Designing Large Solar Power Plants

ABSTRACT
The development of newer technologies in concentrating solar power (CSP) plants,

particularly plants using dish Stirling systems, as well as changes in the design of
photovoltaic (PV) inverters is creating new challenges in the design of low- and medium-
voltage collector systems for large solar power plants. Furthermore, interconnect
requirements for reactive power, voltage, and ramp rate control and the characteristics of
solar power require unique solutions for optimal plant design
To ensure large solar plants can be connected successfully to the grid without
impacting grid stability or reliability, the design process must include the development of
suitable models of these plants for transient and dynamic simulation. Simulation tools and
models can then be used to determine special requirements to deal with issues such as daily
plant energisation, low voltage ride-through, temporary overvoltage and feeder grounding,
etc.
The provision of dynamic and static reactive power and the optimization thereof for
application at either low, medium, or high voltage and the control issues associated with
plant-wide reactive power and voltage control are also key issues in the design. The
presentation will focus on the key technical issues and design optimization of large solar
power plants.
CONTENTS
SL NO TITLE PAGE NO
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 RENEWABLE ENERGY 3
3 TYPES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY 5
3.1 Hydro Power 6
3.2 Bio Energy 6
3.3 Geothermal Energy 8
3.4 Solar Energy 10
3.5 Wind Energy 14
3.6 Hydrogen 15
3.7 Ocean Energy 16
4 SOLAR ENERGY 18
4.1 Solar Energy 19
4.2 Solar Collectors 19
4.3 Solar Space Heating 20
4.4 Solar Water Heating 21
4.5 Solar Electricity 21
5 SOLAR POWER SYSTEMS 24
5.1 Solar Power Systems 24
5.2 Grid Inter-Tied Residential Solar Power Systems 24

5.3 Grid Inter-Tied Residential Solar Power System With 25
Battery Backup
5.4 OFF Grid Solar Power System 26
5.5 Components Of A Solar Power System 26
5.6 Inverters 29
5.7 Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) 33
5.8 Voltage And Frequency Synchronization 33
6 PROJECT OVERVIEW 39
6.1 About The System 39
6.2 Salient Features And Benefits Of system 39
6.3 System Working Principles 39
6.4 Cost Estimation 42
7 PROJECT VISUALS 43
8 DATASHEET 45
8.1 Solar Panel:AEG-AS-P607(270Wp) 45
9 CONCLUSION 47
10 REFERENCE 48
Project Report 2018-2019 Installation Of Mini Solar Power Plant
1. INTRODUCTION
Majority of the student who join for diploma course wish to get a job soon after the
completion of the completion of the course. They think this is an easy to get the job for then
rather than talking a degree in arts or science theme.
But during the present days of unemployment of engineers are most affected
government jobs are limited and large number of engineers cannot be employed in the scale
industry by utilizing the local recovers whenever available. But unfortunately due to the load
of proper knowledge among entrepreneur's the small- scale industries set up by than may not
be running economically due to various reasons. One of the main reason for the failure of
management in industries one due to the absence of project identification and section of
suitable entrepreneur according to our opinion for the lack. If knowledge about le way to get
the type of assistance available to them. The work of constancy is also going popularity in
our country, a confidence and patronage has got to be earned by the youth engineers with
their hard work quality of work.
In this project, installation of mini power plant in college office and principal room.
Our humble effort to enhance the working environment of our institution.
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering 1 AACET Polytechnic College

PROJECT REPORT

2. RENEWABLE ENERGY
Renewable energy uses energy sources that are continually replenished by nature—
the sun, the wind, water, the Earth’s heat, and plants. Renewable energy technologies turn
these fuels into usable forms of energy—most often electricity, but also heat, chemicals, or
mechanical power.
Today we primarily use fossil fuels to heat and power our homes and fuel our cars.
It’s convenient to use coal, oil, and natural gas for meeting our energy needs, but we have a
limited supply of these fuels on the Earth. We’re using them much more rapidly than they are
being created. Eventually, they will run out. And because of safety concerns and waste
disposal problems, the United States will retire much of its nuclear capacity by 2020. In the
meantime, the nation’s energy needs are expected to grow by 33 percent during the next 20
years. Renewable energy can help fill the gap.
Even if we had an unlimited supply of fossil fuels, using renewable energy is better
for the environment. We often call renewable energy technologies “clean” or “green” because
they produce few if any pollutants. Burning fossil fuels, however, sends greenhouse gases
into the atmosphere, trapping the sun’s heat and contributing to global warming. Climate
scientists generally agree that the Earth’s average temperature has risen in the past century. If

this trend continues, sea levels will rise, and scientists predict that floods, heat waves,
droughts, and other extreme weather conditions could occur more often.
Other pollutants are released into the air, soil, and water when fossil fuels are burned.
These pollutants take a dramatic toll on the environment—and on humans. Air pollution
contributes to diseases like asthma. Acid rain from sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides harms
plants and fish. Nitrogen oxides also contribute to smog.
Renewable energy will also help us develop energy independence and security. The
United States imports more than 50 percent of its oil, up from 34 percent in 1973. Replacing
some of our petroleum with fuels made from plant matter, for example, could save money
and strengthen our energy security.
Renewable energy is plentiful, and the technologies are improving all the time. There
are many ways to use renewable energy. Most of us already use renewable energy in our
daily lives.

3. TYPES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

3.1 Hydropower
Fig 3.1
Hydropower is our most mature and largest source of renewable power, producing
about 10 percent of the nation’s electricity. Existing hydropower capacity is about 77,000
megawatts (MW). Hydropower plants convert the energy in flowing water into electricity.
The most common form of hydropower uses a dam on a river to retain a large reservoir of
water. Water is released through turbines to generate power. “Run of the river” systems,
however, divert water from the river and direct it through a pipeline to a turbine.
Hydropower plants produce no air emissions but can affect water quality and wildlife
habitats. Therefore, hydropower plants are now being designed and operated to minimize
impacts on the river. Some of them are diverting a portion of the flow around their dams to
mimic the natural flow of the river. But while this improves the wildlife’s river habitat, it also
reduces the power plant’s output. In addition, fish ladders and other approaches, such as
improved turbines, are being used to assist fish with migration and lower the number of fish
killed.
3.2 Bioenergy
Bioenergy is the energy derived from biomass (organic matter), such as plants. If
you’ve ever burned wood in a fireplace or campfire, you’ve used bioenergy. But we don’t get
all of our biomass resources directly from trees or other plants. Many industries, such as
those involved in construction or the processing of agricultural products, can create large
quantities of unused or residual biomass, which can serve as a bioenergy source.

3.2.1 Biopower
After hydropower, biomass is this country’s second-leading resource of renewable

energy, accounting for more than 7,000 MW of installed capacity. Some utilities and power
generating companies with coal power plants have found that replacing some coal with
biomass is a low-cost option to reduce undesirable emissions.
As much as 15 percent of the coal may be replaced with biomass. Biomass has less
sulfur than coal. Therefore, less sulfur dioxide, which contributes to acid rain, is released into
the air. Additionally, using biomass in these boilers reduces nitrous oxide emissions. A
process called gasification—the conversion of biomass into gas, which is burned in a gas
turbine—is another way to generate electricity. The decay of biomass in landfills also
produces gas, mostly methane, which can be burned in a boiler to produce steam for
electricity generation or industrial processes. Biomass can also be heated in the absence of
oxygen to chemically convert it into a type of fuel oil, called pyrolysis oil. Pyrolysis oil can
be used for power generation and as a feedstock for fuels and chemical production.
3.2.2 Biofuels
Biomass can be converted directly into liquid fuels, called biofuels. Because biofuels
are easy to transport and possess high energy density, they are favored to fuel vehicles and
sometimes stationary power generation. The most common biofuel is ethanol, an alcohol
made from the fermentation of biomass high in carbohydrates. The current largest source of
ethanol is corn. Some cities use ethanol as a gasoline additive to help meet air quality
standards for ozone.
Flex-fuel vehicles are also now on the market, which can use a mixture of gasoline
and ethanol, such as E85—a mixture of 85 percent ethanol and 15 percent gasoline. Another
biofuel is biodiesel, which can be made from vegetable and animal fats. Biodiesel can be
used to fuel a vehicle or as a fuel additive to reduce emissions.
Corn ethanol and biodiesel provide about 0.4 percent of the total liquid fuels market.
To increase our available supply of biofuels, researchers are testing crop residues— such as
cornstalks and leaves—wood chips, food waste, grass, and even trash as potential biofuel
sources.
3.2.3 Biobased Products
Biomass—corn, wheat, soybeans, wood, and residues—can also be used to produce

chemicals and materials that we normally obtain from petroleum. Industry has already begun
to use cornstarch to produce commodity plastics, such as shrinkwrap, plastic eating utensils,
and even car bumpers. Commercial development is underway to make thermoset plastics, like
electrical switch plate covers, from wood residues.

3.3 Geothermal Energy
Fig 3.2
The Earth’s core, 4,000 miles below the surface, can reach temperatures of 9000° F.
This heat—geothermal energy—flows outward from the core, heating the surrounding area,
which can form underground reservoirs of hot water and steam. These reservoirs can be
tapped for a variety of uses, such as to generate electricity or heat buildings.
By using geothermal heat pumps (GHPs), we can even take advantage of the shallow
ground’s stable temperature for heating and cooling buildings. The geothermal energy
potential in the uppermost 6 miles of the Earth’s crust amounts to 50,000 times the energy of
all oil and gas resources in the world. In the United States, most geothermal reservoirs are
located in the western states, Alaska, and Hawaii. GHPs, however, can be used almost
anywhere.
3.3.1 Geothermal Electricity Production
Geothermal power plants access the underground steam or hot water from wells
drilled a mile or more into the earth. The steam or hot water is piped up from the well to drive
a conventional steam turbine, which powers an electric generator. Typically, the water is then
returned to the ground to recharge the reservoir and complete the renewable energy cycle.
There are three types of geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and binary
cycle. Dry steam plants draw from reservoirs of steam, while both flash steam and binary
cycle plants draw from reservoirs of hot water. Flash steam plants typically use water at
temperatures greater than 360°F. Unlike both steam and flash plants, binary-cycle plants
transfer heat from the water to what’s called a working fluid. Therefore binary cycle plants
can operate using water at lower temperatures of about 225° to360°F. All of the U.S.

geothermal power plants are inCalifornia, Nevada, Utah, and Hawaii. Altogether about 2800
MW of geothermal electric capacity is produced annually in this country.
3.3.2 Geothermal Direct Use
If you’ve ever soaked in a natural hot spring, you’re one of millions of people around
the world who has enjoyed the direct use of geothermal energy. Direct-use applications
require geothermal temperatures between about 70° to 302°F—lower than those required for
electricity generation. The United States already has about 1,300 geothermal direct-use
systems in operation.
In a direct-use system, a well is drilled into a geothermal reservoir, which provides a

steady stream of hot water. Some systems use the water directly, but most pump the water
through what’s called a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger keeps the water separate from a
working fluid (usually water or a mixture of water and antifreeze), which is heated by the
geothermal water. The working fluid then flows through piping, distributing the heat directly
for its intended use. The heated water or fluid can be used in a building to replace the
traditional heat source—often natural gas—of a boiler, furnace, and hot water heater.
Some cities and towns actually have large direct-use heating systems—called district
heating— that provide many buildings with heat. Geothermal direct use is also used in
agriculture—such as for fish farms and to heat greenhouses—and for industrial food
processing (vegetable dehydration).
3.3.3 Geothermal Heat Pumps
Fig 3.3
While air temperatures can vary widely through the seasons, the temperatures of the
shallow ground only range from 50° to 70°F depending on latitude. GHPs draw on this

relatively stable temperature as a source for heating buildings in the winter and keeping them
cool in the summer.
Through underground piping, a GHP discharges heat from inside a building into the
ground in the summer, much like a refrigerator uses electricity to keep its interior cool while
releasing heat into your kitchen. In the winter, this process is reversed; the GHP extracts heat
from the ground and releases it into a building.
Because GHPs actually move heat between homes and the earth, instead of burning
fuels, they operate very cleanly and efficiently. In fact, GHPs are at least three times more
efficient than even the most energyefficient furnaces on the market today.
3.4 Solar Energy
Fig 3.4
Solar technologies tap directly into the infinite power of the sun and use that energy to
produce heat, light, and power.
3.4.1 Passive Solar Lighting and Heating
People have used the sun to heat and light their homes for centuries. Ancient Native
Americans built their dwellings directly into south-facing cliff walls because they knew the
sun travels low across the southern sky in the Northern Hemisphere during the winter. They

also knew the massive rock of the cliff would absorb heat in winter and protect against wind
and snow. At the same time, the cliff dwelling design blocked sunlight during the summer,
when the sun is higher in the sky, keeping their dwellings cool.
The modern version of this sun-welcoming design is called passive solar because no
pumps, fans, or other mechanical devices are used. Its most basic features include large,
south-facing windows that fill the home with natural sunlight, and dark tile or brick floors
that store the sun’s heat and release it back into the home at night.
In the summer, when the sun is higher in the sky, window overhangs block direct
sunlight, which keeps the house cool. Tile and brick floors also remain cool during the
summer. Passive solar design combined with energy efficiency will go even further. Energy-
efficient features such as energy saving windows and appliances, along with good insulation
and weather stripping, can make a huge difference in energy and cost savings.
3.4.2 Solar Water Heating
Solar energy can be used to heat water for your home or your swimming pool. Most
solar water-heating systems consist of a solar collector and a water storage tank.
Solar water-heating systems use collectors, generally mounted on a south-facing roof,

to heat either water or a heat-transfer fluid, such as a nontoxic antifreeze. The heated water is
then stored in a water tank similar to one used in a conventional gas or electric water-heating
system
There are basically three types of solar collectors for heating water: flatplate,
evacuatedtube, and concentrating. The most common type, a flat-plate collector, is an
insulated, weatherproof box containing a dark absorber plate under a transparent cover.
Evacuated-tube collectors are made up of rows of parallel, transparent glass tubes. Each tube
consists of a glass outer tube and an inner tube, or absorber, covered with a coating that
absorbs solar energy but inhibits heat loss. Concentrating collectors for residential
applications are usually parabolic-shaped mirrors (like a trough) that concentrate the sun’s
energy on an absorber tube called a receiver that runs along the axis of the mirrored trough
and contains a heat-transfer fluid.
All three types of collectors heat water by circulating household water or a heat-
transfer fluid such as a nontoxic antifreeze from the collector to the water storage tanks.
Collectors do this either passively or actively.
Passive solar water-heating systems use natural convection or household water

pressure to circulate water through a solar collector to a storage tank. They have no electric
components that could break, a feature that generally makes them more reliable, easier to
maintain, and possibly longer lasting than active systems.
An active system uses an electric pump to circulate water or nontoxic antifreeze

through the system. Active systems are usually more expensive than passive systems, but

they are also more efficient. Active systems also can be easier to retrofit than passive systems
because their storage tanks do not need to be installed above or close to the collectors. Also,
the moving water in the system will not freeze in cold climates. But because these systems
use electricity, they will not function in a power outage. That’s why many active systems are
now combined with a small solar-electric panel to power the pump.
The amount of hot water a solar water heater produces depends on the type and size of
the system, the amount of sun available at the site, proper installation, and the tilt angle and
orientation of the collectors. But if you’re currently using an electric waterheater, solar water
heating is a cost-effective alternative. If you own a swimming pool, heating the water with
solar collectors can also save you money.
3.4.3 Solar Electricity
Fig 3.5
Solar electricity or photovoltaic (PV) technology converts sunlight directly into

electricity. Solar electricity has been a prime source of power for space vehicles since the
inception of the space program. It has also been used to power small electronics and rural and
agricultural applications for three decades. During the last decade, a strong solar electric
market has emerged for powering urban grid-connected homes and buildings as a result of
advances in solar technology along with global changes in electric industry restructuring.
Although many types of solar electric systems are available today, they all consist of
basically three main items: modules that convert sunlight into electricity; inverters that
convert that electricity into alternating current so it can be used by most household
appliances; and possibly or sometimes batteries that store excess electricity produced by the
system. The remainder of the system comprises equipment such as wiring, circuit breakers,
and support structures.

Today’s modules can be built into glass skylights and walls. Some modules resemble
traditional roof shingles, but they generate electricity, and some come with built-in inverters.
The solar modules available today are more efficient and versatile than ever before.
In over 30 states, any additional power produced by a PV system, which is not being
used by a home or building, can be fed back to the electric grid through a process known as
net metering. Net metering allows electricity customers to pay only for their “net” electricity,
or the amount of power consumed from their utility minus the powergenerated by their PV
system. This metering arrangement allows consumers to realize full retail value for 100
percent of the PV energy produced by their systems.
Grid-connected PV systems do not require batteries. However, some grid connected

systems use them for emergency backup power. And of course in remote areas, solar
electricity is often a economic alternative to expensive distribution line extensions incurred
by a customer first connecting to the utility grid. Electricity produced by solar electric
systems in remote locations is stored in batteries. Batteries will usually store electricity
produced by a solarelectric system for up to three days.
What type of system to purchase will depend on the energy-efficiency of your home,
your home’s location, and your budget. Before you size your system, try reducing energy
demand through energy efficient measures. Purchasing energy-saving appliances and lights,
for example, will reduce your electrical demand and allow you to purchase a smaller solar-
electric system to meet your energy needs or get more value from a larger system. Energy
efficiency allows you to start small and then add on as your energy needs increase.
3.4.4 Solar Thermal Electricity
Unlike solar-electric systems that convert sunlight into electricity, solar thermal
electric systems convert the sun’s heat into electricity. This technology is used primarily in
large-scale power plants for powering cities and communities, especially in the Southwest
where consistent hours of sunlight are greater than other parts of the United States.
Concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies convert solar energy into electricity by
using mirrors to focus sunlight onto a component called a receiver. The receiver transfers the
heat to a conventional engine-generator—such as a steam turbine—that generates electricity.
There are three types of CSP systems: power towers (central receivers), parabolic
troughs, and dish/engine systems.
A power tower system uses a large field of mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto the
top of a tower, where a receiver sits. Molten salt flowing through the receiver is heated by the
concentrated sunlight. The salt’s heat is turned into electricity by a conventional steam
generator. Parabolic trough systems concentrate the sun’s energy through long, parabolic-
shaped mirrors. Sunlight is focused on a pipe filled with oil that runs down the axis of the

trough. When the oil gets hot, it is used to boil water in a conventional steam generator to
produce electricity.
A dish/engine system uses a mirrored dish (similar in size to a large satellite dish).
The dish-shaped surface focuses and concentrates the sun’s heat onto a receiver at the focal
point of the dish (above and center of the collectors). The receiver absorbs the sun’s heat and
transfers it to a fluid within an engine, where the heat causes the fluid to expand against a
piston to produce mechanical power. The mechanical power is then used to run a generator or
alternator to produce electricity. Concentrating solar technologies can be used to generate
electricity for a variety of applications, ranging from remote power systems as small as a few
kilowatts (kW) up to grid-connected applications of 200 MW or more. A 354-MW power
plant in SouthernCalifornia, which consists of nine trough power plants, meets the energy
needs of more than 350,000 people and is the world’s largest solar energy power plant.
3.5 Wind Energy
Fig 3.6
For hundreds of years, people have used windmills to harness the wind’s energy.
Today’s wind turbines, which operate differently from windmills, are a much more efficient
technology.
Wind turbine technology may look simple: the wind spins turbine blades around a
central hub; the hub is connected to a shaft, which powers a generator to make electricity.

However, turbines are highly sophisticated power systems that capture the wind’s
energy by means of new blade designs or airfoils. Modern, mechanical drive systems,
combined with advanced generators, convert that energy into electricity.
Wind turbines that provide electricity to the utility grid range in size from 50 kW to 1
or 2 MW. Large, utility-scale projects can have hundreds of turbines spread over many acres
of land. Small turbines, below 50 kW, are used to charge batteries, electrify homes, pump
water for farms and ranches, and power remote telecommunications equipment. Wind
turbines can also be placed in the shallow water near a coastline if open land is limited, such
as in Europe, and/or to take advantage of strong, offshore winds.
Wind energy has been the fastest growing source of energy in the world since 1990,
increasing at an average rate of over 25 percent per year. It’s a trend driven largely by
dramatic improvements in wind technology.Currently, wind energy capacity amounts to
about 2500 MW in the United States. Good wind areas, which cover 6 percent of the
contiguous U.S. land area, could supply more than one and a half times the 1993 electricity
consumption of the entire country.
California now has the largest number of installed turbines. Many turbines are also
being installed across the Great Plains, reaching from Montana east to Minnesota and south
through Texas, to take advantage of its vast wind resource. North Dakota alone has enough
wind to supply 36 percent of the total 1990 electricity consumption of the lower 48 states.
Hawaii, Iowa, Minnesota, Oregon, Texas, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming are among
states where wind energy use is rapidly increasing.
3.6 Hydrogen
Fig 3.7

Hydrogen is high in energy, yet its use as a fuel produces water as the only emission.
Hydrogen is the universe’s most abundant element and also its simplest. A hydrogen atom
consists of only one proton and one electron. Despite its abundance and simplicity, it doesn’t
occur naturally as a gas on the Earth.
Today, industry produces more than 4 trillion cubic feet of hydrogen annually. Most
of this hydrogen is produced through a process called reforming, which involves the
application of heat to separate hydrogen from carbon. Researchers are developing highly
efficient, advanced reformers to produce hydrogen from natural gas for what’s called Proton
Exchange Membrane fuel cells.
You can think of fuel cells as batteries that never lose their charge. Today, hydrogen
fuel cells offer tremendous potential to produce electrical power for distributed energy
systems and vehicles. In the future, hydrogen could join electricity as an important “energy
carrier”: storing, moving, and delivering energy in a usable form to consumers. Renewable
energy sources, like the sun, can’t produce energy all the time. But hydrogen can store the
renewable energy produced until it’s needed.
Eventually, researchers would like to directly produce hydrogen from water using
solar, wind, and biomass and biological technologies.
3.7 Ocean Energy
Fig 3.8

The ocean can produce two types of energy: thermal energy from the sun’s heat, and
mechanical energy from the tides and waves.
Ocean thermal energy can be used for many applications, including electricity
generation. Electricity conversion systems use either the warm surface water or boil the
seawater to turn a turbine, which activates a generator.
The electricity conversion of both tidal and wave energy usually involves mechanical
devices. A dam is typically used to convert tidal energy into electricity by forcing the water
through turbines, activating a generator.
Meanwhile, wave energy uses mechanical power to directly activate a generator, or to

transfer to a working fluid, water, or air, which then drives a turbine/generator. Most of the
research and development in ocean energy is happening in Europe.

4. SOLAR ENERGY
4.1 Solar Energy

Every day, the sun radiates (sends out) an enormous amount of energy-called solar
energy. It radiates more energy in one daythan the world uses in one year. This energy comes
from within thesun itself.
Like most stars, the sun is a big gas ball made up mostly of hydrogenand helium gas.
The sun makes energy in its inner core in a processcalled nuclear fusion.
It takes the sun’s energy just a little over eight minutes to travel the93 million miles to
Earth. Solar energy travels at the speed of light, or186,000 miles per second, or 3.0 x 108
meters per second.Only a small part of the visible radiant energy (light) that thesun emits into
space ever reaches the Earth, but that is more thanenough to supply all our energy needs.
Every hour enough solar energy reaches the Earth to supply our nation’s energy needs
for a year! Solar energy is considered a renewable energy source due tothis fact.
Today, people use solar energy to heat buildings and water andto generate electricity.
Solar energy accounts for a very small percentage of U.S. energy less than one percent. Solar
energy ismostly used by residences and to generate electricity.
4.2 Solar Collectors
Heating with solar energy is not as easy as you might think. Capturingsunlight and
putting it to work is difficult because the solar energythat reaches the Earth is spread out over
a large area. The sun does not deliver that much energy to any one place at any one time.
The amount of solar energy an area receives depends on the time of day, the season of
the year, the cloudiness of the sky, and how close you are to the Earth’s Equator.
A solar collector is one way to capture sunlight and change it intousable heat energy.
A closed car on a sunny day is like a solar collector.As sunlight passes through the car’s
windows, it is absorbed by theseat covers, walls, and floor of the car. The absorbed light
changesinto heat. The car’s windows let light in, but they don’t let all the heatout. A closed
car can get very hot!
4.3 Solar Space Heating

Fig 4.1
Space heating means heating the space inside a building. Today,many homes use solar
energy for space heating. A passive solarhome is designed to let in as much sunlight as
possible. It is like abig solar collector.
Sunlight passes through the windows and heats the walls and floorinside the house.
The light can get in, but the heat is trapped inside.A passive solar home does not depend on
mechanical equipment,such as pumps and blowers, to heat the house, whereas active
solarhomes do.
4.4 Solar Water Heating

Fig 4.2
Solar energy can be used to heat water. Heating water for bathing,dishwashing, and
clothes washing is the second largest home energy cost. Installing a solar water heater can
reduce your waterheating bill by as much as 50 percent.
A solar water heater works a lot like solar space heating. In ourhemisphere, a solar
collector is mounted on the south side of a roofwhere it can capture sunlight. The sunlight
heats water in a tank.The hot water is piped to faucets throughout a house, just as itwould be
with an ordinary water heater.
4.5 Solar Electricity
Solar energy can also be used to produce electricity. Two ways to make electricity
from solar energy are photovoltaics and solar thermal systems.
4.5.1 Photovoltaic Electricity

Fig 4.3
Photovoltaic comes from the words photo, meaning light, and volt, a measurement of
electricity. Sometimes photovoltaic cells arecalled PV cells or solar cells for short. You are
probably familiar with photovoltaic cells. Solar powered toys, calculators, and
roadsidetelephone call boxes all use solar cells to convert sunlight intoelectricity.
Solar cells are made up of silicon, the same substance that makes upsand. Silicon is
the second most common substance on Earth. Solar cells can supply energy to anything that
is powered by batteries orelectric power.
Electricity is produced when radiant energy from the sun strikes the solar cell, causing
the electrons to move around. The action of the electrons starts an electric current. The
conversion of sunlight intoelectricity takes place silently and instantly. There are no
mechanicalparts to wear out.
Compared to other ways of making electricity, photovoltaic systems are expensive

and many panels are needed to equal the electricitygenerated at other types of plants.
4.5.2 Solar Thermal Electricity

Fig 4.4
Like solar cells, solar thermal systems, also called concentratedsolar power (CSP), use
solar energy to produce electricity, but ina different way. Most solar thermal systems use a
solar collectorwith a mirrored surface to focus sunlight onto a receiver that heatsa liquid.
The super-heated liquid is used to make steam to produceelectricity in the same way
that coal plants do. Solar energy has great potential for the future. Solar energy is free,and its
supplies are unlimited. It does not pollute or otherwise damage the environment. It cannot be
controlled by any one nationor industry. If we can improve the technology to harness the
sun’senormous power, we may never face energy shortages again.
5. SOLAR POWER SYSTEMS

5.1 Solar Power Systems
There are three main types of solar electric power systems:
 Grid inter-tied;
 Grid inter-tied with battery backup;
 Off-grid.
These three broad types vary in how closely connected they are to the traditional
power utility infrastructure, known as the grid. Each type has strengths that determine how
suited they are to your needs.
5.2 Grid Inter-Tied Residential Solar Power Systems
A grid inter-tied solar power system is directly connected to the home and to the
traditional electric utility grid. Grid inter-tied systems allow the homeowners to get power
from either the home electric system or the utility grid. Switching between the residential
system and the grid is seamless.
The prime advantage of this type of system is the ability to balance the system
production and home power requirements. When a grid inter-tied system is producing more
power than the home is consuming, the excess can be sold back to the utility in a practice
known as net metering. When the system is not producing sufficient power, the home can
draw power from the utility grid.
Grid inter-tied systems are the lowest cost type of residential solar electric system,
due to having fewer required components.
Fig 5.1 Grid Intertied Residential Solar Power Systems
5.3 GRID Inter-Tied Residential Solar Power System with Battery Backup

A grid inter-tied solar power system is also connected to the traditional utility power
grid and adds battery-backup to the system. The addition of a battery backup enables the
system to balance production and demand and protects against power outages.
Solar electric system production depends on the available sunlight. When sunlight is
abundant, production can exceed demand. When production exceeds demand, the excess
power can charge the batteries, which store the electricity. When the system is producing less
electricity than demanded by the home, the batteries can make up the shortfall.
Grid Inter-tied systems are also connected to the utility power grid. This enables the
homeowners to draw from the grid during periods of excess demand and to sell power to the
grid when there is excess production.
While grid inter-tied systems offer more flexibility, they are not without
disadvantages. Charging and discharging batteries reduces the overall efficiency of the
system and these systems are more complex to design and install and therefore more
expensive.
Fig 5.2 Grid-Intertied With Battery Back-up
5.4 Off Grid Solar Power Systems

An off-grid residential system is completely disconnected from the traditional electric

power grid. Without a connection to the utility grid, batteries are essential to balance periods
of excess production and excess demand.
To protect against shortfalls of power when the solar system is under-producing and
the batteries are discharged, an electric generator is usually added to the system. The
generator is used as a power source during periods of prolonged excess production or unusual
demand.
Fig 5.3 Off-Grid AC Solar
5.5 Components of a Solar Power System
5.5.1 Photovoltaic (PV) Modules
The basic building block of a photovoltaic module is the photovoltaic cell; these
convert solar energy into electricity. The power output will depend on the amount of energy
incident on the surface of the cell and the operating temperature of the photovoltaic cell. The
power output of a single cell can supply small loads like calculators or watches, but in order
to be useful for high energy demand projects these cells must be arranged in series and
parallel connections. A photovoltaic module is an array of photovoltaic cells pre-arranged in
a single mounting mold. The type of module is therefore determined by the cells that
compose the module itself. There are three dominating cell technologies:
5.5.2 Monocrystalline

As the name implies, these are cells that are grown from a single crystal. The
production methods are difficult and expensive. These tend to be more efficient (more power
in less area) and more expensive.
5.5.3 Multicrystalline
The production process allows multiple crystalline structures to develop within the
cell. It is easier to implement in a production line. It is relatively cheaper than mono-
crystalline at the expense of lower efficiency.
5.5.4 Thin-film
Uses less silicon to develop the cell (hence the name thin film) allowing for cheaper
production costs (silicon is in high demand). It tends to be less expensive but has also lower
efficiency.
Fig 5.4
The overall efficiency of the module will depend on the cell efficiency and placement
within the module, and on the laminating materials used. The standard testing condition
(STC), defined as a total irradiance of 1000W/m2 and an ambient temperature of 25◦C, is used
to define module ratings.
Typical module efficiencies range between 11% and 17% for crystalline technologies
at STC; most of the commercially available modules are in the lower bound of this range.
Thin-film module efficiencies range between 6% and 12%.

About 90% of the current production uses wafer-based crystalline silicon technology.
The main advantage of this technology was that completeproduction lines could be bought,
installed and manufactured within a relatively short time. This predictable production start-up
scenario constitutes a low-risk placement with high expectations for return on investments.
Typical electrical information supplied by the manufacturer includes:
 Polarity of output terminals or leads

 Maximum series fuse for module protection
 Rated open-circuit voltage
 Rated operating voltage
 Rated operating current
 Rated short-circuit current
 Rated maximum power
 Maximum permissible system voltage
The following tables summarize characteristics of various PV cell technologies.
Table: Photovoltaic categories by semiconductor selection.
Crystalline silicon Solar Cell Monocrystalline, produced by slicing wafers (up to 150 mm
diameter and 350 microns thick) from high-purity
Market Share: 93% singlecrystal.
Poly crystalline
Thin Film Solar Cell Amorphoussilicon
Market share 7% Polycrystalline materials:
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe), Copper indium (gallium)

Diselenide (CIS orCIGS).
Table: Advantages & Disadvantages of Cell Technology
Cell Type Advantages Disadvantages

Well established and tested Uses a lot of expensive material

technology
Lots of waste in slicing wafers
Stable
Single Crystal Silicon Costly to manufacture
Relatively efficient
Round cells can’t be spaced in
modules efficiently
Well established and tested Uses a lot of expensive material

technology
Lots of waste in slicing wafers
Stable
Fairly costly to manufacture
Polycrystalline Silicon
Relatively efficient
Slightly less efficient than
Less expensive than single Single CrystallineSi
CrystallineSi
Does not requireslicing Has not been scaled up to large-

volume production
Less material waste than single
Ribbon Silicon andpolycrystalline Complex manufacturing
process
Potential for high speed
manufacturing
Very low materialuse Pronounced degradation in

poweroutput
Potential for highly automated
Amorphous Silicon
and very rapid production Lowefficiency
Potential for very lowcost
5.6 Inverters
Inverters have the task of DC/AC conversion. There are two main categories of grid-
tied inverters. Line-commutated inverters derive their switching signals directly from the grid
line currents. The low switching frequencies produce harmonic currents that need to be
filtered out. In the case of small single-phase inverters the bulky and expensive filtering
networks are not practical. In the case of large three phase inverters, multiple units could be
connected through a multi-phase isolation transformer at the utility output to filter any
unwanted currents; the transformers should be rated to withstand additional heating due to
harmonic current copper losses. Self-commutated inverters derive their switching frequencies
from internal control units as they monitor or grid conditions, in particular frequency and
voltage. Self-commutatedinverters can be either voltage source inverters or current source

inverters. modules behave like voltage sources; therefore our interest will be in voltage
source type inverters. Voltage source type inverters can yet again be subdivided into current
control and voltage control types. In applications where there is no rid reference, voltage
control schemes are used and the inverter behaves as a voltage source. Where a grid
connection is used the current control scheme is preferred and the inverter behaves as a
current source. Operating the inverterunder current control limits the possibility of active
voltage regulation, a high power factor can be obtained with simpler control circuits (usually
the power factor is kept as near to unity as possible), and transient current suppression is
possible when disturbances as voltage fluctuations occur. Another advantage isthat current
related power quality disturbances related to inverter operation, harmonics, can be controlled
with easeand independence from voltage quality which then depends entirely on the utility.
Problems caused by unusual utility voltages should be the responsibility of the utility because
they are commonlyassociated to more complicated problems. It is important to understand
that customer compliance to any standard should be independent to utility compliance to the
same issue; the utility should not assume that the customer has total responsibility. The
disadvantage of operating using current control is that it cannot operate as an isolated power
source. Some inverters are able to handle both control functions to operate as grid connected
and also provide conversion for storage batteries working as a backup.
Table 5.6 summarizes the characteristics of voltage source inverters under different
control strategies. According to a survey from the IEA for inverters under 50kW, 19 % of
inverters in the market use voltage control and while 81% use current control. High switching
frequencies (3-20 kHz) are used in some designs; therefore lower current harmonic content is
possible without the need of using large filtering networks. The only problem is that higher
switching frequencies result in higher losses reducing the efficiency of the inverter. Designers
must find a balance between efficiency, power quality and size.
Table
Voltage Control Current Control
Inverter main circuit Self-commutate voltage source Self-commutate voltage

inverter (DC) source inverter (DC)
Control objective AC voltage AC current
Fault short circuit current High Low
Stand-alone operation Possible Not possible
5.6.1 Stand-Alone Inverters

These inverters are meant to operate isolated from the electrical distribution network
and require batteries for proper operation. The batteries provide a constant voltage source at
the DC input of the inverter. Inverters can be classified briefly as:
 Square Wave Inverters

 Modified Sine Wave Inverters
 Sine wave inverters (quasi-sine wave)
Voltage and current waveforms produced by inverters are neverperfect sinusoids

(even for sine wave inverters); therefore some harmonic currents are expected during normal
system operation. Total harmonic distortion (THD) is a measure of the harmonic content in
current and voltage waveform. The type of inverter used will depend on the load that it will
serve. Resistive loads could tolerate square wave inverters which are cheaper and easier to
develop. Motors and sensitive electronics will need inverters that are able to produce almost
perfect sinusoidal voltage and current waveforms in order to operate correctly. These tend to
be more expensive and difficult to design. The designer should choose inverters according to
load types and power requirements. Modern stand-alone inverters have software applications
embedded that monitor and control equipment operation.
Many industries have found applications for inverters; hence design requirements tend
to be specific to the needs of a particular application. A whole new industry has evolved
around the need of a proper inverter to accommodate the needs of the relatively new solar
industry, with both big and small manufacturers entering the market. PV modules produce
DC outputs which are dependent on the irradiance, temperature and load operation. Stand-
alone inverters operating with energy storage or batteries need a small DC voltage operating
range to allow for voltage differences due to battery state of charge, and surge capacity to
allow for safe and uninterrupted transient event operation. Grid-tied systems do not normally
incorporate energy storage; hence larger DC voltage operating ranges are needed to
accommodate both the varying operating conditions and module configurations. Maximum
power point tracking control algorithms are normally included to take full advantage of the
PV module energy production capabilities. Advanced protection functions are normally also
included in order to guarantee safe operation in parallel with the distribution grid. These are
just examples of specific requirements for PV inverters in their specific applications. The
following section shall summarize current PV inverter characteristics, industry status and
trends, especially in the grid-tied market, which is currently of most public interest.
The industry challenges attended include:
 Reliability
 Inverter lifetime improvements
 Higher inverter efficiencies
 Production cost reduction
 System and installation cost reduction
 Unreliable or inadequate components or parts

 Safety
 Grid connection issues
 Optimal circuit topologies, etc.
5.6.2 Grid-Tied Inverters
These inverters operate coupled to the electric distribution network and therefore must
be able to produce almost perfect sinusoidal voltages and currents. The operating
requirements for these types of inverters are in most cases determined by the local utilities,
yet most utilities rely on existing standards to determine feasible technologies. The most
referenced standards in the United States are the IEEE1547 and the UL 1741.
These standards include the minimum requirements that manufacturers should include
into their inverter designs in order to prevent adverse effects in the distribution grid.
Normally, embedded software applications monitor and control equipment operation to
comply with standard requirements. There are two main categories of grid-tied inverters.
Line-commutated invertersderive their switching signals directly from the grid line currents.
The low switching frequencies produce harmonic currents that need to be filtered out.
In the case of small single-phase inverters the bulky and expensive filtering networks are not
practical. In the case of large three phase inverters, multiple units could be connected through
a multi-phase isolation transformer at the utility output, filtering any unwanted currents. Self-
commutated inverters derive their switching frequencies from internal control units as they
monitor grid conditions, in particular frequency and voltage. High switching frequencies (3 –
20 kHz) are used and therefore lower current harmonic content is possible without the need
of using large filtering networks. Self-commutated inverters can be either voltage source
inverters or current source inverters. PV modules behave like voltage sources; therefore our
interest will be in voltage source type inverters. Voltage source type inverters can yet again
be subdivided into current control and voltage control types. In applications where there is no
grid reference, voltage control schemes are used and the inverter behaves as a voltage source.
Where a grid connection is used the current control scheme is used and the inverter behaves
as a current source. These inverters use the utility voltage as reference to provide the current
available from the PV, and are not able to operate as an island.
Grid-Tied inverters operate coupled to the electric distribution network and therefore
the operation requirements are quite different from those of stand-alone inverters. Figure
shows a simple block diagram of a grid-connected PV system. Energy Storage is not
considered in most grid-connected applications, hence it is not included in the diagram, but it
could be an option depending on the reliability needs of the owner. In general terms the
system can be divided into the solar panels and the power conditioning equipment, which
includes: the maximum power point tracker, the inverter, the galvanic isolation (optional),
and protection and control features. These components are commonly integrated in the same
enclosure or unit as a way to reduce production and installation costs; hence it has been
customary in the PV industry to refer to the combination of all these elements as the inverter.
We shall adopt this practice.
It is commonly said that grid connected PV systems are as good as their interfaces
between the DC and AC power segments. As an example, the best solar modules in the
industry will not be of great use if the power is not transformed efficiently and safely to
useful levels at the load side. For the utilities it is of no use to allow the integration of DG
systems that could degrade the quality of the electric power in the distribution network.
Inverter failure will prevent any useful energy being produced. Proper inverter systems
should include or consider the following:
5.7 Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT)
Nominal voltage and current conditions will not be available from the PV array at all
times due to constant changes in solar irradiance. Figure 5.11 displays the I-V curves for a
PV module at different operating characteristics. The MPPT guarantees optimum power is
always obtained from the PV modules at any given operating condition. Different algorithms
have been developed to achieve MPPT control, some achieving more than 98% of the PV
array output capacity. The most popular is the Perturb and Observe (P&O) algorithm, this
algorithm increases or decreases voltage in small steps and monitors the power output until
maximum power point is found.
Fig: I-V Curves for a PV Module at different operating conditions
5.8 Voltage and Frequency Synchronization
Inverters should operate without problem for normal fluctuations of voltage and
frequency at the utility grid side. The controllers must include protection devices that
continuously monitor the grid voltage and frequency. If these go outside of the tolerable
ranges established the unit should trip within an acceptable time frame, while permitting
inverter operation through instantaneous voltage sags or swells. Inverter must inject current
in phase with utility voltage (Power Factor=1).
5.8.1 Islanding Protection
Islanding occurs when a DG continues to energize a distribution network that would

otherwise be de-energized for any reason (e.g. Breaker opens because of a fault). It has been

determined that this is a low probability event and the probability of continued operation of
DG’s is also very low, especially for residential grid tied PV systems which would not be
able to perform load following. Yet in the event that load balance occurs, islanding represents
a safety hazard.Islanding protection is a requirement for all grid-connected distributed
generation (DG).
5.8.2 Inverter Reaction to Faults
Inverters rely on solid state technology for its operation and, unlike generators and
motors; they have no inertia or considerable amounts of energy stored within them which
means that they can react to faulted conditions almost instantly. The reaction of the inverter
will depend on what it “sees” as terminal voltage and apparent load impedance during a fault.
In event that the detection scheme takes longer than the anticipated or simply does not work,
fault contributions, if any, will still be quite low, compared to utility short circuit currents,
since inverters cannot supply currents much larger than the rated load current, the condition
will cause the device to disconnect. Most grid-tied inverters are designed to operate under
current control. These inverters use the utility voltage as reference to provide the current
available from the PV, and are not able to operate as an island. The advantages of current
control voltage source inverters are [23].
PF~1 (employing a simple control scheme).
Transient Current Suppression
The fault current is limited in the range of 100% to 200% rms rated current. The fault
contributions of these inverters are limited by their control and protection system. The fast
switching frequencies these inverters use, allow them to detect large currents that may exceed
their semiconductor ratings and stop operation within0.5 cycles [25].
5.8.3 Power Quality
The concerns are mainly harmonic and DC current injection into the local distribution
grids. A report of the IEA found that most PWM inverters can keep harmonic injection levels
below 5% [8]. Harmonics cannot be eliminated completely due to the switching process
involved in PWM, but high switching frequencies and filtering are used to lower THD at the
AC output. Flicker problems should not be a major concern in the approval of inverters
because voltage fluctuations on the DC side depend on solar irradiance, and have proven to
be quite slow; also these inverters will operate as current sources and at unity power factor
and reactive power demand in residences is not considerable.
5.8.4 DC Isolation (Galvanic Isolation)
The early low power inverter designs incorporated a low frequency transformer at the
output of the inverter; these are still present in most of the larger three phase inverters. In
some cases an external transformer is used. The transformers could be regular ∆-Y
distribution transformers in case of a three phase output or a single phase isolation
transformer with a 1:1 ratio for low voltage single phase a connection. The transformers are
used to prevent possible by product DC currents produced by semiconductor switching from
being injected into the distribution network (DCcurrents may cause saturation of distribution
transformers) and are commonly used as part of theharmonic filtering network within the
inverter. The transformer also provides a safe grounding point while maintaining electrical
isolation. The isolation transformer was a requirement in many electrical codes and utility
regulations, yet most codes are no longer requiring galvanic isolation (including the NEC).
Inverter designers have found ways to mitigate the problems mentioned before into
acceptable levels. It is possible to use high frequency (HF) transformers embedded in an
internal high frequency conversion stage, these are small, lightweight, and provide the
electrical isolation Line Frequency (LF) transformers provide. Common line frequency
transformers used in inverter outputs cause losses of around 2% and are the larger part of the
inverter’s weight and cost. Transformerless designs are also possible, yet a regular full-bridge
inverter cannot be used as a suitable grid-connection if both sides are to be grounded (the
NEC requires PV arrays with operating voltages over 50V to be grounded), hence special
circuit topologies are used. The Transformerless designs are cheaper, more efficient, and
lighter. Modern power electronic devices tend to use more silicon and less iron.
The operating requirements for these types of inverters are in most cases determined
by the local utilities, yet most utilities rely on existing standards to determine feasible
technologies. The most referenced standards in the United States are the IEEE1547 and the
UL 1741. These standards include the minimum requirements that manufacturers should
include into their inverter designs in order to prevent adverse effects in the distribution grid.
Normally, embedded software applications monitor and control equipment operation to
comply with standard requirements. Table 5.8 summarizes the disconnection requirements for
grid-tied inverters operating under abnormal system conditions. The disconnection
requirements are meant to protect the inverter and surrounding equipment as well as
maintenance personnel servicing utility lines. Some inverters have better response than the
minimum established by standards. The inverters are required to have a 5 minute wait time
until they reconnect after normal grid operation is resumed.
5.8.5 Batteries
In a PV system the energy produced by PV modules does not always coincide with
energy demanded. A PV array that it is not grid connected needs to store the energy excess
produced by solar cells. Electrical storage batteries are often employed in Stand Alone PV
systems. The primary functions of a storage battery in a PV system are:
1. Energy Storage and Autonomy: Store electrical energy produced by PV modules and
supply energy as needed for the load.
2. Voltage and Current stabilization: To supply power to electrical loads at stable
voltages and currents.

3. Supply Surge Currents: Supply high peak operating currents to electrical loads or
appliances.
In PV systems, lead-acid batteries are most common due to their wide availability in
many sizes, low cost and well known characteristics. Electrical storage batteries can be
divided into Primary and Secondary Batteries.
Table shows secondary batteries charge characteristics.
Battery Type Cost Deep cycle Maintenance

Performance
Flooded Lead-Acid
Lead-Antimony Low Good High
Lead-Calcium Open Low Poor Medium

Vent
Lead-Calcium Sealed Low Poor Low

Vent
Lead Antimony/Calcium
Hybrid Medium Good Medium
Captive Electrolyte Lead-Acid
Gelled Medium Fair Low
Absorbed Glass Mat Medium Fair Low
Nickel-Cadmium
Sealed Sintered-Plate High Good None
Flooded Pocket-Plate High Good Medium
Primary batteries can store and deliver electrical energy, but cannot be recharged. Then
primary batteries are not used in PV systems.
5.8.6 Charge Controllers
The charge controller is a DC to DC converter whose main function is to control the

current flow from the photovoltaic modules array with the purpose of charging batteries.

Most of these devices can maintain the maximum charge of the batterywithout overcharging
or reaching the minimum design charge.
The main functions of a Charge Controller are:
 Overcharge Protection: The purpose is to prevent the damage in the batteries when
they are charged and the PV array still supplies energy. This protection interrupts or
restricts the current flow from the modules to the batteries and regulates the batteries
voltage.
 Over discharge Protection: During periods of excessive use of energy or little solar
irradiation the charge of the batteries could be affected approaching to the point of
minimum discharge. The charge controller disconnects the batteries or stop the
current flow from the batteries to the load (Load Management) to prevent batteries
damage.
There are two basic methods for controlling the charging of a battery from a PV
module array:
5.8.6.1 Shunt Controller: Since PV cells are current-limited the basic operation of
shunt controller is short-circuiting the PV modules and arrays. For this reason most shunt
controller require a heat sink to dissipate power. The regulation element of these controllers
typically is a power transistor or MOSFET.
Shunt Interrupting The shunt interrupting controllers completely disconnect the array
current when the batteries reach the voltage set point. When the batteries voltage decreases,
the controller reconnects the array to resume charging the batteries.
5.8.6.2 Shunt Linear: When the batteries become nearly fully charged, the controller
maintains the battery near a set point voltage by gradually shunting the array through a
semiconductor regulation element.
Series Interrupting: This is the simpler of series controller (on-off type). The charge
controller constantly monitors the batteries voltage and disconnects the arrays once the
batteries reach the set point. When the batteries voltage drops this controller reconnect the
array tocharge the batteries.
Constant Current: The 2 step, constant current controller is similar to the series
interrupting but when the voltage reaches the set point, instead of totally interrupt the array
current, a limited constant current remains flowing to the batteries. This continues either for a
pre-set period of time, or until the voltage drops to the cycle repeats.
Dual Set Point: This type of series charge controller has two distinct voltage
regulation set-points. During the first charge cycle of the day, the controller uses a higher
regulation voltage to maximization of the charge and in the other cycle uses a voltage lower
voltage set-point. The purpose is minimizing the battery gassing and the water loss for
flooded lead-acid type.

5.8.6.3 Series Linear, Constant Voltage: The linear constant voltage controller
maintains the battery voltage at the voltage regulation set-point. The regulation element acts
like a variable resistor controlled by the battery voltage sensing circuit of the controller, and
dissipates the excess of charge.
5.8.6.4 Series Interrupting, Pulse Width Modulated: The PWM uses algorithm
with a semiconductor switching element between the array and the batteries. The algorithm
switches on-off the charge of the batteries with a variable frequency and variable duty cycle
to maintain the voltage of the batteries very close to the set-point voltage.
Controllers Design for Particular Battery types.
Controller Design Type of Batteries
Shunt Interrupting All battery types, but recommended by gel and

AGM lead-acid battery manufactures.
Shunt Linear Sealed VRLA batteries.
Series Interrupting Flooded batteries rather than the sealed VRLA

types.
Series Interrupting, 2 step, Constant

Current
Series Interrupting, 2 step, Dual Set Flooded lead-acid types.

Point
Series Linear, Constant Voltage All battery types.
Series Interrupting, Pulse Width Preferred use with sealed VRLA.

Modulated
6. PROJECT OVERVIEW
6.1 About the system

The solar PV Power generation system supplied is a high efficient, modular,

extendable and cost effective power generation solution. The system is designed to
International Standards to ensure that you have years of trouble-free operations. As a result of
proven technology, the system is highly efficient and less maintenance. The savings made on
energy costs will help the firms to directly benefit and contributing to their growth.
The List of major components used in this system are listed below.
6.1.1Solar PV Modules: The sun light (solar radiation) falling on the modules is
converted in to DC energy by photovoltaic principle. The generated by solar modules can
either be used to supply the power to the connected load or to charge the battery bank.
6.1.2PV Inverter (PCU): PCU is a common terminology used to the system

consisting of Inverter and AC synchronization functionality. PCU does the function of
controlling grid power by leading PF and prefer the solar energy to the load. The system also
contains the Charge Controller as part of the same system or as an independent unit.
6.1.3 Module mounting structure(MMS): MMS is the structure to mount the solar
PV modules with specified angle depending on the location when the system to be mounted.
The tilting will vary depending on the longitude and latitude of the location.
6.2 Salient Features and Benefits of System
 A clean, silent and eco-friendly source of power

 Solar modules convert sunlight into electricity without pollution
 Negligible maintenance as there are no moving parts and maximum reliability
 Long life span of solar modules
 Modular design and easily expandable
 Simple installation: can be mounted on roof top or ground
 Can be installed at point-of use to avoid transmission losses
 Energy Independence
 Protection against future escalation of energy costs
 Available throughout the year
6.3 System Working Principles
Solar photovoltaic(PV) system is like any other electrical power generation systems in
terms of the output except for the source of the power is Solar radiation. The conversion of
solar radiation to the electrical power is based on the photovoltaic principles. However, the
principles of operation of the connected load and interfacing with other electrical systems
remain the same. Though solar PV array produces power when exposed to sunlight, a number
of other componentsare required to properly conduct, control, convert, distribute, and
transform the energy produced by the array.

This system is designed to generate the energy in an eco friendly manner with the
source from solar radiation which is available in abundance. The system designed is for 1.62
KWp Solar Power Generation Off-grid System. The system does have storage for standby
power. The solar PV array will have 12 no’s of 270Wp Polycrystalline solar modules. These
modules will be connected in series / parallel combination through Optimizers to the desired
string configuration as per the design parameters of the Inverter. The Inverter is of 5KVA
capacity with Single phase AC Output equipped with 3500 Watts MPPT. The Batteries used
for storage is Exide Solar batteries of a capacity 120Ah
The main components/items for 3.25 kWp SPV power plant are given below:
Item No Particular Description Quantity
1 Solar module 270 Wp (AEG, Germany) 12 Nos.
5 KVA, INCITE
2 OFF-GRID Inverter 3500 watts MPPT 1 No.
2 years warranty
3 Battery Exide, 120 Ah Solar C10 5 Nos.

5 years Replacement Warranty
DC & AC single phase DB

4 User Control Panel 32A AC Breaker (L&T)
12A Fuses per string 1 No.
Weatherproof DC cables (Reputed Brand)

5 DC cabling Waterproof cable connectors 30 meter
High-Grade PVC Conduit (Approx.)
6 AC Cabling 4 Sq.mm cable (Reputed Make) 30 meter

PVC conduit (high grade) (Approx.)
7 Earthing 10 Gauge Cu for panel earthing

10 Gauge Cu for Inverter and DB earthing As required
DB (Hensel, Germany)
SS Nuts, Bolts & Washer

SS Screws & Fisher

Anchor Bolt
Saddle
Insulator
8 Hardware Earthing Compound As required
Earth Pit Cover
Cable Tie
MC4 Connectors
Lugs, Nuts, Bolts, and Washers
Electrical Tape
Safety Tags
9 Structure GI As required
Installation and Water sealed DC cabling

Commissioning
10 Panel mounting
AC PVC conduit cabling
Testing and commissioning
6.4 Cost Estimation of 3.25kWp OFF Grid Power Plant

Sl No Description Of Goods Qty Unit Price Amount
1 AEG SPV Modules 270wp 12 Pcs 12,658.28 1,59,494.32
2 INCITE 5KVA 3.5KW OFF Grid Inverter 1 Pcs 43,000.00 50,740.00
3 Exide 150AH C10Solar Tubular Battery 5 Pcs 13,000.00 83,200.00
4 4sq Mm Solar DC Cable 200 Mete 36.00 8,496.00

r
5 SP AC DB 1 Pcs 2,400.00 2,832.00
6 1 IN 1 OUT 600V DC DB 1 Pcs 3,400.00 4,012.00
7 MC4 Connector 15 Pcs 69.25 1,225.73
Total Cost in Rupees 3,10,000
7. PROJECT VISUALS
Fig7.1 Solar Panel View
Fig 7.2 AC D.B Fig7.3 DC D.B

Fig 7.4 Battery with Inverter
Fig 7.5 AC D.B

8. DATASHEETS
8.1Solar Panel: AEG AS-P607 (270Wp)
Fig 8.1

Fig 8.2

9. CONCLUSION
This project has allowed as recognizing the importance of solar energy by installing
of power plant in office room and principal room. It creates a self-sustaining culture which
improves the future demands of non-conventional source of energy. Through this installation
it is very use full to managing authorities and for next generation. The junior student were
able to identify the significance of solar energy for their learning opportunities.

10. REFERENCE
[1] Wikipedia Inc. "Solar Power" Available [Online]
[2] Microsoft Encarta 2009 "Solar system" Microsoft Corporation 1993-2008.
[3] Engr. Eze D.I (May 2015) "Solar and Renewable Energy" NAPSASNAPTIN
Training Manuel Module One
[4] "How to Build an Off Grid Solar Power Plant" By

30TUwebmaster@61pie.comU3OT
[5] Nwanya A.C. (May 2015) "Solar PV Installation and Maintenance" Lecture Material
NAPSAS Training Program
[6] Wikipedia Inc “Power Inverter” available [Online]
30Uhttp//;:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/power_inverterU30T
[7] Wikipedia Inc "Photovoltaic Mounting System "available [Online]
30TUhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U30Tphotovoltaic mounting system
[8] Nwanya Assumpta C. (2015) "Solar PV installation and maintenance" National

Centre for Energy Research and Development, University of Nigeria Nsukka

Designing Large Solar Power Plants

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Designing Large Solar Power Plants

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ABSTRACT

The development of newer technologies in concentrating solar power (CSP) plants,

3 TYPES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY 5

3.1 Hydro Power 6

3.2 Bio Energy 6

3.3 Geothermal Energy 8

3.4 Solar Energy 10

3.5 Wind Energy 14

3.7 Ocean Energy 16

4.1 Solar Energy 19

4.2 Solar Collectors 19

4.3 Solar Space Heating 20

4.4 Solar Water Heating 21

4.5 Solar Electricity 21

5 SOLAR POWER SYSTEMS 24

5.1 Solar Power Systems 24

5.2 Grid Inter-Tied Residential Solar Power Systems 24

5.4 OFF Grid Solar Power System 26

5.5 Components Of A Solar Power System 26

5.7 Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) 33

5.8 Voltage And Frequency Synchronization 33

6.1 About The System 39

6.2 Salient Features And Benefits Of system 39

6.3 System Working Principles 39

6.4 Cost Estimation 42

8.1 Solar Panel:AEG-AS-P607(270Wp) 45

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3. TYPES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

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After hydropower, biomass is this country’s second-leading resource of renewable

3.2.3 Biobased Products

Biomass—corn, wheat, soybeans, wood, and residues—can also be used to produce

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3.3 Geothermal Energy

3.3.1 Geothermal Electricity Production

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3.3.2 Geothermal Direct Use

In a direct-use system, a well is drilled into a geothermal reservoir, which provides a

3.3.3 Geothermal Heat Pumps

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3.4 Solar Energy

3.4.1 Passive Solar Lighting and Heating

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3.4.2 Solar Water Heating

Solar water-heating systems use collectors, generally mounted on a south-facing roof,

Passive solar water-heating systems use natural convection or household water

An active system uses an electric pump to circulate water or nontoxic antifreeze

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3.4.3 Solar Electricity

Solar electricity or photovoltaic (PV) technology converts sunlight directly into

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Grid-connected PV systems do not require batteries. However, some grid connected

3.4.4 Solar Thermal Electricity

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3.5 Wind Energy

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3.7 Ocean Energy

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