Carlye Gomez

The First Two Years

I have always been fascinated at the development a child goes through in their first two

years of life. I never realized how fast a person goes from an infant to a toddler until I began

working at a daycare at the age of 18. The fast pace growth and cognitive development blew my

mind. The rapid growth in an infant is so serious that regular medical checkups are required to

monitor the growth and health of the baby. These checkups ensure the caretakers that the

infant/toddler is growing and developing correctly.

The average baby grows 10 inches in a year, and measures about 30 inches. Although

physical change starts to slow down, the growth is still fast-paced. Doctors and other health care

providers often express the growth of a baby or toddler in percentile. A healthy baby will range

in the 10 to 90 percentile.

Furthermore, one vital organ needed for development is, of course, the brain. According

to The Developing Person Through the Life Span, “From two weeks after conception to two

years after birth, the brain grows more rapidly than any other organ, from about 25 percent of

abut weight at birth to 75 percent at age 2.” (Berger 127) One term I learned in chapter 5 is

“head-sparing” Berger defines this term as a "biological mechanism that protects the brain when

malnutrition disrupts body growth." (Berger 127) The brain is, therefore, the last part of the body

to receive any damage by malnutrition.

All senses begin to function at the start of coming into this world. Although eyesight will

be blurry, newborns have open eyes when they are born and other working responsive sensory

organs such as their ears, skin, nose, and tongue, also known as sensation. The sensation is the

response of a sensory organ when it detects a stimulus.

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Another critical factor that plays a vital role in the survival of a child during their first

two years is sensorimotor intelligence. Jean Piaget, known for his theory of cognitive

development, refers to a child's cognition during their first two years of life as "sensorimotor

intelligence." Piaget defines sensorimotor intelligence as the way an infant thinks, by using their

senses and motor skills, during the first period of cognitive development.

According to Piaget, there are three types of reactions, from birth to the age of two. These

reactions are referred to as primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, and tertiary

circular reactions. During the primary circular reaction stage (birth to 4 months) the infant senses

motion, sucking, noise, and other stimuli. The secondary circular reaction (4-12 months)

involves people and objects. Infants will begin to respond to people, toys, and other objects they

can touch or move. Lastly, the tertiary circular reaction involves active exploration and

experimentation. Infants will begin to become curious and explore many new activities and start

to learn about the world.

One topic I found to be very interesting while reading chapter six was the process an

infant goes through when learning his/her language. I was very intrigued by this section because

I would love to major in speech-language pathology and one-day work with children who have

speech problems. While reading this chapter, I learned more about the different aspects that go

into an infant's early communication and language development. To begin with, a newborn will

start to learn language by listening to their mother. Newborns prefer to hear the language the

mother spoke while in the womb because they are more familiar with it. Newborns use reflexive

communication. This means that a newborn will cry, show movement, or have facial expressions

to "talk" to their caretakers. Babbling will begin around 6 to 9 months. Babbling is formed by the
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patterns of speech the infant hears. Finally, around a year of age, a baby will start to sound out

actual words. A typical baby will use holophrase to expresses their entire thoughts.

In chapter 7, I thoroughly enjoyed learning the process of emotional development. Early

emotions take place when a newborn is happy while being fed or crying when they are hungry or

tired. About 40% of infants develop an uncontrollable crying called colic and usually ends by the

time a baby is 3 to 4 months of age. Separation anxiety and stranger wariness also develop

during infancy.

Furthermore, a toddler’s emotions begin to intensify by toddlerhood. A toddler begins to

develop social awareness and often result in feelings such as pride, shame, jealousy

embarrassment, disgust, and guilt. Although these emotions can often be seen as poor, social

awareness also can result in positive emotions such as generosity and empathy.

Next, social bonds are a substantial developmental achievement for the first two years of

a baby’s life. An infant has three main social interactions, which are synchrony, attachment, and

social referencing. Synchrony refers to a coordinated exchange of responses between a caregiver

and an infant. One lifelong trait between a caretaker and a baby is the attachment. Attachment is

an "affectional tie," according to Ainsworth. Signs of attachment might include proximity-

seeking, contact maintaining. Attachment is a mutual and universal bond of the human species.

Social referencing refers to seeking responses or information from other people. An infant aims

to know how to react to unfamiliar situations. Often this means a toddler will search for clues in

others faces and body positions. Toddlers use social referencing to learn about objects, emotions,

and activities that might not be allowed.

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Babies in Prison

Separation anxiety and stranger wariness are two definitions I learned about while

reading chapter 7. Separation anxiety is defined as distress among infants when a caretaker

leaves and is most evident between 9 and 14 months. Stranger wariness is an infant’s expression

of fear or concern when a stranger appears. After reading about separation anxiety and stranger

wariness, I started asking myself many questions. Many of these questions had to do with how a

mother raises their babies from prison and the effects that might have on an infant. After doing

thorough research, I came across a program referred to as “prison nursery.”

Additionally, a prison nursery is a part of a prison that houses incarcerated mothers and

their babies. There are currently only nine prison nurseries in the United States and are in

California, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Nebraska, New York, South Dakota, Washington, and West

Virginia. Although there are only a few prisons that have nurseries, the increasing rate of women

behind bars has added pressure to expand them. The first prison nursery was built in 1901 in the

state of New York. This was the only prison nursery for many years until Nebraska opened theirs

in 1994.

Despite many opinions, prison nurseries are aimed at keeping the bond between the

mother and the baby. Eight of these prisons allow the mothers to keep their babies for up to 30

months. The mothers at Bedford Hills in New York live with their babies in their prison cells and

are with them at all times of the day unless the mother has work, college, or has a program to

attend. Although the colorful walls, toys, and daycare like setting can bring comfort, the fact that

the mothers and babies are in prison can be stressful.

Likewise, prison nurseries have some disadvantages for the mother and their child. One

problem of prison nurseries is the fact that the program cannot fulfill all the needs a mother
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might have before and after birth. Prisons lack space, resources, and information the mother will

need. Another disadvantage is that the baby is "punished" and taken away from the real world.

Many individuals believe that imprisoning a baby with their mother is morally unjustifiable and

goes against the 14th amendment. Due to a small amount of scientific research on prison

neurosis, I had trouble finding actual statistics of the effects prison nurseries can have on infants.

Moreover, there are also advantages to these prison nurseries. As I already mentioned,

prison nurseries keep the mothers and their infant together. This always the mother and baby to

still develop a bond. Research published by the American Psychological Society found that

infants who bond securely with their mothers become more self-reliant and have higher self-

esteem as toddlers. Another advantage is that misconduct reports for mothers in nursery

programs decreases.

Rather a person agrees or disagrees with these programs; a mother-child bond is crucial

for the development of a child. Babies undergo a vast amount of brain development and neuron

pruning in the first two years of life. Social, emotional, and cognitive development all depends

on a loving bond with a parent or caretaker. According to London Journal of Primary Care,

"There is increasing evidence from the fields of developmental psychology, neurobiology and

animal epigenetic studies that neglect, parental inconsistency and a lack of love can lead to long-

term mental health problems as well as to reduced overall potential and happiness.” (Winston 1)

Additionally, during the beginning of an infant’s life, a mother and her baby must be

supported to ensure attachment. If a parent and infant do not have a good bond, the child will

grow up to be less happy, independent, and resilient adults. Even the small experiences impact

the relationship between the two.

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Lastly, whether a person agrees with prison nurseries or not, there is strong evidence that

supports a baby needs their mother in their first stages of life. Since this topic is just now

becoming popular, I had trouble finding legit case studies that support either side of prison

nurseries. I hope this topic gains more popularities so researchers will look into the effects,

positives, and negatives of these nurseries. I went into this research topic, thinking I would be

able to find stronger evidence of the negatives and positives, but I ran into a roadblock. If I were

ever to become a psychologist that does case studies, I would be very interested in researching

prison nurseries.
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A Look into Early Childhood

The second stage of a child’s life is called early childhood. Early childhood ranges from 2

to 6 years old. A child in the early childhood stage will typically love to explore, discover, and

have a vast imagination. These years contain extraordinary growth for the young ones, and they

will learn impressive amounts of information.

To begin with, body changes and growth patterns skyrocket in this stage. For the first

time, children start to lose their baby fat, and the fat turns into muscle. The body and brain begin

to mature in both size and function. During the age of 5 and 6, the BMI is lower than any other

time during the child's life. The average six-year-old who is well nourished will weigh between

40 and 50 pounds, look lean and not chubby, and will be at least 3 ½ feet tall.

"By the age of 2, most neurons have connected to other neurons, and substantial pruning

has occurred. The 2-year-old's brain already weighs 75 percent of what it will weigh in

adulthood; the 6-year old's brain is 90 percent of adult weight." (Berger p. 210) Myelination

occurs after infancy and causes an increase in brain weight. Myelin, or white matter, is a fatty

coating on the axons that protects the speeds signals between neurons. Myelin has an essential

job that helps every part of the brain.

Gross motor skills and fine motor skills improve drastically during early childhood.

Gross motor skills involve the movement and coordination of the arms, legs, and any other large

parts and movement. Examples of gross motor skills would include catching a ball, climbing,

and running races. Culture and locale influences play a significant role in the influence of what a

5- year old will learn to do. Fine motor skills are the coordination of small muscles, in

movements involving the synchronization of hands and fingers with the eyes. Fine motor skills
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would include eating, cutting with scissors, or pouring water into a glass. Although fine motor

skills involve the smaller muscles, these skills are often harder to master than gross motor skills.

Furthermore, the second of Piaget’s four periods of cognitive development is

“preoperational intelligence.” “Piaget’s term for cognitive development between the ages of

about 2 and 6; it includes language and imagination (which involve symbolic thought), but

logical, operational thinking is not yet possible at this stage.” (Berger pg. 233) Preoperational

children are no longer in the stage of sensorimotor intelligence because they can think in

symbols. Symbolic thinking helps explain animism.

Schooling is fundamental in early childhood as it will help the child the learn new things,

develop in more efficient ways, and gain insights on the world around them. There are many

types of schools that provide a unique learning experience for the child. In today’s world, nearly

every nation offers some kind of early childhood education. Examples of school education

include home school, public school, private school, Montessori schools, and boarding school.

The quality of education matters tremendously and plays a huge role in the child's learning.

Furthermore, one type of school that I learned from reading this chapter is called "Reggio

Emilia." Reggio Emilia is named after a town in Italy. In this type of school, students are

encouraged to master skills that usually aren't taught in North American schools. Although this is

a highly respected school amongst educators, it is hard to duplicate in America due to it being

expensive. Lessons include learning with hands-on activities such as cooking, using tools, and

drawing.

Head start is a program that I had never heard of until I moved to Washington. Starting in

the '60s, head start is a federally funded early childhood intervention program for low-income

children of preschool age. Although the goals of the program have changed over time, one thing
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has stayed in common, and that is to help lift families up. Head start has given low income -

children opportunities that have helped them tremendously through-out life. Many 3 and 4-year-

old children living in poverty are not exposed to math, yet head start has given these children that

opportunity.

Next, if there is one thing that is very evident in the early childhood stage, it is that these

children have a hard time controlling their emotions. Emotional regulation is the ability to

control when and how emotions are expressed and is a vital psychosocial task between the ages

of 2 and 6. As a child is in the process of developing emotional regulation, a child starts to form

their self-concept or their idea of who they are. Culture influences play a significant role in this

process, and their parents often teach this.

Play is another important factor and is universal throughout children. Maturation plays a

role in playmates, and children will often play best with their friends and peers. Play is divided

into two types: pretend play, when a child is by themselves and social play that occurs with

playmates. According to research, social play has a more significant impact on children. If a

child only plays by themselves, the child is less happy and less able to learn. This suggests that

social play involves an important role in the development of a child.

Rather you agree with it or not, physical punishment and discipline play a huge role in

the society we live in. This type of punishment is known as corporal punishment and is defined

as punishment that physically hurts the body, such as slapping or spanking. Spanking is more

frequent in the southern United States than in New England, by mothers than fathers, among

African Americans than among European Americans, and in low-SES families than in high-SES

families. According to researchers, children who are spanked are more likely to become bullies,

delinquents, and abusive adults.

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Lastly, early childhood is an exciting and unique stage of life. Early childhood is one of

the most critical steps in life because the emotional, social, and physical development of young

children has a direct effect on their overall development and on the adult they will become.

(Importance of Early Childhood Development 1)

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The Effects of Childhood Abuse

Abuse and neglect towards children are two things that are highly unacceptable

throughout society, yet we see another news report on it daily. As someone who has worked with

children for a long time, I find this issue personal, disturbing, and disappointing. In this essay, I

will evaluate the effects early trauma has on children once they grow into adults.

To begin with, early trauma is any form of emotional, physical, or sexual abuse. Other

traumatic events also might include a sudden loss of a parent or caregiver, military family-related

stress (deployment/parent injury), community violence, life-threating illness, etc. There are three

million annual reports of child abuse in the U.S., 2/3 of the incidents of abuse go unreported,

and 59% of abused children are neglected. (Child Abuse and Neglect Facts 1) Every 10 seconds,

child abuse is reported, so I feel like I must go more in-depth with what abuse is.

To begin with, emotional abuse, also known as psychological abuse, is considered a form

of abuse that is characterized by acts of verbal assault, humiliation, and diminishing the sense of

self-worth of a person. Physical abuse is defined as a bodily injury inflicted upon the child with

cruel and/or malicious intent. Examples of physical abuse include punching, beating, kicking,

biting, burning, shaking, or otherwise harming a child psychically. (Sheil Jr. 1) Lastly, Sexual

child abuse is any sexual activity with a child, such as fondling, oral-genital contact, intercourse,

exploitation, or exposure to child pornography. (Mayo Clinic 1)

Furthermore, although these traumas usually take place behind the scenes, teachers,

doctors, other family members, etc. can generally be on the lookout of any possible symptoms or

signs of abuse towards a child. Signs of emotional abuse often include yelling/swearing and

bullying others, isolating oneself, not looking adult figures in the eyes, and blaming themselves

for abuse. Signs of emotional abuse can be harder to look for since there is no type of scaring on
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the appearance of the child. The abuser often shows dominance, then manipulating the victim

into feeling guilty for their actions. The abuser will often limit the child's contact with others and

belittle the child with negative and harsh words.

Next, signs of physical abuse are usually the easiest to look for when on the lookout. The

majority of these signs include unexplained injuries, such as bruises, broken bones/fractures, and

burn marks on the child. Usually, these injuries don't match up with the explanation the

caregiver/abuser tells. The abuser will sometimes show little concern for the child and blame the

child for the abuse. Like most types of abuse, physical violence occurs in cycles.

Lastly, sexual abuse is the most disturbing form of abuse that I have researched. Signs

that a child is sexually abused include blood in the child’s underwear, knowledge of sexual

content/activities at a young age, inappropriate sexual content with other children, infections, and

statements that he/she has been abused. 1 in 4 girls and 1 in 6 boys will be sexually abused

before they turn 18 years old and 325,000 children are at risk of becoming victims of commercial

child sexual exploitation each year. (Tikkanen 1)

Consequently, childhood traumas can severely damage and change mental health into

adulthood. "Early life adversity is a major risk factor for the development of psychological and

behavioral problems later in life. Higher rates of depression, suicidality, anxiety disorders, post-

traumatic stress disorder, and aggressive behavior have been reported in adults who experienced

childhood maltreatment.” (Baraz 2) Those who have experienced life traumas as a child are more

likely to start using drugs at a younger age, be less independent, and develop psychological

disorders and addiction from added stress as an adult. This is not the case for all children who

have experienced early life traumas though. How the adult deals with stress can also depend on
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genes and the chemicals in the brain. Cortisol and oxytocin are two vital chemicals for stress and

emotional regulation.

Continuing, oxytocin is a naturally produced hormone in the brain. Oxytocin helps

promote sociability and bonds between a mother and child. Oxytocin varies in individuals, and

the different variations of the gene can affect how a person responds to stressful and traumatic

situations. Environmental factors can also influence the development of the oxytocin system,

which starts to develop in the womb and continues to grow after birth. Critical changes occur

during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, based on our experiences. Positive or negative

experiences early in life can shape the oxytocin system. (Baraz 7) When the oxytocin system is

affected as a child, mental illness in adulthood can become present.

Secondly, the effects of childhood trauma on adults attack several areas of health.

Emotional health is affected, and adults will often feel guilty, angry, and helpless. Secondly,

mental health is affected and will cause adults to have PTSD and depression. Lastly, Physical

health will be affected, and adults will be less likely to regulate their emotions, lower immune

function, and sleep difficulties.

Importantly, there are several ways you can help a child who has experienced a form of

abuse, neglect, or other type of tragedy. First, remain calm and never deny a child who is venting

to you or telling you what has happened. Displaying disbelief or showing disgust will only make

a child shut down. Secondly, never blame a child for what they went through. You should always

reassure a child that is not their fault. Lastly, ensure the safety of the child. If you feel as if the

child is in danger, allow professionals to intervene and help.

Lastly, tragedy and abuse is a serious topic that can severely affect a person. Oxytocin is

valuable and needs to be protected. As a society, we should never let this topic go unnoticed.
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Although I don't have all the answers to how we can stop this abuse, I do know that we should

always value every person and still help in any way. You don't need proof to report. If you see or

feel as if a loved one is in danger, call your local authorities or ChildHelp USA National Child

Abuse Hotline, 1-800-4-A-CHILD.

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Middle Childhood

The third stage of life is referred to as middle childhood. Middle childhood ranges from

the ages of 6 to 11 and is often considered the best period of growth. Each stage of life has its

challenges and rewards, yet middle childhood is still a safe and healthy period and away from the

dangers of being adolescence.

To begin with, middle childhood is the healthiest times during life due to deadly diseases

and accidents being rare. These school-age children begin to grow slower in both the body and

brain. Diet, exercise, and sleep all depends on good daily habits. Peers and caregivers are crucial

in helping children have a healthy routine. Children will learn and pick up the same healthy, or

not so healthy, habits that are being displayed by others. Physical activity, beyond average

playtime, is linked to reducing depression, improving physical health, and can last a lifetime for

a child.

Next, health problems can occur during middle childhood and some chronic conditions,

such as Tourette syndrome, stuttering, and allergies can often worsen. Childhood obesity is

another health risk that should be avoided. "Childhood overweight is usually defined as a BMI

above 85th percentile, and childhood obesity is defined as a BMI above the 95th percentile for

children of a particle age.” (Berger 296) Sadly, childhood obesity is an ongoing problem and has

more than doubled since 1980 in all of North America. Childhood overweight can cause asthma,

high blood pressure, elevated cholesterol, loneliness, decrease in school achievement, and lower

self-esteem.

Moving forward, by the age of 6, children use nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,

interjections, and conjunctions. During this time, children will often start puns due to cognitive

flexibility. Pragmatics becomes evident during this stage and begin to make new friends as they
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master it. As a child begins to learn pragmatics, it allows he/she to change their style of speech

depending on the audience. This is often referred to as “linguistic code.” Linguistic codes include

vocabulary, tone, pronunciation, gestures, sentence length, idioms, and grammar. Formal code is

used in academic contexts, and informal code is often used with friends.

Furthermore, schooling in the United States has a lot of work and improving to do.

Students academics in the U.S. are compared those in other countries, are far from the top of the

list. Often, people blame that academics are affected by ethnicity and income, yet this is not true

because some high-scoring nations have more ethnic groups, diversity, and immigrants

compared to the United States. Ethnic diversity is beneficial to a child’s learning, and most

parents want their children to learn about other groups at a young age. A diverse classroom can

allow a teacher to teach the children to have mutual respect.

Adding on, who decides on the matters of education issues plays a vital role and is very

important. The central government usually sets matters of public education, such as the

curriculum, funding, training teachers, etc. in most nations. A parent's job in the child's education

is to support the child's learning. Deciding where the parent wants to send their child to school

can be difficult, yet often depends on the child's characteristics. Most parents in the U.S send

their children to the nearest public school, and 1/3 send their children to private or charter

schools.

Moving forward, due to steady growth, brain maturation, and intellectual advances,

middle childhood is a time for more independence. Between the ages of 6 to 11, children begin

to learn how to care for themselves. These children will start to express their own opinions and

ideas. Parent-child interactions shift from primary physical care to more conversation about

values and choices.

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Continuing, school-age children begin to develop more self-concept and develop a

realistic understanding of who they are and what they are capable of. Most of the skills they

master depend on their cultural values. Self-concept in middle childhood starts to become more

complicated and logical as their cognitive development and social awareness increase. “Crucial

during middle childhood is social comparison – comparing one’s self to others. Ideally, social

comparison helps school-age children value themselves and abandon the imaginary, rosy self-

evaluation of preschoolers.” (Berger 348)

Next, studies have shown that children are less affected by shared environments than by

nonshared environment. Personality traits and intellectual characteristics can be characterized by

the combined influence of genes and nonshared environments. Family function and family

structure also play an essential role in this process. Family structure refers to the legal and

genetic connections among related people. Family function refers to how the people in a family

work together to care for the family members. Middle childhood needs five things from their

families – physical necessities, learning, self-respect, peer relationships, and harmony and

stability.

Lastly, middle childhood is a prime time for moral development. There is three leading

cause of moral interest – child culture, personal experience, and empathy. Children begin to

become better at taking psychological and physical harm into account. Kohlberg described three

levels of moral reasoning. The first level is preconventional moral reasoning and emphasizes

rewards and punishments. The second level is conventional moral reasoning and emphasizes

social rules. The last level is postconventional moral reasoning and emphasizes ethical

principles.
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Middle childhood is a time in a child’s life for growth and learning about oneself.

“Middle childhood is a stage where children move into expanding roles and environments.

Children begin to spend more time away from their family and spend more time in school and

other activities. As they experience more of the world around them, children begin to develop

their own identity.” (“Middle Childhood (Ages 6-12)” 2).

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Middle Childhood- The Development of Politics and Views

Growing up, I never really understood politics. I did not understand the concept, the big

deal, or what was happening in this world. I grew up with a father who always spoke his mind

around me and had a significant influence on the reason I view specific issues and topics the way

I do. This always made me wonder if parental role and influence are what shapes children's

views.

I will never forget the 2012 presidential election. I was in the 8th grade, and this election

was the first time I realized how divided America was and how essential government leaders

were. I will always remember walking through the school hallways and seeing children wear

"Obama 2012" or "Romney 2012" shirts. There were constant fights between children and

bullying due to the division. I remember a teacher telling the class one day that, "the only reason

you like who you like is because that's who your parents are voting for." At the time, this didn't

make much sense to me until I grew up and realized the impact my father's views had on me.

Furthermore, in 1961, an experiment called the “BoBo Doll experiment” was conducted

by Albert Bandura. In Bandura’s research, he demonstrated that children would act in the same

manner that was modeled for them by their caregivers. This critical responsibility may often

result in parents instructing their children to take part in the same views that they have. Most

parents alone hope that their children turn out like them or better versions of them. This often

results in children feeling pressured and not thinking for themselves. “For some parents, this

quest takes on a missionary zeal: They work to indoctrinate their children with a designated

political viewpoint from an early age, raising them to be young ideologues. But new research

suggests trying to plant those seeds during potty training might actually be the fastest way to

guarantee political rebellion later on. (Patterson, 3)

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To gain another perspective on this topic, a new study by the American Sociological

Review found that most children either go against their parent’s political views or incorrectly

identify them. This study reviewed two surveys, one from 1988 that consisted of 8,600 families,

and another from 2006 and 2008 with 3,400 families. The 1988 survey consisted of the mother-

child relationship and the father-child relationship. In the 2006 and 2008 study, it only reviewed

the mother-child relationship.

Furthermore, both surveys asked the children what their perception of what their parent's

political views are and then asked what the child's political views are. For the majority of both

surveys, the children did not correctly identify their parent’s views and also went against their

parent’s beliefs. Christopher Ojeda states that "Our study is important because it recognizes that

children have a say in determining their own (political) identities." This survey also recognizes

that political discussion in households has a massive part in whether a child will be able to

perceive their caregiver’s views, but it states that this will not affect whether the child will

choose to reject or agree with the same beliefs.

Next, this article left me with many questions of what shapes a child’s political views;

after all, parents are our most prominent influencers, right? According to Political Psychology, a

researcher by the name of Jeffrey Lynos found that other factors, such as whether if your town is

more conservative or liberal, has a huge part in children’s political identity. “A 2009 study of

identical and nonidentical twins, published in the journal Political Research Quarterly, found

that “partisan strength,” or the degree to which someone identifies with a political party, is in

large part a trait passed through genes. In fact, according to Chris Dawes, a New York University

politics professor studying the heritability of complex social traits, genes, and external factors

likely interact closely in shaping a person's political identity.” (Jacewicz, 10)

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Many researchers will agree with the idea that if politics is a topic that comes in a

discussion a lot amongst families, then the child will be more influenced to coincide with the

same views and be able to perceive their parent’s political identity. Once a child moves out of

their family house and is around other influences, the child is more likely to adopt different

ideas. Recent studies back up these ideas and suggest that children necessarily don't choose the

same views as their parents.

Next, we have all heard the saying that if a parent is too strict, then their child will act out

and be a “wild child.” Maybe this same type of concept goes hand in hand with why some

children might reject their parent’s views. When a parent forces their beliefs on a child, the child

might be more likely to go against those beliefs. An example of this: Growing up, my stepmother

believed that you were supposed to go to church every time the doors were open. I ended up

resenting attending church functions because I was made to go no matter the circumstances. "A

study recently published in the British Journal of Political Science, based on data from the U.S.

and U.K., found that parents who are insistent that their children adopt their political views

inadvertently influence their children to abandon the belief once they become adults.” (Patterson

12)

In conclusion, after reading countless articles on this topic, I realized that my father’s

views alone did not necessary mold my views, but the environment in which I lived in did. As I

mentioned in the first paragraph, my father always talked about politics around me my whole

life. This had a massive impact on my views until I moved out. Now I have my own opinions

that don't always align with his. Chris Dawes, a New York University politics professor, states,

“The more you do this research, the more you realize environment matters crucially,” Dawes

says. “Just because there’s a genetic predisposition doesn’t mean things aren’t going to change.
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Maybe in college, you have a roommate who influences you, or you live in a community that

influences you … None of this stuff is completely nailed down” (Jacewicz, 11). I couldn't agree

more with this statement.

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Adolescence

The fourth stage of life is referred to as adolescence and ranges from 11 to 18. The

adolescence years can be a tricky time in a person's life because of the many obstacles that must

be overcome. A century ago, the majority of boys and girls in this stage got married right after

hitting puberty. Understanding an adolescence can often be difficult, but is rewarding in the end.

To begin with, puberty is referred to as the years of rapid physical growth and sexual

maturation that end childhood, producing a person of adult size, shape, and sexuality. Puberty

hits when a wave of hormones unleash that produce external growth and internal changes.

Puberty typically lasts for three to five years, yet to achieve psychosocial maturity takes many

more years to come. A boy adolescence going through puberty will grow taller, gain weight, and

develop more muscle mass. This process can often last until the age of 20 for boys. Other

physical signs a boy is going through puberty involve growth of testes, pubic hair, penis growth,

facial hair, and a deeper voice.

Secondly, menarche is referred to as a girls first menstrual period. Menarche signals that

a girl has begun ovulation and pregnancy is now possible. The physical signs that puberty is

taking place in a girl involves nipple growth, pubic hair, growth, widening hips, and breast

maturation. On average, most girls get there first menstrual period at the age of 12 but can range

anywhere from 10 to 15. Puberty can begin anytime from the ages of 8 to 14, so this often leaves

parents, so this usually leaves parents and children wondering when puberty will hit. Thankfully,

if the child's genes, gender, body fat, and stress level are known, a prediction within a year or

two can be made.

Furthermore, a well-nourished diet is required for a child to go through puberty

successfully. Many teenagers tend to lack in an adequate diet by skipping breakfast, drinking
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energy drinks, and eating salty or processed snacks. “One reason for their unhealthy eating

patterns is that their hormones affect the circadian rhythm of their appetites; another reason is

their drive for independence makes them avoid family dinners, refusing to eat what their mothers

say they should.” (Berger 393) A lack of iron, calcium, zinc, and other minerals are common

during this stage as well. If a teenager is not getting the recommended daily intake of calcium,

this can lead to fragile bones. Weak bones can then lead to disability, injury, and death in late

adulthood.

Next, Body image is another massive part of being an adolescent. Body image is referred

to as a person's idea of how his or her body looks. One enormous reason for poor diets and

nutrition amongst teenagers has to do with anxiety and stress over there body image. Sadly, not a

lot of teenagers welcome and accept the change in their bodies. This leads to teenagers

exaggerating all their imperfections. This unhealthy dislike can be very depressing and

dangerous for teenagers.

For example, eating disorders increase drastically from childhood to adolescence.

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by self-starvation. Individuals going

through this under eat and sometimes over exercise. Doing this deprives vital organs of proper

nutrition. Anorexia is more common in girls, yet boys are at risk as well. If this disorder gets

very serious, it can be fatal.

Likewise, bulimia nervosa is another eating disorder and is characterized by binge eating

and subsequent purging. Bulimia nervosa is often induced by vomiting and/or using laxatives.

“This disorder is clinically present in 1 to 3 percent of female teenagers and young adults in the

United States. They overeat compulsively, consuming thousands of calories within an hour or

two.” (Berger 395) Like anorexia, bulimia nervosa puts individuals at risk of health problems
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that include damage to their gastrointestinal system and cardiac arrest from an electrolyte

imbalance.

Further, finding your identity, or understanding oneself, is a massive part of the

psychosocial development during the adolescence years. Identity achievement is Erkison’s term

for the attainment of identity. This is a critical stage because each person must recognize and

achieve their own identity. Understanding your identity can often be hard and take many years.

Erikson focuses on four main aspects of identity, which are religious, political, vocational, and

sexual.

Likewise, for religious identity, many adolescents begin to question aspects of their faith.

If a child has a happy relationship with their parents, the adolescence is less likely to reject their

religion. Parents often influence political identity. Adolescents tend to lean more liberal than

their parents when it comes to social issues, such as LGBTQ rights. Vocational identity

originally was defined as how a person envisioned themselves in the work field. No teenager

nowadays can realistically choose a set career path so, vocational identity is now viewed as a

flexible path. Lastly, Erikson’s term sexual identity is now referred to as gender identity. This is

a person's acceptance of the roles and behaviors that society associates with the biological

categories of male and female.

Lastly, the adolescence years can be confusing, challenging, sometimes heartbreaking.

An adolescence is exposed to new things such as drugs, sexual activity, new people, and new

ideas. I could go on and on about the adolescence years from a large number of different

developments and challenges they go through. My adolescent years were the worst for me. I

wasn't meant for high school, and I am still struggling to find my identity and place in this world.
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How Social Media Effects Adolescence

We live in a society that thrives off of social media. Everywhere we go, people are

constantly checking Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, etc. Before I was even in middle school,

many other friends of mine and I created a Facebook account. At the time, this was very exciting,

but when I look back, I often wonder why I even needed one. The effects of social media are

evident as more young people mental health is dropping, but I wanted to dive deeper into how

much social media effects adolescence, and society as a whole.

To begin with, clearly, before social media, teenagers kept themselves occupied, but in

many other ways. From chatting on the phone to hanging out in person at the mall, movies, or a

local restaurant. These interactions were quite different than those of modern teens because,

before social media, teens had real-world experiences and failures that current teens are missing

out on. The massive downside of modern teens is that they are doing the majority of their

interactions behind a screen. "As a species we are very highly attuned to reading social cues,"

says Dr. Catherine Steiner-Adair, a clinical psychologist and author of The Big Disconnect.

"There's no question kids are missing out on very critical social skills. In a way, texting and

online communicating—it's not like it creates a nonverbal learning disability, but it puts

everybody in a nonverbal disabled context, where body language, facial expression, and even the

smallest kinds of vocal reactions are rendered invisible." (Ehmke, 4)

Next, one huge danger that comes with social media is cyberbullying. Cyberbullying is a

form of bullying used from electronic communication to bully a person. Typically, cyberbullying

consist of a person sending hateful or threatening messages to someone to intimidate them.

Teenagers often send a wide range of things to another person that they would never actually say

to the other persons face. Girls are more at risk of this happening to them since girls tend not to
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like to disagree in person. Dr. Donna Wick, a clinical and developmental psychologist, states that

"You hope to teach them that they can disagree without jeopardizing the relationship, but what

social media is teaching them to do is disagree in ways that are more extreme and do jeopardize

the relationship. It's exactly what you don't want to have happen," she says. (Ehmke, 9)

Furthermore, in a study done at UCLA brain mapping center, researchers found that

regions of a teenager’s brain became activated by "likes" while using social media. This

activation makes the person want to use social media more. Although social media plays a role in

helping teenagers connect to others, teenagers who use social media are more at risk peer

pressure, sexting, and cyberbullying, as I mentioned above. As a result, many mental health

problems can develop from too much time online.

First, researchers recently found a link between depression and social media. "Depression

(major depressive disorder) is a common and serious medical illness that negatively affects how

you feel, the way you think, and how you act." (Parekh, 1) Symptoms of depression include

feeling sad, change of appetite, feeling worthless, suicidal thoughts, etc. Although researchers

have not found the cause and effects, they do know that social media intensifies depression and

causes others to feel lonely and lower self-esteem.

Secondly, jealousy and envy became more present in teens using social media. Since

others only tend to post positive experiences, teens begin to compare their lives to others. This

comparison game is not healthy for teenagers, and they will start to believe that everyone else is

happier than they are. This can then result in a variety of other mental health issues. If envy is

not dealt with, it can then lead to bullying.

Next, teenagers can become very attached and invested in their social media accounts.

The pressure of posting the "perfect" picture, or writing a well thought out post or caption can
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lead to anxiety. In researches, psychologist have found that teenagers with larger social circles

online tend to have more anxiety. The amount of time and effort that goes into keeping up with

the newest trend and unspoken rules can put a great deal of pressure on adolescence. "Many

teens, especially girls, are prone to worry about what others might think of them and how they

will respond when they see them next. Then factor in cyberbullying, slut-shaming, and other

mean online behaviors and you can see why social media is a very real source of anxiety for

many teens." (Gordon, 13)

Likewise, sleep deprivation is common in teens who invest time in social media. Social

media can become an addiction, which then turns into losing valuable sleep. The effects of sleep

deprivation can cause teens to be moody, overeating, and a drop in their school grades.

Altogether, this can also cause teens to be less happy.

Lastly, communication skills can suffer from social media. Since people are not talking

face to face, it is ubiquitous that misunderstanding can occur. Relationships can begin to suffer

from not having real and authentic experiences. It is essential that teens have personal, practical

experiences and communication outside of social media.

Furthermore, I have suffered from mental health issues due to social media. In high

school, I felt as if my life wasn't as fun and exciting as others because of pictures I would see on

Instagram. This put me in a depression and has given me anxiety that I still struggle with to this

day. I also would compare my body to others. This lead to an eating disorder that took me years

to escape. Looking at social media became a habit and a part of my daily routine. I hate social

media from the issues it has caused me and many others. Social media became very popular

when I was starting to grow up. Since social is a somewhat "new" thing, I am interested to know

the research that is done about it in 10 to 20 years.

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Emerging Adulthood

The fifth stage of life is referred to as emerging adulthood. Emerging adulthood is the

period of life between the ages of 18 and 25. This stage of life is thought of as a distinct

developmental stage. Once before, emerging adulthood was labeled as “youth” or “late

adolescence.” Yet, more young people now hover before full adulthood. The teen birth rate has

dropped, the marriage age has increased, and many have hopes to attend college.

To begin with, staying healthy is very important for emerging adults. A healthy human

being can thrive in the environment. Staying fit helps promote a happy and stable life. There are

three important choices to help guide young adults to being healthy; exercise, nutrition, and sex.

To start with, the first domain that promotes a healthy lifestyle for emerging adults is

exercise. Exercise protects against lifelong illness, even if the person has bad eating habits or

uses tobacco products. Exercising promotes health benefits for both male and females. “It

reduces blood pressure, strengthens the heart and lungs, and makes depression, osteoporosis,

diabetes, arthritis, major neurocognitive disorder, and some cancers less likely. (Berger 471)

Exercising benefits all women, men, young or old. It does not matter if you have played sports

your whole life, or never joined an athletic team. The majority of those emerging into adulthood

are active. In the United States, younger adults drive less and walk more than older adults. Those

with friends who enjoy being active are prone to become active themselves.

The second domain that supports a healthy lifestyle is proper nutrition. Eating well is a

habit embedded in the culture. Every stage of life is affected by healthy or not healthy, eating

habits. A set point is a particular body weight that an individual’s homeostatic processes strive to

maintain. The setpoint is an essential function within a person because it helps the body know
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when the individual is full and when to stop eating. Extreme dieting and overeating can affect the

set point. The body mass index (BMI) is the ratio of a person’s weight in kilograms divided by

his or her height in meters squared. If an individual has a BMI of 18, then this is an indication a

person is anorexic. A 20 and 25 indicates a healthy or average weight. A 25 is considered

overweight, and a 30 and above is viewed as obsessed. Fast food, soda, and high-fat diets are not

healthy and should be avoided.

The last domain to promote a healthy lifestyle within emerging adults is sex. “The sexual

reproductive system is at most efficient during emerging adulthood. Conception is quicker;

miscarriage is less common; serious birth complications unusual; orgasms more frequent; and

testosterone higher for both sexes at age 20 than at age 40” (Berger 473) Opinions about sexual

activity vary widely amongst culture and people. Adults over the age of 65 are more likely to

believe that premarital sex is wrong, yet the majority of emerging adults believe that it is

acceptable. Sex is not only driven by hormones in emerging adults, but also stress, anxiety, and

depression.

Next, stress amongst emerging adults is high, yet understandable. Emerging adults

experience mental illness the most out any earlier stage of life. Severe mental illness begins in

the adolescence stage and develops even more once a person becomes an emerging adult. One

reason that this could happen is that the parental role becomes less and emerging adults no longer

have parents in their day-to-day life. Parents serve as a safety net to their children, so not having

them around as often can lead to psychopathology. A research done in England found that NEET

(not in education, employment, or training) young adults are at more substantial risk for

psychopathology. As a result of demands put on emerging adults, many disorders can appear.
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Three of these general categories of psychopathology are mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and

schizophrenia.

First, depressive disorder is a terrifying and real mental illness to have. Depression is

characterized by loss of interest in once enjoyable activities and difficulties in sleeping, eating,

concentrating, and feeling hopeful. Women are more likely to develop a depressive disorder.

Depression can ultimately impair a person in ways such as higher education, romantic

relationships, maintaining a steady job, and vocational choices. Many of those who have

depression do not get the help and counseling they need. Rather that is from embarrassment, or

the way society views those who have a mental illness. Social support is recommended for

people experiencing depression. For women, having a close friend to talk to can be the root of

solving this illness.

The other major mental illness is anxiety. Within the United States, one-fourth of anxiety

disorders is evident within those below the age of 25. Like depression, anxiety can genuinely

affect a person daily life. This section of the reading impacted me because I have struggled with

anxiety my whole life. My anxiety started shortly after my parents got divorced when I was a

young girl. I never understood what was wrong with me until I did research my freshmen year of

college and talked with a doctor. Anxiety not only has affected me but also the relationships I

have. If I am going through a stressful situation that triggers my anxiety, I will sleep too long, or

not enough. I also stop eating, become very moody, and have zero drive to do anything. I feel as

if society views this disorder like a common cold, and that is why people do not get the help they

need.

The last disorder is schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is a severe mental illness disorder that

affects the way a person feels, thinks, and behaves. Those who have schizophrenia often lose
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touch with reality. Diagnosis is most common for those between the ages of 18 to 24.

Schizophrenia is partly genetic, yet most people with this disorder do not have immediate family

members diagnosed with it. I did not know a lot about this disorder, until reading this chapter, so

I am glad I gained more insight into this mental illness.

In summary, emerging adults can often be a severe stage of life. These individuals must

maintain a healthy lifestyle while dodging what life is throwing out all at once. It is no secret that

those who are emerging adulthood experience a ton of stress. As a society, it is essential that we

take serious percussions, and provide support for those going through this stage.
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Anxiety and Stress in Young Adults

Imagine, you are a 20-year-old, full time, college student. During the morning you go to

school full time to eventually gain a degree to work in some field, and during the evening you

work 8 hours to pay the bills. You are stressed beyond belief, and you often feel as if the world is

caving in. This is me. I am currently a full-time college student, work 40 hours a week, and am

trying my hardest to figure life out 1500 miles away from my family.

To begin with, The American Psychological Association (APA) defines anxiety as "an

emotion characterized by feelings of tension, worried thoughts and physical changes like

increased blood pressure." (American Psychological Association, 1) Although anxiety is a

normal, and sometimes healthy emotion, when it becomes extensive, it can develop into a mental

disorder. Symptoms of anxiety include uncontrollable feelings of worry, sleep difficulties,

concentration difficulties, increased irritability, uncontrollable feelings of worry, and feelings of

being “on edge.” Anxiety is most common among women and young adults. Within the general

population, anxiety is the most common mental health disorder. These diagnoses include

generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, specific phobia, agoraphobia, selective mutism,

social anxiety, and separation anxiety.

Furthermore, stress is another massive incline among young adults. Stress is defined as a

feeling of strain or pressure. Stress is a form of psychological pain. Like anxiety, a healthy

amount of stress can be beneficial. When a young adult has positive stress, it can lead to

motivation, adaption, and reaction to one’s environment. Yet, of course, there is unhealthy stress.

Symptoms of toxic stress include insomnia, headaches, low energy, chest pain, depression, mood

swings, and that’s just naming a “few.”

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Likewise, one colossal trend among young adults, especially ones in college, is anxiety

and stress. Every day we see a new blog, headline, or news report on this topic. A recent article

in the New York Times reported that 60 percent of today’s college students suffer from

anxiety disorders and psychological distress (Wolverton, 2019). So why has this been such an

increase among young adults? Could it be childhood distress, political issues arising, or an

imbalance in chemicals within the brain? Compared to other generations, many would say us

millennials are wimps. We never went through a great depression or lived through the Vietnam

War, or experienced a World War. So what has changed in our culture that makes young adults

have such high anxiety?

Next, according to research, there are three main differences in today’s culture compared

to the past. The first piece of evidence points to an increase in materialistic values and young

adults wanting to become financially successful. Research by the Cooperative Institutional

Research Program at UCLA shows that college students’ number one value is now “being well

off financially,” while for students in the 1960s it was “developing a meaningful philosophy of

life." (Dreher, 4) These high goals of wanting to be financially abundant can are linked to

disorders such as anxiety, narcissism, depression, and illness.

Second, the next point that researchers found that could be causing a rise in anxiety and

stress is the rising cost to attend college. It is no secret that the cost of college 30 years ago

college was a lot less expensive than it is today. Before the 1980s, a college education was

looked as a public good. By the 1980s, colleges were supported by federal grants and state

funding. This allowed those who wished to attend college to go. College students in the 1980s

could work a part-time job while affording school and enjoying the other events life has to offer.

The average cost of a public university was less than $100 a semester. Now a day’s college
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tuition alone can often be more than $10,000. This leads students to have to rely on their parent's

assistant, and this causes them to be unprepared for the real world.

Finally, the third point researchers have pointed out is delayed adulthood and external

locus of control. This point goes along with the second point. Researchers say that the crazy cost

of college delays the development of emerging adults. “At an age when earlier generations were

making their own decisions and exercising greater control over their lives, many college students

remain, by their own admission, “kids,” relying on their parents to pay their bills, choose their

majors, and even do their homework.” (Dreher, 6) Likewise, some parents turn into “helicopter

parents.” These types of parents tend to control, overprotect, and deny opportunities for young

adults. In return, these emerging adults face high amounts of stress when they enter the

challenges of college.

In summary, anxiety has become very popular with emerging adults. I firmly believe that

each generation goes through different challenges and hardships. Emerging adults in today's

culture are nothing like those in past generations. Society has nearly made it impossible for

college students to go to school without drowning in debt. I do not believe this is the only reason

college students have anxiety, though. Social media, T.V., work, kids, spouses, and trying to

figure out your identity, can all cause stress and anxiety. I have experienced anxiety for my entire

life. Yet, when I entered college, my anxiety worsens. Finding help, a support group, and taking

proper measures to reduce anxiety and stress are so important for young people.
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Adulthood

The sixth stage of life is referred to as adulthood. Adulthood covers the ages of 25 to 65.

Adulthood includes 40 years of a person's life, and the span of adulthood is so long because no

particular year is a logical divider. Adulthood is a busy time of life and has many joys and

sorrows. Adults choose their activities and habits. Many adults get married, raise children, grow

richer or poor, and experience births, deaths, weddings, divorce, illness, and recovery. Adulthood

is different for everyone, and is not what many people think, or thought, or will experience.

To begin with, rather you like it or not, growing older happens to everyone. The process

of aging and the body becoming less strong and efficient is called senescence. Genes are very

crucial for this process. Humans live longer than dogs, yet 100 years shorter than tortoises

because every senescence is genetically coded different for every species. Yet, some humans

inherit genes that allow them to live longer than others. Although good genes are essential to

living a long life, other factors play a vital role in a person's life expectancy as well. Some of

these factors include blood pressure, the brain, lungs, etc.

Second, one secure sign that a person is aging is by looking at their outward appearance.

Although body functions can perform well at an older age if you take care of them, developing

wrinkles, losing hair, needing glasses, or moving stiffly eventually happens to everyone. One of

the very first signs of age is in the skin. The skin eventually becomes dryer and less in color. By

the age of 40, the hair starts to become gray and thinner. Unlike what most people believe, both

men and women lose hair.

Thirdly, the senses start to lack and are on a timetable as well. Many aspects of vision

become affected by age Peripheral vision and are affected, and colors begin to fade.

Nearsightedness increases at childhood stabilize after rapidly increasing in the adolescence stage,
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then eventually reverses in midlife. Hearing as well becomes less efficient. Although not

everyone is affected as drastically in midlife, everyone's hearing is still less acute with age.

Presbycusis is referred to as a significant loss of hearing associated with senescence. Presbycusis

usually is not apparent until after the age of 60.

Furthermore, good and bad habits truly have physical effects of aging. One good practice

to have throughout life is proper exercise. A healthy routine of exercise can help protect against

illness, no matter how awful their eating habits are, or if a person drinks or smokes. Exercise

helps reduce blood pressure, strengthens heart and lungs, helps fight against depression, strokes,

cancer, and other dangerous, life-threatening illnesses. These health benefits are evident in men,

women, young or old. Although some parts of the body grow stronger, exercise is also the main

reason some people might age quicker than others.

Moving forward, decades of research indicates that humans are not meant to be loners.

Studies have shown that adults in a long-term relationship, connected by bonds of affection tend

to help adults be happy and healthy. One of these bonds is marriage. Although a huge trend right

now is to get married at an older age, many adults still desire it. A satisfying marriage helps

improve health, wealth, and happiness.

However, a romantic relationship does not always mean marriage. Many adults prefer to

have a cohabitation than marriage. Living apart together, or LAT is when a couple is fully

committed to one another emotionally and sexually yet decides to live in separate households.

One complication within LAT couples is the financial patterns. Married couples tend to share

their money, yet within LAT couples, women like to pay their own way. Like many things,

family and culture plays a huge role in a couples decision to marry, LAT, or cohabit.
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Likewise, almost everything applied to this topic also applies to gay and lesbian couples.

In 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that love between two people is a crucial bond. Just like

heterosexual couples, communication is essential for a lifelong marriage relationship filled with

happiness. All marriages, same-sex or heterosexual, fight over money, and children when

divorce becomes a reality.

Continuing, friends and acquaintances also play a vital role in an adult’s life. Social

convoy refers to family members, friends, acquaintances, and strangers who pass through a

person’s life. Each person on this earth is part of a social convoy. Friends help provide practical

help and useful advice when serious problems arise. “Friends are a crucial part of the social

convoy; they are chosen for the traits that make them reliable fellow travelers. Mutual loyalty

and aid characterize friendship: An unbalanced friendship (one giving and the other taking) often

ends because both parties are uncomfortable.” (Berger 623)

Even more, family bonds are just as crucial for adulthood as well. Family links span

generations and endure overtime more than friendship networks or romantic partnership. The

relationships between family members are powerful and can last a lifetime. Family traditions and

culture play a significant role in an adult's life. Many adults seek out to maintain family bonds,

sometimes traveling long ways for holidays, birthdays, funerals, and weddings. Although this is

true for many families, sometimes adults avoid family members because they find them toxic.

Fictive kin is when a person becomes accepted as part of another family, in which they are not

genetically or legally members. Fictive kin can be a lifeline to adults who were rejected from

there family members. Adults benefit from kin, even if it's fictive or not.

In summary, adults go through many changes, sorrows, and joy. Adulthood takes up 40

years of a person's life, where they will experience many life-changing events. One thing I
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learned from this chapter is that intimate relationships are significant for adults. Rather that be

marriage, family bonds, or lifelong friends, adults need a great support system that will help

them navigate through life.

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PTSD in Adulthood

Imagine, you are a United States soldier returning home from war. Over the past eight

months, you experienced pain, loss, and heartbreak. You saw things no person should ever see

and had to do things that will forever be embedded in your mind. You finally return home from

war to hold your firstborn and hug your loved ones. Yet, the battle isn't over. In fact, the struggle

just began because you will soon realize you have Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.

To begin with, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (National Center for PTSD 1) is defined

as “a trauma and stress-related disorder that may develop after exposure to an event or ordeal in

which death or severe physical harm occurred or was threatened. People who suffer from the

disorder include military troops, rescue workers, and survivors of shootings, bombings, violence,

and rape. Family members of victims can develop the disorder as well through vicarious

trauma.” (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 1) Those battling PTSD often re-experience aspects of

the traumatic event. Symptoms of PTSD include emotional numbness, sleep difficulties, anxiety,

outburst of anger, irritability, intense guilt, sadness, and intrusive memories of the experience.

Furthermore, an individual can experience PTSD at any stage of life, no matter their age

or gender. 60% of men and 50% of women will experience at least one traumatic event in their

lives. Women are more likely to experience PTSD from sexual assault or childhood abuse. Men

are more likely to experience PTSD from witnessing death or injury, combat, accidents, disaster,

and physical assault. Other facts include: “About 7 or 8 out of every 100 people (or 7-8% of the

population) will have PTSD at some point in their lives. About 8 million adults have PTSD

during a given year. This is only a small portion of those who have gone through a trauma.

About 10 of every 100 women (or 10%) develop PTSD sometime in their lives compared with

about 4 of every 100 men (or 4%). (National Center for PTSD 3)
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Next, PTSD was once considered a type of mental illness or a form of anxiety, but in

recent studies, PTSD is considered to be a psychological injury. According to neuroanatomical

studies, the amygdala and hippocampus go through physical changes when an individual

experiences trauma. Before an individual is diagnosed with PTSD, life can often seem confusing.

As I will discuss, the prefrontal lobe, amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex can all be

affected due to trauma.

First, one effect of trauma is specifically on the hippocampus. “Under normal conditions,

when memory is built or retrieved, the hippocampus blends together all the elements of memory

from all the sensory areas. Initially, short-term memories are stored in the hippocampus, but

when they are no longer required as 'conscious memories,' the hippocampus processes these into

other parts of the brain (to create longer term memories).” (The Science and Biology of PTSD 8)

New memories and old memories can become distorted in individuals experiencing PTSD. This

hippocampus allows people to know the difference between past events and present events, so

when the hippocampus is damaged, it can result in flashbacks.

Second, the next part of the brain that is damaged due to trauma is the ventromedial

prefrontal cortex. This region of the brain helps people to regulate and deal with fear and other

negative emotions. The ventromedial prefrontal cortex shrinks after a traumatic event. This

causes an individual to lose the ability to control their feelings and results in anxiety, extreme

stress, and fear.

Third, the next major part of the brain that is affected due to trauma is the amygdala.

"This region of the brain helps us process emotions and is also linked to fear responses. It uses

the hippocampus to query situations from the past to ascertain answers to questions such as 'Is

this safe,' 'Do I like this' and most significantly in PTSD 'Do I need to start up the stress
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responses and trigger hormones.' As you may imagine, if this region of the brain is hyperactive,

and is connecting with an already 'broken' hippocampus, the effects it will have on our emotional

regulation will be a distorted view of a situation.” (The Science and Biology of PTSD 14) In

some patients who are experiencing PTSD, a picture alone can cause fear.

Finally, the last part of the brain that is affected due to trauma is the cortisol levels.

Cortisol is referred to as the "stress hormone." Yet, it is far more critical than that. Cortisol is a

hormone that helps the body maintain blood pressure, blood sugar, metabolism, and respond to

infections and stress. "The biologic alterations observed in PTSD do not uniformly resemble

those associated with other types of stress. For example, cortisol levels have been lower than

normal in some studies of patients with PTSD. However, corticotropin-releasing factor in

cerebrospinal fluid appears to be increased. This pattern differs from the patterns associated with

brief and sustained periods of stress and with major depression, which are typically associated

with increased levels of both cortisol and corticotropin-releasing factor.” (The Science and

Biology of PTSD 16)

In addition, there are many ways that a doctor might treat a person with PTSD. The first

one is therapy. One of the main goals in therapy is to teach skills to deal with the pain and to

restore self-esteem. The next one is Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) is a 12-week course

that allows a person to talk about their traumatic event with someone else. Then they will write

in detail what happened to them. Another way to treat PTSD is by medication.

In summary, PTSD is a scary illness to have. PTSD affects an individual psychologically

and biologically. The best thing a person who PTSD can do for themselves is getting

professional help. Trying to deal with the pain on your own will only make things harder for you

and your loved ones.

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Late Adulthood

The last stage of a person’s life is called late adulthood. Contrary to popular belief, older

adults are active, self-sufficient, and alert. Social connections continue, and joy is mixed with

sorrow. Although often overcome, loneliness, chronic illness, and poverty are likely. Late

adulthood is filled with many misconceptions, so I was really excited to read more about this

stage.

To begin with, many prejudice remarks and predictions are surrounding those in the late

adulthood stage. Ageism is a prejudiced word whereby people are categorized and judged solely

on the basis of their chronological age. All –isms, such as racism and sexism, and ageism, are

destructive and harmful to a person’s well-being. Ageism often becomes a self-fulfilling

prophecy. I enjoyed reading this part of the chapter that said: “One problem with many

stereotypes is that they may appear benevolent, complimentary (“young lady”) or solicitous.

However, the effects are insidious, eroding the older person’s feelings of competence. Ageism

fosters anxiety, morbidity, and even mortality.” (Berger 646)

Furthermore, ageism can indeed impair a person's daily routines by preventing depressed

adults from seeking help. One example of this is insomnia. Older individuals are more likely to

wake up very early and sleep throughout the day. Doctors are expected to prescribe narcotics,

causing an aging body to have depression, nausea, confusion, and unsteadiness.

Moving forward, many older people fear the aging process of their brain the most. As we

know, the brain is an extraordinary thing. Sadly, senescence causes the brain to shrink. Yet, in

recent studies, researchers have found that new brain cells and dendrites can develop.

“Senescence reduces the production of neurotransmitters---including glutamate, acetylcholine,

serotonin, and especially dopamine—that allows a nerve impulse to jump quickly across the
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synaptic gap from one neuron to another. Neural fluid decreases, myelination thins, and cerebral

blood circulates more slowly” (Berger 673) The result of this complex process is slower

movement, speech, and thoughts.

Likewise, many neurocognitive disorders can become apparent in a person's life when

they reach late adulthood. The first one is a very well-known disease called Alzheimer's disease

(AD). Alzheimer is the most common cause of major NCD and is characterized by a gradual loss

of memory and personality. A diagnosis cannot be determined until an autopsy finds extensive

plaques and tangles in the cerebral cortex. Plaques are defined as a wad of a protein called beta-

amyloid in tissues surrounding the neurons. Tangles are wrapped threads made of a protein

called tau. There are five stages of Alzheimer's disease, and conditions gradually worsen. The

first stage is forgetting events, names, or new information. The fifth stage is when a person

entirely loses touch with their identity and personality. Death comes 10 to 15 years after the first

sign appears. The majority of AD cases begin later than the age of 75.

Next, the second disease is called vascular disease. Vascular disease formally called

vascular, or multi-infarct dementia is an abnormal condition of the blood vessels (arteries and

veins). This condition can prevent sufficient blood from reaching the brain. Sadly, older adults

can get vascular disease from general surgeries that require anesthesia. This can cause a stroke

and damage the brain.

In fact, many types of neurocognitive disorders can damage the frontal lobes. These

disorders are called frontotemporal NCDs, also known as frontotemporal lobar degeneration. A

deterioration of the amygdala causes frontotemporal NCDs. When an individual has

frontotemporal NCDs, they begin to lose the part of the brain that helps regulate emotions and
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social behavior. The main symptom of this disorder is a change in passion and personality.

Frontotemporal NCD progresses very fast and can lead to death within five years.

Further, many brain diseases begin with impaired motor control. Some of these include

shaking when picking up a glass or coffee cup, and falling when trying to walk. One of the most

diseases is called Parkinson's disease. Parkinson's disease is a "chronic, progressive disease that

is characterized by muscle tremor and rigidity and sometimes major neurocognitive disorder;

caused by reducing dopamine production in the brain." (Berger 687) Another example of a

neurocognitive disease is called Lewy body disease. This disease is “a form of major

neurocognitive disorder characterized by an increase in Lewy body cells in the brain. Symptoms

include visual hallucinations, momentary loss of attention, falling, and fainting. (Berger 687)

Sadly, many diseases can develop during late adulthood. I am interested in researching

the effects these diseases have on family members. Alzheimer runs in my family, so I have

always worried about this throughout my life. My great grandmother had Alzheimer, and she

never could remember who her children were. This indeed affected my family as a whole.

In summary, reading through this chapter gave me much-needed insight on individuals in

their late adulthood life. Although I mainly focused my paper on the disorders that can develop

in late adulthood, I still learned many new things that I did not know before. There are so many

misconceptions and rude thoughts that surround people living in this stage of life. I have always

been confused about why ageism exists because late adulthood is a part of the cycle of life. I

thoroughly enjoyed reading about late-adulthood and the psychology that comes with it.
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Addiction and the Elderly

When you think of a person who has an addiction, what is your first thought? Is it a

young person smoking a drug? Or is it a 30-year-old abusive father addicted to drinking liquor? I

bet the last thing that came into your mind is an older adult. Why is that we often ignore

troubling behavior in older people?

To begin with, an addiction is defined as a “condition in which a person engages in the

use of a substance or in a behavior for which the rewarding effects provide a compelling

incentive to repeatedly pursue the behavior despite detrimental consequences.” (Scharff 1)

Addiction can range from substance abuse such as alcohol, inhalants, nicotine, cocaine, or

behaviors such as gambling. Any person, any age, male or female, can have an addiction.

Furthermore, why is it that we ignore addiction in older people? Society often lets

addiction in older people slide, and we make excuses like, "It is just a sign of age." Many

grandparents and elderly family members might need our help, and we don't even realize it.

Substance abuse among older adults has grown drastically and is expected to continue to grow in

the coming years. There are startling conclusions from a study done by researchers. Due to the

large population size and high substance use rate of the baby-boom cohort, the number of adults

aged 50 or older with substance use disorder is projected to double from 2.8 million (annual

average) in 2002–06 to 5.7 million in 2020. Increases are pro for all examined gender,

race/ethnicity, and age groups.” (Scharff 3)

Likewise, often psychologist asks why is substance abuse becoming a problem as people

are getting older. One reason this might be affecting older people is that their bodies can't handle

substances the same. As we get older, our bodies begin to metabolize differently. For example, a

person who drinks a glass a wine a day will eventually not be able to tolerate the alcohol as they
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get older. Thus, one glass of wine will be equivalent to three. Yet, instead of recognizing that the

older person needs help, we brush it aside and blame it on old age.

Second, another cause that researchers have taken a look into is the effects of retirement

homes. When an individual goes into a retirement home, extreme boredom can become apparent.

Two researchers by the name of Peter A. Bamberger and Samuel B. Bacharach studied this

epidemic for ten years. They wrote a book called “Retirement and the Hidden Epidemic.”

Bamberger stated in the book, “The impact of retirement on substance abuse was anything but

clear cut, with the conditions leading to retirement, and the economic and social nature of the

retirement itself, having a far greater impact on substance use than simple retirement itself.”

In addition, there are many reasons why someone might want to begin an addiction later

in life. Being in a retirement home might make individuals feel like they aren't indeed in a home.

The retirement home itself might feel too large and quiet. Being away from people you love and

care for can cause loneliness and depression. Ending a life you once knew and starting over,

being away from your children, losing your spouse, and having fewer interactions can all cause

substance abuse. Feeling as if you no longer have a purpose in life can drive anyone into a deep

depression.

Lastly, I am sure there are many other signs and causes that we are missing. If I ever

become a psychologist, this would be an issue I would want to research. One sign that we might

be missing is the use of medication. “As we grow older and need to take medications for various

conditions, these medications in combination with one another, over the counter drugs,

nutritional supplements, and/or alcohol, can cause interactions that put a person’s health at risk."

These substances should be monitored closely as we are aging, and medical professionals

should take a more in-depth look into how these medicines being prescribed might be affecting
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older patients. Our society should take better care of our elders. We should make it our duty to

visit our loved ones in a retirement home and always check on them.
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Work Cited

1. “American Sociological Review - Volume 84, Number 2, Apr 01, 2019.” SAGE Journals,
journals.sagepub.com/toc/asr/current.

2. “Anxiety.” American Psychological Association, American Psychological Association,

www.apa.org/topics/anxiety/.

3. Baracz , Sarah. “How Childhood Trauma Changes Our Mental Health into
Adulthood.” Psychlopaedia, 13 Jan. 2018, psychlopaedia.org/health/republished/how-
childhood-trauma-changes-our-hormones-and-thus-our-mental-health-into-adulthood/.

4. Berger , Kathleen Stassen. The Developing Person Through the Life Span . tenth ed., ,
Worth Publishers .

5. “Child Abuse and Neglect Facts.” Mercy Home for Boys & Girls, 8 Mar. 2019,
www.mercyhome.org/blog/resources/child-abuse-and-neglect-
facts?gclid=CjwKCAjwwtTmBRBqEiwA-b6c_8-
BfBdG5zsJXpeT4JOEgYFgXQhPR8ubhFMzlQP0BW7ZJM1Zf9O7WBoCKk0QAvD_
BwE#.XNXJrC2ZNsM.

6. “Child Abuse.” Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 5
Oct. 2018, www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/child-abuse/symptoms-causes/syc-
20370864.

7. Dreher D, Diane. “Why Do So Many College Students Have Anxiety

Disorders?” Psychology Today, Sussex Publishers, 2019,
www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/your-personal-renaissance/201903/why-do-so-many-
college-students-have-anxiety-disorders.

8. Ehmke, Rachel. “How Using Social Media Affects Teenagers.” Child Mind Institute,
childmind.org/article/how-using-social-media-affects-teenagers/.
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9. Gordon, Sherri. “How Social Media Negatively Affects the Teen Brain.” Verywell
Family, Verywell Family, 6 Apr. 2019, www.verywellfamily.com/ways-social-media-
affects-teen-mental-health-4144769.

10. “Importance of Early Childhood Development” Encyclopedia on Early Childhood

Development, www.child-encyclopedia.com/importance-early-childhood-development.

11. “Middle Childhood (Ages 6-12).” Government of Manitoba,

www.gov.mb.ca/healthychild/mcad/middle.html.

12. “National Center for PTSD.” PTSD, 13 Sept. 2018,

www.ptsd.va.gov/understand/common/common_adults.asp.

13. Jacewicz, Natalie. “What Shapes Your Political Beliefs at 18, 35, and 50.” The Cut, The
Cut, 28 Apr. 2017, www.thecut.com/2017/04/what-shapes-your-political-beliefs-at-18-
35-and-50.html.

14. Patterson, Te-Erika. “Do Children Just Take Their Parents' Political Beliefs? It's Not That
Simple.” The Atlantic, Atlantic Media Company, 13 Apr. 2016,
www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2014/05/parents-political-beliefs/361462/.

15. Parekh, Ranna. What Is Depression?American Psychiatric Association , Jan. 2017,

www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/depression/what-is-depression.

16. “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.” Psychology Today, Sussex Publishers,

www.psychologytoday.com/us/conditions/post-traumatic-stress-disorder.

17. Scharff, Constance. “Grandparents in Need of Help: Addiction and the

Elderly.” Psychology Today, Sussex Publishers, 2014,
www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/ending-addiction-good/201410/grandparents-in-
need-help-addiction-and-the-elderly.
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18. Shiel , William C. “Definition of Physical Child Abuse.” MedicineNet,

www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=8360.

19. “The Science and Biology of PTSD.” PTSD UK |, www.ptsduk.org/what-is-ptsd/the-

science-and-biology-of-ptsd/.

20. Tikkanen, Mike. “Child Abuse Statistics (& the Best Resources).” INVISIBLE
CHILDREN, www.invisiblechildren.org/2017/12/29/child-abuse-statistics-the-best-
resources/?gclid=CjwKCAjwwtTmBRBqEiwA-
b6c_xnej8622sQRKrwSfvx3DqBXqfgQk-vkyu92J_dzurS-
thcDoUQKNBoCns8QAvD_BwE.

21. Wolverton, B. (2019, February 24). The campus as counselor. The New York
Times,Learning section, p. 4.
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Self-Assessment

I honestly did not know how much I would grow from taking this course. Throughout this

semester, I grew more intellectually than I expected. To be honest, when I first read that I had to

complete a 42-page paper by the end of the semester, I was beyond nervous. I sat down and truly

thought about this course and if I had the self-discipline to finish it. After many nights of no

sleep, I finally came to the conclusion that I should push myself out of my comfort zone, and I

am so glad I did.

When I first started reading through the chapters, I was in disbelief at how incredible the

human body is. My eyes were glued to the books, and I was so excited to begin writing. One

thing I learned through the readings is how complex our minds are. As you can probably tell in

my writing, I love researching mental disorders. I soon learned that mental disorders could affect

any age, male, or female.

I honestly put my heart and soul into this class, more than I have ever done with any

other college course. I loved learning the new material. Through this course, I had many late

nights and early mornings. I often felt stressed because I was unsure what to write about, and

then felt joy and passion when it finally clicked, and I no longer had writer's block. I learned that

I had a passion for psychology while researching and learning new material. I have never felt so

accomplished in myself.

Although you probably hear this from every student, I genuinely believe that I deserve a

4.0 in this class. The research, reading, and writing were not done overnight or within a week. I

put blood, sweat, and many tears into this paper. I loved writing, researching, reading through all

the chapters, and finding my new joy in life.

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