Sbma1403 PDF

Faculty of Science and Technology
SBMA1403
Essential Mathematics
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

SBMA1403
ESSENTIAL
MATHEMATICS
Murni Mohd Yasin
Mohd Noor Hafiziee Zulkaflee
Assoc Prof Dr Maselan @ Mazlan Ali

Project Directors: Prof Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Norlia T. Goolamally
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Murni Mohd Yasin
Mohd Noor Hafiziee Zulkaflee
Kolej Matrikulasi Negeri Sembilan
Assoc Prof Dr Maselan @ Mazlan Ali
Moderators: Assoc Prof Dr Maslina Darus
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Dr Safiah Md Yusof
Prof Dr Mohd Kidin Shahran
Dr Joshua Tan Juat Huan
Dr Liong Choong Yuen
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Translator: Raziana Che Aziz
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology
First Edition, August 2011

Second Edition, April 2015 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2015, SBMA1403

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide ix - xiii
Topic 1 Numbers 1
1.1 Number System 1
1.1.1 Types of Numbers 2
1.1.2 Number Line 4
1.1.3 Inequality 4
1.1.4 Intervals 6
1.1.5 Absolute Values 8
1.2 Significant Figures 9
1.3 Standard Form 12
1.4 Addition and Subtraction in Standard Form 14
1.5 Multiplication and Division in Standard Form 19
Summary 24
Key Terrms 25
Self-Assessment 1 25
Topic 2 Indices and Logarithms 28

2.1 Indices and the Laws of Indices 28
2.2 Logarithms 39
2.3 Fundamental Laws of Logarithms 42
2.4 Equations Involving Indices and Logarithms 44
Summary 47
Key Terrms 48
Topic 3 Sets 50
3.1 Sets 50
3.1.1 Sets 51
3.1.2 Subsets 51
3.1.3 Defining a Set 54
3.1.4 Universal Sets 55
3.2 Intersections and Unions 56
3.2.1 Intersection of Sets 56

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.2.2 Union of Sets 57

3.2.3 Complement of a Set 57
3.2.4 Difference of Two Sets 60
3.3 Number of Elements in a Finite Set 63
3.3.1 Number of Elements in a Finite Set 63
Summary 66
Key Terrms 67
Topic 4 Base Numbers 70

4.1 Base-2 Numbers 70
4.2 Base-8 Numbers 75
4.3 Addition of Base-2 and Base-8 Numbers 80
Summary 82
Key Terrms 85
Topic 5 Straight Lines 88

5.1 Gradient of a Straight Line 88
5.2 Gradient, Distance and Midpoint of a Straight Line 89
5.3 Intercepts 95
5.4 Equation of a Straight Line 96
5.4.1 Points on a Straight Line 96
5.4.2 Write and Sketch Equation of a Straight Line 98
5.4.3 Determine the Gradient and the Y- Intercept of 102
a Straight Line
5.4.4 Find the Equation of a Straight Line Given a
Point and its Gradient 103
5.5 Sketching of a Straight Line 107
Summary 108
Key Terrms 109
Topic 6 Simultaneous Equations 112

6.1 Simultaneous Equations in Two Variables 113
6.2 Elimination Method 114
6.3 Substitution Method 119
Summary 122

TABLE OF CONTENTS v
Key Terrms 122

Topic 7 Functions 124

7.1 Function and its Properties 124
7.1.1 Function 125
7.1.2 Notation and Terms 125
7.1.3 Domain and Range 126
7.2 Polynomial Functions 129
7.2.1 Quadratic Functions 130
7.2.2 Cubic Functions 136
7.3 Simple Ratio Functions 142
7.3.1 Reciprocal Functions 142
7.3.2 Ratio Functions 145
7.4 Piecewise-Defined Functions 147
7.4.1 Absolute Value Functions 149
7.5 Combining Functions 152
7.5.1 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and 152
Division of Functions
7.6 Composite Functions 153
Summary 157
Key Terrms 158
Topic 8 Variation 160

8.1 Direct Variation 160
8.1.1 Computation of the Value of x or y when y 162
Varies Directly as x
8.1.2 Direct Variation in the Form y xn 163
8.2 Inverse Variation 165
8.2.1 Inverse Variation Between Two Quantities 165
8.2.2 Inverse Variation in the Form y 166
8.3 Combined Variation 168
Summary 169
Key Terrms 169
Answer 172

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the
course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
SBMA1403 Essential Mathematics is one of the courses offered by the Faculty
of Science and Technology at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is
worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to undergraduate students who need to acquire fundamental
mathematical knowledge relevant to their programme.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material,
the course requirements and how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

x COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study Activities Study Hours

Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial
2
discussions
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 8
Online Participation 15
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
Total Study Hours 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Identify the various components of the real number system;
2. Carry out the operations on sets;
3. Convert one base number to another;
4. Determine the equation of the straight line;
5. Apply the graphical method and algebraic techniques in solving
simultaneous equations;
6. Sketch the elementary functions in mathematics; and
7. Apply the techniques in handling variation problems.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into eight topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed
as follows:
Topic 1 explains that the rules for manipulating and reasoning with symbols in
algebra depend in large measure on properties of real numbers. The properties of
these numbers enable us to convert algebraic expressions into equivalent forms.
To make our discussions clearer and more precise, Topic 1 introduces the
conversion techniques for some of these numbers.

COURSE GUIDE xi
Topic 2 discusses the strong relationship between indices and logarithmic

numbers. The logarithmic-exponential relationship is extremely important as we
can use it directly in solving exponential growth and doubling-times problems.
Topic 3 introduces the definition of sets and their properties. These properties are
essential in determining whether a certain collection of objects may be categorised
as sets. Here we may establish basic notations for working with sets. This topic
also discusses a helpful way to visualise the sets operations of union, intersection
and complementation by use of Venn diagrams. A diagram necessarily represents
only one case and it may not be obvious whether this is a general case that always
applies.
Topic 4 discusses the different methods of conversion of one base number to

another. The numbers discussed will be in base 10, 2 and 8. Summation of these
numbers and their digit values are also included.
Topic 5 will review the concept of slope and some of the standard equations of
straight lines and their intercepts on coordinate axes. Also highlighted in this topic
is determination of parallelism and perpendicularity of two straight lines.
Topic 6 focuses on simultaneous equations. Not all simultaneous equations in two

variables can be solved, however most of them shown in Topic 6 produce unique
answers either by graphical methods or algebraic techniques. Algebraic
techniques, namely, elimination and substitution, will be discussed in detail.
Topic 7 exhibits the function concept, which is one of the most important ideas in
mathematics. To understand this concept the learners are provided with the graphs
of some elementary functions and their properties. The techniques of tracing these
graphs and their transformations on the Cartesian plane are also discussed in
detail.
Topic 8 introduces the concept of variation. In this topic, we will learn about
direct, inverse and combined variations and identify their similarities and
differences. The various techniques used to solve the variation problems are also
highlighted.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your

xii COURSE GUIDE
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research. It
may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and
apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher
order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate
instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This
component helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary,
you should be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find
points in the summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea
for you to revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should
go through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.

COURSE GUIDE xiii
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge is required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Bello, I., Britton, J. R., & Kaul, A. (2008). Topics in contemporary mathematics.
Houghton Mifflin Company.
Bittingrer, M. L. (2003). Fundamental mathematics. Pearson Education.
Bittinger, M. L., & Ellenbogen, D. J. (2000). Pre Algebra. Addison Weley
Longman.
Keague, M. C. P. (2003). Basic college mathematics. Thomas Learning.
Lay, R. L. (2005). Analysis with an introduction to proof. Pearson Education.
Peterson, J. C., Wagner, W. J., & Willouughby, S. S. (1999) College mathematics.
Delmar Publisher.
Sidley, T. Q. (2009). Foundations of mathematics. John Wiley & Sons.
Zill, D. G., & Dewar, J. M. (2007). Precalculus with calculus preview. Jones and
Bartlett Publisher.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24 7, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

xiv COURSE GUIDE

Topic Numbers
1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify the various types of numbers;
2. Determine the significant figures of numbers;
3. Convert the numbers to their standard forms; and
4. Perform the algebraic operations on numbers.
INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we will learn about real numbers and their properties. The properties
of numbers are important as they form a basis for higher Mathematics. You will
be introduced to the standard notation for various sets of numbers. Different
numbers have different properties. You will also be taught on how to write these
numbers according to their significant figures, and present them in standard form
by means of algebraic operations.
1.1 NUMBER SYSTEM
There are various sets of numbers. They have special names and symbols.

2 TOPIC 1 NUMBERS
1.1.1 Types of Numbers

(a) Set of natural numbers, N
The set of positive integers (or natural numbers) are represented as
N {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
(b) Set of integers, Z

The set of integers Z {…, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
(The three dots at the beginning and the end of the set mean “and etc.”).
(c) Set of rational numbers, Q

Another important set of numbers is the set of rational numbers or set Q,
which is made up of numbers that can be written as the ratio of two integers
m
, where n is not zero.
n
1 7 0 3
Examples of rational numbers are , , and . A set of all rational
8 3 4 5
numbers is denoted by Q, and is written in the following form:
m
Q : m, n Z, n 0
n
a
Note: Since a for any integer a, every integer is also a rational number.
1
(d) Set of irrational numbers

Real numbers that are not rational numbers are called irrational numbers.
5 and (pi) are examples of irrational numbers.
(e) Set of real numbers

The real number set, R is made up of all rational and irrational numbers.
This means R consists of all rational numbers and all irrational numbers,
like and 3.

TOPIC 1 NUMBERS 3
Figure 1.1: The real number system
Each real number can be represented as a decimal number. For instance:
1 1
0.2, 0.3333 , 2 1.414213 and 8 8.0
5 3
Figure 1.1 illustrates the relationships among the various sets of numbers
discussed above.
Example 1.1
Table 1.1 shows the classification of some numbers.
Table 1.1
Natural
Number Real Rational Integer
Number
3
21 x
3 x x x x
3
8 x x x x
1.111 x x
41 x x x x

4 TOPIC 1 NUMBERS
1.1.2 Number Line

The set of real numbers can be represented by a horizontal line which is called the
real number line. Each number corresponds to a single point on the line and vice
versa.
Figure 1.2: The number line
Observe that the origin or the number zero (0) is chosen as the centre of the
number line. All points to the right of the origin represent positive real numbers,
and all points to the left represent negative real numbers. In the following
sections, real numbers will be referred to as numbers only.
1.1.3 Inequality
The number line enables us to compare the numbers using inequalities. Assume
that a and b are any two numbers, and the point that represents a is to the left of
point b on a number line as illustrated in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3
In this case, we say that “a is smaller than b” (written as a < b) OR “b is greater

than a” (written as b > a). We write a b when a is less than or equal to b. We
write a b when a is greater than or equal to b.
Note: Referring to the number line (Figure 1.2), it is obvious that if d < 0, then d
is a negative number; and if c > 0, the c is a positive number.

TOPIC 1 NUMBERS 5
Example 1.2
We write 3 < 8 or 8 > 3, because the point that represents 3 is on the left of the
point that represents 8, as illustrated in the following number line (Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4
We write 2.56 < 1 or 1 > 2.56, because the point that represents 2.56 is on the
left of the point that represents 1, as illustrated in the following number line
(Figure 1.5).
Figure 1.5
Example 1.3
1 1
The expression 2 5 is true because 2 is less than 5.
3 3
The expression 5 5 is also true because 5 is equal to 5.

The expression 4 5 is not true because –4 is not less than or equal to –5.
Example 1.4
The following two expressions are true:
7.1 0 and – –
We can also use two inequalities signs at once. For example:
a<b<c
There are two things here: (i) a < b, and (ii) b < c. Observe the position of the
points a, b, and c on the number line; b is in between the points a and c on the
number line.

6 TOPIC 1 NUMBERS
Figure 1.6
Example 1.5
We can write expressions as follows:
1 6 5
1 and 2 1.5
2 4 4
But, observe that expressions like
7
1 3 5 and 2 4.5
2
are not true at all.
Note: We always write an expression with the inequality sign pointing to only one
direction. Never write an expression like 3 < 5 > 0. The right way to represent the
relationship among the numbers 0, 3 and 5 is, either as 0 < 3 < 5, or 5 > 3 > 0.
1.1.4 Intervals
An interval represents a set of numbers between two fixed numbers, or a set of all
numbers that are greater than or less than a particular number.
For example:
x|0 x 3 is an interval that consists of all the numbers between 0 and 3,

inclusive of the numbers 0 and 3. The way to represent this interval on a number
line is as follows:
Figure 1.7

TOPIC 1 NUMBERS 7
Observe that there are solid circles at the numbers 0 and 3. This means that the
numbers 0 and 3 are included. The short notation for a closed interval is as
follows:
0,3 x|0 x 3
This form is called the interval notation.
If the end point of the set is not inside the interval, an open circle is used for the
point. For example, the number set {x | 1 < x < 4} consists of all numbers that are
greater than 1 and less than 4. The numbers 1 and 4 are not in the set and open
circles are used on both of the end points. This is represented on a number line as
shown in the following:
Figure 1.8
(a) We also can represent the infinite set {x | x < b} with the open interval
b
Figure 1.9
(b) The semi open set {x | x a} is written as a, ) and is represented on the

number line as follows:
Figure 1.10
(c) Other forms of intervals and notations related to intervals are shown in the
following:
{x | a < x < b} (a,b)
Figure 1.11
8 TOPIC 1 NUMBERS
{x | a < x b} (a,b]
Figure 1.12
1.1.5 Absolute Values

The absolute value of a number is the distance of that number from the origin on a
number line. For example, the distance of the point that represents the number 4
from the origin, is 4 units. The distance of the point that represents the number 3
from the origin, is 3 units.
Figure 1.13
Since absolute value is a measure of distance, absolute values for negative and
positive numbers are always positive values. For example, the absolute value for
the numbers 7 and 7 is 7, because the distance of both numbers from the origin is
the same, i.e. 7 units.
The absolute value of any number x is denoted by | x | and is defined as
x for x 0,
x
x for x 0
Example 1.6
| –10 | 10 | 10 |, |0| 0, |– 5 | 5, | 1.5 – 0.3 | 1.2,
| 0.3 – 1.5 | 1.2

TOPIC 1 NUMBERS 9
EXERCISE 1.1
1. Classify each of the following numbers in the categories as

shown:
Number Real Rational Integer Prime Number

0
–9
8
1.5
23
2. State whether the following statements are true or false:

(a) 3 is a rational number.
(b) The inequality 5 5 is true.
(c) The interval [7,9) is neither true nor false.
(d) 5 7 2
(e) 23 is a natural number

(f) 0 is positive
2
(g) is a rational number.
(h) The interval notation for the inequality x b is ( , b)
(i) The interval ( ,9) is bounded
1.2 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Skill:
You can round up a positive number to a significant figure, when the number is
(a) More than 1; or
(b) Less than 1.

10 TOPIC 1 NUMBERS
Significant figure (sf) refers to the relevant digits in a number, which are rounded
up to a value depending on the level of accuracy.
Examples 1.7 to 1.12 illustrate the number of significant figures in certain numbers.
All non-zero numbers are significant figures.
Example 1.7
(a) 346 is 3 sf, because 3, 4 and 6 are non-zero numbers.
(b) 17694 is 5 sf.
Zeros between non-zero digits are significant figures.
Example 1.8
(a) 409 is 3 sf, because 0 is between non-zero digits.
(b) 50.8 is 3 sf.
Zeros which are after a decimal point and are not followed by non zero
digits, are significant.
Example 1.9
(a) 3.500 is 4 sf because there are no non-zero digits following the zeros after
the decimal point.
(b) 1.30 is 3 sf.
Zeros before the non-zero digits in a decimal number are not significant.
Example 1.10
(a) 0.00563 is 3 sf, because the zeros are before the non-zero digits in this
decimal number.
(b) 0.006 is 1 sf.
Zeros after the non-zero digits in a whole number are not significant.

TOPIC 1 NUMBERS 11
Example 1.11
(a) 876000 is 3 sf, because the zeros are after the non-zero digits in the whole
number.
(b) 37950000 is 4 sf.
Zeros located after the non-zero digits in an integer are significant if the
approximation is made without involving it.
Example 1.12
(a) 839 = 800 is 1 sf, because the approximation is made up to 1 sf.
(b) 795 = 800 is 2 sf, because the approximation made is up to 2 sf.
(c) 800.2 = 800 is 3 sf, because the approximation made is up to 3 sf.
EXERCISE 1.2
1. State the number of significant figures in the following numbers:

(a) 1087 (b) 60
has 4 sf
(c) 700.0 (d) 30.6
(e) 0.00807 (f) 0.003
(g) 0.0700 (h) 30.108
2. Write each of the following correct to 3 sf.

(a) 15.6 (b) 7806
= 15.6
(c) 8003 (d) 1 857 600
(e) 555.77 (f) 72.43
(g) 82.08 (h) 2.5477

12 TOPIC 1 NUMBERS
1.3 STANDARD FORM

We will now explore standard form.
Skill:
You can convert a given number to standard form.
Standard form is a way of writing numbers so that it has the form of

A 10n
where 1 A 10 and n is an integer.
A is called the mantissa and n is called the exponent. The following method leads
us to the conversion of a number to the standard form.
(a) If a number is larger or equal to 10:

A can be obtained by shifting the decimal point to the left.
n is the number of decimal places which have been moved.
See Example 1.14 (a).
(b) If the number is lesser than 1:

A can be obtained by shifting the decimal point to the right.
n is the number of decimal places which have been moved.
See Example 1.14 (b).
Example 1.13
State the following numbers in standard form.
(a) 3768 (b) 0.0087

TOPIC 1 NUMBERS 13
Solution
(a) 3768
The steps are as follows:
Step 1
3768 is greater than 10. Shift the decimal point to the left until the first
digit of the number is greater than 1 but less than 10. Therefore, we shift
the decimal point 3 steps to the left.
3 7 6 8. 0
Shift 1 376.80
Shift 2 37.680
Shift 3 3.7680
Step 2
Since we have shifted 3 steps to the left, therefore n = 3 where n is positive
in this case.
Thus, 3768 = 3.768 103
3.768 x 103 is the standard form of 3768
(b) 0.00087
To solve the problem, we consider:
Step 1
The number is less than 1. Shift the decimal point to the right until the first
digit of the number is more than 1 but less than 10. Hence, we shift 4 steps
to the right.
0. 0 0 0 8 7
Shift 1 00.0087
Shift 2 000.087
Shift 3 0000.87
Shift 4 00008.7
Step 2
Thus, 0.00087 = 8.7 10-4
8.7 10-4 is the standard form of 0.00087

14 TOPIC 1 NUMBERS
Test your understanding by answering the following questions.
EXERCISE 1.3
Write the following numbers in standard form.

(a) 567 (b) 0.00412
= 5.67 102
(c) 367.2 (d) 67.3
(e) 0.000456 (f) 467 000
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Is 10 10-8 in standard form?
1.4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION IN

STANDARD FORM
Skill:
You will learn addition, subtraction, multiplication and division which involve:
(a) Two simple numbers; or
(b) Two numbers in standard form.
Addition and subtraction of two numbers in standard form can be done, if the
exponents of both numbers are the same.
To ensure the correct answer, the following conditions must be satisfied:

(a) Obtain the mantissas and exponents of the numbers;
(b) Ensure that the two numbers have the same exponent; and
(c) Add or subtract the mantissas of the numbers.
The following examples explain solving the addition and subtraction of two
numbers with the same exponent, and provide answers in standard form. Before
that, observe the following formulas for addition and subtraction of numbers.

TOPIC 1 NUMBERS 15
Addition : A 10n + B 10n = (A + B) 10n , where A and B are mantissas

and n is the exponent.
Subtraction : A 10n – B 10n = (A – B) 10n, where A and B are mantissas

and n is the exponent.
Example 1.14
Evaluate and write answers in standard form.
(a) 1.2 10-3 + 3.6 10-3
(b) 8.7 105 5.2 105
Solution
(a) 1.2 10-3 + 3.6 10-3
Step 1
Identify the “A” for both numbers.
1.2 10-3 + 3.6 10-3
A = 1.2 A = 3.6
Step 2
We can perform the addition directly since the “n” for both numbers are the
same, i.e. –3. First, we factorise 10 to the power of –3 and then we add the
“A” of both numbers.
1.2 10-3 + 3.6 10-3

= (1.2 + 3.6) 10-3 = 4.8 10-3
(b) 8.7 105 5.2 105
Step 1
Identify the “A” for both numbers.
8.7 105 5.2 105

A = 8.7 A = 5.2

16 TOPIC 1 NUMBERS
Step 2
Note that the “n” for both numbers are the same and so we factorise 10 to
the power of 5 and then perform subtraction.
= 8.7 105 5.2 105
= (8.7 5.2) 105
= 3.5 105
In case the exponents for both numbers are different, we have to make them
agree with each other.
This can be done in two ways:

(a) Maintain the first term and change the second term to make the
exponent the same.
(b) Maintain the second term and change the first term to make the
exponent the same.
The examples 1.15 and 1.16 show how to perform addition or subtraction, in
case the exponents of both numbers are different.
Example 1.15
Evaluate and write the answers in standard form.
(a) 7.6 104 + 1.3 103
(b) 6.4 10-3 5.8 10-4
Solution
(a) 7.6 104 + 1.3 103
Step 1
Maintain the first term.
7.6 104 + 1.3 103
= 7.6 104 + 1.3 103
Step 2
Modify the second term so that the power of 10 will be 4.
= 7.6 104 + (0.13 101) 103
= 7.6 104 + 0.13 101+3
= 7.6 104 + 0.13 104

TOPIC 1 NUMBERS 17
Step 3
Factorise and complete the answer.
= (7.6 + 0.13) 104
= 7.73 104
(b) 6 10-3 2 10-4
Step 1
Maintain the second term.
6 10-3 2 10-4
Step 2
Modify the first term.
= (60 10-1) 10-3 2 10-4
= 60 10(-1)+(-3) 2 10-4
= 60 10 2 10
= 60 10 2 10-4
Step 3
Factorise and subtract.
= 60 10-4 2 10-4
= (60 2) 10-4
= 58 10-4
= 5.8 10-3
Example 1.16
Evaluate and write the answers in standard form.
(a) 76 102 + 1.3 103
(b) 60 10-3 3.1 10-2
Solution
(a) 76 102 + 1.3 103
Step 1
76 102 + 1.3 103

18 TOPIC 1 NUMBERS
Step 2
Modify the first term so that the power of 10 will be 3.
= (7.6 10 ) 102 + 1.3 103
= 7.6 102+1 + 1.3 103
= 7.6 103 + 1.3 103
Step 3
Factorise and complete the answer.
= (7.6 + 1.3) 103
= 8.9 103
(b) 60 10-3 3.1 10-2
Step 1
60 10-3 3.1 10-2
Step 2
Modify the first term.
= (6.0 101) 10-3 3.1 10-2
= 6.0 10(1)+(-3) 3.1 10-2
= 6.0 10 3.1 10
= 6.0 10 3.1 10-2
Step 3
Factorise and subtract.
= 6.0 10 3.1 10-2
= (6.0 3.1) 10-2
= 2.9 10-2
Please try the following questions to test whether you have fully understood
the topics. All the best!

TOPIC 1 NUMBERS 19
EXERCISE 1.4
Evaluate and write your answer in standard form.
(a) 2 10-7 + 5 10-6 (b) 5.6 103 7 102
= 5.2 -6
(c) 4 102 + 3.5 103 (d) 1.5 10-3 – 20 10-5

(e) 6 10-2 + 2.8 10-3 (f) 10-4 5.8 10-5
1.5 MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION IN

STANDARD FORM
Multiplication and division involving two numbers in standard form can be
summarised by the following laws of indices:
(a) 10m 10n 10m n
(b) 10m 10n 10m n
1 1
(c) 10
10
We will now consider multiplication and division involving two numbers in

standard form.
Note: Detailed treatment on laws of indices will be in Topic 2.
In multiplying or dividing numbers, you need to follow these details:

(a) Make sure the numbers are already in standard form;
(b) Identify the mantissa;
(c) Rearrange the expression;
(d) Multiply or divide the mantissas; and
(e) Convert to standard form.

20 TOPIC 1 NUMBERS
Example 1.17
Evaluate and give your answer in standard form.
(a) (3 106) (5 10-2)
8.1 10 5
(b)
3 10 3
Solution
(a) (3 106) (5 10-2)
Step 1
Identify the mantissas and exponents.
(3 106) (5 10-2)
(A 10n) (A 10n) (A is mantissa and n is
exponent)
Step 2
Rearrange the expression.
(3 5) (106 10-2)
(A A) (10n 10n)
Step 3
Multiply the mantissas.
(3 5) (106 10-2)
= 15 (106 10-2)
Step 4
Simplify the exponents.
= 15 (106 10-2)
= 15 106 + (-2)
= 15 104
Step 5
Convert to standard form.
= 15 104
= (1.5 10) 104

TOPIC 1 NUMBERS 21
Step 6
Evaluate the indices multiplication.
= (1.5 101) 104
= 1.5 (101+4)
= 1.5 105
(b) 8.1 10 5
3 10 3
Step 1
Identify the mantissas.
8.1 10 5
3 10 3
A 10n
A 10n
Step 2
Divide the mantissas.
5
10
=(8.1 3) 3
10
5
10
=2.7 3
10
Step 3
Evaluate the indices part by using the laws of indices.
= 2.7 (10-5 10-3)
= 2.7 10-5 – (-3)
= 2.7 10-5+3
= 2.7 10-2

22 TOPIC 1 NUMBERS
Example 1.18
Evaluate and give your answer in standard form.
(a) (4 10-2) (5 107)
9.1 10 4
(b)
2 10 5
Solution
(a) (4 10-2) (5 107)
Step 1
Identify the mantissas and exponents.
(4 10-2) (5 107)
(A 10n) (A 10n)
Step 2
Rearrange the expression.
(4 5) (10-2 107)
(A A) (10n 10n)
Step 3
Multiply the mantissas.
(4 5) (10-2 107)
= 20 (10-2 107)
Step 4
Simplify the exponents.
= 20 (10-2 107)
= 20 10 (-2)+(7)
= 20 105
Step 5
Convert to standard form.
= 20 105
= (2.0 10) 105

TOPIC 1 NUMBERS 23
Step 6
= (2.0 10) 105
Step 7
= 2.0 (101+5)
= 2.0 106
(b) 9.1 10 4
2 10 5
Step 1
Identify the mantissas.
9.1 10 4
2 10 5
A 10n
A 10n
Step 2
Divide the mantissas.
4
10
= (9.1 2) 5
10
4
10
= 4.55 5
10
Step 3
Evaluate the indices part by using the laws of indices.
= 4.55 (10-4 10-5)
= 4.55 10-4 – (-5)
= 4.55 10-4+5
= 4.55 101

24 TOPIC 1 NUMBERS
Attempt the following questions to test your understanding of the topic.
EXERCISE 1.5
Obtain the answers for the following in standard form.

(a) 6 105 3.2 102
= 1.92 8
(b) 1.5 10-6 108

(c) 5 105 8 10-3
(d) 3.8 10-6 2 109
(e) (0.056 108) (7 105)
(f) (7.2 10-3) (2 10-9)
(g) (0.0025 102) (5 10-5)
(h) A cuboid-shape water tank has a dimension of 3cm 4cm 5cm.
What is the volume of water required to fill up the tank? Give your
answer in standard form.
1. Types of Numbers
The set of positive integers (or natural numbers) N {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
The set of integers Z {…, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
The set of rational numbers
2. Inequality
Inequalities enable us to compare numbers on the number line.
3. Intervals
An interval is another way to represent a set of numbers that are in between
two fixed numbers, or a set of all numbers that are greater than or less than a
particular number.

TOPIC 1 NUMBERS 25
4. Significant figures
Significant figures refer to the relevant digits in a number, which are
rounded up to a value depending on the level of accuracy.
All non-zero numbers are significant figures.
5. Standard form
A number written in standard form is given as
A 10n
where 1 A 10 and n is a positive or negative integer.
A in the above expression is called the mantissa and n is called the exponent.
Absolute value Natural number

Inequality Number line
Interval Rational number
Irrational number Significant figure
Mantissa Standard form
1. Classify each of the following numbers in the categories as shown:

Number Real Rational Integer Natural Number
6
–3
2
83
0.5
4
3

26 TOPIC 1 NUMBERS
2. State whether the following statements are true or false

(a) Expression 2 3 7 is always true.
(b) The smallest prime number is 2.
(c) All even numbers can be divided by 4.
(d) The product of two rational numbers is rational.
(e) 0.11111 is a rational number.
(f) x2 2 x 14 is equivalent to x 2 2 x 14 0 .
(g) x 1 is equivalent to the simultaneous inequality 1 x 1 .
(h) 3 10 7
(i) For any real number x, the absolute value of x, denoted by x is defined as
x, x 1
x
x, x 1
1. Evaluate 0.306 ÷ 0.03 – 1.181 correct to 3 significant figures.
2. Evaluate 25 12 ÷ 17 correct to 3 significant figures.
0.00028 40
3. Express in standard form.
0.7
4. Express the following in standard form:

66000
(a)
3 107
66020
(b)
4 109
3 109
(c)
12 105

TOPIC 1 NUMBERS 27
5. Compute the following and give the answer in standard form:
(a) 25 105 9 109

5
(b) 36 10 9 109

Topic Indices and
2 Logarithms
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. State the laws of indices, including the indices of an integer and
fraction;
2. Apply the laws of indices in algebraic expressions;
3. Convert indices to logarithms and vice-versa;
4. State the laws of logarithms which are introduced via the law of
indices and definitions of logarithms; and
5. Convert a logarithm equation to an index equation.
INTRODUCTION
Many applications of logarithms and exponential expressions require the
understanding and usage of logarithm properties. The laws of exponents are
similar to the laws of logarithms. Topic 2 discusses the relationship between the
exponential and the logarithm. Conversion processes of these two mathematical
expressions are shown in the module.
2.1 INDICES AND THE LAWS OF INDICES

Skill:
(a) You should be able to state:

(i) A number in the exponent form; and
(ii) The law of indices.

TOPIC 2 INDICES AND LOGARITHMS 29
(b) You can explain the meaning of integer and fractional indices.
(c) Compute the indices multiplication and division.
(d) Simplify the indices expression.
When a number a is multiplied by itself, namely, a a, the product

is said to be the square of a and written as a2. The 5th power of a,
written as a5, is the product a a a a a. Hence, the n product
of a a a a is written as a, n and called the n-th power of a.
n times
The power of a number is called the index or exponent.

index or exponent
base a3
The following table shows some laws of indices and corresponding examples.
Table 2.1: Index Laws and Corresponding Examples
Index Laws Examples
1. a m a n am n
52 53 52 3
55
am 32 1 1
2. am n
32 5
3 3
an 35 33 27
n
3. am a mn (23 ) 3
23 ( 3)
2 9
(4.5 3)5 4.55 35

4. ( ab) n a nbn
6
n n 3 36
a a 36 5 6
5. 5 56
b bn
SELF-CHECK 2.1
Is the following statement true or false? Give your reason.

(a) xm x yn = xy m+n
(b) xm ÷ yn = xym-n

30 TOPIC 2 INDICES AND LOGARITHMS
From the previous laws of indices, we can now make a summary of zero index,
negative indices and fractional indices. Please refer to Tables 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4
Table 2.2: Law of Zero Index
Law of zero index Explanation and examples

an
1
an
an
a0 1, a 0 an a n
an n
a0 1
an
0
0 1
e.g. 5 1, 1
3
Table 2.3: Law of Negative Indices
Law of negative
Explanation and examples
indices
1
an a n
1 a n
n 1 an
a ,a 0
an 3 1 1
e.g. 5
53 125
Table 2.4: Law of Fractional Indices
Law of fractional
Explanation and examples
indices
m m m m m
2
n
1 an an an n
a
n
a n
a m
n factor of a n
m m m m m m m m
... n
a n n
a m a n
a ... an n
a n n n
a n
am
Take the nth root
m
n
a n
am
3
e.g. 4 2 ( 4 )3 23 8

In the following example, we simplify the expressions of indices.
Example 2.1
Simplify the following:
(a) 23 166 49
3 1
(b) (25) 2 5 2
1 4
(c) 32 9 2 27 3
Solution
(a) 23 166 49
Step 1
Make each term have a common base. In this example we make the 2 as the
common base.
= 23 (24)6 (22) 9
Step 2
Use the corresponding laws of indices and simplify.
3
=2 24 6
22 9
Step 3
Common base:
(i) Multiplication index addition, (xm x yn = xy m+n) and
(ii) Division index subtraction. xm ÷ yn = xym-n
= 23 + 24 – 18
Step 4
Simplify the answer in index form.
= 29

3 1
(b) (25) 2 5 2
Step 1
Make all terms have a common base.
3 1
(52 ) 2 5 2
Step 2
Use the corresponding laws of indices and simplify.
1
3 2
5 5
Step 3
It is a multiplication of indices numbers, so we add the indices.
5
52
1 4
(c) 32 9 2 27 3
Step 1
Common base.
1 4
32 32 2 33 3
Step 2
Apply the laws.
= 32 31 3-4
Step 3
(i) Multiply addition of indices; and
(ii) Divide subtraction of indices.
2 1 4
3
37
The following example illustrates one simplification of an expression

involving indices.

Example 2.2
( 4 xy 2 ) 3
Simplify .
( 2 xy 2 ) 5
Solution:
Step 1
Simplify the power of each term.
(4 xy 2 )3
(2 xy 2 ) 5
Step 2
Use the laws.
43 x 3 ( y 2 ) 3
2 5 x 5(y 2) 5
Step 3
Collect the common terms and use indices laws to simplify them.
43 25 x 3 ( 5)
y{ 6 (10)}
(43 25 ) x (3 5)
y 16
(64 32) x8 y 16
2048 x8
y16
Check your understanding of the material and solve the following questions.

EXERCISE 2.1
1. Evaluate the following:
(a) 272/3 = 9 (b) 811/4
(c) (42)3/2 (d) 36-3/2
2. Find the values of the following:

(a) 30 82 / 3 31 / 2 3 1/ 2
4
(2 xy 2 )3 3 x 2 y
(b)
3x3 y 2 y 6 x 2
(c) 31 / 2 (31 / 2 51 / 3 )3
2
82 / 3 31 / 2
(d)
30 4
3. Simplify the following:

3 3
(a) e2 f 3 2e2 f 3 2 1e10 f
(b) 16 x 5
y 3
40 x 2
y5
5 2
(c) 64 6 24 3
3 3
36 2 814
(d) 2x 4 y 4 1x 3y 2
8x 7 y

2.2 LOGARITHMS
Skill:
You can explain the logarithm of a number.
Logarithm of a positive number y to a base n is defined as:

log n y x nx y
Skill:
You can
(a) Explain the laws of indices and logarithms.
(b) Use the laws to simplify expressions involving indices and logarithms.
The following table shows the connection between logarithms and indices.
Table 2.5: Connection between Logarithms and Indices
Indices forms Logarithm forms

y a x
log a y
8 23 log 2 8 3
4 41 log 4 4 1
1 5 1
2 log 2 1
32 32
1 50 log 5 1 0
3
1 1 3
4 2
log 4
8 8 2
Study the following examples.
Example 2.3
Find the value of:
1
(a) log 2 (b) log 3 81
64

Solution
1
(a) log 2
64
Step 1
Convert into the form of logarithm.
1
log 2 x
64
Step 2
Change to indices form, i.e. base 2 to the power of x.
1
2x
64
Step 3
Change the number 64 to the index form of base 2.
1
2x
26
Step 4
1
Use indices law to convert to a negative index.
26
2–6 = 2x
Step 5
Equate the indices and then x can be found.
6 x
x 6
1
log 2 6
64
(b) log3 81
Step 1
log3 81 = x

Step 2
Change to indices form, i.e. the base to the power of x.
81 = 3x
Step 3
81= 34 = 3x
Step 4
Equate the base and then x can be found.
x=4
log3 81 = 4
Example 2.4
Find the value of:
1
(a) log 5 (b) log 6 216
125
Solution
1
(a) log 5
125
Step 1
1
log 5 x
125
Step 2
Change to indices form, i.e. base 5 to the power of x.
1
5x
125
Step 3
1
5x
53

Step 4
1
Use indices law to convert to a negative index.
53
Step 5
3 x
x 3
1
log 3 3
125
(b) log6 216
Step 1
Log6 216= x
Step 2
Change to indices form, i.e. the base to the power of x.
216=6x
Step 3
216= 63 = 6x
Step 4
x=3
log6 216 = 3
Try the following exercises to test your understanding of the section.

EXERCISE 2.2
1. State the following in the form of indices.

(a) log2 P = t, (c) t = log2 S
t
P=2
(b) n = log3 M (d) log3 R = k
2. Evaluate each of the following:

(a) log5 125
=3
(b) log2 64
(c) log3 243
(d) log10 100 000
2.3 FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF LOGARITHMS

At the beginning of the topic, we learnt laws of indices. Now, you will be
introduced to the laws of logarithms and their applications.
Skill:
You can state and use the laws of logarithms.
The Table 2.6 shows some fundamental laws of logarithms.
Table 2.6: Fundamental Laws of Logarithms.
1. log a mn log a m log a n

m
2. log a log a m log a n
n
3. log a m n n log a m
4. log a a 1

5. log a 1 0
6. Conversion of base:
log b m 1
log a m and log a m
log b a log m a
7. If log a m log a n then m = n.
Study the following examples.
Example 2.5
Without using the calculator, evaluate or simplify the following expressions.
log 52 log 3 2 log 100
(a)
log 15 log 10
37 37
(b) log 2 log 2 2 log 2 log 2 70
35 5
Solution

(a)
log 15 log 10
Step 1
Use the corresponding law of logarithm to convert all bases to base 10.
log 52 log 32 log10 2
log15 log10
Step 2
Use the law no. 3 in Table 2.6 We will apply the law on the logarithms.
2 log 5 log 3 log 10
log 15 log 10

Step 3
We now apply laws no 1 and no 2 to simplify the expression.
5 3
2 log
10
15
log
10
15
2 log
10
15
log
10
2
37 37
(b) log 2 log 2 2 log 2 log 2 70
35 5
Step 1
Use the corresponding law of logarithm to convert all numbers to base 2.
37 37
log 2 log 2 2 log 2 log 2 70
35 5
Step 2
Simplify the expression by:
(i) Taking off all the log with base 2 (because log2 2 = 1);
(ii) Making use of law no 1 in Table 2.6; and
(iii) Making use of law no 2 in Table 2.6.
37 37
log 2 2 70
35 5
37 5
log 2 2 70
35 37
37 5
log 2 2 70
35 37
log 2 20

Example 2.6
Without using the calculator, evaluate or simplify the following expressions.
(a)
log 24 log 5
35 5
(b) log 2 2 log 2 2 log 2 log 2 70
70 37
Solution
log 62 log 42 log 25
(a)
log 24 log 5
Step 1
Use the corresponding law of logarithm to convert all bases to base 10.
log 62 log 42 log 52
log 24 log 5
Step 2
From Table 2.6, we will now make use of law no. 3. We will apply the law
on the logarithms.
2(log 6 log 4 log 5)
log 24 log 5
Step 3
We now apply laws no 1 and no 2 to simplify the expression.
6 4
2 log
5
24
log
5
24
2 log
5
24
log
5
2

35 5
(b) log 2 2 log 2 2 log 2 log 2 70
37 37
Step 1
Use the corresponding law of logarithm to convert all numbers to base 2.
35 5
log 2 2 log 2 2 log 2 log 2 70
37 37
Step 2
Simplify the expression by:
(i) Taking off all the log with base 2 (because log2 2 = 1);
(ii) Making use of law no 1 in Table 2.6; and
(iii) Making use of law no 2 in Table 2.6.
35 5
log 2 4 70
37 37
35 1 37 1
log 2
37 4 5 70
1
log 2
40
log 2 40
Try the following exercises.
EXERCISE 2.3
1. Find x if:
(a) logx 9 = 2 (b) logx 64 = 2
x=3
(c) logx 125 = 3 (d) logx 216 = 3

2. Evaluate the following without using a calculator.

(a) log4 64
1
(b) log 5
625
(c) log3 729
31 31
(d) log 70 log log 3log 5
35 4
(e) log3 3 3 log 10 + 2 log 10
2.4 EQUATIONS INVOLVING INDICES AND

LOGARITHMS
We will now learn a technique to solve an equation involving indices and
logarithms.
Skill:
You will be able to
(a) Explain the laws of indices and logarithms.
(b) Use the laws of indices and logarithms to simplify expressions involving them.
Logarithm of base 10 is called a common logarithm and its value can be

found in the mathematical table. Logarithm of base e
(where e = 2.71828) is called a natural logarithm and is written as loge
x = ln x.
Example 2.7 illustrates some problems involving indices and logarithms.
Example 2.7
Solve the following equations.
(a) 3x+2 = 27–1
3
(b) x 35
(c) log3 (2x + 5) – log3 x = 3

Solution
(a) 3x+2 = 27–1
Step 1
Convert 27 to 33.
3x+2 = (33)–1
Step 2
Since the base of both sides are the same, we can equate the indices.
x + 2 = –3
x = –3 – 2
x=–5
3
(b) x 3 5
Step 1
Take the logarithm of both sides of the equation.
3
log x log 3 5
3
log x log 3
5
Step 2
log 3 can be obtained by using a calculator, that is log 3 = 0.4771.
3
log x (0.4771)
5
From calculator
Step 3
To obtain the value of x, we must obtain the antilog.
log x = 0.28626
x = antilog 0.28626

Step 4
By using the calculator, obtain the antilog 0.28626.
x 1.933
(c) log3 (2x + 5) – log3 x = 3
Step 1
The right-hand side of the equation can be written as a log of base 3.
log3 (2x + 5) – log3 x = log3 33
Step 2
Use the appropiate laws to simplify the equation.
log3 (2x + 5) – log3 x = log3 27
2x 5
log 3 log 3 27
x
Step 3
If loga x = loga y , then x = y.
2x 5
27
x
2 x 5 27 x
27 x 2 x 5
25 x 5
5 1
x
25 5
Now, attempt the self-assessment 1.

Standard form
1. A number written in standard form is given as

A 10n
where 1 A 10 and n is a positive or negative integer.
Indices
1. Let m and n be positive integers. Then,
am an am n
am
am n
an
n
am a mn
( ab) n a nb n
m n
a m bn ab
am m n
ab
bn
Logarithms
1. N with base a, N = ax = logaN = x. Then,

(a) a loga N = N
(b) loga a = 1
(c) loga 1 = 0
2. Laws of logarithms:
(a) loga (MN) = loga M + loga N
M
(b) log a log a M – log a N
N
(c) loga M p = p loga M

3. Base conversion
log b x
(a) log a x
log b a
(b) When x = b , then
1
log a b
log b a
4. If loga x = loga y, then x = y. This result can be used in solving an equation.
5. loge x = ln x
Base Indices
Fundamental laws of logarithm Logarithm
1. Solve the following.

(a) 2x+1 = 64
(b) 62x–1 1 = 215
(c) 3x+2 = 9x
1
(d) 5x 5
4 1252 x 16 2
2. Solve the following.

13
(a) x 7 10
x = 12.5496
(b) 2x = 7
(c) 5 = 3x + 1
(d) log (x + 1) log x = 1
3. Solve t e following.
(a) log2 (x + 31) – log2 2x = 4
x=1
(b) log3 5x = log3 (x + 2) + 1
(c) log3 (x + 5) – 1 = log3 2x
(d) log5 (x + 1) + log5 2 = log5 (5 + x)
1. Evaluate 23 22 (23)2.
2. Find the value of n in each of the following.

82 n 1
22n
(a) n
2n
161
(b) 2n+2 23n-1 = 8

(c) 3n+1 9n-1 = 35
(d) 32n+5 3n-3 = 34
3. Simplify the following.

(a) log 4 + 3 log 3 – 2 log 6
(b) log5 45 + log5 25 log5 9
(c) 2 log2 3 – log2 18 + 3 log2 2

Topic Sets
3
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define sets and subsets;
2. Describe the set characterictics and notations;
3. Visualise the set operations using Venn diagrams; and
4. Analyse statistical survey using the method of counting the number of
elements in a set.
INTRODUCTION
The modern mathematical theory of sets is one of the most remarkable creations
in the field of mathematics. This is because of the unusual boldness of the ideas
found in its theory. However, above this, the theory has assumed tremendous
importance for almost the whole of mathematics. In this topic, we will learn a few
key ideas from set theory. Set concepts and notations not only help us talk about
certain mathematical ideas with greater clarity and precision, but are
indispensable to a clear understanding of probability.
3.1 SETS
The main property of a set in mathematics is that it is well defined. This means
that given any object, it must be clear whether that object is a member of the set.

TOPIC 3 SETS 51
3.1.1 Sets
A set is a well-defined collection of objects, called elements or members.
Example 3.1
Which of the following satisfy the requirements of a set?
(a) all the current United States senators from Massachusetts
(b) all the prime divisors of 1987
(c) all the tall people in Canada
(d) all the prime numbers between 8 and 10
(e) all the funny comics in the daily newspaper
(f) all the students taking mathematics at Open University Malaysia at the
present moment
(g) all the good writers in Malaysia
(h) all the beautiful girls in the class
Descriptions (a), (b), (d) and (f) are well defined and therefore define sets.
Descriptions (c), (e), (g) and (h) are not well defined and therefore do not define
sets.
It is customary to use capital letters to designate sets and the symbol to denote
membership in a set. The members of a set are listed within braces, and separated
with commas. Thus, we write a A to mean that object a is a member of set A,
and a B to mean that the object a is not a member of set B.
Example 3.2
If A {1, 2,3, 4} , then 2 A and 5 A.
3.1.2 Subsets
When considering two sets A and B, it may happen that every element of A is an
element of B

52 TOPIC 3 SETS
Let A and B be sets. A is a subset of B (or A is contained in B), if every element of

A is an element of B, and we denote this by writing A B . In order to visualise
the concept of set, we can use the Venn diagram as shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1
Example 3.3
If A {a,{b}} , then its subsets would be
{a,{b}} {a} {{b}} and
The symbol { } or represents the empty or null set

The empty set is a subset of every set.
Notice that there is a set {b} contained in A, and this set is an element of A
and not a subset of A. In order to be a subset, it must be written as {{b}} .
Figure 3.2
A set A is said to be a proper subset of B denoted by A B , if A is a subset of B

but A B . In other words, A B means that all elements of A are also in B, but
B contains at least one element that is not in A (Figure 3.2).
Example 3.4
If A {a, b} , then its subsets would be
{a} {b} and

TOPIC 3 SETS 53
Example 3.5
Assume X {{1, 2},{1, 2,3},1, 2,3} and Y {{1, 2},1, 2,3,{2,3}} . Which of the
following statements are correct?
(a) {2} X Y
(b) {3} X Y
(c) {1, 2} X Y
(d) {1, 2,3} X Y
(e) {{1, 2}} X Y
(f) 2 X Y
Solution
Before answering these questions, the resulting set from the operation X Y
must first be obtained.
X Y {{1, 2},{1, 2,3},1, 2,3} {{1, 2},1, 2,3,{2,3}} {{1, 2},1, 2,3}
Statement True/False Explanation

{2} X Y T {2} is a subset of X Y
{3} X Y F {3} is a subset of X Y and not an
element of X Y .
{1, 2} ( X Y) T {1, 2} is an element of X Y
{1, 2,3} (X Y) T {1, 2,3} is a subset of X Y
{{1, 2}} ( X Y) F {1,3} is a subset of X Y and not an
element of X Y
2 (X Y) F 2 is an element of X Y and not a
subset of X Y

54 TOPIC 3 SETS
3.1.3 Defining a Set

Sets can be stated in three ways:
By giving a written description of the set

By listing the elements of the set within braces (roster method)
By using set builder notation for the values of its digits
Example 3.6
Written Description Roster Notation Set Builder Notation
The set of natural {1, 2, 3,............} {x|x is a natural number}
numbers
The set of integers {...–2,–1, 0,1,2,...} {x|x is an integer}
The set of prime {2, 3, 5,...} {x|x is a prime number}
numbers
The set of irrational 2 , 3, 5, 7, 11, 19 {x|x is an irrational number}
numbers
The set of decimal {2.2, 1.35, 3.45, 5.47,6.9} {x|x is a decimal number}
numbers
In set-builder notation, the vertical bar is used to mean “such that” and the words
to the right of the bar describe the rule.
Example 3.7
(a) {x|x is a natural number} is read as “the set of all x such that x is natural
number”.
(b) {x|x is a prime number} is read as “the set of all x such that x is a prime
number”.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Why do we have three types of notations for writing sets?

TOPIC 3 SETS 55
3.1.4 Universal Sets

The universal set is the set of all elements under discussion.
Example 3.8
Find all the subsets of the set {a, b, c}
Form all the subsets with no element

Form all the subsets with one element {a}, {b}, {c}
Form all the subsets with two elements {a, b}, {b, c}, {a, c}
Form all the subsets with three elements {a, b, c}
The set in the above example has 3 elements. So this set has 8 subsets.
In general, if the set has n elements, then the number of subsets of the set is 2n .
In the above example, the set has 3 elements, then its number of subsets is 23 8 ,
but the number of its proper subsets is 2n 1 23 1 7 .
EXERCISE 3.1
1. Which of the following satisfies the requirements of a set?

(a) All retired baseball players with lifetime batting averages of
400 or better
(b) All even numbers can be divided by 2
(c) All the smart students in SBMA 1403 class
(d) All the prime numbers between 8 and 10
(e) All students taking mathematics courses at Open University
at the present moment
(f) {x|x is a good college course}
(g) {x|x is an odd counting number}

56 TOPIC 3 SETS
2. List all the subsets, and indicate which are proper subsets of the given
sets.
(a) {a, b}
(b) {a, b, c}
(c)
3. A set has 31 proper subsets. How many elements are there in the set?
4. Is it true that is a subset of ?
3.2 INTERSECTIONS AND UNIONS

In this section, we introduce the concepts of intersection and union of sets.
3.2.1 Intersection of Sets

If A and B are sets, the intersection of A and B, denoted by A B (read as A
intersection B), is the set of all elements that are common to both A and B. That is
A B {x|x A and x B}
Figure 3.3
Example 3.9
If A {1, 2,3, 4} and B {2, 4, 6} , then A B {2, 4} .

TOPIC 3 SETS 57
3.2.2 Union of Sets

If A and B are sets, the union of A and B is denoted by A B (read as A union B).
It is the set of all elements that are either in A or in B, or in both A and B, which is
represented by Figure 3.4.
A B {x|x A or x B }
Figure 3.4
Example 3.10
If A {1, 2,3, 4} and B {2, 4, 6} , then A B {1, 2,3, 4, 6} .
Disjoint Set
Two sets with no elements in common are said to be disjoint. If sets A and B are
disjoint, then
A B
Figure 3.5
Example 3.11
If A {1, 2,3, 4} and B {5, 6, 7} , then A B .
3.2.3 Complement of a Set

Let be universal set, then let A be a subset of . The complement of A, denoted
A (read “A prime” or “A complement”), is the set of all elements in that are
not in A. This set is symbolised by A.
58 TOPIC 3 SETS
Figure 3.6
Example 3.12
Let {a, b, c, d , e, f } , A {a, c, e} and B {b, d } . Find the following:
(a) A
(b) B
Solution
(a) A {b, d , f }
(b) B {a, c, e, f }
Example 3.13
Let {a, b, c, d , e, f } , A {a, c, e} and B {b, d , f } . Find the following:
(a) A B
(b) A B
(c) (A B)
(d) A B
(e) A B
(f) A (A B)
Solution
(a) A {b, d , f } and B {a, c, e}

A B {b, d , f } {a, c, e}
{a, b, c, d , e, f }

TOPIC 3 SETS 59
(b) A B {a, c, e} {b, d , f }

{a, b, c, d , e, f }
(A B)
(c) (A B ) {a, c, e} {b, d , f }
(A B) {a, b, c, d , e, f }
(d) A B {a, c, e} {a, c, e}

{a, c, e}
(e) A B {b, d , f } {a, c, e}
(f) A (A B) {b, d , f } {a, b, c, d , e, f }

{b, d , f } B
Notice that the answers to parts a) and c) are identical, that is, A B ( A B) .
Also notice the answers to parts b) and e) are identical, that is, ( A B) A B .
In general, we have De Morgan Law which states that:
For any sets A and B, A B (A B) and ( A B) A B
It is possible to form unions, intersections and complements using more than two
sets.
Example 3.14
Let {a, b, c, d , e, f } , A {a, c, e} , B {b, d , f } and C {a, d } . Find
(A C) B .
Solution
Since A C is in parentheses, we have to find A C first.
A C {b, d , f } {a, d } {a, b, d , f }
Then
B {a, c, e}

60 TOPIC 3 SETS
Hence
(A C) B {a, b, d , f } {a, c, e}
{a}
3.2.4 Difference of Two Sets

If A and B are two sets, the difference of A and B, denoted by A B (read “A
minus B”) is the set of all elements that are in A and not in B. That is,
A B { x: x A and x B }.
Example 3.15
Let {a, b, c, d , e, f } , A {a, b, c, d } and B {a, b, e} . Find
(a) A
(b) A
(c) A B
(d) B A
(e) A B
Solution
(a) A is the set of all elements in and not in A , that is {e, f }
(b) A is the set of all elements in and not in A , that is {e, f }
(c) A B is the set of all elements in A and not in B , that is {c, d }
(d) B A is the set of all elements in B and not in A , that is {e}
(e) A B is the set of all elements in A and not in B , that is {c, d }
Note that
1. The definition of A is a special case of the above definition because
A A
2. A B A B , because A B is the set of all elements in A and not in B,
and this is precisely the definition of A B

TOPIC 3 SETS 61
Example 3.16
Based on the Venn diagram below,
state which statements are true.
The shaded region represents the set

(a) A B
(b) B A
(c) A B
(d) A B
(e) A B
Solution
The correct region is d), i.e. A B.
EXERCISE 3.2
1. Let the sets {a, b, c, d , e} , A {a, c, e} , B {b, d , e, f } and

C {a, b, d , f }
Find the following:

(a) A B
(b) B C
(c) A
(d) A (B C)
(e) (A B) (B C)

62 TOPIC 3 SETS
2. Based on Question 1, find the following

(a) A
(b) B
(c) (A B)
(d) A B
(e) (A B) C
(f) A (B C)
3. Assume X {{x, y},{x, y, z}, x, y} and Y {{x, y},, x, y, z,{ y, z}} .

Which of the following statements are correct?
(a) { y} X Y
(b) { y} Y Z
(c) {x, y} ( X Y)
(d) {x, y, z} (X Y)
(e) 2 (X Y)
(f) 2 (X Y)
4. Let the sets {1, 2,3, 4,5} , A {2,3,5} , B {1,3, 4} and

C {a, b, d , f } . Find the following:
(a) B
(b) B
(c) A
(d) A B
(e) B A

TOPIC 3 SETS 63
3.3 NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN A FINITE SET

Simple counting techniques usually involve the counting of elements in a given
set. If A is any set, the number of elements in A is denoted by n(A). If n(A) is a
whole number, the set is a finite set.
3.3.1 Number of Elements in a Finite Set

Example 3.17
If A {k , a, n, c, i, l} , then n( A) 6 . Likewise, if B { p, e, l , a, n, d , o, k} , then
n( B ) 8 .
We shall be interested here in counting the number of elements in sets formed by

the operations of union, intersection, and taking complements.
Example 3.18
In Open University Malaysia, 1000 students are registered for Algebra course,
500 are registered for Calculus course and 300 are registered for both courses.
(a) What is the total number of registered students?
(b) How many students are taking only Algebra course?
(c) How many students are taking only Calculus course?
Solution
Let us represent the information in a Venn Diagram as shown in the following.
Figure 3.7
Let A be the set of students registered for Algebra, and C be the set of students
registered for Calculus.

64 TOPIC 3 SETS
Step 1
A C has 300 students. Write 300 in the region corresponding to A C .
First, we have to draw a Venn diagram with an overlapping region to show the
information.
Step 2
Since n( A) 1000 and 300 is in the intersection of A and C, the number taking
only Algebra courses is 1000-300 = 700 as shown in Figure 3.7.
Step 3
The number of students taking only Calculus course is 500 300 = 200.
(a) The number of registered students,
n( A C ) 700 300 200 1200 .
(b) The number of students taking only the Algebra course is 700.
(c) The number of students taking only the Calculus course is 200.
Now, we have
n( A C) n( A) n(C ) n( A C)
1200 1000 500 300
In general, we can find the number of elements in the union of two sets by
using the formula as stated in the following.
Assume A and B are any two given sets. There are two possibilities to be
considered
(A B) : In this case n( A B) n( A) n( B)
(A B) : In this case n( A B) n( A) n( B) n( A B)

TOPIC 3 SETS 65
Example 3.19
If n( A) 66 , n( B) 36 and n( A B ) 12 , find n( A B) .
Solution
By using the above formula, n( A B) n( A) n( B) n( A B) ,
66 36 12
90
Example 3.20
In a recent survey of 110 college students, the number of students taking Algebra
(A), English (E), and Geography (G) are shown in Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.8
(a) How many students are taking Algebra or English, but not both?
(b) How many students are taking Algebra and English, but not Geography?
(c) How many students are taking one or two of these courses, but not all three?
(d) How many students are taking at least two of these courses?
(e) How many students are taking at least one of these courses?
Solution
(a) From the Venn diagram the number of elements in A or E, but not in both
31 + 10 + 26 + 15 = 82
(b) The number of students in A and E, but not in G is 7.

66 TOPIC 3 SETS
(c) The number in the entire universal set is 110 minus the number taking all the
three courses, 5, or none of these courses, 7. The result is
110 – 5 7 = 98
(d) The required number of students is in

(A E) (A G) (E G)
Hence, the number is
10 + 7 +15 + 5 = 37
(e) We can get the required number of the students by taking the number in the
universal set minus the number taking none of the courses. Hence the
number is
110 – 7 = 103
1. If A and B are sets, the intersection of A and B denoted by A B (read as A

intersection B), is the set of all elements that are common to both A and B.
Symbolically
A B x : x A and x B
2. Let A and B be sets. A is a subset of B (or A is contained in B) if every

element of A is an element of B, and we denote this by writing A B .
3. The universal set is the set of all elements
4. If A and B are sets, the union of A and B denoted by A B (read as A union

B), is the set of all elements that are either in A or in B or in both A and B
That is
A B x : x A or x B

TOPIC 3 SETS 67
5. Let be universal set, then let A be a subset of . The complement of A,

denoted A ' (read as “A prime” or “A complement”) is the set of all elements
that are not in A. This set is symbolized by A.
6. The Venn diagram helps us to visualise the abstract concept of a set.
Builder notation Proper subset

Complement of a set Set
Difference of two sets Subset
Finite set Union of sets
Intersection of set Universal set
1. Suppose that n( A) 30 , n( B) 35 and n( A B ) 14 . Find n( A B) .
2. Suppose that n( A) 28 , n( B) 8 and n( A B ) 31 . Find n( A B) .
3. Suppose that n( A) 30 , n( A B) 45 and n( A B ) 14 . Find n( B) .
4. Suppose that n( A) 30 , n( A B) 45 and n( B) 15 .
Find. n( A B) . What can you say about set A and set B?

68 TOPIC 3 SETS
1.
Figure 3.9
In a survey on 120 investors to see who owned gas company Stock (G),
Transportation stock (T) or petroleum bond (P), the numbers shown in the
diagram were found.
(a) How many investors owned gas company or transportation stock, but
not both?
(b) How many investors owned gas company or transportation stock, but
not petroleum bond?
(c) How many had one or two of these types of investments, but not all
three?
(d) How many had at least two of these types of investments?
(e) How many had none of these types of investments?
2.
Figure 3.10
A number of housewives were interviewed to find out who buys product A,

B and C regularly. The result is shown in the Venn diagram above.

TOPIC 3 SETS 69
(a) How many buy product A?

(b) How many buy product A, but not B?
(c) How many buy product B or C but not A?
(d) How many do not buy product C?
(e) How many housewives were interviewed?

Topic Base Numbers
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. State the value of a digit in a base-2 number;
2. Express a number in base-2 according to the digit’s value position;
3. Convert a number in base-2 to a base-10 and vice-versa;
4. Express a number in base-8 according to the digit’s value position;
5. Convert a number in base-8 to a base-10 and vice-versa; and
6. Convert a number in base-2 to a base-8 and vice-versa.
INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we will learn numbers in bases of 2, 8 and 10. These numbers are
important because they are used by computers. Conversion between different
number bases is fairly simple. In the conversion process, successive divisions of
numbers may be required. This method of conversion applies for numbers of non-
decimal base.
4.1 BASE-2 NUMBERS

Skill:
You can state the value of a digit in a base-2 number.
A number in base-2 is written by only using two digits, 0 and 1. The value of the
digit of a base-2 numbering system is given as follows.

TOPIC 4 BASE NUMBERS 71
etc 23 22 21 20
.......................... 24
Every digit in a number of base-2 has a particular value.

24 23 22 21 20
16 8 4 2 1
We will learn how to determine the value (in base-10) of a digit in a particular
base-2 number.
Example 4.1
Find the value (in base-10) of digit 1 in each base-2 number as follows.
(a) 1002 (b) 10002
Solution
(a)
22 21 20
1 0 0
Therefore, the value of digit 1 (in 1002) is 22 or 410.
(b)
23 22 21 20
1 0 0 0
Therefore, the value of digit 1 (in 10002) is 23 or 810.
The base-2 number can be expressed by following the position value of its
digits.
A base-2 number can be stated as a base-10 number by summing all the
values of its digits.
You will learn how to convert a base-2 number into a base-10 number in the next
example.

72 TOPIC 4 BASE NUMBERS
Example 4.2
Express the following base-2 numbers following their digits’ place values.
(a) 11012 (b) 10012
Solution
(a) 11012
3 2 1 0
2 2 2 2
8 4 2 1
1 1 0 1
Arrange the digits from right to left starting on the position with the smallest
value i.e. 20. Then,
11012 = (1 × 8) + (1 × 4) + (0 × 2) + (1 × 1)
When the number is stated in base-10, take the sum of the values and we
have:
11012 = (8 + 4 + 0 + 1) 10
= 1310
(b) 10012
3 2 1 0
2 2 2 2
8 4 2 1
1 0 0 1
Arrange the digits from right to left starting on the position with the smallest
value i.e. 20. Then,
10012= (1 × 8) + (0 × 4) + (0 × 2) + (1 × 1)

When the number is stated in base-10, take the sum of the values and we
have:
10012 = (8 + 0 + 0 + 1) 10
= 910
Examples 4.2 (a) and (b) show the methods of converting a base-10 number
into a base-2 number.
Example 4.3
Convert 2110 into a base-2 number.
Solution
Divide the given number by 2 consecutively and use the remainders of each
division to determine the answer.
2 21 remainder
2 10 1
read from the bottom
2 5 0
2 2 1
2 1 0 So, 2110 = 101012
0 1
EXERCISE 4.1
1. State the values of the underlined digits.
1 1 02
(a)
2 2 21 2 0
Hence, the underlined digit 1 is 1 22 = 4

(b) 1 0 12
(c) 1 1 0 02
(d) 1 1 0 0 12
(e) 1 0 1 0 1 12
(f) 1 0 0 0 02

2. Convert each of the following numbers in base-2 to base-10.

1 1 0 12
(a)
2 3 2 2 21 20 1310
(b) 1 0 1 12
(c) 1 1 02
(d) 1 0 0 12
(e) 1 1 0 1 02
(f) 1 0 1 1 12
(g) 1 1 1 1 12
3. Convert each of the following numbers in base-10 to base-2.

(a) 1310 = 1 1 0 12
2 13 remainder
2 6 1
2 3 0
2 1 1
0 1
(b) 2810
(c) 1510
(d) 3610
(e) 4710
(f) 2010
(g) 3110
(h) 4410

4.2 BASE-8 NUMBERS

You have learnt base-2 numbers. Now let us focus on base-8 numbers.
Skill:
A number in base-8 can be stated by using only eight digits – 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
The value of each digit of a base-8 numbering system is given as follows.
........ 84 83 82 81 80
etc
In the following example, we will study the conversion of a base-8 number into a
base-10 number.
Example 4.4
1 5 0 78 is equal to 1 × 83 + 5 × 82 + 0 × 81 + 7 × 80
= 1(512) + 5(64) + 0 + 7(1)
= 512 + 320 + 0 + 7
= 83910
Example 4.5
State the underlined digits’ values (in base-10) in each of the following base-8
numbers.
(a) 12 38 (b) 1 4 3 08
Solution
(a)
82 81 80
1 2 3
So, the digit 2 has the value 2 × 81 or 1610.

(b)
83 82 81 80
1 4 3 0
So, the digit 1 has the value 1 × 83 or 51210.
The base-8 number can be expressed according to the position value of its
digits.
Example 4.6
Express the following base-8 numbers according to their digits’ position values.
(a) 2 3 58
(b) 1 0 3 78
Solution
(a)
82 81 80
2 3 5
2 3 58 = 2 × 82 + 3 × 81 + 5 × 80
(b)
83 82 81 80
1 0 3 7
1 0 3 78 = 1 × 83 + 0 × 82 + 3 × 81 + 7 × 80
Example 4.7
Evaluate the following in base-8 numbers.
(a) 84 + 82 + 80
(b) 8 ×84 + 64 ×82 + 1

Solution
(a)
84 83 82 8 1=80
1 0 1 0 1
84 + 82 + 1 = 101018
(b) Before proceeding to the final solution, we must convert the number in the
following form
8 ×84 + 64 ×82 + 1 = 8 ×84 + 82 ×82 + 80
= 84+1 + 82+2 + 80
= 85 + 84 + 80
85 84 83 82 8 1=80
1 1 0 0 0 1
85 + 84 + 80 = 1100018
A base-8 number can be stated as a base-10 number by summing all the

values of its digits.
Example 4.8
State 2 3 58 as a base-10 number.
Solution
2 3 58 = 2 × 82 + 3 × 81 + 5 × 80
= 2(64) + 3(8) + 5(1)
= 128 + 24 + 5
= 15710

SELF-CHECK 4.1
State 810 as a base-8 number.
To convert a number in base-10 into base-8, we divide the given number by 8

consecutively, and use the remainder of each division to determine the answer.
In Example 4.9, you will learn how to convert a base-8 number into a base-10
number.
Example 4.9
State 8 710 as a base-8 number.
Solution
8 87 remainder
8 10 …7
read from the bottom
8 1 …2
0 …1
Then, 8 710 = 1 2 78
To convert a number in base-2 into base-8, we first group three digits from the
right and these form groups of three. Then, we replace the groups (of three
digits) by a number in base-8 which has the same value as that of three digits.
In the previous examples, you have learnt how to convert numbers in base-2 into
base-10, but how do you convert a number in base-2 into base-8? Study the next
example.

Example 4.10
Convert the number 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 12 into the number of base-8.
Solution
Step 1
Arrange the number into a group of three.
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 12
011 010 101
2 1 0
0 2 2 1 21 1 2 0 0 2 1 2 0 2 0 2 2 1 21 0 2 0
3 0 2
3258
ACTIVITY 4.2
Why does a number in base-2 have to be arranged into groups of three

and not 2, 4, 5 or anything else, before converting into a number in
base-8? You may discuss with your tutor.
Example 4.11
Convert 2 0 68 into a base-2 number.
Solution
2 0 68 = (2 0 6)8
= (010 000 110)2
= 100001102

4.3 ADDITION OF BASE-2 AND BASE-8

NUMBERS
Skill:
Example 4.12
State 110112 + 10112 in a base-2 number.
Solution
Step 1
Arrange the numbers as shown in the following.
110112
10112
1001102
Step 2
First the value of 12 12 10 2
Cancel the first digit of the number on the extreme right. The digit is 0 and the
number is xxxxx 02
Step 3
Next find the value of 12 12 12 11 2 . Cancel the next digit of the number.
The next digit of the number in the second column from the right is 1, and the
number is now xxxx1 02
Step 4
Find the value of 12 02 02 12 .
The digit of the number in the third column from the right is 1, and the number is
xxx11 02

Step 5
Find the value of 12 2 1 10 2 .
The digit of the number in the fourth column is 0, and the number is xx011 02
Step 6
Find the value of 12 12 10 2 .
The digit of the number in the fifth column is 0, and the number is x0011 02
The digit of the number is in the sixth column is 1, and the required binary
number is 10011 02
Then 110112 + 10112 1001102
Example 4.13
State 2 3 58 + 1578 in a base-8 number.
Solution
Step 1
Arrange the numbers as shown in the following
2358
1578
4148
Step 2
First the value of 58 78 = 1 4 8
Cancel the first digit of the number. The first digit is 4, and the number is xx 48
Step 3
Next find the value of 18 38 58 11 8 . Cancel the next digit of the number.
The next digit of the number is 1, and the number is x1 48

Step 4
Find the value of 18 28 18 48.
The final digit of the number is 4, and the number is 41 48
So, 2 3 58 + 1578 = 41 48
Example 4.14
Convert 468 + 11012 into a base-10 number.
Solution
There are various ways of solving this problem. One of them is as shown in the
following.
468 + 11012 = 3810 + 1310

= 5110
Do the self-assessments 1 and 2 to test your understanding of base numbers.
1. A number in base-2 is written by using only two digits, that is 0 and 1, for
example 1012, 10102 and so on.
2. The value of a digit in each position of a base-2 number is shown in the

following table.
Position of the digit Value

First 1
Second 2
Third 4
Fourth 8
Fifth 16
Sixth 32
Seventh 64
And so on ..........
3. To convert a number in base-2 into base-10, the number is first expressed by

the corresponding position value of each digit. Then, the expression is
simplified.
4. To convert a number in base-10 into base-2, we divide the given number by

2 consecutively until the result is zero, and then use the remainders of each
division to determine the answer. Read the remainder from the bottom to the
top.
5. The following table shows base-2 numbers corresponding with base-10

numbers.
Number in base-10 Number in base-2

0 02
1 12
2 102
3 112
4 1002
5 1012
6 1102
7 1112
8 10002
6. A number in base-8 is stated by using only eight digits, namely 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,

5, 6 and 7. For example, 648 and 1 0 38, etc.
7. The position value of each digit of a base-8 number is shown in the

following table.
Position of the digit Value

First 80 = 1
Second 81 =8
Third 82 = 64
Fourth 83 = 512

8. The following table shows base-8 numbers corresponding with base-10

numbers.
Number in base-10 Number in base-8
0 08
1 18
2 28
3 38
4 48
5 58
6 68
7 78
8 108
9 118
10 128
9. To convert a number in base-8 into base-10, the number is first expressed by

the corresponding position value of each digit. Then, the expression is
simplified.
10. To convert a number in base-10 into base-8, we divide the given number by 8
consecutively until the result is zero, and then use the remainder of each division
to determine the answer. Read the remainders from the bottom to the top.
11. To convert a number in base-2 into base-8, we first group three digits from the
right, and these form groups of three. Then, we replace the groups (of three
digits) by a number in base-8 which has the same value as that of the three digits.
12. To convert a base-8 number into a base-2 number, we replace every digit by
a base-2 number, which has the same position value as the digit.

Base-10 number Base number

Base-2 number Value of digit
Base-8 number
1. State the values of the underlined digits of the following numbers.

(a) 238
(b) 318
(c) 3778
(d) 1548
(e) 2418
(f) 2318
(g) 3368
(h) 23118
2. Convert each of the following numbers of base-8 into base-10.

(a) 258
(b) 578
(c) 738
(d) 2638
(e) 4078
(f) 24168

(a) 25 10
(b) 3310

(c) 7510
(d) 40410
(e) 6210

(a) 1101012
(b) 1110012
(c) 1000002
(d) 1001102
(e) 1010102
(f) 111002

(a) 658
(b) 728
(c) 658
(d) 138
(e) 278
1. (a) Express 24 + 22 as a number in base-2.

(b) Evaluate 2348 + 7548 by giving the answer in base-8.
2. Express the following numbers as numbers in base-8.

(a) 11112
(b) 111110

3. Express 24 + 2 + 20 as a number in:

(a) base-2
(b) base-8
4. (a) Given that 1008 = x10, with x is integer. Find x.

(b) Express 2110 as a number in base-2.

T op i c Straight Lines
5
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1. Determine the gradient of a straight line;
2. Find the intercepts of a straight line;
3. Determine whether a given point is located on the straight line;
4. Find the equation of a straight line; and
5. Determine the parallelism and perpendicularity of two straight lines.
INTRODUCTION
The notion of a line plays an important role in the study of mathematics. There are
three types of straight lines in the xy- or Cartesian plane, which are horizontal
lines, vertical lines and slant or oblique lines. In this topic, we will study methods
to determine the equation of a straight line and its gradient, and testing the
parallelism or perpendicularity of two straight lines.
5.1 GRADIENT OF A STRAIGHT LINE
The gradient of a straight line is the ratio of a vertical distance to the

corresponding horizontal distance on the line.
The gradient is positive, if the line is increasing and slanting to the right.
The gradient is negative, if the line is decreasing and slanting to the left.

TOPIC 5 STRAIGHT LINES 89
Figure 5.1 shows the gradient of a straight line, AB.
Gradient of AB = vertical distance ÷ horizontal distance
Figure 5.1: Gradient of a straight line
5.2 GRADIENT, DISTANCE AND MIDPOINT OF

A STRAIGHT LINE
Let A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x2 , y2 ) , then

y2 y1
Gradient of AB =
x2 x1
Length of AB = ( x2 x1 ) 2 ( y2 y1 ) 2
x1 x2 y1 y2
Midpoint of AB = ,
2 2
The next example shows the computation of the gradient, distance and midpoint
of a straight line PQ.

90 TOPIC 5 STRAIGHT LINES
Example 5.1
If PQ is as shown in the graph below, find the:
(a) midpoint;
(b) gradient; and
(c) length of PQ.
Solution
Step 1
To find the midpoint of PQ, set P (x1 , y1) and Q(x2, y2 ).
From graph, note that P( 3,6) and Q(9,1). Then,

x1 x2 y1 y2 3 9 6 1 1
(a) Midpoint of PQ = ( , ) ( , ) (3,3 ).
2 2 2 2 2
y2 y1 1 6 5
(b) Gradient of PQ = .
x2 x1 9 ( 3) 12
(c) Length of PQ
( x1 x2 ) 2 ( y1 y2 ) 2 (9 ( 3)) 2 (1 6) 2 (12) 2 ( 5) 2
144 25 169 13.
If the gradient of AB is zero, then AB is parallel to the x- axis, i.e. a horizontal

straight line.
Example 5.2 shows that the gradient of PQ is 0, hence PQ is parallel to x- axis.

Example 5.2
Find the gradient of PQ with P(3,4) and Q(6,4).
Solution
The gradient of PQ can be found by:
y2 y1
Gradient of PQ
x2 x1
4 4
6 3
0
3
0
PQ is parallel to the x- axis.
If the gradient of AB is undefined, then AB is parallel to the y- axis, i.e. a

vertical straight line.
Example 5.2 shows that the gradient of PQ is not defined, so PQ is parallel to the
y- axis.
Example 5.3
Given that P( 1, 7) and Q( 1, 10). Determine whether PQ is parallel to the y- axis.
Solution
Let us say P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) with P( 1, 7) and Q( 1, 10). Therefore,
y2 y1
Gradient PQ
x2 x1
10 ( 7)
1 ( 1)
3
0
3
PQ is parallel to the y- axis because is undefined.
0

If two lines have the same gradient, then the lines are parallel to each other.
1
In the example below, AB and PQ have the same gradient, i.e. , so the lines are
2
parallel.
Example 5.4
Given that A (2, 3), B (4, ,P( and Q ( 13, , show that AB is parallel
to PQ.
Solution
Step 1
Find the gradient of AB.
y2 y1
Gradient of AB
x2 x1
2 3
4 2
1
2
Step 2
Find the gradient of PQ.
y2 y1
Gradient of PQ
x2 x1
1 4
13 ( 3)
1
2
Step 3
Determine whether the gradient of AB is equal to the gradient of PQ.
1
Since gradient of AB = gradient of PQ = , AB is parallel to PQ.
2

If the product of the gradients of two lines is equal to 1, then the lines are
perpendicular to each other.
In the example below, the product of gradients of AB and PQ is equal to 1 , so

the lines are perpendicular to each other.
Example 5.5
Given that A (2, 3), B (4, ,P( and Q ( , , show that AB is perpendicular
to PQ.
Solution
Step 1
Find the gradient of AB.
y2 y1
Gradient of AB =
x2 x1
2 3
=
4 2
1
=
2
Step 2
Find the gradient of PQ.
y2 y1
Gradient of PQ =
x2 x1
6 4
=
2 3
= 2
Step 3
Determine whether the product of gradients of AB and PQ is equal to 1.
Since gradient of AB x gradient of PQ = 1 , AB is perpendicular to PQ.

EXERCISE 5.1
1. Find the midpoints of the straight lines connecting the following

points.
(a) K(1, 1), L(3,7)
(b) G(6, 3), H( 2, 7)
(c) R( 1,0), S(3,8)
(d) M(4,2), N( 6, 4)
2. Given the coordinates of R and S, find the gradients of RS.

(a) R(1,2), S(5, 10)
(b) R(1,0), S( 5, 2)
(c) R( 3, 2), S(5, 3)
(d) R( 4,9), S(7, 2)
3. Given the coordinates of P and Q, find the lengths of PQ.

(a) P(0,0), Q(5,12)
(b) P(0,1), Q(4,4)
(c) P(0,0), Q( 4,3)
(d) P(8, 6), Q(0,0)
4. Determine whether the lines connecting the following points are

parallel to the x- or y- axes.
(a) L(1,5), M(3,5)
(b) P(4, 1), Q(4, 11)
(c) R( 1, 1), S(4, 1)
(d) M(3,7), N(3, 3)

5.3 INTERCEPTS
Skill:
You should be able to:
(i) State the x- and y- intercepts on a Cartesian coordinate system; and
(ii) Compute the gradient of a straight line given its x- and y- intercepts.
x- intercept is the x-coordinate of the point where the line cuts the x- axis
(see Figure 5.2).
y- intercept is the y-coordinate of the point where the line cuts the y- axis
(see Figure 5.2).
Figure 5.2
Example 5.6
In the Figure 5.3 below, PQ cuts the x- and y- axes. Find the:
(a) gradient of PQ;
(b) x- and y- intercepts; and
(c) midpoint of PQ.

Figure 5.3
Solution
y2 y1 2 0 1
(a) The gradient of PQ = .
x2 x1 0 4 2
(b) In Figure 5.4, the line cuts the x-axis at 4, then the x- intercept is 4. The line
cuts the y-axis at –2, then the y- intercept is –2.
x1 x2 y1 y2
(c) The midpoint of PQ is ,
2 2
x1 x2 4 0
2 , and
2 2
y1 y2 0 ( 2)
1
2 2
Therefore, the midpoint is (2, –1).
5.4 EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE

In this section, we will learn on how to determine the equation of a straight line.
We will also learn how to sketch a straight line.
5.4.1 Points on a Straight Line
Let A, B and C be points. If the gradient of any two pairs of those points is
the same, then A, B and C are on the same line.

Example 5.7
Given that P(0,1), Q(2,5) and R(x, 5) are on the same line, find x.
Solution
Step 1
Choose any pair, say, PQ and QR.
Choose P(0,1), Q(2,5) and R(x, 5).
Step 2
Find the gradients of PQ and QR.
5 1
Gradient of PQ = 2
2 0
5 5 10
Gradient of QR =
x 2 x 2
Step 3
Determine x when the gradient of PQ and QR is the same.
Gradient of PQ = Gradient of QR
10
2
x 2
10
2
x 2
2( x 2) 10
2x 6
x 3

5.4.2 Write and Sketch Equation of a Straight Line
The equation of a straight line is given by y = mx + c, with m as the gradient

and c as the y- intercept, as shown in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4
The equation of a straight line, which cuts the x- and y-axes at (a,0) and (0,b)
x y b
respectively, is given by 1 , with gradient as shown in Figure 5.5.
a b a
Figure 5.5

SELF-CHECK 5.1
x y
Explain how to obtain the equation 1 from the equation y = mx+c.
a b
See Figure 5.5.
Skills:
You can do the following:
(a) Determine whether a point is on a straight line;
(b) Write the equation of a straight line when the y-intercept and gradient are
given;
(c) Determine the gradient and the y-intercept of an equation;
(d) Write the equation of a straight line when two points are given; and
(e) Sketch a straight line of the form y= mx + c.
Example 5.8
Find the equation of each of the straight lines in Figures 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8.
(a)
Figure 5.6
Solution
Step 1
Identify the y-intercept, i.e. the value of c.
Step 2
Find the gradient, m, from the given points in Figure 5.6.
Step 3
Substitute m and c in the equation y = mx + c.
In part (a), the line is parallel to the x- axis. The point is given by (0,7).
Hence, the gradient is 0 and the y-intercept is 7. By substituting the
corresponding values in the equation y = mx + c, we obtain
y 0 x 7 or y = 7
(b)
Figure 5.7
Solution
9 1 8
Gradient, m = 2
4 0 4
By using m = 2 and c = 1 in y = mx + c, we obtain y 2x 1
(c)
Figure 5.8

Solution
Step 1
Identify the intercepts of Figure 6.9, i.e. (a,0) and (0,b).
Step 2
x y
Substitute a and b in 1 to obtain the equation.
a b
x y
In Figure 5.8, a = 4 and b = 3, so the equation is given by 1.
4 3
Step 3
Multiply by 3 to obtain the answer in the form of y = mx + c.
x y
1
4 3
3
x y 3
4
3
y x 3
4
SELF-CHECK 5.2
Does the straight line in Figure 5.9 have the same equation as the one
shown in Figure 5.5?
Figure 5.9

5.4.3 Determine the Gradient and the y- Intercept of

a Straight Line
In the previous section, we learnt how to determine the gradient and the y-
intercept from points on and/or the graph of a straight line. Now, we will find the
gradient and the y- intercept from the equation of the straight line.
Example 5.9
Determine the gradient of the given lines and their y-intercepts.
(a) y=x+2
(b) 2y + 8x = 4
x y
(c) 1
2 6
Solution
(a) y=x+2
Let the equation be represented as y = mx + c.

Identify m and c.
y (1) x 2
m 1and c 2
Then, the gradient is 1 and the y-intercept is 2.

(b) 2y + 8x = 4
Let the equation be represented as y = mx + c.

Identify m and c.
8 4
y x
2 2
y 4x 2
m 4 and c 2
Then, the gradient is

and the y-intercept is 2.

x y
(c) =1
2 6
Step 1
Multiply the equation by 6.
3x – y = 6
Step 2
Express the equation in the form of y = mx + c.
y = 3x – 6
m = 3 and c = –6
Then, the gradient is 3 and the y-intercept is 6.
5.4.4 Find the Equation of a Straight Line Given a

Point and its Gradient
Example 5.10
(a) Find the equation of a straight line with gradient 3 and passing through
(0, 2).
(b) Write the equation of a straight line that passes through ( 2,0) and ( 6,8).
Solution
(a) Line passes through (0, 2) with gradient 3.
Step 1
Write down the general equation of a straight line.
y = mx + c
Step 2
Note that (0, 2) is on the y-axis (see the figure below).

The equation is given by y = 3x + ( 2)

or y = 3x 2
(b) Write the equation of a straight line that passes through ( 2,0) and ( 6,8).
Step 1
Find the gradient.
8 0 8
2.
6 ( 2) 4
m 2
Step 2
Choose a point to be replaced in y = mx + c in order to find c.
Choose ( 2,0). Then,
y m x c
0 2 2 c
c 4
Then, the equation is given by y = 2x 4.

Example 5.11
Find the equation of a straight line that passes through ( 1,3), and is parallel to y =
3x + 4.
Solution
Step 1
y = 3x + 4, so the gradient is 3.
Step 2
Since the lines are parallel, their gradients are the same, substitute ( 1,3) in the
equation.
y = mx + c
3 = 3( 1) + c
6=c
Hence, the required equation is given by y = 3x + 6.
Now, try the following exercises.
EXERCISE 5.2
Find the equation of each of the following straight lines.
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
EXERCISE 5.3
Determine the gradient and y-intercept for each of the following lines.
Lines Gradient y-intercept
(a) y = 5x –2
(b) 2y = –8x + 4
(c) x=5
(d) 2y + 12 = 0
(e) y = –6
x y
(f) 1
2 6

EXERCISE 5.4
1. Write the equations of the following lines.

(a) Passes through (0,2) and with gradient 3.
(b) Passes through (0, 1) and with gradient –2.
1
(c) Passes through (0, ) and with gradient 2.
2
(d) Passes through (1, 3) and with gradient –2.
2. Find the equations of the lines that pass through the following
points.
(a) ( 3,0) and ( 6,9).
(b) (6,6) and (6, 1).
(c) (4, 3) and (2, 7).
(d) (1,4) and (4,2).
5.5 SKETCHING OF A STRAIGHT LINE
To sketch the graph of y = mx + c, all we need is just two points on the line.
Example 5.12
Sketch y = 2x + 3.
Solution
Step 1
Construct a table of values for y =2x + 3.
x y = 2x + 3
0 3
3 9

Step 2
The table gives the points on the Cartesian plane, i.e. (0,3) and (3,9). Plot the
points on the plane.
Step 3
Draw a line connecting both points. The line is y = 2x +3.
The graph of y = 2x + 3:
1. The midpoint of A(x1, y1) and B(x2,y2) is

x1 x2 y1 y2
,
2 2
2. The gradient of a straight line passing through A(x1, y1) and B(x2,y2) is
y2 y1
m
x2 x1
3. x-intercept is the x-coordinate of the intersection point between the line and
the x-axis.
4. y-intercept is the y-coordinate of the intersection point between the line and
the y-axis.
5. The equation for a straight line, with gradient m and y-intercept c, is written
as y = mx + c.
6. Parallel lines have the same gradient.

7. If the product of the gradients of two lines is equal to 1, then the lines are
perpendicular to each other.
8. If the gradient of a line is undefined, then the line is parallel to the y- axis,
i.e. a vertical straight line.
9 The gradient of a straight line is the ratio of changes in the y-axis against the
x-axis.
10. The equation for a straight line joining A and B in intercept form, is given by
x y
1
a b
Gradient Parallelism of lines

Intercepts Perpendicularity of lines
Midpoint Straight line
1. Find the equations of the following lines.

(a) Passes through (1,3) and parallel to y = 3x + 4.
(b) Passes through (4, 2) and parallel to y = 2x.
1
(c) Passes through (6,1) and parallel to y = x +3.
2
(d) Passes through (6,1) and parallel to 3y = 12.
1
(e) Passes through (4,5) and parallel to y = x + 5.
2
2. Find the equations of the following lines.

(a) Passes through (1,3) and perpendicular to y = 3x + 4.

(b) Passes through (4, 2) and perpendicular to y = 2x.

1
(c) Passes through (6,1) and perpendicular to y = x +3.
2
(d) Passes through (6,1) and perpendicular to 3y = 12.
1
(e) Passes through (4,5) and perpendicular to y = x + 5.
2
1. Sketch the graphs the following straight lines.

1
(a) y x 3
2
(b) y 2x 3
(c) y x 2
(d) y 3x 2
2. Sketch the graphs of the following straight lines that

(a) Passes through (1,3) and parallel to y = 3x + 4.
1
(b) Passes through (6,1) and perpendicular to y = x + 3.
2
3. Given that M(1,5) is the midpoint for PQ with conditions that

P = (4,11) and Q = (h,k).
(a) Evaluate the gradient of PQ;
(b) Find the equation of PQ; and
(c) Evaluate h and k.
4. Given the equation of a straight line is 2x + 3y = 12, find the following.

(a) Gradient of the line; and
(b) x-intercept of the equation.
5. In the following graph, O denotes the origin. Find the following.

(a) Gradient of QP;

(b) x-intercept of QP; and
(c) Equation of QR, whereby QR is parallel to PO.

Topic Simultaneous
6 Equations
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Solve linear simultaneous equations using the graphical method;
2. Solve linear simultaneous equations involving two variables using
the method of elimination; and
3. Solve linear simultaneous equations involving two variables using
the method of substitution.
INTRODUCTION
If the solution of the system is a pair of simple numbers that can be read exactly
from the graph, the graphical method is quite satisfactory. Naturally you should
always check a proposed solution in the given equations by other means. In this
topic, we will learn to solve linear simultaneous equations by the algebraic
method. This can be done using the following two methods:
(a) Elimination; and
(b) Substitution.
Before we proceed to use these two methods, we have to understand what is

meant by simultaneous equations in two variables.

TOPIC 6 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS 113
6.1 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS IN TWO

VARIABLES
Skill:
You can solve linear simultaneous equations in two variables by using the
methods of:
(a) Graphical technique;
(b) Elimination; and
(c) Substitution.
Simultaneous equations in two variables are equations with two variables, such as
x + y = 4 and 2x + y = 3;
x – 2 y = 9 and 2 y = 3 4x; and
2 x
y and 4 = 2x + 6.
4
Note: The power of each variable is 1. Hence, the equation is called linear.
Linear simultaneous equations in two variables can be solved by using either one
of the following methods:
(a) Elimination method; and
(b) Substitution method.
We begin our discussion with the first method.
Skills:
You can solve linear simultaneous equations in two variables by following these
rules:
(a) Perform direct addition and subtraction on the equations;
(b) Multiply the equation with a number; and
(c) Multiply both equations with a number.

114 TOPIC 6 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
6.2 ELIMINATION METHOD

Example 6.1
Solve the following simultaneous equations:
(a) p + 2q = 5, p + q = 0
(b) x – 5y = 11, x – 2y = 4
Solution
Elimination method is a way to eliminate either one of the two variables, say x,
and then solve the remainder, say y.
(a) p + 2q = 5, p + q = 0
Step 1
Arrange the equations and name them as equation (1) and equation (2).
p 2q 5 ... (1)
p q 0 ... (2)
Step 2
Subtract (1) with (2) so that one of the variable p is eliminated.
p 2q ( p q ) 5 0
p 2q p q 5
q 5
Step 3
Substitute q = 5 into either (1) or (2) to get p.
Substitute q = 5 into (2):

p+q=0
p+5=0
p= 5

(b) x – 5y = 11, x – 2y = 4
Step 1
Arrange the equations and name them as (1) and (2).
x – 5y = 11 ... (1)
x – 2y = 4 ... (2)
Step 2
Add (1) and (2) so that one variable will be eliminated.
x 5y x 2y 11 4
x 5y x 2y 11 4
7y 7
7
y
7
y 1
Step 3
Choose one of the equations and substitute y = –1 to obtain the value of x.
Substitute y = 1 into (1), that is

x 5 y 11
x 5 1 11
x 5 1
x 11 5
x 6
Try to solve the following exercises.

EXERCISE 6.1
Solve the following simultaneous equations.
(a) x + 3y = 9
x + 2y = 8
(b) 2x + y = 6
2x + y = 4
(c) x – 3y = 0
x + 5y = 2
(d) 2x – y = 2
4x + y = 16
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Can we solve the following simultaneous equations and why?

x y 1
p x 3
Example 6.2
(a) x – 2y = 4, 2x + y = 3
(b) 3x – 2y = 7, 4x + 5y = 40
Solution
(a) x – 2y = 4, 2x + y = 3
Step 1
x – 2y = 4 ... (1)
2x + y = 3 ... (2)
Step 2
Choose one variable say x to be eliminated, and then multiply (1) by 2 so
that the coefficient x for both equations are the same. Name the new
equation as (3).
2( x 2 y 4) 2x 4 y 8 .... (3)
Step 3
Perform (3) minus (2) to obtain y.
2x 4y 2x y 8 3
2x 4y 2x y 5
5y 5
y 1
Step 4
Substitute y = -1 in either equation to obtain x.
Substitute y = 1 in (1).
x 2y 4
x 2 1 4
x 2 4
x 4 2
x 2
(b) 3x – 2y = 7, 4x + 5y = 40
Step 1
3x – 2y = 7 ... (1)
4x + 5y = 40 ... (2)
Step 2
Choose one variable to be eliminated. Choose y. We perform the following
steps to make the coefficient of x for both equations the same:
(a) Multiply (1) by 5 and name this new equation as (3).
(b) Multiply (2) by 2 and name it as (4).

Note: You can always select x as the variable to be eliminated. If so, the
coefficients for both equations have to be the same and hence, (1) has to be
multiplied by 4 and (2) has to be multiplied by 3.
5 3x 2y 7 ... 5 1
15x 10 y 35 ... 3
2 4x 5y 40 ... 2 2
8x 10 y 80 ... 4
Step 3
Take (3) + (4) to get x.
15x 10 y 8x 10 y 35 80
15x 10 y 8x 10 y115
23x 115
115
x
23
x 5
Step 4
Substitute x = 5 in either one of the equations to get y.
Substitute x = 5 in (1).
3x 2y 7
3 5 2y 7
15 2 y 7 .
2y 7 15
8
y
2
y 4
SELF-CHECK 6.2
Will the solution of Example 6.2 (b) be the same if it is solved by
eliminating x first?

Do the following exercise to test your understanding.
EXERCISE 6.2
Solve these simultaneous equations.
(a) 2x + 3y = 11, 5x – 6y = 40
(b) 4x + y = 31, x – 2y = 10
(c) 2x – 5y = 16, 3x – 8y = 25
(d) 2x + 4y = 26, 4x – 2y = 5
6.3 SUBSTITUTION METHOD

Substitution method is an alternative method to obtain the solutions of
simultaneous equations.
Skills:
You can solve linear simultaneous equations in two variables by using the
following rules:
(a) Rewrite equations and variables in terms of another; and
(b) Substitute the variable to be solved in an equation.
Substitution means “replace,” i.e. the value of x or y is substituted in the

equation.
Consider Examples 6.3 and 6.4 to see how the method of substitution is applied in
solving simultaneous equations.
Example 6.3
Solve these simultaneous equations.
3x – 2y = 8, 4x + y = 7
Solution
3x – 2y = 8 ... (1)
4x + y = 7 ... (2)
Step 1
Rewrite either of the equations to make y the title of the formula.
Here, we use (2).
4x + y = 7
y = 7 – 4x ... (3)
Step 2
Substitute y = 7 – 4x in (1) and find x.
From (1):
3x 2y 8
3x 2 7 4x 8 (we have substituted y 7 - 4x )
3x 14 8 x 8
3x 8x 8 14
11x 22
22
x 2
11
Step 3
Substitute x into (3) and get y.
y 7 4x ...(3)
y 7 4(2)
7 8 1
y 1
Example 6.4
x y 3
x y 1, 1
2 5
Solution
x y 1 ... (1)
x y 3
1 ... (2)
2 5

Step 1
Change (1).
x y 1
x y 1 ... 3
Step 2
Change (2), which contains fractions, by multiplying by 10 and we will obtain a
new equation as in (4).
x y 3
1
2 5
( x) ( y 3)
10 10 10(1)
2 5
{(10 2) x} {(10 5)( y 3)} 10
(5) x} {(2)( y 3)} 10
5x 2 y 10 6
5x 2 y 4 ... (4)
Step 3
Substitute equation (3) into equation (4).
x y 1 ...(3)
5x 2y 4 ...(4)
5( y 1) 2y 4
5y 5 2y 4
5y 2y 4 5
3y 9
9
y
3
y 3
Substitute y = 3 into (3).

x y 1
x (3) 1
x 2

SELF-CHECK 6.3
Can we use the elimination method to solve the problem in Example 6.4?
1. Simultaneous equations are two or more equations with common solutions.
2. Simultaneous equations can be solved through:

(a) Elimination; and
(b) Substitution.
Elimination method Substitution method

Simultaneous equations Variables
x 3 y , 2x 3 y 12
1.
x 12, y 4
2. x 2 y, 3 x 10 y 12
3. x y 1, x 5 y 7
4. y 2x 1, 3 y 2 x 5
1
5. 2x 3y 5, x y 1
2
1
6. x y 5, x y 1
5
1. Solve the following simultaneous equations.
(a) 3 p 2q 0
2p q 6
(b) p 2q 14
2 p 18 2q
For Questions 2 to 5, evaluate the values of the unknowns which satisfy the
equations:
3 h
2. h k 1 and 3k 2.
2 2
x y y
3. 1 and x 2.
2 3 2
2
4. m n 1 and 6m 2n 18.
3
9 a
5. a 3b and 2b 3.
2 3

Topic Functions
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define function and its notation;
2. Determine the domain and range of a function;
3. Identify types of functions from their equations and graphs;
4. Carry out algebraic operations on functions; and
5. Find the composition of two functions.
INTRODUCTION
The discussion of function starts with its definition and notation. Topic 7 explains
the procedures to find the domain and range of a function. To give you a clearer
picture regarding this aspect, the graphs of some elementary functions and their
properties are provided in this topic. The types of functions you will learn in this
topic include linear functions, quadratic functions, cubic functions, reciprocal
functions, piecewise-defined functions and absolute functions.
7.1 FUNCTION AND ITS PROPERTIES

Let us look at function and its properties. In the following sections, you will learn
about function, notation and terms, and domain and range.

TOPIC 7 FUNCTIONS 125
7.1.1 Function
The function f : A B is a relation from A to B, such that, every a A is only

paired with one unique element of b B.
A is known as the domain, while B is known as the codomain of f.
From the definition above, we can guess the main properties of a function:
(a) All objects in the domain must have images in the codomain;
(b) Each object must have one and only one image;
(c) Two or more objects can have the same images; and
(d) Not all of the elements in the codomain is an image of an object.
Example 7.1
Among the relations illustrated by the following arrow diagrams, which ones form
functions?
Figure 7.1
Solution
(a) This is a relation between many to one; it is a function.
(b) This relation does not form a function because there is an element of the
domain that has no image.
(c) This relation is also not a function because there is an object with two
images. This is a many to many relation.
7.1.2 Notation and Terms

Functions are usually being represented by small letters, like f, g, h, …. If f
is a function from A to B and x A, then f ( x) (which is pronounced as “f

126 TOPIC 7 FUNCTIONS
of x” or “f at x”) is an image of x. f ( x) is a unique element in B that has been

assigned by f for x. A set of all f ( x) is known as the range of f.
In mathematics, a function is usually expressed in formula or equation form. For

example, the square function can be written in the equation form of f ( x) x2.
Example 7.2
Consider a function f : R R for the set of real numbers, R. Let f be a function
defined as “cube a number and minus one from the result”. Find f (0),
f ( 1), f (3), f ( 2). State f in the form of a formula.
Solution
f (0) (0)3 1 1 f ( 1) ( 1)3 1 2
3 3
f (3) (3) 1 26 f ( 2) ( 2) 1 9.
In the form of symbols it is represented by f ( x) x3 – 1
7.1.3 Domain and Range

Besides knowing the relationships between objects and images of a function, we
also need to specify the domain of the function. Moreover, as long as the domain
is not known, the information on the function is considered incomplete. The
domain of the function is the set of all element (object), which is mapped into
particular values by f.
Example 7.3
Find the domain and range of f {(–2,4), (–1,1), (0,0), (1,1), (2,4), (3,9)}
Solution
The set {(–2,4), (–1,1), (0,0), (1,1), (2,4), (3,9)} represents the function
f ( x) = x2 he domain for this function is the set {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3} while its
range is {0, 1, 4, 9}.

Example 7.4
Assume that f ( x) x . Determine the domain and range of f.
Solution
Notice that we cannot find the square root of a negative number. Hence,
f ( x) x is defined (exists) only for values of x 0. Therefore the domain of
f is {x : x 0}. Since the values of all square roots are non-negative, so the range
of f is the set of all non-negative real numbers.
Example 7.5
1
Find the natural domain of h( x)
x 4
Solution
Note that h(x) is true for all real numbers except for when x 4 because when
1
x 4, the denominator of will equal to zero. Since division by zero is
x 4
undefined, the natural domain of h(x) is the set of all real numbers except 4, while
its range is ( , 0) (0, ) .
Example 7.6
Find the domain and range of f ( x) x2 1 .
Solution
So the domain of the function is a set of real numbers R or ( , ).
The range of the function is [1, ) .
Example 7.7
Find the domain and range of g ( x) x 1.
Solution
The domain of the function is [1, ) . The values of x less than 1 is impossible,
since the square root of a negative number is undefined.

Note:
The set of non-negative numbers may be represented by [0, ) .
Similarly, the set of non-positive numbers may be represented by ( , 0] .
Example 7.8
Find the domain and range of h( x) 1 x 1.
Solution
The domain of the function h is [1, ) .
EXERCISE 7.1
1. If f ( x) = x2 + 3, decide whether the following are true or false.

Give the correct answer if it is false.
(a) f (3) 6
(b) 2 f (2) 22
(c) f (3) f (2) 5
(d) f (4 h) h 2 8h 13
2. Determine whether the following equations will form a function.

For every function find its domain.
(a) f ( x ) = x3
1
(b) f ( x)
x
(c) y2 2x
1
(d) y
x 1

3. Given g(x) = x2 –2x +1, find:

(a) g (10)
(b) 5 g (2)
1 1
(c) g g
2 3
1 1
(d) g
2 3
1 f (2 h) f (2)
4. For f ( x) 2
find in the simplest form.
x h
7.2 POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

A polynomial function y f ( x) is a function of the form
f ( x) an x n an 1 x n 1
a0
where the coefficients of f ( x) an , an 1 , , a2 , a1 , a0 are real constants, and n is a

nonnegative number. The domain of any polynomial function f is the set of all real
numbers ( , ) .
The following functions are not polynomial

3
(a) y 7 x3 3x 2
and (b) y 3x 4 9
but the function
1 4
y 6 x5 x x3 x2 9
7
is a polynomial. Polynomial functions are classified by their degree. The highest

power of x in a polynomial is said to be its degree. We have already studied
constant and linear functions in Topic 5.

7.2.1 Quadratic Functions

A quadratic function is a function of the form f ( x) ax2 bx c, (a 0). The
highest power of x is 2. The graph of this function is described fully by the
quadratic equation y ax2 bx c.
As will be seen at the end of this topic, the graph of this quadratic function is a
smooth curve known as a parabola. Before that, let us consider the graphs of
quadratic functions f ( x) x2 , f ( x ) ax2, f ( x) x 2 k , f ( x) ( x h) 2 and
f ( x) a ( x h) 2 k.
Function f x x2
Take note that f ( x) x2 is defined for all real numbers, hence, the domain for f is
the set of real numbers, R. The range of f is the set of non-negative numbers
(because x2 is always positive or zero).
However, the shape of this graph can be seen by plotting several points of the
graph as given in the table below:
Figure 7.2
The curve obtained is known as a parabola. The point (0,0) on the graph f ( x ) x2
is known as the vertex of the parabola.

From the table of values, notice that f ( 4) f (4), f ( 3) f (3), f ( 2) f (2),

and f ( 1) f (1). Furthermore we can conclude that f ( x) f ( x) for all x.
This is one of the properties of a quadratic function and can be seen from its graph
which is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. The y-axis is known as the
symmetric axis of f ( x) x2.
Function f x ax 2 , a > 0
Firstly, we would consider for the case of a > 0. The function f ( x) ax2, a > 0,
is defined for all x, and its range is the set of all non-negative real numbers. If we
plot several points of the function, as what was done for the function f ( x) x2,
we will see that the graph of the function f ( x) ax2 is similar to the graph of
f ( x) x2 , except for the width of the graph.
For example, the following are the graphs of the functions of f ( x) 2 x2 ,
1 2
f ( x) x and f ( x) x 2 on the same axis:
2
Figure 7.3
1 2
The graph of f ( x) x is wider compared to the graph of f ( x ) x2, while the
2
2
graph of f ( x) 2x is narrower. All the graphs curve upwards. This result can be
generalised to all values of a > 0, i.e. if a > 0, the graph of the quadratic function
f ( x) ax2 will curve upwards, and when the value of a gets bigger, the graph
will become narrower. The origin (0,0) will be the vertex of all the graphs, while
the symmetric axis is the y-axis.

Now we will look at case of a < 0. If a < 0, the domain for f ( x) ax2 is still all
real numbers, but the range is all non-positive numbers (a set of negative numbers
and zero). This means that the graph of f ( x) will be located below the x-axis.
The graph will curve downwards, and the value of a would determine the width of
the graph (as in the case of a > 0).
The following are the graphs of the functions of f ( x) x 2 , f ( x) x2 ,

1 2
f ( x) 2 x 2 and f ( x) x on the same axis:
2
Figure 7.4
Functions of f x x 2 + k and f x (x – h)2
The graph of f ( x) x2 can be used to get the graphs of the quadratic functions
of f ( x) x2 k and f ( x) (x h)2. First, let us look at the function of f ( x)
x2 k. For example take the two functions of f ( x) x2 1 and f ( x) x2 – 1.
Next we will form a table of values for both of the functions and compare it to the
table of values of f ( x) x2.

Figure 7.5
Study the differences between the values. Then on the same axis, plot these values
to get the graphs of the functions. Referring to the table and the graph in Figure 7.5,
we will see that:
1. The graph of f ( x) x2 1 is the same as the graph of f ( x) x2 translated
(shifted) one unit upward, and its vertex is (0,1).
2. The graph of f ( x) x2 – 1 is the same as the graph of f ( x) x2 translated
one unit downward, and its vertex is (0, 1).
3. The symmetric axis for both of the graphs is the y-axis.
The results above can be generalised to all values of k. Generally, we get the
graph of f ( x) x2 k by translating the graph of f ( x) x2 by k units upward
for k > 0 or | k | units downward for k < 0. The vertex of the graph f ( x) x2 k is
at (0,k).
The same goes for the graph of the function f ( x) (x h)2. The graph of this
function can also be obtained from the graph of f ( x ) x2. The graph of the
function f ( x) (x h)2 can be obtained by translating the graph of f ( x) x2 by
h units to the right if h > 0, and | h | unit to the left if h < 0. Next, we will sketch
the graphs of the functions of f ( x) x 2 , f ( x) ( x 1) 2 and f ( x) ( x 1) 2 on the
same axis.

Figure 7.6
Function f x a (x – h)2 + k
The graph of the function f ( x) a(x h)2 k is obtained by combining the steps
described in the previous sections.
Example 7.9
Sketch the graph of f ( x) 2(x 2)2 – 3.
The graph of this function can be obtained from the graph of the function
g x 2 x 2 by translating the function 2 units to the right and then 3 units
downward. The resulting graph is as follows:
Figure 7.7

The vertex of this graph is (2, 3) and the symmetric axis is x 2. The domain for
f is all real numbers, while the range is all values of f ( x) –3. Generally, the
graph of g(x) a(x h)2 k function is the same as the graph of the function
f ( x) ax2 that has been translated h units to the left or to the right and | k | units
upward or downward, such that, the vertex will be positioned at (h,k). The
symmetric line is at x h.
EXERCISE 7.2
1. Sketch the graphs of the following quadratic functions. State the
coordinates of the vertex of the parabola.
(a) y = 3x2
(b) y = x2 + 5
(c) y = (x – 4)2
(d) y = –4 (x – 2)2 + 1
2. Sketch the graph of f ( x) = 2x2 + 8x + 1 and mark at least two

other points to the left and the right of its vertex.
3. For each of the following questions, find the quadratic equation

that fulfils the given characteristics.
(a) Vertex at (0,0) and passes through the point ( 6,3).
(b) Vertex at ( 2,0) and passes through the point (6, 8).
4. For each of the following functions, state (a) the vertex of

the parabola, (b) the equation of the symmetric axis, (c) the
domain, and (d) the range of the function:
(a) y f ( x) = (x – 3)2 + 5
(b) y f ( x) = – (x – 3)2 + 5
(c) y f ( x) = 2(x + 1)2 – 3
(d) y f ( x) = 2(x + 1)2 – 3
( x 2) 2
(e) y f ( x) 4
4

5. Rewrite the following quadratic functions in the form of

f ( x) = a(x – h)2 + k. State the coordinates of the vertex, the
equation of the symmetric axis and the y-intercept.
(a) f ( x) = x2 + 2x – 1
(b) f ( x) = –x2 + 4x – 1
(c) f ( x) = 3x2 + 6x – 3
6. (a) The graph of the function f ( x) = ax2 passes through the

point (1, 2). Find a.
(b) Find the value of k so that the graph of f ( x) = (x – 2)2 + k
will pass through the point (5,12).
7.2.2 Cubic Functions

A cubic function is a function in the form of f ( x) ax 3 bx 2 cx d , a 0 . The
highest power of x is 3. First, let us consider the cubic function f ( x ) x3. Note
that the domain and the range of the function is the set of real numbers, R. Note
also that f (0) 0. Next, by constructing a table of suitable values as a reference,
the graph of f ( x) x3 is given in the following:
Figure 7.8

Take note that the cubic function satisfies the property
f ( x) f ( x)
Note:
A function that satisfies the equation f ( x) f ( x) is called an odd function
whereas a function that satisfies the equation f ( x) f ( x) (like the quadratic
function) is called an even function. These properties can help in plotting the
graphs of functions.
Techniques of translating, reflecting and rescaling, which are used in the plotting
graphs of quadratic functions, can be applied to cubic functions. Therefore we can
plot the graphs of cubic functions of the form f ( x ) ax3, g(x) a(x h)3 and
h(x) a(x h)3 k quite easily. We will look at the techniques by using the
following examples.
Example 7.10
1 3
On the same axis, plot the graphs of r(x) x3 , g ( x ) x and h(x) 2x3.
2
Compare with the graph of f ( x) x3 .
Solution
Based on the graph of f ( x) x3 and the scaling technique as used in quadratic
functions, we get the graphs of the functions as follows:
Figure 7.9
The graphs of g and h are of the same shape as the graph of f. The difference is
only in the widths of the graphs. The graph of h is narrower compared to f,
whereas the graph of g is wider. The graph of r, on the other hand, is the reflection
of the graph of f over the x-axis. Note that all graphs pass through the origin.
Example 7.11
Sketch the graph of g(x) x3 5.
Solution
We can get the graph for this function by translating the graph of f ( x) x3
upward by 5 units.
Figure 7.10
Example 7.12
Sketch the graph of g(x) 2(x 3)3.
Solution
To sketch this graph, first we sketch the graph of the function h(x) 2x3. The
graph of g is then obtained by translating the graph of h by 3 units to the right.
This gives the graph of g(x) as shown below:

Figure 7.11
Example 7.13
Sketch the graph of k(x) (x 3)3 2.
Solution
The graph for this function can be obtained by translating the graph of f ( x) x3
by 3 units to the right and then upward by 2 units.
Figure 7.12

Example 7.14
Starting from the graph of function f ( x) x3 , sketch the graphs of the following
functions:
(a) f ( x) ( x 1)3
(b) f ( x) ( x 1)3 2
(c) f ( x) ( x 2)3 1
Solution
Figure 7.13
Example 7.15
Let f ( x) (x 4)(x 2)(x 2). Sketch the graph of f ( x).
Solution
First, we solve the equation f ( x) 0. This will produce the points where
f ( x) crosses the x-axis. It is found that the points are x 4, 2 and 2. These
three points divide the number line into four intervals, i.e., x < 4, 4 < x < 2,
2 < x < 2 and x > 2.

Further on, by constructing a suitable table of values, it is found that the graph of
f ( x) is as follows:
Figure 7.14
EXERCISE 7.3
1. (a) On the same axis, sketch the graphs of f ( x) = x3, g(x) =

(x 3)3 and h(x) = (x 3)3 + 3. What are the domain and the
range of h?
(b) On the same axis, sketch the graphs of f ( x) = x4, g(x)=
(x 1)4 1 and h(x) = (x 2)4 2. Also find the domain and
the range of h.
2. (a) If it is known that f ( x) = (x 1)(x 2)(x 3), find all the

roots for f ( x). Form a table of sign for f ( x) and determine
the signs of f ( x) for the relevant intervals.
(b) Factorise completely g(x) = 2(x 3)(x 2)2 + 2(x + 2)
(x 3)2. Then find all the roots for g(x) = 0.

3. Sketch the graphs of the following functions:

(a) f ( x) (x +3 )(x + 1)(x – 2)
(b) f ( x) (x + 3)(x + 1)(x – 1)(x – 3)
(c) f ( x) x3 – 4x
(d) f ( x) –x3 – x2 + 6x
All the functions discussed above are some examples of the polynomial functions.
There are other types of functions that need to be considered because of their
important roles in the development of mathematics.
7.3 SIMPLE RATIO FUNCTIONS

One example of a simple ratio function is a reciprocal function.
7.3.1 Reciprocal Functions
1
f x ,x 0
x
The reciprocal function is defined by
1
f ( x) , x 0
x
The shape of this graph is known as a hyperbola and shows a number of

interesting features.

Figure 7.15
(a) The function is not defined for x 0 . So in this case, the argument is x may
be any real number except zero.
(b) The curve consists of two separate pieces, one for x 0 and one for x 0 .
(c) As x approaches zero, f ( x) becomes large and positive if x 0 , and it
becomes large and negative if x 0 .
The y axis in Figure 7.15 forms a sort of limit which the graph approaches but
never meets, no matter how far it is extended in either direction. Such a limiting
line is called an asymptote, and the graph is said to approach it asymptotically. In
this case the x axis also forms an asymptote since the graph never meets that
either, though it approaches the asymptote more and more closely as x becomes
increasingly positive or negative.
Example 7.16
Based on the diagram in Figure 7.15 what is the domain and range of the
function?
Solution
The domain of the function is ( , 0) (0, ) and its
range is also ( , 0) (0, ) .

Example 7.17
1
Starting from the graph y , x 0 , sketch the following
x
1 1 1
(a) y , (b) y 2 , (c) y 1
x 1 x 1 x 2
Find the domain and range of all the functions. State the asymptotes.
Solution
Figure 7.16
1 1
(a) Graph y is obtained by translating the graph y by 1 unit to the right
x 1 x
Domain: All real numbers except x 1 .
Range: All real numbers except y 0.
Asymptotes: The straight lines x 1 and y 0.

1 1
(b) Graph y 2 is obtained by translating the graph y by 1 unit to
x 1 x
the right and upward by 2 units
Domain: All real numbers except x 1 .
1 1
(c) Graph y 1 is obtained by translating the graph y by 2 units to
x 2 x
the left and downward by 1 unit to the right
Domain: All real numbers except x 2.
7.3.2 Ratio Functions
1
f x ,x 0
x2
1
Another form of a simple ratio function may be represented by f ( x) ,x 0.
x2
Firstly notice that x 0 and f ( x) > 0 for all x. This means that the graph of f ( x)
exists only in the first and the second quadrants. The graph of f ( x) is also
symmetric to the y-axis because
1 1
f ( x) f ( x)
( x) 2 x2
Since f ( x) approaches infinity when x approaches 0, then x 0 (the y-axis) is the

vertical asymptote of f ( x) , and because of f ( x) approaches 0 when x
approaches positive or negative infinity, then y 0 (the x-axis) is the horizontal
asymptote.

Next, by constructing a suitable table of values as a guide, the graph of the

1
function f ( x) is as follows:
x2
Figure 7.17
Example 7.18
1
Sketch the graph of y g ( x) 2. Also find the domain and range of g.
( x 2) 2
Solution
1
The graph of g(x) is obtained by translating the graph of f ( x) by 2 units to
x
the left and then 2 units downward. The domain is all real numbers x except for
x 2 and the range is all y > 2.

Figure 7.18
7.4 PIECEWISE-DEFINED FUNCTIONS

A function f may involve two or more expressions or formulas, with each of the
formulas defined on different parts of the domain of f . A function in this manner
is called a piecewise-defined function.
Example 7.19
Consider the following function
x, x 1
f ( x) y
1, x 1
The above function is not two functions, but a single function in which the rule of
correspondence is given in two pieces. In this case one piece is used for real
numbers ( x 1) , and the other part on the real numbers ( x 1) .
The domain of f is the union of the interval ( , 0] (0, ) ( , ).
Figure 7.19

Example 7.20
Based on the graph in Figure 7.17, find the following
(a) f ( 3)
(b) f (9)
Solution
(a) The rule indicates that we have to use the equation f ( x) x
f ( 3) 3
(b) On the other hand since 9 1 , we have to use the part of the function f ( x) 1.
f (9) 1
Example 7.21
Graph the piecewise –defined function
1, x 0
f ( x)
1, x 0
State what is the domain of this function.
Solution
Figure 7.20
The domain of this function ( , 0) (0, )

Example 7.22
Sketch the graph of
3, x 3
y f ( x) x, 3 x 3
3, x 3
Solution
Figure 7.21
7.4.1 Absolute Value Functions

The function y x is called the absolute value function. This is another type of
piecewise-defined function. The graph has two pieces of half lines
x, x 0
y x
x, x 0
Figure 7.22

Example 7.23
Graph y x 3.
Solution
We first draw the graph of linear function y x 3 . Note that since the slope is
negative , f is decreasing and its graph crosses the x axis at 3, 0 . We dash the
graph for x 3 since that portion is below the x-axis. Finally reflect that portion
upward in the x axis to obtain a v shaped graph. Since f ( x) x is a simple linear
function, it is not surprising that the graph of the absolute value of any linear
function f ( x) ax b, a 0 , will result in a graph similar to that of the absolute-
value function as shown in Figure 7.21.
Figure 7.23
Example 7.24
Graph y x2 2x .
Solution
As above, we begin drawing the graph of the function y x 2 2 x by finding its
intercepts (0, 0) and (2, 0) . Since f is a quadratic function, its vertex is (1, 1) .
These portions of the graph of f are reflected in the x axis to obtain the required
graph y x 2 2 x .
Figure 7.24
Example 7.25
Graph y x2 1 .
Solution
Again as above, we begin drawing the graph of the function y x 2 1 by finding
its intercepts (1, 0), ( 1, 0) and (0, 1) . Since f is a quadratic function, its vertex is
(0, 1) . In Figure 7.23, y 0 for 1 x 1 . These portions of the graph of f are
reflected in the x axis to obtain the required graph y x2 1 .
Figure 7.25
EXERCISE 7.4
Graph the following functions
(a) y 5 3x
(b) y 2 x
1 1
(c) f ( x) , g ( x)
x 2x
1 1
(d) f ( x) , g ( x)
x2 ( x 3) 2
1 1
(e) f ( x) , g ( x) 2,
x x 4

7.5 COMBINING FUNCTIONS

Two functions can be combined to form a new function. A way to combine two
functions is by addition, subtraction, multiplication or division. Besides that, two
functions can also be combined to form a composite function. At the end of this
topic, we will talk about the concept of inverse functions.
7.5.1 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and

Division of Functions
As when we add, subtract, multiply and divide real numbers, we also can perform
the same to functions. Let us consider two functions f ( x) x2 2x and g(x) 3x
2. The sum of these two functions is written as f g, and is defined as
(f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x)
Therefore, for the f ( x) and g(x) given previously,
(f g)(x) f ( x) g (x) x2 2x 3x 2 x2 5x 2
A special case is, if x 2,
(f g )(2) = f (2) g (2) (22 2 2) + (3 2 + 2) = 8 + 8 = 16
or
(f g )(2) = 22 5(2) + 2 = 16.
The difference, product and quotient of two functions f and g are defined in the
same way. We list out the definitions as follows:
Sum ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x)
Difference ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x)
Product ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x)
f f ( x)
Quotient ( x)
g g ( x)

The domains of f g , f g , f g , are the common domains of f and g. The

domain of f / g is a common domain of f and g, except for values of x that make
g(x) 0.
Example 7.26
f
For the f ( x) x2 2x and g(x) 3x 2 given above, find (1). What is the
g
f
domain of ?
g
Solution
f f ( x) x2 2x
( x)
g g ( x) 3x 2
f f (1) 12 2(1) 3
(1)
g g (1) 3(1) 2 5
f
The domain of is the set of all values of x, except of a value of x that makes
g
2
g(x) 0, that is x .
3
7.6 COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS

For the functions f and g, the composite function of g and f is denoted by the
symbol g f and is defined as
(g f )( x) g ( f ( x)).
The domain of g f is all values of x in the domain of f that make f ( x) part of

the domain of g.

Figure 7.26
Note that the region that was marked in the domain of f is not part of the domain
of g f , because for values of x that are in this region, f ( x ) is outside of the
domain of g.
Using the same way we can form the composite functions of f g , g g , and
f f as long as the composite process is defined. Note that this process is not
necessarily commutative, i.e.
g f f g
Therefore we must be careful when we create composite functions. Besides

creating a composite of two functions, we can also create composite of three
functions, and etc.
Example 7.27
1
Find the composite functions of g f and f g for f ( x) 2
and g(x)
x 2
x . Also give the domains of the composite functions.
Solution
1
(f g )( x) f ( g ( x)) f ( x) .
x 2
1 1 1
(g f )( x) g ( f ( x)) g 2 2
x 2 x 2 x2 2

The domain of f g is the set of all real numbers x except for x 2. The domain
of g f is the set of all real numbers x that satisfies the property x2 – 2 > 0. If we
solve this inequality we will find that the domain of g f is
x:x 2 x:x 2
Besides composing functions, we will occasionally need to separate or decompose

a function into its original components. This skill is very important, especially if
you learn differentiation later. This decomposition process will produce
components of the function that are not unique, as shown in the example below:
Example 7.28
Assume that p( x) x2 4. Find the functions f ( x) and g(x) such that

f g = p. From our study of p(x), we can take g(x) x2 4 and f ( x) x . We
will get that
(f g )( x) f ( x2 4) x2 4 p( x).
We also can choose g(x) x2 and f ( x) x 4. This also will produce
(f g )( x) f ( x2 ) x2 4 p( x)
EXERCISE 7.5
2
1. For f ( x) x2 – 2x 2 and g ( x) , find:
x
(a) (f g )(2)
(b) (f g )(1)
f
(c) (2)
g
(d) (f g )( 1)
(e) (f g )( 1)
(f) ( g g )(3)

2. Assume that f ( x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = x3. Find the function for

each of the following:
(a) (f g )( x)
f
(b) ( x)
g
(c) (f g )( x)
(d) (g f )( x)
(e) (f f )( x)
3. Find the formula and the domain of (a) ( g f )( x) and

2
(b) ( f g )( x) if f ( x) x 2 and g(x) = x – 2.
4. For the given function h(x), find the functions f ( x) and g(x) so
that h g f .
(a) h( x) (8 x 3)5
1
(b) h( x )
8x 3
4
2x 1
(c) h( x )
2x 1
5. By using the horizontal line test, determine whether the following

functions are one to one, or otherwise.
(a) y x
(b) y | x|
(c) y 2x 1
(d) y x2 2 x 1

(a) Properties of Functions
(i) The definition of a function

The function f : A B is a function from A to B such that every a A
is only paired with one unique element of b B.
A is known as the domain while B is known as the codomain of f.
(ii) The main properties of a function:

All objects in the domain must have images in the codomain
Each object must have one and only one image
Two or more objects can have the same image
Not all of the elements in the codomain is an image of an object
(b) The Domain and Range

(i) The domain of the function is the set of all elements (objects) which is
mapped into particular values by f.
(ii) After knowing the domain and the formula that describe a function, we
can then determine its range. Its range is the set of all images of all
objects under f.
(c) Polynomial Functions
(i) Linear Functions

A function is said to be linear if it can be written as f ( x) ax b,
where a and b are constants.
y mx c is the equation of a straight line with slope m and the
y-intercept at (0,c).
(ii) Quadratic Functions

A quadratic function is a function of the form f ( x) ax2 bx c,
(a 0). The highest power of x is 2. The graph of this quadratic
function is a smooth curve known as a parabola.

(iii) Cubic Functions

A cubic function is a function in the form of
f ( x) ax 3 bx 2 cx d , a 0 .
(d) Simple Ratio Functions

Reciprocal Functions
The reciprocal function is defined by
1
f ( x) , x 0
x
(e) Piecewise-Defined Functions

A function f may involve two or more expressions or formulas, with each
of the formulas defined on different parts of the domain of f . A function in
this manner is called a piecewise-defined function.
Combined function Inverse variation

Direct variation Variation
1. If f ( x) x 2 2 and g ( x) x 3 1, determine the values of ( f g )(2)

and f g (2).
2. Given points A(2,4), B(3,–1) and C(1,6), find the equation of a line that
passes through point C and is perpendicular to AB.

1. Sketch the graphs of the following functions.

(a) f ( x) x2
1
(b) g ( x) 2
x 1
x 1, x 0
(c) h( x )
5, x 0
1
(d) v( x) 2
( x 1) 2
2. Function f and g are defined as
f :x x2 3 and g : x x2
(a) Find the domain and range of f and g.

(b) Find the function of f g and g f.
(c) Sketch the graphs of functions f, g, f g and g f.
(d) Find the inverse of function f.

Topic Variation
8
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Determine whether a quantity varies directly with another quantity;
2. Write direct, inverse and combined variations; and
3. Compute the value of the unknowns from a given variation.
INTRODUCTION
Many problems in the workplace can be solved using proportions. These problems
have a common characteristic. The details of the problem can be grouped in two
pairs of data. These two data can be directly related or inversely related. In this
topic, we will learn about direct, inverse and combined variations. As a pre-
requisite to a higher level mathematics, variation is considered to be one of the
fundamental aspects.
8.1 DIRECT VARIATION

Let us see what is meant by a direct variation.
Skills:
You can do the following.
(a) State what is going to happen to one quantity, if it varies directly with
another quantity; and
(b) Determine whether a quantity varies directly with another quantity.

TOPIC 8 VARIATION 161
y
Variable y varies directly as variable x if the value is a constant.
x
y varies directly as x is written as y x, and can be stated as y = kx, where
k is constant.
y
In Example 8.1, we can see that y varies directly as x, when is a constant.
x
Example 8.1
Determine whether y varies directly as x.
(a) Table 8.1
y 5 8 11
x 1 2 3
y 11
5 4
x 3
y
has no common constant, hence y does not vary directly as x.
x
(b) Table 8.2
y 1 2 3
1 3
x 1
2 2
y
2 2 2
x
y
has a common constant 2, hence y varies directly as x.
x

162 TOPIC 8 VARIATION
8.1.1 Computation of the Value of x or y when y

Varies Directly as x
Skill:
You should be able to write a direct variation in equation form which involves
two variables, by first finding the constant of the variation.
The value of x and y can be found in two ways, namely:
Step 1
Use the relation y = kx where k is the first to be determined.
Step 2
y1 y2
Use the relation without calculating the constant of the variation, k.
x1 x2
We can find the value of the variable(s) in two ways, as shown in Example 8.2.
Example 8.2
Let us say y varies directly as x. If y = 10 when x = 5, find y when x = 8.
Solution
Step 1:
y x
y kx
10 k 5
k 2
So, y 2x
10 2 8
y 16

Step 2:
y1 y2
x1 x2
10 y2
5 8
y2 2 8 16
8.1.2 Direct Variation in the Form y xn

Next, we will learn how to compute the value of the variables.
Skill:
You will be able to compute the value of x or y from the information given when y
varies directly as x.
y
y x2 can be stated as y = kx2, k is a constant, if the value is a constant.
x2
y
y x3 can be stated as y = kx3, k is a constant, if the value 3 is a constant.
x
1 1
y
y x 2 can be stated as y = k x 2 , k is a constant, if the value 1 is a constant.
x2
Example 8.3
Let y vary directly as x2. If x = 6 when y = 72, express y in terms of x and find:
(a) y when x = 10
(b) x when y = 32
Solution
y x2
y kx 2
72 k (62 )
72
k , then k 2
36
y 2x 2
(a) y 2 x2
y 2(102 )
y 200
(b) y 2 x2
32 2 x 2
32
x2 16
2
x 16 4
EXERCISE 8.1
1. Express y in terms of x for each of the following.

(a) y varies directly as the square of x, and y = 40 when x = 4.
(b) y varies directly as x, and y = 2 when x = 16.
(c) y varies directly as the square root of x, and y = 6 when x = 9.
(d) y varies directly as the cube of x and y = 24 when x = 2.
2. Solve the following problems:

(a) If m varies directly as n, and m = 24 when n = 6, find m if
1
n= .
2
(b) If p varies directly as q, and p = 20 when q = 4, find q when
p = 30.
3. The table below shows the value of the variables y and x whereby y
varies directly as x2.
y 2 f
x 1 3
(a) Express y in terms of x; and
(b) Find f.

4. The table below shows the value of the variables R and S where R
varies directly as the square root of S.
R 1 81
S 5 p
(a) Express R in terms of S; and
(b) Find p.
8.2 INVERSE VARIATION

In this section, we will learn about inverse variation.
Skills:
(a) Determine whether a quantity varies inversely with another quantity from
the given information; and
(b) State what will happen to one quantity when it varies inversely as another
quantity.
8.2.1 Inverse Variation between Two Quantities
Variable y varies inversely as variable x if the product xy is a constant.

1 k
y varies inversely as x is written as y or y , where k is a constant.
x x
Consider Table 8.3.
Table 8.3
x 1 2 3 6
y 6 3 2 1
xy 6 6 6 6
Table 8.3 shows that when a quantity (x) increases, the other quantity (y)
decreases. Quantity y varies inversely as quantity x, because the product xy is a
constant.

8.2.2 Inverse Variation in the Form y

Skills:
(a) Write an inverse variation in equation form; and
(b) Compute the value of x or y when y varies inversely as x.
1 k
y 2
can be stated as y = 2 , k is a constant, if the value x 2 y is a
x x
constant.
1 k
y 3
can be stated as y = 3 , k is a constant, if the value x 3 y is a
x x
constant.
1 k
y 1/ 2
can be stated as y = 1 / 2 , k is a constant, if the value x1 / 2 y is a
x x
constant.
Example 8.4
1
Let y vary inversely as x, and y = 9 when x = . Express y in terms of x.
3
Solution
1
y
x
k
y
x
k
9
1
3
1
k 9 3
3
k 3
Then, y
x x

EXERCISE 8.2
1
1. y varies inversely as x, and y = 16 when x = .
2
1
(b) Find y if x = .
4
1
2. y varies inversely as the square of x, and y = 81 when x = .
3
(b) Find y if x = 9.
3. y varies inversely as the square root of x, and y = 6 when x = 4.

(b) Find y if x = 9.
4.
y 2 3
x 36 m
The above table shows the values of variable y and x where y varies
inversely as the square of x.
(b) Find m.
5.
y 30 20
x 4 N
The above table shows the values of variable y and x where y varies
inversely as the square root of x.
(b) Find N.

8.3 COMBINED VARIATION

In this section, we will study combine variations, i.e. direct and inverse variations
in one equation.
Skills:
(a) Write a combined variation in an equation by first finding the constant of the
variation; and
(b) Find the value of a particular variable in a combined variation.
A combined variation is a relationship among three or more variables that varies

directly and/or inversely as the other variables. For example:
vx
y means y varies directly as v and x, and y varies inversely as w.
w
The method used in solving a direct or inverse variation can be used to solve
problems involving combined variations.
Example 8.5
R varies directly as the square of x, and it varies inversely as y. Let R = 250, when
x = 5 and y = 2.
(a) Express R in terms of x and y.
(b) Find y if x = 8 and R = 320.
Solution
kx 2
(a) R yR kx 2 250(2) k (25) k 20
y
20 x 2
R .
y
20 x 2 20 x 2 20(8) 2
(b) R y 4.
y R 320

1. Direct Variation
1
(a) If y xn ( n = 1, 2, 3, ), then we write y = kxn where k is a constant.
2
y1 y2
(b) The values of x and y can be determined by either y = kx n or .
x1n x2n
2. Inverse Variation
1 1 k
(a) If y n
( n = 1, 2, 3, ), then we write y = n where k is a constant.
x 2 x
k
(b) The values of x and y can be determined by either y = or
xn
x1n y1 x2n y2 .
3. Combined Variation
We can determine the values of x, y or z by
k y y2
(a) y or 1 i.e. y xz
xz x1 z1 x2 z2
k 1
(b) y or y1 x1 z1 y2 x2 z2 i.e. y
xz xz
kx yz y2 z 2 x
(c) y or 1 1 i.e. y
z x1 x2 z
Combined function Inverse variation

Direct variation Variation

1. Solve the following problems.

(a) Let us say n varies inversely as p. If n = 8 when p = 5, write the
equation that relates n and p.
x
(b) It is given that y . If y = 3 when x = 4 and w = 2, determine the
w3
value of x when y = 2 and w = –3.
2. Let us say F G and G = 8H – 5. If F = 12 when H = 1,

(a) Express F in terms of G; and
(b) Evaluate H when F = 36.

1
(a) f varies directly as G. Given that f = when G = 3, express f in terms of G.
2
1
(b) It is given that m . If m = 2 when x = 4 and y = 9, evaluate
x y
y when m = 3 and x = 16.
1. If y = kx -1 and y = 2 when x = 3, find y when x = 8.
2. If y varies inversely as the square root of x and y = 5 when x = 9, evaluate x

when y = 30.
3. Let y vary directly as xn where n is a variable and y = 12 when x = 2.

(a) State y in terms of x when n = 2.
(b) If n = 2, evaluate x when y = 3.


1
(a) It is given that y . If y = 5 when p = 3 and q = 16, find q when
p q
y = 3 and p = 2.
(b) It is given that t varies directly as g and varies inversely as h 3. If t = 6
when h = 2 and g = 4, find g when t = 3 and h = 4.

Answers
TOPIC 1: NUMBERS
Exercise 1.1
1. Classify each of the following numbers in the categories as shown in the
following:
Number Real Rational Integer Prime Number
0 X X X
-9 X X X
8 X
1.5 X X
23 X X X X
2. (a) Yes
(b) Yes
(c) Yes
(d) No
(e) Yes
(f) No
(g) No
(h) No
(i) No
Exercise 1.2
1. (a) 4
(b) 1
(c) 4
(d) 3
ANSWERS 173
(e) 3
(f) 1
(g) 3
(h) 5
2. (a) 15.6
(b) 7810
(c) 8000
(d) 1 860 000
(e) 556
(f) 72.4
(g) 82.1
(h) 2.55
Exercise 1.3
(a) 5.67 102
(b) 4.12 10-3
(c) 3.672 102
(d) 6.73 101
(e) 4.56 10-4
(f) 4.67 105
Exercise 1.4
(a) 5.2 10-6
(b) 4.9 103
(c) 3.9 103
(d) 1.3 10-3
(e) 6.28 10-2
(f) 4.2 10-5

174 ANSWERS
Exercise 1.5
1. (a) 1.92 108
(b) 1.5 102
(c) 4.0 103
(d) 7.6 103
(e) 8 100
(f) 3.6 106
(g) 5 103
(h) 6.0 10-5 m3
Self-Assessment 1
1. Classify each of the following numbers in the categories as shown in the
following:
Number Real Rational Integer Natural Number
6 x x x x
-3 x x x
8
2
3 x x x x
0.5 x x
4 x x
3
x
2. State whether the following statements are true or false.

(a) False
(b) True
(c) False
(d) True
(e) True
(f) True

ANSWERS 175
(g) True
(h) False
(i) False
Self-Assessment 2
1. 9.02
2. 17.6
3. 1.6 10-2
4. (a) 2.2 10-3 (b) 1.6505 10-5 (c) 2.5 10
5. (a) 1.5 108 (b) 1.8 10 3
TOPIC 2: INDICES AND LOGARITHMS
Exercise 2.1
1. (a) 9
(b) 3
(c) 64
1
(d)
216
2. (a) 4
(b) 4
(c) 45
(d) 3
e2
3. (a)
4f
16x 7
(b)
y8

176 ANSWERS
2
(c) 1
81 3
2
1
(d)
4y
Exercise 2.2
1. (a) P = 2t
(b) M = 3n
(c) S = 2t
(d) R = 3k
2. (a) 3
(b) 6
(c) 5
(d) 5
Exercise 2.3
1. (a) x=3
(b) x=8
(c) x=5
(d) x=6
2. (a) 3
(b) 4
(c) 6
(d) 3
(e) 0

ANSWERS 177
Self-Assessment 1
1. (a) x=5
(b) x=2
(c) x=2
(d) x=1
2. (a) x = 12.5496
(b) x = 2.8074
(c) x = 1.2619
1
(d) x=
9
3. (a) x=1
(b) x=3
(c) x=1
(d) x=3
Self-Assessment 2
1
1.
2
7
2. (a) n=
11
1
(b) n=
2
(c) n=2
(d) n= 4
3. (a) log 3
(b) 3
(c) 2

178 ANSWERS
TOPIC 3: SETS
Exercise 3.1
1. (a) Yes
(b) Yes
(c) No
(d) Yes
(e) Yes
(f) No
(g) Yes
2. (a) a , b , a, b ,
(b) a , b , c , a , b , a , c , b, c , a , b, c ,
(c)
3. 5 elements
4. Yes.
Exercise 3.2
1. (a) {e}
(b) {b, d , f }
(c) {a, c, e}
(d) {a, c, e}
(e) {b, c, d , f }
2. (a) {b, d , f }
(b) {a, c}
(c) {a, b, c, d , f }
(d)

ANSWERS 179
(e) {a, b, c, d , e, f }
(f) {b, d , f }
3. (a) True
(b) True
(c) True
(d) True
(e) False
(f) False
4. (a) {3,5}
(b) {3,5}
(c) {1, 4}
(d) {2,5}
(e) {1, 4}
Self-Assessment 1
1. 51
2. 5
3. 29
4. The sets are disjoint.
Self-Assessment 2
1. (a) 87 (b) 62 (c) 94 (d) 55 (e) 0
2. (a) 18 (b) 13 (c) 71 (d) 31 (e) 76

180 ANSWERS
TOPIC 4: NUMBER SYSTEM
Exercise 4.1
1. (a) 4
(b) 4
(c) 4
(d) 8
(e) 8
(f) 16
2. (a) 1310
(b) 1110
(c) 610
(d) 910
(e) 2610
(f) 2310
(g) 3110
3. (a) 10012 1
n
a ,a 0
(b) 111002 an
(c) 11112
(d) 1001002
(e) 1011112
(f) 101002
(g) 111112
(h) 1011002

ANSWERS 181
Self-Assessment 1
1. (a) 16
(b) 24
(c) 56
(d) 40
(e) 32
(f) 128
(g) 192
(h) 1024
2. (a) 81
(b) 47
(c) 59
(d) 179
(e) 263
(f) 1294
3. (a) 318
(b) 418
(c) 1138
(d) 6248
(e) 768
4. (a) 658
(b) 718
(c) 408
(d) 468
(e) 528
(f) 348

182 ANSWERS
5. (a) 1101012
(b) 1110102
(c) 1101012
(d) 10112
(e) 101112
Self-Assessment 2
1. (a) 101002
(b) 12108
2. (a) 178
(b) 21278
3. (a) 100112
(b) 238
4. (a) x = 64
(b) 101012
TOPIC 5: STRAIGHT LINES
Exercise 5.1
1. (a) (2,3)
(b) (2, 5)
(c) (1,4)
(d) ( 1, 1)
2. (a) 3
1
(b)
3

ANSWERS 183
5
(c)
8
(d) 1
3. (a) 13
(b) 5
(c) 5
(d) 10
4. (a) Parallel to the x-axis

(b) Parallel to the y-axis
(c) Parallel to the x-axis
(d) Parallel to the y-axis
Exercise 5.2
1. (a) x=3
5
(b) y x 1
7
2
(c) y x 4
3
x y
(d) 1
3 5
Exercise 5.3
(a) Gradient is 5 and y-intercept is 2.
(b) Gradient is 4 and y-intercept is 2.
(c) Gradient is undefined and therefore the line will not intercept the y-axis.
(d) Gradient is 0 and y-intercept is 6.
(e) Gradient is 0 and y-intercept is 6.
(f) Gradient is 3 and y-intercept is 6.

184 ANSWERS
Exercise 5.4
1. (a) y 3x 2
(b) y 2x 1
1
(c) y 2x
2
(d) y 2x 5
2. (a) y 3x 9
(b) x 6
(c) y 5 x 17
2
(d) y x 14
3
Self-Assessment 1
1. (a) y 3x
(b) y 2 x 10
(c) 2y x 4
(d) y 4 x 23
(e) 2y x 6
2. (a) 3y x 10
1
(b) y x
2
(c) y 2 x 13
(d) 4 y x 10
(e) y 2 x 13

ANSWERS 185
Self-Assessment 2
1. (a)
(b)
(c)

186 ANSWERS
(d)
2. (a)
(b)
3. (a) 2
(b) y 2x 3
(c) h = –2, k = –1

ANSWERS 187
2
4. (a)
3
(b) 5
5. (a) –2
(b) 3
(c) y 4x 6
TOPIC 6: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
Exercise 6.1
1. (a) x = 6, and y = 1
1
(b) x= , and y = 5
2
3 1
(c) x= , and y =
4 4
(d) x = 3, and y = 4
Exercise 6.2
1. (a) x = 2, and y = 5
(b) x = 8, and y = 1
(c) x = 3, and y = 2
(d) x = 3.6, and y = 4.7
Self-Assessment 1
1. x = 12, y = 4
2. x = 6, y = 3
3. x = 2, y = 1

188 ANSWERS
4. x = 2, y = 3
5. x = 4, y = 1
6. x = 5, y = 0
Self-Assessment 2
1. (a) p = 12, q = 18
(b) p = 4, q = 5
2
2. h = 0, y =
3
3. x = 14, y = 24
5
4. m= ,n=4
3
1
5. a = 6, b =
2
TOPIC 7: FUNCTIONS
Exercise 7.1
1. (a) –6 (true) (b) –2 –22 (false)
(c) –5 (true) (d) –h2 – 8h – 13 (true)
2. (a) f ( x) x3
For this equation, each object of f has one and only one image. Thus,
this equation is a function. The domain of f is the set of all real
numbers.

ANSWERS 189
1
(b) f ( x)
x
For this equation, we cannot find the square root of a negative number.
1
Hence, f ( x) is defined (exists) only for values of
x
x 0. It is clear that each object of f has one and only one image. Thus,
this equation is a function. The domain of f is {x x > 0}.
(c) y2 2x
If simplify y2 2x
It is clear that this equation (y) has two images for each value of x for
example
x 2, y 2(2) y 2
Hence, y2 2x is not a function.
1
(d) y
x 1
For this equation, y is defined only for all real numbers except for
1
when k –1. When x –1, the denominator of will equal to zero.
x 1
Since division by zero is undefined, the natural domain of f ( x) is the
set of all real numbers except –1 or {x : x R, x –1}.
3. (a) 81
(b) 5
25
(c)
36
1
(d)
36
4 h
4.
16 16h 4h 2

190 ANSWERS
Exercise 7.2
1. Coordinate of the vertex of the parabola
2. f ( x) –2x2 8x 1
1 2 1 2 1 1
3. (a) f ( x) x (b) f ( x) x x
12 8 2 2
4. (a) y f ( x) (x – 3)2 5
(i) the vertex of the parabola is (3,5)
(ii) the equation of the symmetric axis is x 3
(iii) the domain is f ( x) 5
(iv) the range of the function is all real numbers

ANSWERS 191
(b) y f ( x) –(x – 3)2 5

(iii) the domain is real numbers
(iv) the range of the function is f ( x) 5
(c) y f ( x) 2(x 1)2 – 3

(i) the vertex of the parabola is (–1,–3)
(ii) the equation of the symmetric axis is x –1
(iv) the range of the function is f ( x) –3
(d) y f ( x) –2(x – 1)2 3

(iv) the range of the function is f ( x) 3
( x 2) 2
(e) y f ( x) 4
4
(i) the vertex of the parabola is (–2,–4)
(ii) the equation of the symmetric axis is x –2
(iv) the range of the function is f ( x) –4
5. (a) f ( x) (x 1)2 – 2
(i) The coordinates of the vertex (–1,–2)
(ii) The equation of the symmetric axis x –1
(ii) The y intercept is –1

192 ANSWERS
(b) f ( x) –(x – 2)2 3

(i) The coordinates of the vertex (2,3)
(ii) The equation of the symmetric axis x 2
(iii) The y intercept is –1
(c) f ( x) 3(x 1)2 – 6

(i) The coordinates of the vertex (–1,–6)
(ii) The equation of the symmetric axis x –1
(iii) The y intercept is –3
6. (a) a –2 (b) k 3
EXERCISE 7.3
1. (a)
Range: the set of all real numbers

Domain: the set of all real numbers
(b)
Domain: the set of all real numbers

Range: [ 2, )
ANSWERS 193
2. (a) Points x 1, 2, 3
x<1 1<x<2 2<x<3 x<3
x–1 –
x–2 – –
x–3 – – –
f ( x) ( x 1)( x 2)( x 3) – –
Position of f ( x) relative to Below Above Below Above
the x-axis
(b) Points g(x) –2, 3
3. (a)
(b)

194 ANSWERS
(c)
(d)
Exercise 7.4
(a)
(b)

ANSWERS 195
(c)
(d)
(e)

196 ANSWERS
EXERCISE 7.5
1. (a) 3 (b) –1 (c) 2
(d) 7 (e) 10 (f) 3
2. (a) (f g )( x) x3 2 x 3
f 2x 3
(b) ( x)
g x3
(c) 2 x3 3
(d) (2x 3)3
(e) 4x 9
3. (a) x–4 (b) x2 4

domain: [2, ) domain: ( , 4] [2, )
4. (a) g ( x) x5
f ( x) 8 x 3
1
(b) g ( x)
x
f ( x) 8 x 3
(c) g ( x) x4
2x 1
f ( x)
2x 1
5. (a) Yes (b) No (c) No (d) No
Self-Assessment 1
1. 9, 11
2. 5y x 29

ANSWERS 197
Self-Assessment 2
1. (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

198 ANSWERS
2. (a) Domain f the set of all numbers; Range f [3, )

Domain g the set of all real numbers; Range g [0, )
(b) f g ( x) x 4 3; g f ( x) x4 6x2 4
(c) y x2 3
g ( x) x2
f g ( x) x2 3

ANSWERS 199
g f ( x) ( x 3) 2
(d) f 1 ( x) x 3
TOPIC 8: VARIATION
Exercise 8.1
5 2
1. (a) y x
2
1
(b) y x
8
(c) y 2 x
(d) y 3 x3
2. (a) m 4n
(b) p 5q
3. (a) y 2x2
(b) 18
S
4. (a) R
5
(b) 32805

200 ANSWERS
Exercise 8.2
8
1. (a) y
x
(b) 32
27
2. (a) y
x2
1
(b)
3
12
3. (a) y
x
(b) 4
2592
4. (a) y
x2
(b) 864
60
5. (a) y
x
(b) 9
Self-Assessment 1
40
1. (a) n
p
(b) 9
2. (a) F 4G
7
(b)
4
1
3. (a) f G
6
1
(b)
64

ANSWERS 201
Self-Assessment 2
3
1.
4
1
2.
4
3. (a) y 3x 2
(b) 4
4. (a) 100
(b) 16


Sbma1403 PDF

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Sbma1403 PDF

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Faculty of Science and Technology

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

First Edition, August 2011

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2015, SBMA1403

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 2 Indices and Logarithms 28

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

3.2.2 Union of Sets 57

Topic 4 Base Numbers 70

Topic 5 Straight Lines 88

Topic 6 Simultaneous Equations 112

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Key Terrms 122

Topic 7 Functions 124

Topic 8 Variation 160

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Study Activities Study Hours

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 2 discusses the strong relationship between indices and logarithmic

Topic 4 discusses the different methods of conversion of one base number to

Topic 6 focuses on simultaneous equations. Not all simultaneous equations in two

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1 NUMBER SYSTEM

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1.1 Types of Numbers

(b) Set of integers, Z

(c) Set of rational numbers, Q

(d) Set of irrational numbers

(e) Set of real numbers

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 1.1: The real number system

Each real number can be represented as a decimal number. For instance:

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1.2 Number Line

Figure 1.2: The number line

In this case, we say that “a is smaller than b” (written as a < b) OR “b is greater

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

The expression 5 5 is also true because 5 is equal to 5.

We can also use two inequalities signs at once. For example:

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

But, observe that expressions like

are not true at all.

x|0 x 3 is an interval that consists of all the numbers between 0 and 3,

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

This form is called the interval notation.

(b) The semi open set {x | x a} is written as a, ) and is represented on the

{x | a < x < b} (a,b)

1.1.5 Absolute Values