EN1993 Design of Steel Structures

Structural Eurocodes
EN 1993 Design of Steel

Structures
John J Murphy Chartered Engineer
Department of Civil, Structural & Environmental Engineering Cork Institute of Technology

Designers’ guide to Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures
(L Gardner and D A Nethercot) Thomas Telford
Access Steel – website that provides much information on design
to EC3
‘Access Steel is a unique electronic resource to ensure that the
European steel construction community takes maximum advantage
from the commercial opportunities arising from the Eurocodes.
With input from six leading institutes for steel construction in Europe,
it provides harmonised information for clients, architects and
engineers on:
· multi storey commercial buildings
· single storey buildings
· residential construction
· fire safety engineering’
Department of Civil, Structural &
http://www.access-steel.com/
Environmental Engineering Cork
Institute of Technology
Partners
Steel Construction Institute (SCI) (UK)
Centre Technique Industriel de la Construction Metallique (CTICM ) (France)
Stalbyggnadsinstutet – Swedish Institute of Steel Construction (SBI) (Sweden)
Rheinish-Westfalische Technische Hochschule Aachen (RWTH) (Germany)
Labein Tecnalia (Spain)
Profilarbed Research (PARE) (Luxembourg)
Sponsors
Arcelor-Mittal, Corus, Peiner Träger, Voest Alpine, Ruuki, Dillinger, SSAB

EN 1993-1-1: General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1993-1-2: Structural fire design
EN 1993-1-3: Cold formed thin gauge members and sheeting
EN 1993-1-4: Structures in stainless steel
EN 1993-1-5: Strength and stability of planar plated
structures without transverse loading
EN 1993-1-6: Strength and stability of shell structures
EN 1993-1-7: Strength and stability of plate structures loaded transversally
EN 1993-1-8: Design of joints
EN 1993-1-9: Fatigue strength
EN 1993-1-10: Fracture toughness assessment
EN 1993-1-11: Design of structures with tension components made of steel
EN 1993-1-12: Use of high strength steels

Symbols
BS5950 A x,y r Z S I J H
EC3 A y,z i Wel Wpl I It Iw
BS5950 py pb pc P M V B,D d T,t

EC3 fy χLTfy χfy N M V B,h d tf,tw

Table 3.1: fy fu
Clause 3.2.6 E = 210000 N/mm2 G ≈ 81000 N/mm2, ν = 0.3

S275: t < 40 mm fy = 275 N/mm2 fu = 430 N/mm2
40 mm < t < 80 mm fy = 255 N/mm2 fu = 410 N/mm2
Material properties taken from EN 10025-2, which gives additional
values for different thicknesses.
So for S275 16 mm < t < 40 mm fy = 265 N/mm2. Table 3.1 is a
simplification of EN 10025-2.
5.5 Classification of cross sections

Table 5.2 {ε = √(235/fy)} Class 1,2,3,4

5 Structural Analysis
5.1.1 (2) Calculation model and basic assumptions should reflect

structural behaviour.
5.1.2 (2) Depending on joint behaviour – simple, continuous, semi-
continuous
5.2.1 (3) First order analysis when αcr = Fcr/FEd ≥ 10 elastic analysis
15 plastic analysis
Fcr: Elastic critical buckling load FEd: Design load

5.2.1(4) For portal frames and beam-column plane
frames, providing axial compression in beams/ rafters is
not significant,
 H Ed  h 
αcr =  
Af


N δ H , Ed
  H Ed

 h



λ <V0Ed
y

.3  
Ed  VEd  δ H ,Ed 
Af y
provided λ < 0.3
N Ed
which translates as NEd/Ncr ≤ 0.09

HEd: Design horizontal load at bottom of storey
 H  h 
 
Ed 
VEd: Design  
 V  δvertical
Ed 
H , Ed load at bottom of storey
h: Storey height
δH,Ed: Horizontal displacement of top of storey
relative to bottom of storey
5.2.2 Structural stability of frames
5.2.2 (3) b) Second order effects accounted for partially by

global analysis and partially through individual member
stability checks according to 6.3
5.2.2 (5) If αcr ≥ 3, amplify all horizontal loads by

1
1− 1
αcr
If αcr < 3, second order analysis is necessary

Second order effects likely to arise in unbraced structures
and in bracing design of braced structures

5.3 Imperfections
5.3.2 (3) a) Global initial sway imperfection: φ = φ0 * αh * φm

φ0: Initial value =1/200
αh: Reduction factor for column height = 2/√h (2/3 ≤ αh ≤ 1)
(h: structure height)
φm: Reduction factor for number of columns in a row =
(
0 .5 1 + 1
m
)
Recommendation (SCI) - use φ0 i.e let αh = φm = 1.0

5.3.2 (3) b) Relative initial local bow imperfection (Table 5.1)
5.3.4 (1) ..taken into account using checks in 6.3 provided
Af y
λ < 0 .5
N Ed
which translates as NEd/Ncr ≤ 0.25
Use equivalent horizontal forces (EHF’s) for

all load combinations

6 Ultimate limit states
6.1 Material factors γM

γM0 = 1.00 (cross-sections) γM1 = 1.00 (Buckling)
γM2 = 1.25 (Fracture) (1.1 in UK)
6.2.3 Tension
(1) NEd ≤ Nt,Rd
(2) Npl,Rd = Afy/γM0 gross section
(3) Nu,Rd = 0.9Anetfu/γM2 bolt holes
EN 1993-1-8: 4.13(2) For equal angle leg or unequal angle

connected (by welding) by its larger leg Aeff = Agross
EN 1993-1-8: 3.10.3(2) Nu,Rd – formulae for resistance of angle

connected through one leg using 1,2 or 3+ bolts
6.2.4 Compression
(1) NEd ≤ Nc,Rd

(2) Nc,Rd = Afy/γM0 (class 1,2,3)
Aefffy/γM0 (class 4)
EN 1993-1-5 Clause 4.4:

Aeff is determined by excluding ineffective portion of
section.

6.2.5 Bending moment
(1) MEd ≤ Mc,Rd
(2) Mc,Rd = Mpl,Rd = Wplfy/γM0 (class 1,2)

Wel,minfy/γM0 (class 3)
Weff,minfy/γM0 (class 4)
(4) Fastener holes in tension flange may be ignored provided:

Af,net 0.9fu/ γM2 ≥ Af fy/ γM0

6.2.6 Shear
(1) VEd ≤ Vc,Rd
(2) Vpl,Rd = Av(fy/√3)/γM0
(3) I section Av = A – 2btf + (tw + 2r)tf but not less than ηhwtw
(6) Shear buckling if hw/tw > 72ε/η
η may be conservatively taken as 1
EN1993-1-5 Clause 5.1 Note 2: η = 1.2 up to and including S460;
otherwise 1
6.2.8 Bending and shear
(2) VEd1 ≤ 0.5Vpl,Rd – no effect on Mc,Rd

(3) Reduced moment resistance: reduced design yield strength (1-ρ)fy
2
 2VEd 
ρ =  − 1

 V pl , Rd  Department of Civil, Structural &
6.2.9 Bending and axial force
6.2.9.1 Class 1 and 2 cross-sections

(4) Axial force can be ignored:
yy axis: if NEd ≤ 0.25Npl,Rd and NEd ≤ 0.5hwtwfy/γM0
zz axis: if NEd ≤ hwtwfy/γM0
(5) Values of reduced moment capacities: MN,y,Rd, MN,z,Rd
α β
(6)  M   M 
y , Ed z , Ed
  +   ≤ 1
 M N , y , Rd   M N , z , Rd 

Conservative alternative for all sections: 6.2.1 (7)
NEd My,Ed Mz,Ed

+ + ≤1 Eq 6.2
NRd My,Rd Mz,Rd
As buckling is generally critical and will ‘override’ Eq.

6.2, the more exact equations in 6.2.9 need not generally
be considered.

6.3 Buckling resistance of members
Elastic buckling theory (Euler)

Ncr = π2EI/l2 for ideal strut
This value is modified by various imperfections:
Geometric imperfections (initial curvature)
Eccentricity of loading
Residual stresses (‘locked-in’ due to differential cooling)
Non-homogeneity of material properties
End restraints
These are taken into account in the Perry-Robertson formula

σ y + (1 + η )σ E
σ cr =
2
− {((σ y + (1 + η )σ E ) / 2) 2
− σ yσ E }
EC3 provides solution for this equation. Effectively σcr = χfy

6.3.1 Uniform members in compression
6.3.1.1 Buckling resistance

(1) NEd ≤ Nb,Rd
(3) Nb,Rd = χAfy/ γM1 (class 1,2,3)
χAefffy/ γM1 (class 4)

6.3.1.2 Buckling curves
(1)
χ=
1 (but ≤ 1) ϕ = 0,5[1 + α (λ − 0.2) + λ
2 2
]
ϕ + ϕ2 − λ2
Af y Aeff f y
λ = (class 1,2,3) λ = (class 4)
N cr N cr
α: imperfection
λ ≤ 0 .2
factor (Table 6.1) (Table 6.2)
Ncr: Elastic critical buckling load
χ (chi) can also be obtained from Figure 6.4
(4) If λ ≤ 0.2 ( N Ed ≤ 0.04 N cr ) buckling effects can be ignored

6.3.1.3 Slenderness for flexural buckling
fcr = Ncr/A = π2EI/Al2 = π2EAi2/Al2 = π2E/λ2
Letting fcr = fy limiting slenderness λ1 = π (E/fy)0.5 = 93.9ε

λ = Lcr/iz
λ = λλ : non-dimensional slenderness
1
(ratio of actual slenderness to slenderness at boundary between
yielding and elastic buckling) = π(E/fcr)0.5/ (π(Efy)0.5) = (fy/fcr)0.5
Af y
=
N cr

6.3.2 Uniform members in bending
Beam behaviour analogous to column behaviour
Beam subject to equal moments at each end
0 .5
π EI z  I w
2
Lcr GI t 
2
M cr = 2  + 2 
Lcr  I z π EI z 
This is expanded to:

0 .5
π EI2  k  I 2
L GI
2 
M cr = C1 2
z
   w + cr2 t
+ C2zg 
2
− C2zg
L cr   k w  I z π EI z 
for other load situations.

Mcr: Elastic critical buckling load
C1, C2, k, kw: constants

zg: Eccentricity of load relative to centroid of beam
(destabilizing load)
C1: depends on moment diagram
k, kw: depend on support conditions (generally 1)
C2: does not apply when zg = 0 (non destabilizing
loads)

NCCI SN003a-EN-EU and NCCI SN006a-EN-EU (cantilevers)
provide information on calculation of Mcr.
Program to calculate Mcr can be downloaded from
http://www.cticm.eu
The results for buckling and lateral torsional buckling are similar to
those in BS5950 (Annex C – buckling (exact), Annex B – lateral
torsional buckling)
6.3.2.1 Buckling resistance

(1) MEd ≤ Mb,Rd
(3) Mb,Rd = χLTWyfy/γM1
Wy = Wpl,y (class 1,2) Wy = Wel,y (class 3) Wy = Weff,y (class 4)
6.3.2.2 Lateral torsional buckling curves – General case
(1) 1
χ LT = 2 2 (but ≤ 1)
ϕ LT + ϕ LT − λ LT
[ ( 2
ϕ LT = 0,5 1 + α LT λLT − 0.2 + λLT ) 2
]
Wy f y
λLT =
M cr
αLT: imperfection factor (Table 6.3) (Table 6.4)
(3) χLT can also be obtained from Figure 6.4
(4) If λLT ≤ 0.4 ( M Ed ≤ 0.16 M cr ) buckling effects can be ignored

NCCI SN002a: Simplified assessment of
1 λ
λLT =
C1
0 .9 z
λ1 where λz = Lcr/iz, λ1 = π√(E/fy)
Ψ (= M1/M2) C1 (Designers’ Guide) C1 (SN003a)

1 1.000 1.00
.75 1.141 1.14
.5 1.323 1.31
.25 1.563 1.62
0 1.879 1.77
-.25 2.281 2.05
-.5 2.704 2.33
-.75 2.927 2.57
-1 2.752 2.55
pinned, udl 1.132 1.127
pinned, central P 1.365 1.348
C1 = 1.88 – 1.4ψ + 0.5 ψ (C ≤ 2.70) 2
Environmental Engineering
1
Cork
6.3.2.3 Lateral torsional buckling curves for rolled
sections or equivalent welded sections
(1) For members in bending (beams)
1
χ LT =
ϕ LT + ϕ LT 2 − βλLT 2
1
but ≤ 1 and ≤ 2
λLT
[
ϕ LT = 0,5 1 + α LT (λLT 2 − λLT , 0 ) + βλLT 2 ]
λLT ,0 = 0.4
β = 0.75

αLT: imperfection factor (Table 6.3) (Table 6.5)
(2) χLT,mod = χLT/f (≤ 1)
[
f = 1 − 0.5(1 − kc 1 − 2.0(λLT − 0.8) 2 ] (≤ 1)
kc: Table 6.6
6.3.2.3 used for rolled sections of ‘standard’ dimensions

6.3.2.2 can be used for all sections including plate girders
(bigger than ‘standard’ sections), castellated and cellular
beams

6.3.3 Uniform members in bending and compression
For Class 1,2,3 sections, Equations 6.61 and 6.62 reduce to:
N Ed M y ,Ed M Z ,Ed
+ k yy + k yz ≤1 Eq. 6.61
N b , y ,Rd M b ,Rd M c , z ,Rd
N Ed M y ,Ed M Z ,Ed Eq.6.62

+ k zy + k zz ≤1
Nb,z ,Rd M b,Rd M c ,z ,Rd

k values in Annex A, Annex B.
Annex A is more precise (French-Belgian)
Annex B is easier to use (Austrian-German)
Table B.3:
If ψ =1 (uniform moment in column – no lateral load on column)
Cmy = Cmz = CmLT = 1
If ψ =0 (M varies from 0 to Mmax – no lateral load on column) Cmy
= Cmz = CmLT = 0.6
Members susceptible to torsional deformations:
(Table B.2/ Table B.1)

(Table B.2/ Table B.1) λz < 0.4 (I sections)
 0.1λz N Ed   0.1 N Ed 
kzy = MAX 1 − , 1 − 
 (CmLT − 0.25) Nb,z ,Rd   (CmLT − .25) Nb,z ,Rd 
  N Ed   N Ed  
k yy = MIN Cmy 1 + (λ y − 0.2) , Cmy 1 + 0.8 
  N b , y ,Rd   N b , yRd  
  N Ed   N Ed  
k zz = MIN Cmz 1 + (2λz − 0.6) , Cmz 1 + 1.4 
  N b, z ,Rd   N b, z ,Rd  
kyz = 0.6kzz kzy = 0.6kyy

For columns in simple construction N generally dominates,
UC sections are less likely to buckle about yy axis →
Equation 6.62 likely to be critical.
As N dominates, k values can be chosen conservatively
Access Steel (NCCI SN048b-EN-GB) suggests kzy= 1, kzz=
1.5 (conservatively)
N Ed M y ,Ed M Z ,Ed
+ + 1.5 ≤1
N b , z ,Rd M b ,Rd M c , z ,Rd

7 Serviceability limit states
Deflections to be agreed with client – BS5950 values proposed in

UK National Annex
Guidance is also provided in NCCI SN034a-EN-EU
Cantilever: Length/180
Beams carrying plaster or other brittle finish: Span/360
Other beams: Span/200
Horizontal deflection limits also provided

EN 1993-1-8 Design of Joints
Table 2.1 Partial safety factors for joints

Bolts, Plates in bearing, Welds γM2 = 1.25 (UK: 1.5 for grade 4.6)
Slip resistance at sls γM3,ser = 1.1
Preload of high strength bolts γM7 = 1.1
2.5 Design Assumptions (1) Joints should be designed on the

basis of a realistic assumption of the distribution of internal
forces and moments. Identify a load path through the joint and
check ‘all links in chain’.

2.7 Eccentricity at connections
Table 3.1 Bolt strength fy, fu
3 Connections made with bolts, rivets or pins

3.1.2 Preloaded bolts
Table 3.2
Bearing: Fv,Ed ≤ Fv,Rd Fv,Ed ≤ Fb,Rd
Slip (sls): Fv,Ed,ser ≤ Fv,Rd,ser Fv,Ed ≤ Fv,Rd Fv,Ed ≤ Fb,Rd
(use grade 8.8 or 10.9)
Tension: Include prying action

Table 3.3 End, edge distances (e) Spacings (p)
(d0 – bolt hole diameter)
e1, p1: Parallel to load e2, p2: Perpendicular to load
3.6.1 (2) Preload in bolts: Fp,Cd = 0.7 fub As / γM7
(10) Single lap joints with one bolt row
(12) Bolts through packing
Table 3.4 Design resistance

Shear resistance Fv,Rd = αv fub As/ γM2 αv = 0.6 or 0.5
Bearing resistance Fb,Rd = k1 ab fu d t/ γM2
ab = Min. (ad, fub/fu, 1) end bolts ad = e1/3do
inner bolts ad = p1/3do – 0.25
k1 = Min. (2.8 e2/do -1.7, 2.5) edge bolts
k1 = Min. (1.4 e2/do -1.7, 2.5) inner bolts
Tension & Combined Shear andof Civil,

Department Tension also
Structural & included
3.8 Long joints
3.9 Design slip resistance Fs,Rd = (ksnµ)Fp,C)/ γM3

ks = 1 for bolts in normal holes (Table 3.6)
n is the number of friction surfaces
µ: slip factor (Table 3.7)
Class A: shot/ grit blasted, spray metallised with aluminium or zinc
based coating certified to provide a slip factor of 0.5
Class B: shot/ grit blasted, painted with alkali-zinc silicate paint to
produce a thickness of 50 – 80 µm
Class C: wire brushed or flame cleaned
Class D: untreated
3.10.2 Design for block tearing

(2) Veff,1,Rd = fu Ant / γM2 + (1/√3)fy Anv/ γM0 Eq 3.9
γM2 + (1/of√Civil,
(3) Veff,2,Rd = 0.5 fu Ant/ Department y Anv/ γM0
3)fStructural & Eq 3.10
Section 4 Welded connections
4.5.2 Effective throat thickness

4.5.3.2 Directional method
4.5.3.3 Simplified method for the design resistance of fillet weld
(1) Fw,Ed ≤ Fw,Rd
(2) Fw,Rd = fvw,d * a (throat thickness) = 0.7 * leg length
(3) fvw,d = fu/(√3 *β * γM2) β: Table 4.1 (= 0.85 for S275)
5 Analysis, classification and modelling
Table 5.1 Joint modelling
6 Structural Joints connecting H or I sections
Table 6.1 Basic joint components

Table 6.2 Design resistance of a T-stub
Column Base plate
6.2.8.2, Figure 6.19
6.2.5 Equivalent T-stub in compression
(3) FC,Rd = fjd * beff * leff
(7) fjd = βj FRdu/ (beff leff) βj = ⅔
EN 1992-1-1 Clause 3.1.6 (1) fcd = αcc fck / γc; αcc = 1, γc = 1.5
NCCI SN037a fjd = βj * α * fcd (α = 1.5)
N  N j ,Ed 
2

 j , Ed 1 
Ac , 0 = MAX
 f
,   
 jd hc b fc  f jd  

Large projection
Short projection (when Ac,0 < 0.95bh) base plate
Select plate dimensions – determine c (Figure 6.4)
Min. outstand: tf
6.2.5(4) t = c 3 f jd γ M 0
p
fy 3f γ jd M0
tp = c
fy

EN 1993-1-5 Plated structural elements
Section 6 Resistance to transverse forces (web bearing and

buckling)
Figure 6.1 kF
6.2 Design resistance FRd =(fywLefftw)/ γM1
Leff = χFly
6.3 Length of stiff bearing
0 .5
6.4 Reduction factor χF = ≤ 1 .0
λF
3
l y t w f yw tw
λF = Fcr = 0.9k F E
Fcr hw

6.5 Effective loaded length
m1 = fyfbf/fywtw
m2 = 0.02 (hw/tf)2 if λF > 0.5,

0 if λF ≤ 0.5
ly is the minimum of:
2
m1  le 
le + t f + + m2 , le + t f m1 + m2

2 tf  
2
k F Etw
le = but ≤ ss + c
2 f ywhw
FEd
6.6 Verification η2 = ≤1
( f yw Leff t w ) / γ M 1
Effective lengths
Truss members: EN 1993-1-1:

Annex BB.1.1: Lcr = L (for chord members)
Annex BB.1.2 (angles as web members):
λeff ,v = 0.35 + 0.7λv λeff , y = 0.50 + 0.7λ y λeff ,z = 0.35 + 0.7λz
Members in compression – ends held in position (BS5950 – in

absence of EC3 guidance)
Both ends effectively restrained in direction 0.7L
Partially restrained in direction at both ends 0.85L
Restrained in direction at one end 0.85L
Not restrained in direction at either end 1.0L
Members in bending – compression flange laterally
restrained, nominal torsional restraint against rotation
about longitudinal axis at supports (NCCI SN009a)
Support conditions K
Both flanges fully restrained against 0.7
rotation on plan
Compression flange fully restrained 0.75
against rotation on plan
Both flanges partially restrained against 0.8
rotation on plan
Compression flange partially restrained 0.85
against rotation on plan
Both flanges free toDepartment
rotate on plan
of Civil, Structural &
1.0
NCCI SN005a:
Simple construction – assume loads applied at 100 mm

from face of column (flange or web). Resulting moment
can be distributed between upper and lower levels in
accordance with stiffness

End Plate NCCI: SN013, SN014
Use full depth end plate if VEd > 0.75 Vc,Rd
Min. number of bolts = VEd/75
Plate dimensions
Beam tp bp Cross-centres
depth (mm) (mm) (mm)
< 500 mm 8, 10 150 90
> 500 mm 10 200 140
Weld size (S275):
Beam web (mm) 9 12 15

Throat (mm) 4 5.5 7
Leg length (mm) 6 8 10
Bolts in shear: Shear resistance multiplied by 0.8 to account for
presence of some tension in bolts
End plate in shear (gross section): Shear resistance divided by
1.27 to allow for bending moment in plate
Weld design: Shear resistance divided by 1.27 to allow for
bending moment in plate
End plate in shear (block shear): may need to consider Veff,1,Rd
(3.10.2 (2)) and Veff,2,Rd (3.10.2 (3))
End plate in bending – when bolt cross-centre distance is large,
bending in plate reduces shear resistance
Beam web in shear to be checked for depth = plate depth
Weld design a ≥ 0.39tw,b1
Ductility requirements: d f ub
tp ≤
2.8 f y, p


EN1993 Design of Steel Structures

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EN 1993 Design of Steel

Department of Civil, Structural & Environmental Engineering Cork Institute of Technology

Centre Technique Industriel de la Construction Metallique (CTICM ) (France)

Stalbyggnadsinstutet – Swedish Institute of Steel Construction (SBI) (Sweden)

Rheinish-Westfalische Technische Hochschule Aachen (RWTH) (Germany)

Labein Tecnalia (Spain)

Profilarbed Research (PARE) (Luxembourg)

Arcelor-Mittal, Corus, Peiner Träger, Voest Alpine, Ruuki, Dillinger, SSAB

Department of Civil, Structural &

Department of Civil, Structural &

BS5950 py pb pc P M V B,D d T,t

Department of Civil, Structural &

Clause 3.2.6 E = 210000 N/mm2 G ≈ 81000 N/mm2, ν = 0.3

5.5 Classification of cross sections

Department of Civil, Structural &

5.1.1 (2) Calculation model and basic assumptions should reflect

Department of Civil, Structural &

which translates as NEd/Ncr ≤ 0.09

5.2.2 (3) b) Second order effects accounted for partially by

5.2.2 (5) If αcr ≥ 3, amplify all horizontal loads by

If αcr < 3, second order analysis is necessary

Department of Civil, Structural &

5.3.2 (3) a) Global initial sway imperfection: φ = φ0 * αh * φm

Department of Civil, Structural &

which translates as NEd/Ncr ≤ 0.25

Use equivalent horizontal forces (EHF’s) for

Department of Civil, Structural &

6.1 Material factors γM

EN 1993-1-8: 4.13(2) For equal angle leg or unequal angle

EN 1993-1-8: 3.10.3(2) Nu,Rd – formulae for resistance of angle

(1) NEd ≤ Nc,Rd

EN 1993-1-5 Clause 4.4:

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(1) MEd ≤ Mc,Rd

(2) Mc,Rd = Mpl,Rd = Wplfy/γM0 (class 1,2)

(4) Fastener holes in tension flange may be ignored provided:

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(2) VEd1 ≤ 0.5Vpl,Rd – no effect on Mc,Rd

6.2.9.1 Class 1 and 2 cross-sections

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NEd My,Ed Mz,Ed

As buckling is generally critical and will ‘override’ Eq.

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Elastic buckling theory (Euler)

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EC3 provides solution for this equation. Effectively σcr = χfy

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6.3.1.1 Buckling resistance

(3) Nb,Rd = χAfy/ γM1 (class 1,2,3)

χAefffy/ γM1 (class 4)

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Letting fcr = fy limiting slenderness λ1 = π (E/fy)0.5 = 93.9ε

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This is expanded to:

for other load situations.

C1, C2, k, kw: constants

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6.3.2.1 Buckling resistance

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Ψ (= M1/M2) C1 (Designers’ Guide) C1 (SN003a)

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