feel
they belong that comprises them being regarded as
“we or “us”.
• It may be as narrow as teenage clique or as broad as
the entire society.
• Its very existence implies that there is an out - group
viewed as “they” or “them”.
Out-Group
• It refers to a group or category to which people feel
they belong.
Types of Social Organization:
Ferdinand Tonnies  A German sociologist who
introduced gemeinschaft and gesselschaft.
Gemeinschaft
• It is a community - oriented society in which the
relations are personal and informal.
• Tradition is very important in holding the society
together.
• Family life is very strong, and everyone knows, or
knows of, everyone else.
• It is commonly found in village and town life.
Gesellschaft
• A community of which relationships are impersonal
and based on contract.
• It shares the characteristics of secondary group.
Social control
• Social control is the process by which conformity and
adherence to socialization and approved values are
ensured.
• To maintain social order and stability, social control is
needed.
• Social order can be maintained only if social life is
organized and regulated through folkways, customs,
mores, rules and laws.
• In the course of socialization, the individual learns to
be sensitive to the judgement, opinions, and
expectations of others. These serve as effective
instruments of social control.
• Since society and socialization of an individual is not
perfect at all, there would always be social ills and
chaos.
Types of Social control:
1. Formal Social Control
 This is a restraint in a form of arrest, by law
enforcement agencies investigation, to potential
deviants.
2. Informal Social Control
 Rewards such as shaking hands, smiles, clapping
of hands, word of approval, and kiss are involved
to conforming individuals.
Forms of informal social control:
Gossip
• an idle talk or rumor especially about the personal or
private affairs of other.Its act is known as dishing.
• Gossip lets people monitor cooperative reputations
and maintain widespread indirect reciprocity.
• Robin Dumber have said that gossip also aids bonding
in a large group.
Ostracism
• This includes shame, ridicule, criticism, and
disapproval which can cause an individual to stray
towards the social norms that can lead to
discrimination and exclusion.
Social Rejection
• occurs when an individual is deliberately excluded
from a social relationship
• Rejection by an entire group can have negative effects
such as social isolation, loneliness, low self-esteem,
aggression and depression.
• This also heightens sensitivity to future rejection
Punishment
• the authoritative imposition of an undesirable
outcome to a group or individual on a particular action
that is deemed unacceptable.
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 • The study and practice of the punishment of crimes
especially as it applies to imprisonment is penology or
corrections.
• The punishment process is called as the correctional
process
Mind Control
• Social control developed together with civilization, as
a rational measure against the uncontrollable forces
of nature.
Law
• These are the formalized social norms enacted by
people who have been vested through the machinery
of the state
UNIT 5: CULTURAL, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
Lesson 1: Kinship as Social Institution
The Institutions
• Particular segments of society where social, cultural
and political roles exist
• Units of society where behavior patterns are shared
and played by members
• The goal of these institutions is the satisfaction of
basic group needs
• The social institutions are the family, school, church
and business organizations
• The political institutions are the government and its
instrumentalities
Routine Functions of Institutions:
1. Provide ready-made form of social roles and social
relations to an individual
2. Tend to control behavior by social pressures
3. Provide the means of security
4. Largely regularized and pre-arranged the child’s
thinking and actions
Negative Functions of Institutions:
1. Obstruct social progress since they are rigid and
stabilizing social behavior
2. Frustrate the social personality of the individual
3. Diffuse social responsibility
Kinship
• Refers to the “web of social relationships” that
humans form as part of a family
• Ferraro and Andreatta defined family as a social and
economic unit that consists of one or more parents
and their children
Characteristics of a Family:
1. A family is a socioeconomic unit. What makes a group
of individuals a family is their dependency on one
another with regard to their social and economic
activities.
2. A family can have one or more parents. The norm for
other societies permits to have multiple parents due
to multiple marriages
3. A family can have parents who are not married.
Marriage of parents is not a prerequisite in other
societies. As long as individuals are socially and
economically interdependent, they can be considered
a family. This puts into perspective the concept of
common law marriage
4. A family can have parents with same gender. Although
same sex marriage is illegal in most countries, some
societies allow for the marriage of individuals with the
same sex
5. A family should have at least one child. One of the
most crucial elements of a family is the existence of
children.
Kinship as Social Institution
• It establishes on the family ties to the surrounding
community
• It is an integral part of its social structure and it is
found in all known societies in the Philippines
Kinship by Blood
• Connections between people that are traced by blood
are known as consanguineal relationships, also known
as blood relatives
• This type of kinship links individuals based on their
genetic relations (bloodline)
• All human beings are connected to others by blood or
marriage
• This is one factor that allows an individual to identify
another individual as a family member
• This is also referred to descent or the socially accepted
connection between an ancestor and its succeeding
generation
Descent Rules:
1. Unilineal Descent (Unilineality)
 This allows an individual to be affiliated to the
descent of one se group only – either the male or
female
 One’s descent is traced either exclusively thru
male ancestors (patriline) or female ancestors
(matriline)
 Main types of Unilineal descent groups are
lineages and clans
2. Matrilineal Descent
 The tracing of descent thru the female line
 also referred to as enatic descent and/or uterine
descent
 It is a line of descent from a female ancestor to a
descendant (of either sex) in which the individuals
in all intervening generations are mothers
 In Asia, the Minangkabau ethnic group of West
Sumatra (Indonesia), practices matrilinealage
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  In this society, land and property ownership is
passed from mother to daughter, leaving the men
to deal with political and religious affairs
3. Patrilineal Descent
 In patrilineal descent, individual traces his or her
kinship through male’s line only
 This promotes a passing down of name and
inheritance to the male offspring only, while
allowing the female offspring to be part of
another family through marriage
 Patrilineal descent is also known as agnastic
descent
4. Bilateral Descent
 Allows an individual to trace kinship ties on both
sides of the family
 Relatives on the mother’s or father’s side are
equally important for emotional ties or for
transfer of property and wealth
 Under bilateral descent, every tribe member
belongs to two clans
 Bilateral descent, unlike unilineal, can only trace
immediate family
 In some cases, ties with the nuclear family can be
extended to family members of the spouses (this
kinship grouping is known as kindred)
Kinship by Marriage
A. Monogamy
 A form of relationship in which an individual has
only one partner during his or her lifetime
 Scientists use the term monogamy for different
relationships
 Marital monogamy refers to marriage of only
two people
 Social monogamy refers to two partners
living together, having sex with each other,
and cooperating in acquiring basic resources
such as shelter, food and money
 Sexual monogamy refers to two partners
remaining sexually exclusive with each other
and having no outside sex partners
 Genetic monogamy refers to sexually
monogamous relationships with genetic
evidence of paternity
 When cultural or social anthropologists use the
term monogamy, the meaning is social or marital
monogamy which can be distinguished between:
 Marriage once in a lifetime
 Marriage with only one person at a time
(serial monogamy) in contrast to bigamy or
polygamy
Endogamy the practice of marrying within one’s own
group
Exogamy the practice of marrying outside one’s own
group
Homogamy is the practice of marrying someone
similar to you in terms of background, social status, aspirations,
and interests.
B. Bigamy
 the act of entering into a marriage with one
person while still legally married to another
C. Polygamy
 From the Greek word “polygamia” w/c means
marriage to many spouses
 Involves marriage with more than one spouse
Polygyny is a form of marriage in which men have
more than one wife.
Polyandry is a form of marriage in which woman have
more than one husband.
Polyamory is the practice, desire, or acceptance of
having more than one intimate relationship at a time
with the knowledge and consent of everyone involved.
Cenogamy (Group Marriage) All of the men and
women in a group are simultaneously married to each
other.
Polygamy is widely accepted among different societies
worldwide. According to the Ethnographic Atlas, 1, 231
societies are noted to be polygamous.
Cross-Cultural Relationships
• Both parties come together from different families to
build a new unit together
• For many couples this will be a natural set of
compromises to which both partners will adjust
naturally over time, but for others the differences can
be fundamental (finding it difficult to understand the
others way of looking at the world
• Cross-cultural issues faced by couples includes loss of
identity, conflicts over differences in fundamental
beliefs, clashes in parenting tactics, and struggles with
unsupportive families
Tips for Protecting Your Cross-Cultural Marriage:
1. Prioritize your spiritual identity as a Christ follower
over your cultural identity.
2. Prioritize understanding over judging.
3. Everything important to you should be explained to
your spouse rather than assumed.
4. Honor and value your spouse’s parents and extended
family.
5. Negotiate boundaries with your extended families
that are acceptable to each of you. (In a healthy
marriage, parental loyalty should never exceed
spousal loyalty)
6. Give your spouse the benefit of the doubt. (Assume
the best of your spouse rather than the worst)
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 7. Pray daily for wisdom, grace and patience necessary
to treat your spouse with trust and respect.
Lesson 2: Family as the Household
Household
• refers to those who dwell under the same roof and
may or may not compose a family
• A household is composed of one or more people who
occupy a housing unit
• Not all households contain families
Family household consists of 2 or more individuals who
are related by birth, marriage or adoption, although they also
may include other unrelated people.
Nonfamily household consists of people who live alone
or who share their residence with unrelated
individuals.
Family Structures:
A. Nuclear Family
 The nuclear family is the traditional type of family
structure.
 Also called elementary family
 Nuclear families typically center on a married
couple; they may have any number of children
 May refer to married couples with biological
children or stepparent and adopted children
 Alternative definition of nuclear family has
evolved to include family units headed by same-
sex parents
B. Single Parent Family
 A single parent family is a mother with her
children, although there are single fathers as well
 The single parent family is the biggest change
society has seen in terms of the changes in family
structures.
C. Childless Family
 Childless families consist of a husband and wife
living and working together
 The childless family is sometimes the "forgotten
family“ because they don’t have children.
D. Stepfamily
 Over half of all marriages end in divorce, and
many of these individuals choose to get remarried
 This creates the stepfamily, it consists of a new
husband and wife and their children from
previous marriages or relationships.
E. Grandparent Family
 Many grandparents today are raising their
grandchildren for a variety of reasons and the
parents are not present in the child's life.
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F. Extended Family
 The extended family structure consists of two or
more adults who are related, either by blood or
marriage, living in the same home.
 In extended family, the family changes from
immediate household to extended household
 Types of Extended Family:
o Stem Family – parents will live with one child
(married or not) and his or her spouse (if
married)
o Joint Family – Parents and their children’s
families live under a single roof
G. Reconstituted Family
 Also known as blended family
 Joining of two adults via marriage, cohabitation or
civil partnership, who have children from previous
relationships
 In this type of family, the current spouses were
previously married and had children
 Upon the dissolution of their previous marriages,
these individuals remarried and created a new
family by bringing in their children from their past
marriages and often birthing their own
H. Transnational Family
 Members reside separately across territories
 The OFW phenomenon contributes to the
growing number of transnational families as
Filipino parents reside outside the country to
work while their children remain in the home
country to study
Post-marital Residency Rules
• The rules within the society that determine where a
child of a group resides after they get married
• 3 Main Forms of Post-marital Residency (PMR):
o Neolocal Residence
• Neolocal is the pioneer stage of
nuclear family
• They will have isolated conjugal
house not aggregated or formally
situated with other dwellings
• This is an arrangement that requires
both spouses to leave their
households and create their own at
times even in a different locality
• This supports the creation of
nuclear households
• A group consisting of parent(s) and
child(ren) move away from existing
family compounds
o Unilocal Residence
• Patrilocal Residence – when the
boys of the family stay in the family
compound when they marry,
bringing in spouses from elsewhere
  * Virilocal residence is a
less complex rule that
merely requires the wife to
move in to her husband’s
residence without
consideration for the
creation of patrilineal
descent
 Upon marriage, the
woman is expected to
transfer to the residence of
her husband’s father; her
children will be raised by
her husband’s family and
be integrated in their
lineage, allowing for the
creation of patrilineal
descent
 Resources are owned by
men in the family, and
although spouses reside
with the family, they are
still part of the clans where
they were born
 New conjugal residences
(whether room or houses)
are constructed for the
new families
• Matrilocal Residence – when the
girls of the family stay in the family
compound when they marry,
bringing in spouses from elsewhere
 Uxolirical residence is a less
complex rule that merely
requires the husband to
move in to his wife’s
mother’s household
without consideration for
the creation of a • Arises when the father is
matrilineal descent
 Upon marriage, the man is
expected to take residence
with his wife’s mother
area, where they are
expected to raise their
children and integrate
them to the maternal line,
creating a matrilineal
descent
 Resources are owned by
the women of the family
and, although the spouses
can reside with the family,
they are still part of the
clans where they were
born
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 Typically, sisters or related
women and their families
live together and no new
house is built for the new
families
o Multi-local Residence
• Multifamily dwellings
• Other PMR Rules
o Avuncolocal Residence
• Upon marriage, the couple practices
a form of virilocality and raises their
children in the household of the
husband’s father
• However, upon reaching adulthood,
these children will have to be
relocated with their mother’s
brother and live with him and his
household which may consist of his
wife and children and the other
adult male offspring of his sisters
• A complex residency pattern as it
requires two residence transfers
• This practice allows for the creation
of a patrilineage
o Natalocal Residence
• This arrangement allows both
spouses to remain with their own
households after marriage
• The couples will have to arrange for
meetings as the 2 are not living
under one household
• Their children are allowed to choose
which household they would join;
should they choose to join their
father’s household, they will be
integrated in a patrilineal descent
and vice versa
o Matrifocal Residence
economically and physically unable
to provide support for the family,
thereby ascribing the role of sole
provider and caregiver to the
woman
• - In this situation, all of the children
reside with their mother who is part
of her mother’s household
o Ambilocal Residence
• Allows the couple to choose to live
either with the wife’s mother’s area
or the husband’s father’s area
• This often creates an extended
family
Referred Marriage Partners
 • Refers to the partnership relationship of gay or lesbian
marriages and those living together (heterosexual)
and not married
Kinship by Ritual
• This refers to the relationship between and among
godparents and godchildren
• Compadrazgo is a Spanish term meaning “kumpare”
or “kumare”
• In some cases, rituals allow for the inclusion into a
family like the Compadrazgo system
• In this situation, individuals not originally part of the
family are made extended family members by being
godparents of a child of one of the actual family
members
Politics of Kinship
• Refers to the political relationship among the
politicians who have one common agenda
• Aspects of Politics of Kinship
o Political Dynasty
o Political Alliance
• The relationship may either be by blood, affinity,
compadrazgo or simply allies
Lesson 3: Political and Leadership Structures, Authority and
Legitimacy
Political Organization
• Any entity that is involved in the political process
• It includes political institutions, political parties &
political groups
• Engaged in political activities aimed at achieving
clearly defined political goals
Band Society
• Least complex form of political organization, as it has
neither rigid form of governance nor a structured form
of leadership
• Typically consists of 20-50 individuals who are usually
related to one another by virtue of kinship
• 1st: The simplest form of human society
• Due to the close ties between members of this group,
coercion as a form of receiving compliance is not an
option; individuals are made to follow group decision
through social mechanisms such as gossiping,
ostracizing, and being ridiculed
• Decision-making is often made by the entire group
with the eldest member acting as the facilitator
• This band is chiefly based on foraging, which is also
known as hunting and gathering
• This type of economic subsistence allows for greater
mobility of the group as they follow animals and other
food resources
• The eldest in the band takes responsibility as facilitator
in which this form of leadership is informal
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• The extent of leader’s power lies only upon his
capacity to influence the course of dialog in the group
• Bands are egalitarian in social composition
• Individuals in the group have equal access to
resources and values
• Reciprocity is a primary form of exchange among the
members
• Individuals who have lesser capacity to hunt or gather
have equal access to the food that other members are
able to produce
• The drawback of this setting is the emergence of free
riders or those who would partake of their share of the
community’s resources without any attempt to
contribute
• In such cases, bands would usually employ
noncoercive tactics such as ridiculing and gossiping
Tribes
• A political organization that consist of segmentary
lineages
• This type of kinship is marked by loyalty per family
cluster or segment
• Segmentary lineages are composed of immediate
families then cousins, and then distant relatives and
cousins
• This type of kinship grouping allows for the creation of
interdependent generations
• Tribes are less mobile than bands, as their form of
economic subsistence requires a degree of settlement
• Most tribes are either horticultural (shifting
agriculture) or pastoral (tending animals)
• These types of economic systems require individuals
to settle in one are for a specific period either to let
their animals graze or to harvest their crops
• The leaders that are chosen in tribes are individuals
who are believed to possess special skills and
aptitudes that relate to the economic activity
• Hence, should a younger and an older hunter be in a
debate about a decision, the decision-making power
shall be accorded by the members to the person with
greater skills in hunting without considering age
• The segmented nature of tribe’s social dynamics
allows for an economic system that uses redistribution
of commodities among social segments through the
process of tribute
• A tribute is a form of gift that may consist of wealth,
food, or other materials given to a central figure who
in turn redistributes the accumulated goods to the
other members of the society
• Through this process, the products of one group is
shared and consumed by the other groups
Chiefdoms
• More complex than tribes, as these political
organizations consist of a few local communities who
subscribe to the power and rule of a leader who has
absolute power on them
 • The ancient Mayans where known for their complex o Government
and elaborate political system that incorporated • Refers to the aggregates of persons
religion, kinship and politics or institutions which rule the society
• It embodied characteristics that include a political • agency of the state wherein the will
leader with an advisory council, a leader who exercises of the state is manifested
power that is based on legacy, and the existence of • It refers to the organization in
social stratification charge of the management,
• The absolute power is derived from the perceived administration, and governance of
relation of the leader to supernatural forces and the people within the jurisdiction of
powers, which is a form of legitimizing factor the state and the resources within it
• As long as the members of the communities believe • An institution over which the will of
that their leader is a direct descendant of their gods, the state is formulated, expressed,
this leader maintains his sovereignty over the land and carried out
• Once the belief of people shifts, this leader almost o Sovereignty
instantaneously loses power • Refers to the supreme power of the
• Similar to tribes, chiefdoms are tied with horticulture state
and pastoralism • Two Aspects/Dimensions of
• What distinguishes a chiefdom from a tribe is the Sovereignty:
existence of social stratification that segregates  Internal Sovereignty 
society into the elite and commoner The absolute power of the
• The same economic process of redistribution through state to rule its people,
tribute collection is practiced in chiefdom, just like in supreme power of the
a tribe state to command
• The elites are often the relatives of the ruler and are obedience within its
also believed to have divinity or connections to the territory
supernatural  External Sovereignty 
The freedom or
States independence of the state
• Consists of four inherent elements from foreign and external
• Uses absolute power in directing the path of a society control
• the elements of state:
o People To attain societal goals and objectives, a state uses
• Refers to the number of people complete political coerciveness, which may come in the form of
living within a state armed personnel, strict laws, and rigid governmental policies.
• It must be small enough to be The primary form of economic subsistence in this
governed and large enough to be political organization is market exchange.
self-sufficing Standardized currencies are used to exchange
• There is no law requiring the commodities.
number of people a state must have
but it should neither be too small Authority
nor too large • Is the state of possessing power
• This involves all the citizens of a • It is noncoercive because it is based on legitimacy
state, but at certain point, it even • This is the situation wherein you are given the power
includes the foreigners staying in over someone to do something that that someone
the state since they are also covered would otherwise not do
by the sovereignty and protection of
the state Legitimacy
• It is said to be the most essential and • Legitimacy is an important concept related to
indispensable element of the state authority
o Territory • It is a situation wherein the authority of someone is
• This is where the people of a state legitimized by some way
live • Meaning, Authority is being recognized by the people
• It refers to the jurisdiction of the or by the ruled because the authority is legitimized by
state and basically it has 3 domains some way like election (in a democratic country) or by
(aerial, marital and land) succession (in monarchy)
• The determination of territory can • To understand it better, let us see the idea of Max
be seen in UNCLOS Weber with regards to authority and legitimacy

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Max Weber
• outlined three types of authority throughout history:
1. Traditional Authority
 This refers to the kind of authority wherein you
are legitimized by traditions and customs
 On the other side, ordinary people believe that
the monarch has been chosen by God to lead
 Monarchies often hold this form of authority
 Deriving their legitimacy from the masses’ belief
that a particular family deserves the throne or
even that the monarch has a “divine right to rule”
 You become a leader because it is part of a
tradition and not because people want you to
become the leader
 In this kind of setting, one can certainly
understand why the masses follow the political
system’s rule
 To disobey them would mean to disobey God
2. Legal Authority
 Here, legitimacy is based on an established
constitution – a political system’s set of rules for
making new rules – to which the political leaders
adhere
 It can also involve selecting leaders through
elections
 In this kind of authority, one becomes a leader
because there is a process that was followed for
him to be recognized as the leader
 The process of selecting leaders through election
adds to the legitimacy of the policies that the
government produces
3. Charismatic Authority
 In this case, a leader and the system as a whole
becomes legitimate because of the leader’s ability
to inspire or because the people like or feel
attached to the leader
 To Weber, this is the most difficult kind of
authority because there is no clear reason why
your authority is legitimized, the only explanation
is that you become a leader because of your inner
charisma which is God’s given grace
 Thus, you become a leader not because of any
tradition or legal process, you become a leader
because of who you are
 The danger of relying on this form of legitimacy is
it is closely tied to an individual leader If the
leader dies, or somehow falls out of favor with the
masses, the system as a whole is in trouble
 This kind of authority allows the state to impose
its will on the people because they believe that
you are the legitimate authority
 Among the 3 kinds of authority, this is the ideal
authority according to Weber
Understanding Culture, Society and Politics-Reviewer-Finals | 14
Lesson 4: Social Inequality and Stratification
Social stratification
• Hierarchy of positions with regard to economic
production which rewards to those in positions
• Social rewards and expectation to class
Characteristics of Social Stratification:
1. IT IS UNIVERSAL. There is no society on this world
which is free from stratification.
2. IT IS SOCIAL. Factors like age, sex, intelligence are the
bases on which status are distinguished.
3. IT IS ANCIENT. It was present across civilizations.
4. IT IS IN DIVERSE FORMS. Cultural and religious norms
are considered. Romans were composed of plebeians
and patricians while the Indians practice the caste.
5. IT IS CONSEQUENTIAL. Each social class have similar
social chances but the chance varies across society. It
includes chances of survival, good health,
opportunities for education and obtaining of justice.
Functionalist View
• Societies are complex systems of interrelated and
interdependent parts
• Each part of the society has a vital function
• Society is self-regulating system and everyone must
contribute to maintain harmony
Davis and Moore Thesis
• Developed by Kinsley Davis and Wilbert Moore
• Societies are stratified because inequality fulfills an
important part of the social system
• Society must distribute its members across positions
in society
• People must be motivated to fill certain positions and
perform their duties
• Filling of position within a social structure is a basic
need
• Not all positions are equally pleasant
• Rewards must be given
• Most important positions are rewarded most
Weberian Stratification
• Developed by max weber
• Explains the interplay among the following:
o Wealth- includes all the property (economic
situation)
o Prestige- respect with which a person or
status is regarded by others (status situation)
o Power- ability to achieve goals despite
opposition
Types of Social Stratification:
1. Caste  Accompanying rights and obligations are
ascribed on the basis of birth
 2. CLASS-STRATIFICATION  In the basis of class
dominance. Person`s position greatly depends upon
his wealth, achievement and ability.
3. ESTATE SYSTEM  Medieval type of stratification with
the existence of a estate within a state.
4. SLAVERY AND ECONOMIC BASIS  Every slave had his
master to whom he was subjected. The master`s
power over the slave is unlimited.

Social Inequality
• It is the existence of unequal opportunities and
rewards for different social positions or statuses
within a group or society.

Causes of Social Inequality:

1. Access to Social Capital.
 Refers to the resources individuals have access to
as a result of their social, relationship
 It generates differential economic opportunities,
deep problem of justice. Rich overpowers the
poor, blacks are segregated in white community
2. Access to Political Capital.
 Political equality has inscribed the ideas of
democracy and the constitution. Everyone should
participate in governance and benefit from the
government services
3. Access to Symbolic Capital.
 Referred to the honor, prestige or recognition as
one serves the value that holds a society

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