AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION

Arsenio N. Resurreccion
CEAT, UPLB

DEFINITIONS:

• FAO (1979): Embracing the manufacture, distribution, utilization and

provision of after-sales service of tools, implements and machines for land
development, agricultural production and primary post-production
processes. It includes the use of three main sources of power: human,
animal and mechanical.

• STOUT AND DOWNING (1974): Use of hand and animal-operated

tools and implements as well as motorized equipment to reduce human
effort, improve quality, perform operations that cannot be done by other
means, and improve the timeliness of various operations, thereby increasing
yield, quality of product and overall efficiency.

• The first definition emphasized the scope of services and the different levels
of mechanization

scope: manufacture to after-sales service

levels: the use of tools, implements and machines; the use of human,
animal and mechanical sources of power

However, a particular mechanization program can be a combination of the

different levels for the different farm operations. Consider the
mechanization of a rice farm shown below:

OPERATION LEVEL OF MECHANIZATION

Land preparation 2-wheel tractor-drawn disc plow
Planting Manually operated drum seeder
Spraying Lever-operated knapsack sprayer
Weeding/cultivating Manually pushed rotary weeder
Harvesting Sickle
Threshing Mechanical thresher
Drying Sun drying
Milling Mechanical rice mill
• The second definition dealt with the objectives and benefits from
mechanization:

OBJECTIVES BENEFITS
1. Reduce human effort 1. increase yields
2. Improve quality 2. increase quality of product
3. perform operations that cannot be 3. increase overall efficiency
done by other means
4. improve timeliness of operation
of various operations

• The two definitions combined give us a more complete picture of

mechanization and its complexities.

MODELS OF MECHANIZATION:

1. High land area to farmer ratio: (example: USA)

Motivated into increasing the level of mechanization in order to cultivate

vast areas of agricultural lands with limited available manpower and take
advantage of favorable agricultural commodity prices.

Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia follow the USA model

2. Low land area to farmer ratio: (example: Japan)

Motivated into increasing the level of mechanization in order to increase

yields and cropping intensities to meet the growing demands for food and
agricultural raw materials.

South Korea, China, Taiwan, Sri Lanka and the Philippines follow the
Japanese model.
 POTENTIAL BENEFITS FROM MECHANIZATION:

1. Increased cropping intensity and production

 Tractors, power tillers, irrigation pumps, harvesters and threshers

increase cropping intensities
 Irrigation pumps increase yields
 Harvester and threshers reduce losses which effectively increase
yields

2. Increased productivity of labor

 Tractors in land preparation reduce 50% of the labor inputs

 However, labor for land preparation in the Philippines comprise
mainly family labor
 Freed family labor can look for alternative work opportunities;
children can go to school

3. Full utilization of farm products and by products

 Availability of machines allow the processing of farm products and

by-products
 Take the case of pineapple and coconut. Rather than just selling the
fruit and nut, they can be processed into different products

4. Reduction of losses

 Development of seeders reduce the amount of seeds required per

hectare
 Development of harvesting, threshing and processing machines reduce
harvest and postharvest losses
 Losses: Rice: 10 – 37%
Corn: 30%

5. Increased value added of farm products

 Secondary and tertiary processing open up market potentials and lead

to higher retail prices
 Shelled peanut retailers earn P0.50/kg or more
  Dried corn can extend the selling period and need not be forced to sell
at a low price

6. Employment and livelihood generation

 Machines designed to increase cropping intensities and production

will correspondingly increase labor requirements for production and
postharvest operations
 Machines designed to diversify farm products and by products open
up various livelihood opportunities
 Use of machines will require the putting up of dealerships and repair
shops in the village areas

7. Import substitution

 Local agricultural machinery manufacturing will minimize the

importation of agricultural machinery
 The increase production of agricultural commodities and their
products and by-products will reduce the importation of these
commodities and their products and by-products.

8. Export possibilities

 Locally manufactured agricultural machinery can be exported to

countries with similar farming conditions such as the Philippines
 Agricultural commodities and their products and by-products can be
exported to other countries.

MACHINE PERFORMANCE

• Measures of machine performance:

1. Rate of machine performance –

 Measure of the amount of work done per unit time

 For field machines – area/unit time
 For harvesting/threshing machines – mass/time, vol/time
 2. Quality of machine performance –

 Measure of the ability to work without wasted product

 Tillage machines: - proper depth, proper width, proper field
coverage
 Harvesting/threshing machines: - shattering losses, unthreshed
lossess, blower losses, cracked grains

• Rate of machine performance:

1. Capacity – rate at which a machine can cover a field while performing

its intended function

 Field capacity (Tillage equipment) – Ha/hr

 Material capacity (harvester/threshers/shellers) – mass/time
output (kg/hr, tons/hr), vol/time (can, kerosene can, milk can,
oil can)
 Throughput capacity (harvesters/threshers/shellers) – weight of
the total materials handled (input)

 Sample problem:

A 5-row rice combine is traveling at 5 kph. The rows are 20 cm

apart. In 5 min, 50 kg of grains are collected in the grain tank and
60 kg of materials are discharged at the rear. Determine the: a)
field capacity, b) material capacity, and c) throughput capacity.

Solution:

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ℎ)(0.2 𝑚𝑚 ×5 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ) ℎ𝑎𝑎

a) 𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 = = = 0.5
10 10 ℎ𝑟𝑟

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 50 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 60 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

b) 𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚 = = × = 600
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 5 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟𝑟 ℎ𝑟𝑟

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 50 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘+60 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 60 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

c) 𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡 = = × = 1320
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 5 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟𝑟 ℎ𝑟𝑟
2. Field efficiency – ratio of the time machine is effectively operating to
the total time of operation

 Time elements included in field efficiency:

a) Time machine is operating at its rated speed and width – (t1)

b) Time spent for turning at the ends of the rows and crossing
through boundaries – (t2)
c) Time to load and unload the machine, if not done on-the-go
- (t3)
d) Time to make adjustments, if not done on-the-go – (t4)
e) Time for refueling – (t5)

𝑡𝑡1
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = × 100
𝑡𝑡1 + 𝑡𝑡2 + 𝑡𝑡3 + 𝑡𝑡4 + 𝑡𝑡5

 Effective field capacity:

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
10

Where Cef = Effective field capacity, ha/hr

S = rated speed, kph
W = rated width, m
Eff = field efficiency, decimal

 Effective material capacity:

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
10

Where Cem = Effective material capacity, tons/hr

Y = yield per area, tons/ha

 Sample problem:

Determine the field efficiency and effective material capacity when

a 1.5-m rice combine is operating at 6 kph. Area covered is 7 has
in 10 hrs. Average yield is 5 tons/ha.
 Solution:

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
a) 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
10
7 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (6 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘ℎ)(1.5 𝑚𝑚)𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
=
10 ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 10

7 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 × 10
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = = 0.777 = 77.7%
(6 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘ℎ)(1.5 𝑚𝑚)(10 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)

7 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

b) 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 × 𝑌𝑌 = ×5 = 3.5
10 ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑎 ℎ𝑟𝑟

3. Material Efficiency:

 A machine’s performance must describe the completeness of

the work.
 A tillage tool has 90% material efficiency if it cuts and
pulverizes 0.9 ha of a 1-ha field. Nothing is said of the degree
and uniformity of pulverization.
 A combine has 90% material efficiency if it gets 0.9 ton of
grains from an area yielding 1 ton. Nothing is said of the
damaged grains and presence of impurities.
 A more realistic measure of material efficiency must express
the reduction in the value of a material after being handled.

 Sample problem:

Determine the quantity and quality material efficiency of a 1-

ton rice mill if: 1) broken rice = 200 kg, 2) whole rice = 450
kg, 3) milling recovery = 70%, 4) Class A rice (whole rice) =
P40/kg, and 5) Class B rice (mixture) = P28/kg.

Solution:

a) Quantity material efficiency:

650 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = × 100 = 92.9%
700 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

b) Actual value = P28/kg X 650 kg = P18,200

 c) Potential value = P40/kg X 700 kg = P28,000

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
d) Quality Material Efficiency = × 100
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

𝑃𝑃18,200
= × 100
𝑃𝑃28,000

= 65%

SELECTION OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY

• Proper selection of agricultural machinery is important because it is

considered a major investment

• A variety of farm machinery (different types, models and brands) are now
commercially available. Data on actual performance of the various types,
models and brands are needed for a wise selection.

• Points or features of machines that may help select the right machine:

1. Trade mark – stands for the reputation of the manufacturer and a

guarantee of what lies beneath the paint

2. Materials – take note of the quality of materials used and the

manufacturing technology employed in the manufacture of the
machine as this will have a direct bearing on performance and
durability

3. Ease of operation – pay attention to placement of controls. Ensure

that controls are accessible and soft to operate. Look for adjustments
of handle bars and seats

4. Ease of maintenance – a machine requires daily and periodic

maintenance and adjustments. Ensure that points of maintenance and
adjustment are easy to perform. The machine should have an
operator’s manual explaining the procedures.
 5. Safety – check for safety provisions for both machine and operator.
All rotating parts should be provided with shields. Snap clutches or
similar devices should be installed to protect the machine and prime
mover in case of overload.

6. Source of repair – make sure that spare parts and service are available
nearby. Ask for local dealers for the machine.

7. Power source – decide if you will need an engine or electric motor.

 If an engine, decide if you want a diesel or gasoline engine.

With the gasoline engine, first cost is lower but operating cost
is high. With the diesel engine, first cost is high but operating
cost is low. If operating time per year exceeds 100 hours, use
of diesel engines may be justified.

 If an electric motor, decide if you need single-phase or three-

phase electric motor. Acquisition cost and current requirement
of three-phase electric motor is lower but is three-phase supply
line available in your area? The use of single-phase electric
motor may be justified up to 5 hp.

OPTIMIZING USE OF MACHINES

• Smallest capacity that will get the job done on time. However, there should
be some excess capacity on the machine to cover unexpected delays due to
weather and/or machine breakdown

• Often, it is an option to have several small capacity machines rather than just
one big machine. If a big machine breaks down, there is 100% stoppage of
work. In the case of two smaller machines, if one machine breaks down,
there is only 50% stoppage of work. Further, it allows for a 50% lowering
of production output.

• The economic goal of mechanization is to maximize profits by getting the

maximum output from machines at a minimum cost.
• A mechanization scheme does not mean mechanizing all farm operations but
only those that will contribute to increased output and reduction of operating
cost.

• The use of machinery does not only imply ownership; renting of machines
or custom-hire operation are very sound options especially for small farms.
This is common in land preparation, high capacity shelling and threshing,
and milling operations.

• Joint ownership of machines by two or more farms to justify the purchase of

a machine is also another viable option. This is common for engines for
irrigation pumps.

• And for cooperatives, acquisition of machines and renting out to members is

also another viable option.

MEASURES OF MACHINERY INVESTMENT APPRAISAL

(OVERVIEW)

1. Undiscounted measures – does not take into consideration the change in

value of money over time. These are usually crude methods of comparing
several investment alternatives.

a. Payback period (PBP) – length of time it takes to recover the

investment or until the net benefits equal the investment cost. The
decision rule is to select the alternative with the shortest PBP.

b. Break-even point (BEP) – level of operation where the investment

neither produces a profit nor incurs a loss. The decision rule is to
accept the alternative with the lowest BEP.

2. Discounted measure – the time value of money is taken into consideration

through the process called discounting.

Discounting is the process of translating future values in present worth by

applying a set of discount factors that reflects the diminishing value of the
same amount of money as one moves further into the future.
a. Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR) – ratio of the present worth of the benefit
stream over the present worth of cost stream extending over a period
of time usually the life of the machine. Decision rule is to accept
projects with BCR ≥ 1.

b. Net Present Value (NPV) – the difference of the present value of the
benefit stream and the present value of the cost stream extending over
a period of time usually the life of the machine. The decision rule is
to accept projects with NPV ≥ 0

c. Internal Rate of Return (IRR) – the maximum interest rate the project
can pay for the use of money if the project is to break-even. At this
point, the NPV = O and BCR = 1. The decision rule is that the IRR of
the project should be higher than the prevailing interest rate of the
bank.