AC circuits as the name (Alternating Current) implies are simply circuits powered by an

Alternating Source, either voltage or current. An Alternating Current or Voltage, is one in

which the value of either the voltage or the current varies about a particular mean value and
reverses direction periodically.

Electromagnetic Induction is the process of using magnetic fields to

produce voltage, and in a closed circuit, a current.
So how much voltage (emf) can be induced into the coil using just
magnetism. Well this is determined by the following 3 different factors.
 1). Increasing the number of turns of wire in the coil – By increasing the
amount of individual conductors cutting through the magnetic field, the
amount of induced emf produced will be the sum of all the individual
loops of the coil, so if there are 20 turns in the coil there will be 20 times
more induced emf than in one piece of wire.
 2). Increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the
magnet – If the same coil of wire passed through the same magnetic field
but its speed or velocity is increased, the wire will cut the lines of flux at a
faster rate so more induced emf would be produced.
 3). Increasing the strength of the magnetic field – If the same coil of wire
is moved at the same speed through a stronger magnetic field, there will
be more emf produced because there are more lines of force to cut.

An Electromotive Force or EMF is said to be induced when the flux linking

with a conductor or coil changes.
This change in flux can be obtained in two different ways; that is
by statically or by dynamically induced emf. They are explained below:

1. STATICALLY INDUCED EMF

This type of EMF is generated by keeping the coil and the magnetic field
system, stationary at the same time; that means the change in flux linking
with the coil takes place without either moving the conductor (coil) or the
field system.

This change of flux produced by the field system linking with the coil is
obtained by changing the electric current in the field system.

It is further divided in two ways

 Self-induced electromotive force (emf which is induced in the coil due

to the change of flux produced by it linking with its own turns.)
 Mutually induced electromotive force(emf which is induced in the coil
due to the change of flux produced by another coil, linking with it.)

2. DYNAMICALLY INDUCED EMF

In dynamically induced electromotive force the magnetic field system is
kept stationary, and the conductor is moving, or the magnetic field system is
moving, and the conductor is stationary. Thus by following either of the two
process the conductor cuts across the magnetic field and the emf is induced
in the coil.

This phenomenon takes place in electric generators and back emf of motors
and also in transformers.

Faraday's law states “that a voltage is induced in a circuit whenever

relative motion exists between a conductor and a magnetic field and that
the magnitude of this voltage is proportional to the rate of change of the
flux”. This relates the rate of change of magnetic flux through a loop to the
magnitude of the electro-motive force induced in the loop. The
relationship is
The electromotive force or EMF refers to the potential difference across
the unloaded loop (i.e. when the resistance in the circuit is high). In
practice it is often sufficient to think of EMF as voltage since both voltage
and EMF are measured using the same unit, the volt.

Lenz's law is a consequence of conservation of energy applied to

electromagnetic induction. It was formulated by Heinrich Lenz in 1833.
While Faraday's law tells us the magnitude of the EMF produced, Lenz's
law tells us the direction that current will flow. It states that the direction is
always such that it will oppose the change in flux which produced it. This
means that any magnetic field produced by an induced current will be in
the opposite direction to the change in the original field.

Lenz's law is typically incorporated into Faraday's law with a minus sign,
the inclusion of which allows the same coordinate system to be used for
both the flux and EMF. The result is sometimes called the Faraday-Lenz
law,

In practice we often deal with magnetic induction in multiple coils of wire

each of which contribute the same EMF. For this reason an additional
term NNN representing the number of turns is often included, i.e.

Emf induced in a moving conductor. The emf induced in a straight conductor of

length l moving with velocity v perpendicular to a magnetic field B is

1) E = Blv
E = dW/dq. That is, the emf is the work done on the circulating charge per unit charge
(coulomb) displaced past a point of the circuit. Let us consider Fig. in which a moving
conductor ab of length l slides along a stationary U-shaped conductor, where the loop is in a
plane perpendicular to a magnetic field B. If conductor ab moves to the right at a velocity v, a
current I will flow in the loop adcb. Remembering that a magnetic field exerts a force of F
= lIB on a long, straight current-carrying conductor perpendicular to the field, we note that
the current I moving through the moving conductor ab will cause a side-thrust to the left on
ab of

F=lIB

Because of this side-thrust, an external force provided by some working agent is required to
maintain the motion. The work done by this agent is the work done on the circulating charge.
There is a direct conversion here of mechanical energy to electrical energy.

The distance moved in time t is

ds = vdt

and the work done is

dW = Fds = l I B∙vdt

Now the product of I and dt is the charge dq displaced in this time, so

dW = Blvdq

or
 dW/dq = Blv

Since E = dW/dq,

E = Blv

where B, l and v are mutually perpendicular. The emf is in volts when B is in webers/m2, l is
in meters, and v is in m/sec.

If the velocity vector v makes an angle θ with the direction of the magnetic field, 1) becomes

2) E = Blv sin θ

Connect a conducting rod C to a sensitive galvanometer, as shown in Fig. 1, and pass the rod
down between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. When we do this, a deflection of the
galvanometer needle occurs, indicating a current. When the rod is held stationary in the field,
no current flows. Current only flows when the rod is moving within the magnetic field. When
the rod is moved upward within the field, current flows in the opposite direction from which
it flows when the rod is moved down. In addition, we discover that the faster the rod is passed
through the field, the greater is the deflection of the needle. Thus moving the rod quickly
through the field gives a greater current. Let us move the rod laterally between the poles,
parallel to the flux lines. No current flows when we do this. Current only flows when we cut
across flux lines. Let us consider another experiment. Let us connect a galvanometer to a
spool of insulated wire as shown in Fig. 2 and plunge a bar magnet down inside the hole in
the spool. Again, the galvanometer needle deflects, indicating a current. When the magnet is
withdrawn, the galvanometer indicates a current in the opposite direction. The faster it is
plunged down, the stronger is the current produced. When the flux lines of the magnet cross
the wire in the coils, current is produced.

When a conductor cuts through lines of magnetic flux or when the magnetic flux field
changes in strength around a conductor, an emf is generated (induced) in the conductor. This
emf is called an induced emf. If the conductor forms part of a circuit, as in the above cases
where it is connected to a galvanometer, that emf produces a current. The current is called
an induced current. The phenomenon we are talking about is called electromagnetic
induction.

Transformers are electrical devices consisting of two or more coils of wire used to transfer
electrical energy by means of a changing magnetic field.

The transformer, converting electrical energy from one value to another by linking together
two or more electrical circuits using a common oscillating magnetic circuit which is produced
by the transformer itself. A transformer operates on the principals of “electromagnetic
induction”, in the form of Mutual Induction.
Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically induces a voltage into
another coil located in close proximity to it. Then we can say that transformers work in the
“magnetic domain”, and transformers get their name from the fact that they “transform” one
voltage or current level into another.
Transformers are capable of either increasing (Step Up) or decreasing (Step Down) the
voltage and current levels of their supply, without modifying its frequency, or the amount of
electrical power being transferred from one winding to another via the magnetic circuit.
Inductance: A current generated in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is proportional
to the rate of change of the magnetic field. This effect is called INDUCTANCE and is given
the symbol L. It is measured in units called the henry (H) named after the American
Physicist Joseph Henry (1797-1878).

One henry is the amount of inductance required to produce an emf of 1 volt in a

conductor when the current in the conductor changes at the rate of 1 Ampere per
second. The Henry is a rather large unit for use in electronics, with the milli-henry (mH)
and micro-henry (µH) being more common. These units describe one thousandth and
one millionth of a henry respectively.

The amount of inductance in an inductor is dependent on:

a. The number of turns of wire in the inductor.
b. The material of the core.
c. The shape and size of the core.
d. The shape, size and arrangement of the wire making up the coils.

Energy stored in a magnetic field

When a conductor carries a current, a magnetic field surrounding the conductor is produced.
The resulting magnetic flux is proportional to the current. If the current changes, the change
in magnetic flux is proportional to the time-rate of change in current by a factor called
inductance (L). Since nature abhors rapid change, a voltage (electromotive force , EMF)
produced in the conductor opposes the change in current, which is also proportional to the
change in magnetic flux. Thus, inductors oppose change in current by producing a voltage
that,in turn, creates a current to oppose the change in magnetic flux; the voltage is
proportional to the change in current.

Energy Stored in Magnetic Field

Let’s consider Fig 1, an example of a solenoid (ℓ: length, N: number of turns, I:

current, A: cross-section area) that works as an inductor. From Eq. 1, the energy
stored in the magnetic field created by the solenoid is:

Magnetic Field Created By A Solenoid: Magnetic field created by a solenoid (cross-sectional view)
described using field lines. Energy is “stored” in the magnetic field.
Resonance in an AC circuit refers to that state of the circuit in which the inductive
reactance of the circuit is equal to its capacitive reactance. The value of angular
frequency of alternating emf (or potential difference across the power source), for which,
resonance is established in the circuit is called resonance frequency.