DATA COLLECTION IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

The paper is written to fulfill the assignment of

”Introduction To Reasearch Method”

Lecturer :
Desy Puspitasari, M.Pd

Compiled by :
Iis Rulianawati (204180036)
Khuriyatul Mala (204180044)
Putri Melinia B.F (204180060)

English Education B / 4th Semester

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF TARBIYAH AND TEACHER TRAINING
STATE INSTITUTE OF ISLAMIC STUDIES PONOROGO
2020
 CHAPTER I
INRODUCTION

A. Background
Aliaga and Gunderson (2002) have described the quantitative research methods
very well. According to them “Quantitative research is an inquiry into a social problem,
explain phenomena by gathering numerical data that are analysed using mathematically
based methods e.g. in particular statistics”. According to the Creswell (2003) researcher
primarily uses post-positivist approach to develop knowledge when quantitative
research is selected (i.e cause and effect thinking, use of measurement and observations,
and test of theories), employs strategies of inquiry such as experiments and surveys, and
collects data on predetermined instruments that yield statistical data
There is often a temptation when approaching research to seek evidence that
demonstrates beyond reasonable doubt that there is a truth which can be shownthrough
the collection and analysis of quantitative data. Such an approach differs from other
methodologies in that interpretation of the world is to be shown in numbers rather than
words or other symbols.
Collecting quantitative data means being able to ask questions that can be
answered in such a way that data can be presented as numbers. Inevitably this means
you haveto define questions that reflect real issues and are meaningful to possible
participants. Typically you would expect such questions to be answered without further
interpretation and you would be looking to collect sufficient amounts of data to be able
to represent the population you are sampling.

B. Problem Formulation
1. What are steps in the process of data collection?
2. What is quistionnaire in collecting quantitative data?
3. What is test in collecting quantitative data?

1
 2

C. Purpose
1. To find out steps in the process of data collection
2. To find out kind of quistionnaire in collecting quantitative data
3. To find out test that used in collectting quantitative data
 3

CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

A. The Definition of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is ‘Explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data
that are analysed using mathematicallyd methods (in particular statistic).1 An entire
quantitative study usually ends with confirmation or disconfirmation
of the hypothesis tested. Researchers using the quantitative method identify one
or a few variables that they intend to use in their research work and proceed with
data collection related to those variables.
Quantitative method typically begins with data collection based on a hypothesis
or theory and it is followed with application of descriptive or inferential statistics.
Surveys and observations are some examples that are widely used with
statistical association. We will see different types of quantitative research
methods in the next section. For example, when a researcher is interested to
investigate the “effectiveness of expert system for managing e-commerce
application in open source environment” the researcher will formulate the research
question such as “how effective is the expert system in comparison to
case-based reasoning for e-commerce module development?” The researcher
finds 10 software developers using e-commerce module with expert system in
open source environment and 10 software developers using case-based reasoning
e-commerce module in propietary programming language environment.

B. Steps In The Process of Data Collection

There are five steps in the process of quantitative data collection. This process
involves more than simply gathering information; it includes interrelated steps. It
1
Daniel Muijs, Doing Quantitative Research in Education with SPSS, (London: SAGE Publications,
2004), 1.
 4

involves the steps of determining the participants to study, obtaining permissions

needed from several individuals and organizations, considering what types of
information to collect from several sources available to the quantitative research,
locating and selecting instrument to use that will net useful data for the study, and
finally, administering the data collection process to collect data.
1. Specify the Population and Sample
Who can supply the information that you will use to answer your quantitative
research question or hypotheses? Some possibilities might be students, teachers,
parents, adults, some combination of these individuals, or entire schools. At this
early stage in data collection, you must decide at what level (e.g., individual, family,
school, school district) the data needs to be gathered. This level is referred to as the
unit of analysis. In some research studies, educators gather data from multiple levels
(e.g., individuals and schools), whereas other studies involve collecting data from
only one level (e.g., principals in schools). This decision depends on the question or
hypotheses that you seek to answer. Also, the data for for measuring the
independent variable may differ from the unit for assessing the dependent variable. 2
There are some sampling techniques that used in collecting sample:
a) Probability Sampling
The researcher selects individuals from the population who are
representative of that population. This is the most rigorous form of sampling in
quantitative research because the investigator can claim that the sample is
representative of the population and, as such, can make generalizations to the
population. There are several probability sampling techniques which are (simple
random sampling systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and cluster random
sampling).

2
John W. Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating
Quantitative and Qualitative Research, (4th Ed.), (Boston : Pearson Education Inc, 2012), 141.
 5

1) Simple Random Sampling

The most popular and rigorous form of probability sampling from a
population is simple random sampling. In simple random sampling, the
researcher selects participants (or units, such as schools) for the Sample so
that any individual has an equel probability of being selected from the
population. The intent of of simple random sampling is to choose
individuals to be sampled who will be representative of the population. Any
bias in the population will be equally distributed among the people chosen.
The typical procedure used in simple random sampling is to assign a
number to each individual (or site) in the population and then use a random
numbers table, available in many statistics books, to select the individuals
(or sites) for the sample. For this procedure, you need a list of members in
the target population and a number must be assigned to each individual.3
For the simple example, you might know how social gathering or prize
draw is held. 10 mothers follow a social gathering. Their names are written
on a piece of paper, then put in a glass for randomly taken one by one. This
method include simple random sampling.4
2) Systematic Sampling
If the population is large and homogenous, and the number of the
samples to be taken is also large, a simple random technique will be
difficult to use because it is bothersome or longer. For this reason you can
use another method which is systematic sampling.5 In this procedure, you
choose every nth individual or site in the population until you reach your
desired sample size. This procedure is not as precise and rigorous as using
the random numbers table, but it may be more convenient because

3
John W. Creswell, Op. Cit., 143.
4
Priyono, Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif, (Sidoarjo: Zifatama Publishing,2016), 107.
5
Ibid., 111.
 6

individuals do not have to be numbered and it does not require a random

numbers table.
3) Stratified Sampling
Another type of probability sampling is stratified sampling. In
stratified sampling, researchers divide (stratify) the population on some
specific characteristic (e.g., gender) and then, using simple random
sampling, sample from each subgroup (stratum) of the population (e.g.,
females and males). This guarantees that the sample will include specific
characteristics that the researcher wants included in the sample.
4) Multistage Cluster Sampling
In multistage cluster sampling, the researcher chooses a sample in
two or more stages because either the researchers cannot easily identify the
population or the population is extremely large. If this is the case, it can be
difficult to obtain a complete list of the members of the population.
However, getting a complete list of groups orclusters in the population
might be possible (Vogt, 2005).6
b) Nonprobability Sampling
The researcher selects individuals because they are available, convenient,
and represent some characteristic the investigator seeks to study. In some
situations, you may need to involve participants who volunteer and who agree to
be studied. Further, you may not be interested in generalizing findings to a
population, but only in describing a small group participants in a study.
Researchers use two popular approaches in nonprobability sampling:
convenience and snowball sampling approaches.

6
John W. Creswell, Op. Cit., 144-145.
 7

1) Convenience Sampling
In convenience sampling the researcher selects participants
because they are willing and available to be studied. In this case, the
researcher cannot say with confidence that the individuals are representative
of the population. However, the sample can provide useful information for
answering questions and hypotheses.
2) Snowball Sampling
An alternative to convenience sampling is snowball sampling. In
snowball sampling, the researcher asks participants to identify others to
become members of the sample.
2. Identify the permission needed for a study
Permission is often necessary before you can enter a site and collect data. This
approval usually comes from leaders or persons of authority in organizations.
Gaining permissions from organizational personnel requires contacting them before
the start of a study and obtaining their permission to enter and to study their setting.
The best way to seek permission from the necessary individuals or groups is to
ask for it formally in a letter. Include the purpose of the study, the amount of time
you will be at the site collecting data, the time required of participants, and how you
will use the data or results. Also, state the specific activities you will conduct, the
benefit to the organization or individual because of the study, and the provisions
you have made to protect the of study participants. By providing this information,
you will show a concern for the potential intrusion of the study into their
workplaces and lives and set the stage for realistic expectations on their part.7
3. List different for collecting information
The third step is to decide what type or types of data to collect. This decision
begins with specifying the variables in your research questions or hypotheses,
defining these variables, and seeking measures that operationalize these definitions.

7
Ibid., 147.
 8

Typical quantitative data consists of measures of performance and attitudes,

observations of behaviour, record and document.
4. Locate, select, and assess an instruments for use in data collection
The fourth step is to locate, modify, or develop instruments that provide these
measures. The easiest procedure is to use an existing instrument or modify one
rather than develop your own instrument. Procedures exist for searching for an
instrument, and when you find one that may be satisfactory, consider whether scores
from past uses of it are reliable and valid, whether the procedure for recording
information fits your research questions/ hypotheses, and whether the scales will
measure either categorical or continuous data.
5. Describe procedures for administering quantitative data collection
The final step involves actually collecting the data. Your procedures need to be
standard so that there is a uniform procedure for data collection. Also, as with all
phases in research, the data collection process needs to be conducted in a way that is
ethical to individuals and to research sites.

C. Questionnaire
A questionnaire is the main means of collecting quantitative primary data. A
questionnaire enables quantitative data to be collected in a standardized way so that the
data are internally consistent and coherent for analysis. Questionnaires should always
have a definite purpose that is related to the objectives of the research, and it needs to
be clear from the outset how the findings will be used.8 There are about six different
types of questionnaire.

8
S Roopa and MS Rani, Questionnaire Designing for a Survey, The Journal of Indian Orthodontic
Society, (Vol. 46. No. 4, 2012), 273.
 9

1. Contingency questions/Cascade format

A question that is answered only if the respondent gives a particular
response to a previous question. This avoids asking questions to people that do not
apply to them.
Example: Asking the experience of braces treatment in children who have
not undergone orthodontic treatment.
2. Matrix Questions
Identical response categories are assigned to multiple questions. The
questions are placed one under the other, forming a matrix with response categories
along the top and a list of questions down the side. This is an efficient use of page
space and respondents’ time.
Example: Carver and White’s BIS/BAS scale. Behavioral approach system
(BAS)/behavioral avoidance (or inhibition) system.
3. Closed-ended Questions
Respondents’ answers are limited to a fixed set of responses. Most scales are
closed ended. Types of closed-ended questions include:
a. Yes/no questions_the respondent answers the questions whit a “yes” or a “no”.
Example: Have you ever visited a dentist?
b. Multiple choice—The respondent has several options from which to choose.
Example : how would you rate this product
(i) Excellent (ii) Good (iii) Fair (ix) poor

c. Scaled questions—Responses are graded on a continuum (example: Rate the

appearance of the product on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 being the most
preferred appearance). Examples of types of scales include the Likert scale and
Semantic differential scale.
Likret scale is a psychomometric scale commonly involved in research that
employs questionnaires to measure social attitudes. Example: Are you happy
with your child’s teeth arrangement?
 10

(1) Strongly disagree

(2) Disagree
(3) Don’t know
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly agree9
There are several advantages and disadvantages using open-ended quesnnaire
bellow:
a) Advantages
1. Speedy response. Respondents can answer close-ended questions quickly,
giving them the sense they are making good progress. Speedy response time
per question means you can ask more questions on a broader range of topics.
2. Easier to answer. As any parent will attest, it is easier for children to choose
one option among several alternatives than to make an unstructured
decision. Similarly, close-ended questions about attitudes and behaviors are
simpler to answer. By easing their task, you increase respondents’
enthusiasm for returning a completed questionnaire.
3. Less-skilled or no interviewer needed. Either little or no interviewing skill is
needed to administer close-ended questions, which is why such questions
dominate self-administered surveys.
b) Disadvantages

1. Cannot obtain in-depth response. Respondents merely read through

several options and pick the one most representative of their opinions
and/or behaviors.
2. Poor at providing new insights. Such questions assume you already know
the likely answers and you are asking respondents to pick one. Any
answer beyond what you provided respondents is beyond the scope of the
study and it is unlikely respondents will volunteer insights about unlisted

9
S Roopa and MS Rani, Ibid., 273-274.
 11

reply options.
3. Answer may not fully reflect respondent’s attitude. You can ask
respondents to indicate the answer option that is most reflective of their
attitude, but that option could be ‘spot on’, vaguely appropriate, or
something in between.
4. Open-ended Questions
Open-ended questions are analogous to the essay or short answer questions you
probably dreaded as a student and close-ended questions are analogous to the
multiple-choice questions you probably preferred. The options or predefined
categories are not suggested. The respondent replies in their own words without
being constrained by a fixed set of possible responses. Types of open-ended
questions include.
a. Completely unstructured—For example, ‘What is your opinion on
questionnaires?’
b. Word association—Words are presented and the respondent mentions the first
word that comes to mind.
Example: If interviewer says cold, the respondent may say hot and the like
ones.
c. Sentence completion—Respondents complete an incomplete sentence. For
example, ‘The most important consideration in my decision to buy a new house
is . . .’

d. Story completion—Respondents complete an incomplete story.

e. Picture completion—Respondents fill in an empty conversation balloon.
f. Thematic apperception test—Respondents explain a picture or make up a story
about what they think is happening in the picture.
There are several advantages and disadvantages using open-ended quesnnaire
bellow:
 12

1) Advantages
Open-ended questions offer respondents an opportunity to provide a wide
range of answers. Because some of these answers will be unexpected, they will
suggest follow-up questions in person-to-person interviews.10
2) Disadvantages
a. Hard to record answer. Imagine asking people questions and then writing
what they said. Although audio or video recording seems a great alternative,
many people are reluctant to allow themselves to be audio or video recorded.
As a result, the only record of their answers is whatever interviewers can
scribble as quickly as they can scribble it.

b. Tabulating complexity and costliness. Open-ended questions are more

costly because their best use requires live—and expensive— interviewers
and additional costly data handling (associated with recording, coding,
entry, and tabulation).
c. Coding inconsistency and difficulty. Any post-data-collection numerical
analysis requires examining every response to every question, developing
basic categories representing all possible responses, revisiting all the
answers, and then assigning a numeric code to each answer. Such a process
requires much additional time and effort.11
5. Mail questionnaire
Mail questionnaire is a form of questionnaire which is mailed to targeted
individuals, which has a collection of questions on a particular topic asked to them
as a part of interview or survey which is used for conducting research on that topic.

10
Michael R Hyman and Jremmy J sierra, Open- versus Close-Ended Survey Question,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282249876 (Vol. 14. Issues, 2, 2016), 3.
11
Michael R Hyman and Jremmy J sierra, Ibid., 4.
 13

6. Web-Questionnaire
A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet based
research. This would mean receiving an e‐mail on which you would click on an
address that would take you to a secure web‐site to fill in a questionnaire.

D. Test
Tests or assessments refer to the systematic processes of measuring knowledge,
behaviour, skill, attitudes, and beliefs according to explicit rules and benchmarks
(Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, 2014, 2015). Accordingly, tests or assessments have four
main characteristics: 1) they are systematic, 2) they are empirical, 3) they are according
to explicit methodologies, and, 4) they are inherently tools for quantitative
measurements. There are two common test types: written tests and oral tests. Let’s look
at the kinds of things you’ll be expected to complete in each test type.
1. Written Test
Written tests can be open-book, closed book, or anywhere in between.
Students are required to give written answers (as the name of this test type implies).
Below you’ll find a table of the most common question types in written tests:
a) Multiple choice (objective)
You are presented with a question and a set of answers for each question,
and you must choose which answer or group of answers is correct. Multiple-
choice questions usually require less time for test takers to answer than other
question types, and they are easy to score and grade. They also allow for a wide
range of difficulty.
b) True False (objective)
You are presented with a statement, and you must determine whether it is
true or false. True/false questions are generally not predominant on tests
because instructors know that, statistically, random guesswork can yield a good
score. But when used sparingly, true/false questions can be effective.
 14

c) Matching (objective)
You are presented with a set of specific terms or ideas and a set of
definitions or identifying characteristics. You must match each term with its
correct definition or characteristics.
d) Fill-in-the-blank (objective)
You are presented with identifying characteristics, and you must recall
and supply the correct associated term or idea. There are two types of fill-in-
the-blank tests: 1) The easier version provides a word bank of possible words
that will fill in the blanks. 2) The more difficult version has no word bank to
choose from. Fill-in-the-blank tests with no word bank can be anxiety
producing.
e) Essay (subjective)
You are presented with a question or concept that you must explain in
depth. Essay questions emphasize themes and broad ideas. Essay questions
allow students to demonstrate critical thinking, creative thinking, and writing
skills.
2. Oral Test
Oral tests (also called an oral exam or viva voce) are a discussion type of
test. They are also subjective: there isn’t just one correct answer to the test
questions.The oral test is practiced in many schools and disciplines in which an
examiner verbally poses questions to the student. The student must answer the
question in such a way as to demonstrate sufficient knowledge of the subject. Many
science programs require students pursuing a bachelor’s degree to finish the
program by taking an oral exam, or a combination of oral and written exams, to
show how well the student has understood the material. Usually, study guides or a
syllabus are made available so that the students may prepare for the exam by
reviewing practice questions and topics likely to be on the exam.
The apparent rarity of the oral examination is surprising given its many
possible advantages. Five suggested key advantages are:
 15

a) First, the development of oral communicationskills. These are seen as essential

for graduates, which means these skills mustbe explicitly taught and assessed
(Wisker 2004).
b) Second, oral examinations are moreauthentic than most types of assessment
(Joughin 1998). Virtually all graduates willattend job interviews, and will have
to defend their ideas and work in verbal exchanges, whilst most will never sit
another written examination after they graduate.
c) Third, oral assessment may be more inclusive. For example, Waterfield and
West(2006) report the views of 229 students with disabilities on different types
of assessment.Written exams were the least preferred type, whilst oral
examinations consistentlycame near the top; students with dyslexia were
particularly likely to favour oralassessments.
d) Fourth, oral examinations are powerful ways to gauge understanding
andencourage critical thinking (Gent, Johnston, and Prosser 1999). Because of
the possibilityof discourse and genuine exchange, oral examinations can allow
a focus on deepunderstanding and critique, rather than on the superficial
regurgitation often found inwritten examinations.
e) Fifth, oral examinations are resistant to plagiarism (Joughin1998); students
must explain their own understanding using their own words.12

Some disadvantages of oral assessment

a) Undue anxiety. Some anxiety can be beneficial in oralassessment, but anxiety

that interferes with a student’sperformance will not give a true indication of his
or her ability.Anxiety may be a special impediment for students with
particularmental health problems. Practising presentations in class andproviding

12
Max Huxham, Oral versus written assessments: A test of student performance and attitude, Assesment
& Evaluation in Higher Education, (Vol.0 No. 0, 2010), 2.

,
 16

rehearsals for vivas may help. Sometimes a studentwho experiences undue

anxiety may need to be accommodatedthrough alternative arrangements for their
assessment.
b) Hearing or speech difficulties. Students with hearing or speechimpairments may
also require some adjustment to theassessment process.
c) Time. Oral assessment can be time-consuming, which becomesparticularly
problematic with larger classes. On the otherhand, many forms of oral
assessment can be quite short, andmarking can occur very quickly at the end of
the assessment. Forexample, Roberts describes a Geography viva which takes
10–15minutes per candidate, including paperwork (Roberts, n.d.).
d) Lack of anonymity. Examiners inevitably know whom they areexamining.
e) Bias. Concerns are sometimes expressed that examiners may beinfluenced by
students’ dress, gender, ethnicity or educationalbackground.
f) Novelty. The form of oral assessment being used may beunfamiliar to the
student.
g) Recording. Many universities, and good practice, require us tokeep a record of
the assessment for future reference in caseof appeal. Making and storing audio
or video recordings can bedifficult to arrange.
h) Articulateness vs knowledge. Examiners can mistake a student’sarticulateness
for knowledge.13

13
Gordon Joughin, A Short Guide to Oral Assessment, (Wollongong: Leeds Met Press, 2017), 7.
 17

CHAPTER III

CONCLUSION

Questionnaire, in questionnaire method, a researcher develops a form containing

such questions pertinent to his/her study. Generally, the researcher prepares yes/ no
questions or short answer questions. In questionnaire method, researcher distributes such
forms to the people to whom such deems appropriate. The people, to whom the
questionnaires have been distributed, should answer that what they have known by filling
out the form and return it to researcher.

Sampling, when the subject of research is vague, comprehensive and when each
indicator cannot be taken by virtue of financial constraint, time and complexity, etc. then
the researcher can randomly collect data/sample depending on the reason. This is called as
sampling method. For instance, in a demographic research, part of population represent
various groups can be taken into consideration. That is why, it is said that sample is a
method that saves time and money.

The collection of primary data requires that the researcher clearly defne the
population under investigation, as well as the units of analysis that constitute that
population. ‘Population’ refers to all the concerned units (e.g. people, companies) within a
particular problem space and at the specifed time that the
researcher would like to study. For example, in a study looking to ascertain the level of
compliance to the UK code of corporate governance, the population would be all public UK
companies. However, because it is often impossible to investigate all members of the
population (usually for legitimate reasons, such as time and resources constraints), a portion
of the population, known as a ‘sample’, is studied.
 18

REFERENCES

Creswell, John W. Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Quantitative and Qualitative Research. Boston : Pearson Education. Inc,
2012.

Muijs, Daniel. Doing Quantitative Research in Education with SPSS. London: SAGE
Publications. 2004.

Priyono. Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif. Sidoarjo: Zifatama Publishing. 2016.

Roopa , S and MS Rani. Questionnaire Designing for a Survey. The Journal of Indian
Orthodontic Vol. 46 No. 4. 2012.

Hyman , Michael R and Jremmy J sierra, Open- versus Close-Ended Survey Question. Vol.
14. Issues. 2. 2016.

Huxham, Max. Oral versus written assessments: A test of student performance and attitude,
Assesment & Evaluation in Higher Education. Vol.0 No. 0. 2010.

Joughin , Gordon. A Short Guide to Oral Assessment. Wollongong: Leeds Met Press. 2017.