工程管理专业英语

21 Ϫ㑾ܼ೑ᑨ⫼ൟᴀ⾥ೳ᳼ᓎㄥ㋏߫ᅲ⫼㾘ߦᬭᴤ
Ꮉ⿟ㅵ⧚ϧϮ㣅䇁

ᅖ Ω ฆᅐֹ

‫ ݙ‬ᆍ ㅔ ҟ
ᴀкЏ㽕‫ݙ‬ᆍࣙᣀ˖乍Ⳃㅵ⧚㒘㒛˗䲛Џ˗៤ᴀԄㅫ˗乍Ⳃ乘ㅫ˗ᡓࣙଚ˗Ꮉ⿟ᡓࣙড়ৠⱘ㉏ൟ˗᢯
ᷛ⿟ᑣ˗乍Ⳃ㵡䌘˗݇䬂䏃ᕘ⊩˗䖯ᑺ᥻ࠊ˗߯ᮄ੠ᡔᴃϢ㒣⌢ⱘৃ㸠ᗻ˗㋶䌨ǃѝッ੠ӆ㺕˗৘㉏ֱ䆕
㣗՟ḐᓣㄝǄᴀк䗝ᴤᑓ⊯ǃ‫ݙ‬ᆍᮄ乪ǃ䩜ᇍᗻᔎǃ䲒ᑺ䗖Ёˈ᳝ࡽѢᦤ催䇏㗙䯙䇏Ⳍ݇ϧϮⱘ㣅䇁кߞ
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ᴀкЎ催ㄝ䰶᷵Ꮉ⿟ㅵ⧚ϧϮᴀ⾥ᄺ⫳ᄺдϧϮ㣅䇁㗠㓪‫ˈݭ‬Ѻৃ԰Ўೳ᳼Ꮉ⿟ϧϮ㣅䇁ᬭᴤˈৠᯊ
гৃկᑓ໻ҢџᎹ⿟ㅵ⧚ǃೳ᳼Ꮉ⿟ˈϨ‫݋‬໛ϔᅮ㣅䇁෎⸔ⱘᎹ⿟ᡔᴃҎਬঞ㞾ᄺ㗙ᄺдখ㗗Ǆ
೒к೼⠜㓪Ⳃ&,3᭄᥂

Ꮉ⿟ㅵ⧚ϧϮ㣅䇁/⥟ネ㢇Џ㓪. ü࣫Ҁ˖࣫Ҁ໻ᄺߎ⠜⼒ˈ2009.3
(21 Ϫ㑾ܼ೑ᑨ⫼ൟᴀ⾥ೳ᳼ᓎㄥ㋏߫ᅲ⫼㾘ߦᬭᴤ)
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⿟乍Ⳃㅵ⧚䴶Јⱘᣥ៬੠ᓎㄥϮᅲᮑ乍Ⳃㅵ⧚ⱘᅲ䏉㸼ᯢ៥೑ⱘᎹ⿟乍Ⳃㅵ⧚೑䰙࣪ᰃᖙ
✊䍟࢓ˈЁ೑Ꮉ⿟乍Ⳃㅵ⧚ⱘ⏅࣪੠᥼䖯ᖙ乏䖯ϔℹࡴᖿㅵ⧚ᮍᓣⱘ೑䰙࣪ˈࡾ࡯ᄺд‫׳‬䡈
೑䰙Ϟ‫ܜ‬䖯ⱘ乍Ⳃㅵ⧚㒣偠ˈ೼ᄺдЁ‫׳‬䡈ˈ೼‫׳‬䡈Ёⷨおˈ೼ⷨおЁᦤछˈ೼ᦤछЁᅠ୘ˈ
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ϡ䆎乍ⳂЏԧབԩ໮‫ˈܗ‬Ꮉ⿟乍Ⳃབԩ໮ḋˈᅲ㸠Ꮉ⿟乍Ⳃㅵ⧚ⱘ೑䰙࣪ᰃ݅ᗻⱘˈ಴
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ᴀкЏ㽕পᴤѢ೑䰙੼䆶Ꮉ⿟Ꮬ㘨ড়Ӯ(FIDIC)ϢϪ⬠䫊㸠㓪‫ⱘݭ‬ǃ䗮⫼Ѣ೑䰙Ꮉ⿟Ꮦഎ
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ϧϮ㣅䇁ⶹ䆚ˈ෍‫ݏ‬੠ᦤ催䇏㗙䯙䇏ϧϮ㣅䇁᭛⤂䌘᭭ⱘ㛑࡯Ǆ䇏㗙೼ᄺд䇁㿔ⶹ䆚ⱘৠᯊˈ
ৃҹњ㾷Ⳍ݇ϧϮⶹ䆚Ǆᴀк⡍⚍ᰃ䗝ᴤ䕗ᮄˈᅲ⫼ᗻᔎˈ䗖ড়԰Ў催᷵Ꮉ⿟ㅵ⧚ϧϮ㣅䇁
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ᴀк݅ߚ 16 Ͼऩ‫ˈܗ‬Џ㽕‫ݙ‬ᆍࣙᣀ˖乍Ⳃㅵ⧚㒘㒛˗䲛Џ˗៤ᴀԄㅫ˗乍Ⳃ乘ㅫ˗ᡓ
ࣙଚ˗Ꮉ⿟ᡓࣙড়ৠⱘ㉏ൟ˗᢯ᷛ⿟ᑣ˗乍Ⳃ㵡䌘˗݇䬂䏃ᕘ⊩˗䖯ᑺ᥻ࠊ˗߯ᮄ੠ᡔᴃϢ
㒣⌢ⱘৃ㸠ᗻ˗㋶䌨ǃѝッ੠ӆ㺕˗৘㉏ֱ䆕㣗՟ḐᓣㄝǄ‫ݙ‬ᆍ㽚Ⲫ䴶ᑓˈ㋏㒳ᗻ䕗ᔎǄ೼
↣ϔऩ‫ˈݙܗ‬ഛ߫ߎᴀऩ‫ⱘ݇Ⳍܗ‬ϧϮ䆡∛ˈᑊḍ᥂ᴀऩ‫ܗ‬䞡⚍‫ݙ‬ᆍᦤߎ䯂乬ˈ䇏㗙೼ಲㄨ
䯂乬ⱘৠᯊˈৃҹᎽ೎ᇍ䇒᭛ⱘ⧚㾷ˈ䖯㗠ᥠᦵⳌ݇ϧϮⶹ䆚Ǆ
ᴀкⱘ䇏㗙ᇍ䈵Ў᱂䗮催ㄝ䰶᷵Ꮉ⿟ㅵ⧚ϧϮঞⳌ݇ϧϮⱘᄺ⫳ˈҹঞҢџᎹ⿟ㅵ⧚ⱘ
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Ўњᮍ֓Փ⫼ᴀкⱘᬭᏜ੠ᄺ⫳ˈ↣ऩ‫ܗ‬䛑䰘᳝খ㗗䆥᭛ˈᑊ䰘᳝ᬭᄺ䇒ӊ੠䯂乬ㄨḜǄ
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ৃկᄺдǃখ㗗ǃ‫׳‬䡈ⱘ䌘᭭ϡ໮㾕ˈ᠔ҹкЁ䲒‫⦄ߎܡ‬ϡ䎇П໘ˈᭀ䇋ϧᆊ੠䇏㗙ᡍ䆘
ᣛℷǄ
㓪㗙
2009 ᑈ 1 ᳜
Ⳃᔩ
Unit 1 Organizing for Project Management ........................................................................................ 1
Unit 2 The Employer .................................................................................................................................. 14
Unit 3 Cost Estimation .............................................................................................................................. 21
Unit 4 The Project Budget(1).................................................................................................................. 32
Unit 5 The Project Budget(2)——Forecasting for Activity Cost Control ............................... 42
Unit 6 The Contractor ................................................................................................................................ 52
Unit 7 Types of Construction Contracts ............................................................................................. 68
Unit 8 Tendering Procedure(1) .............................................................................................................. 76
Unit 9 Tendering Procedure(2) .............................................................................................................. 84
Unit 10 Project Finance ............................................................................................................................ 91
Unit 11 The Critical Path Method ....................................................................................................... 106
Unit 12 Schedule Control(1) ................................................................................................................. 121
Unit 13 Schedule Control(2) ................................................................................................................. 130
Unit 14 Innovation and Technological & Economic Feasibility............................................... 139
Unit 15 Claims, Disputes and Arbitration ........................................................................................ 147
Unit 16 Sample Forms of Securities.................................................................................................. 157
খ㗗᭛⤂ ........................................................................................................................................................... 168

Unit 1 Organizing for Project Management
Organization of Project Participants
The top management of the owner sets the overall policy and selects the appropriate
organization to take charge of a proposed project. Its policy will dictate how the project life cycle
is divided among organizations and which professionals should be engaged. Decisions by the top
management of the owner will also influence the organization to be adopted for project
management. In general, there are many ways to decompose a project into stages. The most
typical ways are:
z Sequential processing whereby the project is divided into separate stages and each
stage is carried out successively in sequence.
z Parallel processing whereby the project is divided into independent parts such that all
stages are carried out simultaneously.
z Staggered processing whereby the stages may be overlapping, such as the use of
phased design-construct procedures for fast track operation.
It should be pointed out that some decompositions may work out better than others,
depending on the circumstances. In any case, the prevalence of decomposition makes the
subsequent integration particularly important. The critical issues involved in organization for
project management are:
z How many organizations are involved?
z What are the relationships among the organizations?
z When are the various organizations brought into the project?
There are two basic approaches to organize for project implementation, even though many
variations may exist as a result of different contractual relationships adopted by the owner and
builder. These basic approaches are divided along the following lines:
z Separation of organizations. Numerous organizations serve as consultants or
contractors to the owner, with different organizations handling design and construction
functions. Typical examples which involve different degrees of separation are:
traditional sequence of design and construction; professional construction management.
z Integration of organizations. A single or joint venture consisting of a number of
organizations with a single command undertakes both design and construction
functions. Two extremes may be cited as examples: owner-builder operation in which
all work will be handled in house by force account; turnkey operation in which all work
is contracted to a vendor which is responsible for delivering the completed project.
g2g ጕ⼻パ⤶̓͊㠡䄝
The organization for the management of construction projects may vary from case to case.
On one extreme, each project may be staffed by existing personnel in the functional divisions of
the organization on an ad-hoc basis as shown in Figure 1.1 until the project is completed. This
arrangement is referred to as the matrix organization as each project manager must negotiate all
resources for the project from the existing organizational framework. On the other hand, the
organization may consist of a small central functional staff for the exclusive purpose of
supporting various projects, each of which has its functional divisions as shown in Figure 1.2
This decentralized set-up is referred to as the project-oriented organization as each project
manager has autonomy in managing the project. There are many variations of management style
between these two extremes, depending on the objectives of the organization and the nature of
the construction project. For example, a large chemical company with in-house staff for planning,
design and construction of facilities for new product lines will naturally adopt the matrix
organization. On the other hand, a construction company whose existence depends entirely on the
management of certain types of construction projects may find the project-oriented organization
particularly attractive. While organizations may differ, the same basic principles of management
structure are applicable to most situations.
Figure 1.1 A Matrix Organization
Figure 1.2 A Project-Oriented Organization
To illustrate various types of organizations for project management, we shall consider two
examples, the first one representing an owner organization while the second one representing the
organization of a construction management consultant under the direct supervision of the owner.
g2g
Unit 1 Organizing for Project Management g3g
Traditional Designer-Constructor Sequence

For ordinary projects of moderate size and complexity, the owner often employs a designer
(an architectural/engineering firm) which prepares the detailed plans and specifications for the
constructor (a general contractor). The designer also acts on behalf of the owner to oversee the
project implementation during construction. The general contractor is responsible for the
construction itself even though the work may actually be undertaken by a number of specialty
subcontractors.
The owner usually negotiates the fee for service with the architectural/engineering (A/E)
firm. In addition to the responsibilities of designing the facility, the A/E firm also exercises to
some degree supervision of the construction as stipulated by the owner. Traditionally, the A/E
firm regards itself as design professionals representing the owner who should not communicate
with potential contractors to avoid collusion or conflict of interest. Field inspectors working for
an A/E firm usually follow through the implementation of a project after the design is completed
and seldom have extensive input in the design itself. Because of the litigation climate in the last
two decades, most A/E firms only provide observers rather than inspectors in the field. Even the
shop drawings of fabrication or construction schemes submitted by the contractors for approval
are reviewed with a disclaimer of responsibility by the A/E firms.
The owner may select a general constructor either through competitive bidding or through
negotiation. Public agencies are required to use the competitive bidding mode, while private
organizations may choose either mode of operation. In using competitive bidding, the owner is
forced to use the designer-constructor sequence since detailed plans and specifications must be
ready before inviting bidders to submit their bids. If the owner chooses to use a negotiated
contract, it is free to use phased construction if it so desires.
The general contractor may choose to perform all or part of the construction work, or act
only as a manager by subcontracting all the construction to subcontractors. The general
contractor may also select the subcontractors through competitive bidding or negotiated contracts.
The general contractor may ask a number of subcontractors to quote prices for the subcontracts
before submitting its bid to the owner. However, the subcontractors often cannot force the
winning general contractor to use them on the project. This situation may lead to practices known
as bid shopping and bid peddling. Bid shopping refers to the situation when the general
contractor approaches subcontractors other than those whose quoted prices were used in the
winning contract in order to seek lower priced subcontracts. Bid peddling refers to the actions of
subcontractors who offer lower priced subcontracts to the winning general subcontractors in
order to dislodge the subcontractors who originally quoted prices to the general contractor prior
to its bid submittal. In both cases, the quality of construction may be sacrificed, and some state
statutes forbid these practices for public projects.
Although the designer-constructor sequence is still widely used because of the public
perception of fairness in competitive bidding, many private owners recognize the disadvantages
g3g
of using this approach when the project is large and complex and when market pressures require
a shorter project duration than that which can be accomplished by using this traditional method.
Professional Construction Management

Professional construction management refers to a project management team consisting of a
professional construction manager and other participants who will carry out the tasks of project
planning, design and construction in an integrated manner. Contractual relationships among
members of the team are intended to minimize adversarial relationships and contribute to greater
response within the management group. A professional construction manager is a firm specialized
in the practice of professional construction management which includes:
z Work with owner and the A/E firms from the beginning and make recommendations on
design improvements, construction technology, schedules and construction economy.
z Propose design and construction alternatives if appropriate, and analyze the effects of
the alternatives on the project cost and schedule.
z Monitor subsequent development of the project in order that these targets are not
exceeded without the knowledge of the owner.
z Coordinate procurement of material and equipment and the work of all construction
contractors, and monthly payments to contractors, changes, claims and inspection for
conforming design requirements.
z Perform other project related services as required by owners.
Professional construction management is usually used when a project is very large or
complex. The organizational features that are characteristics of mega-projects can be summarized
as follows:
z The overall organizational approach for the project will change as the project advances.
The “functional” organization may change to a “matrix” which may change to a
“project” organization (not necessarily in this order).
z Within the overall organization, there will probably be functional, project, and matrix
suborganizations all at the same time. This feature greatly complicates the theory and
the practice of management, yet is essential for overall cost effectiveness.
z Successful giant, complex organizations usually have a strong matrix-type
suborganization at the level where basic cost and schedule control responsibility is
assigned. This suborganization is referred to as a “cost center” or as a “project” and is
headed by a project manager. The cost center matrix may have participants assigned
from many different functional groups. In turn, these functional groups may have
technical reporting responsibilities to several different and higher tiers in the
organization. The key to a cost effective effort is the development of this project
suborganization into a single team under the leadership of a strong project manager.
z The extent to which decision-making will be centralized or decentralized is crucial to
g4g
the organization of the mega-project.

Consequently, it is important to recognize the changing nature of the organizational structure
as a project is carried out in various stages.
Owner-Builder Operation
In this approach an owner must have a steady flow of on-going projects in order to maintain
a large work force for in-house operation. However, the owner may choose to subcontract a
substantial portion of the project to outside consultants and contractors for both design and
construction, even though it retains centralized decision making to integrate all efforts in project
implementation.
Example 1.1 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Organization.
The District Engineer’s Office of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers may be viewed as a
typical example of an owner-builder approach as shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3 Organization of a District of Corps of Engineers
In the District Engineer’s Office of the U.S. Corps of Engineers, there usually exist an
Engineering Division and an Operations Division, and, in a large district, a Construction Division.
Under each division, there are several branches. Since the authorization of a project is usually
initiated by the U.S. Congress, the planning and design functions are separated in order to
facilitate operations. Since the authorization of the feasibility study of a project may precede the
authorization of the design by many years, each stage can best be handled by a different branch in
the Engineering Division. If construction is ultimately authorized, the work may be handled by
the Construction Division or by outside contractors. The Operations Division handles the
operation of locks and other facilities which require routine attention and maintenance.
When a project is authorized, a project manager is selected from the most appropriate
branch to head the project, together with a group of staff drawn from various branches to form
the project team. When the project is completed, all members of the team including the project
manager will return to their regular posts in various branches and divisions until the next project
assignment. Thus, a matrix organization is used in managing each project.
Turnkey Operation
Some owners wish to delegate all responsibilities of design and construction to outside
g5g
consultants in a turnkey project arrangement. A contractor agrees to provide the completed

facility on the basis of performance specifications set forth by the owner. The contractor may
even assume the responsibility of operating the project if the owner so desires. In order for a
turnkey operation to succeed, the owner must be able to provide a set of unambiguous
performance specifications to the contractor and must have complete confidence in the capability
of the contractor to carry out the mission.
This approach is the direct opposite of the owner-builder approach in which the owner
wishes to retain the maximum amount of control for the design-construction process.
Example 1.2 An Example of a Turnkey Organization.
A 150 MW power plant was proposed in 1985 by the Texas-New Mexico Power Company
of Fort Worth, Texas, which would make use of the turnkey operation. Upon approval by the
Texas Utility Commission, a consortium consisting of H.B. Zachry Co., Westinghouse Electric
Co., and Combustion Engineering Inc., would design, build and finance the power plant for
completion in 1990 for an estimated construction cost of $200 million in 1990 dollars. The
consortium would assume total liability during construction, including debt service costs, and
thereby eliminate the risks of cost escalation to rate payers, stockholders and the utility company
management.
Leadership and Motivation for the Project Team

The project manager, in the broadest sense of the term, is the most important person for the
success or failure of a project. The project manager is responsible for planning, organizing and
controlling the project. In turn, the project manager receives authority from the management of
the organization to mobilize the necessary resources to complete a project.
The project manager must be able to exert interpersonal influence in order to lead the project
team. The project manager often gains the support of his/her team through a combination of the
following:
z Formal authority resulting from an official capacity which is empowered to issue
orders.
z Reward and/or penalty power resulting from his/her capacity to dispense directly or
indirectly valued organization rewards or penalties.
z Expert power when the project manager is perceived as possessing special knowledge
or expertise for the job.
z Attractive power because the project manager has a personality or other characteristics
to convince others.
In a matrix organization, the members of the functional departments may be accustomed to a
single reporting line in a hierarchical structure, but the project manager coordinates the activities
of the team members drawn from functional departments. The functional structure within the
matrix organization is responsible for priorities, coordination, administration and final decisions
g6g
pertaining to project implementation. Thus, there are potential conflicts between functional
divisions and project teams. The project manager must be given the responsibility and authority
to resolve various conflicts such that the established project policy and quality standards will not
be jeopardized. When contending issues of a more fundamental nature are developed, they must
be brought to the attention of a high level in the management and be resolved expeditiously.
In general, the project manager’s authority must be clearly documented as well as defined,
particularly in a matrix organization where the functional division managers often retain certain
authority over the personnel temporarily assigned to a project. The following principles should be
observed:
z The interface between the project manager and the functional division managers should
be kept as simple as possible.
z The project manager must gain control over those elements of the project which may
overlap with functional division managers.
z The project manager should encourage problem solving rather than role playing of
team members drawn from various functional divisions.
Questions
1. What are the most typical ways to decompose a project into stages?
2. How many issues are involved in organization for project management? What are they?
3. Say about the two basic approaches to organization for project management. How these
basic approaches are divided?
4. What’s the matrix organization for the management of construction projects?
5. What’s the project-oriented organization for the management of construction projects?
6. Summarize the organizational features that are characteristics of mega-projects.
7. Why is it important to recognize the changing nature of the organizational structure as a
project is carried out in various stages?
8. What organization is used in managing the owner-builder project?
9. The project manager is the most important person for the success or failure of a project,
why?
10. How does the project manager gain the support of his/her team?
Vocabulary, Phrases and Expressions
project participants˖乍ⳂখϢᮍ
sequential processing˖І㸠໘⧚˗乎ᑣࡴᎹ
parallel processing˖ᑊ㸠໘⧚˗໮䞡໘⧚
staggered processing˖Ѹঝ໘⧚˗䫭߫໘⧚
g7g
separation of organizations˖⣀ゟൟ㒘㒛
integration of organizations˖䲚㑺ൟ㒘㒛
owner-builder operation˖ϮЏ㞾㸠ᓎ䗴乍Ⳃ
turnkey operation˖Ѹ䩹࣭乍Ⳃ
matrix organization˖ⶽ䰉ᓣ㒘㒛ᔶᓣ
project-oriented organization˖ҹ乍ⳂЎᇐ৥ⱘ㒘㒛
an architectural/engineering firm˖ᓎㄥ/䆒䅵݀ৌ
a general contractor˖ᘏᡓࣙଚ
specialty subcontractors˖ϧϮߚࣙଚ
supervise˖ⲥ⧚
field inspectors˖⦄എẔᶹਬ
field observers˖⦄എ㾖ᆳਬ
shop drawings of fabrication˖䔺䯈ᅝ㺙೒
construction schemes˖ᮑᎹ䅵ߦ˗ᮑᎹᅝᥦ
designer-constructor sequence˖䆒䅵ᮑᎹ乎ᑣ῵ᓣ
subcontract˖ߚࣙড়ৠ
quality of construction˖ᓎㄥ䋼䞣
construction management˖ᮑᎹㅵ⧚
design and construction alternatives˖䆒䅵៪ᮑᎹⱘ᳓ҷᮍḜ
project cost and schedule˖乍Ⳃⱘ៤ᴀ੠䖯ᑺ
procurement of material and equipment˖ᴤ᭭੠䆒໛ⱘ䞛䌁
monthly payments˖᳜ᑺҬℒ
cost center˖៤ᴀЁᖗ
decision-making˖‫އ‬ㄪ
on-going projects˖೼ᓎ乍Ⳃ
engineering division˖Ꮉ⿟䆒䅵䚼䮼
operations division˖䖤㧹䚼䮼
construction division˖ᮑᎹ䚼䮼
outside contractors˖໪䚼ᡓࣙଚ
authorization˖ᥜᴗ
feasibility study of a project˖乍Ⳃৃ㸠ᗻⷨお
project team˖乍Ⳃಶ䯳
performance specifications˖䆒䅵ӏࡵ䇈ᯢк˗㾘㣗(㾘Ḑ䇈ᯢк)
liability during construction˖ᓎ䆒ᳳ؎ࡵ
debt service˖䖬ᴀҬᙃ˗ٓ؎
project manager˖乍Ⳃ㒣⧚
g8g
খ 㗗䆥 ᭛
㄀ 1 ऩ‫ܗ‬ 乍Ⳃㅵ⧚㒘㒛
ົંْϵူֺԅᆦᄎ
ϮЏⱘ催ሖㅵ⧚䋳䋷䆒ᅮᘏԧᮍ䩜ˈৠᯊ䗝ᢽড়䗖ⱘ㒘㒛ᴹ䋳䋷㒭ᅮⱘ乍ⳂǄ೼ϮЏ
ⱘᮍ䩜ЁӮᣛߎབԩᇚ乍Ⳃ⫳ੑ਼ᳳЁⱘӏࡵߦߚ㒭ϡৠⱘ㒘㒛ˈҹঞ㘬⫼ҔМḋⱘϧϮ
ҎਬǄϮЏ催ሖㅵ⧚᠔‫އⱘߎخ‬ㄪгᇚᇍ㹿䗝ߎ䖯㸠乍Ⳃㅵ⧚ⱘ㒘㒛ѻ⫳ᕅડǄ䗮ᐌӮ᳝
໮⾡ߚ㾷乍Ⳃ䰊↉ⱘᮍ⊩ˈ݊Ё᳔Ў‫݌‬ൟⱘᰃ˖
z 乎ᑣߦߚˈ乍Ⳃ㹿ߦߚ៤⣀ゟⱘ޴Ͼ䰊↉ˈ৘䰊↉ᣝ䖲㓁乎ᑣ䖯㸠Ǆ
z ᑇ㸠ߦߚˈ乍Ⳃ㹿ߦߚ៤⣀ゟⱘ޴Ͼ䚼ߚˈ৘䚼ߚৠᯊ䖯㸠Ǆ
z Ѹঝߦߚˈ乍Ⳃ䰊↉ৃҹ䖯㸠ᨁ᥹Ǆ՟བˈᖿ䗳䏃ᕘ⊩ⱘᑨ⫼Ǆ
䖭䞠䳔㽕ᣛߎⱘᰃા⾡ߚ㾷ᮍ⊩᳈Ў᳝ᬜˈ䖭ᅠܼপ‫އ‬Ѣ乍Ⳃⱘ‫݋‬ԧᚙ‫މ‬Ǆ೼໮᭄ᚙ
‫މ‬ϟˈᣝ乎ᑣߦߚⱘᮍ⊩᳈Ў᱂䘡ϔѯǄ⍝ঞ乍Ⳃㅵ⧚ⱘ݇䬂䯂乬᳝˖
z 乍Ⳃ⍝ঞ໮ᇥϾ㒘㒛˛
z ৘㒘㒛䯈ⱘ㘨㋏ᰃҔМ˛
z ৘㒘㒛ԩᯊҟܹ乍Ⳃ˛
ሑㅵ⬅ѢϮЏ੠ᡓࣙଚП䯈᠔䞛⫼ড়ৠᴵӊⱘϡৠӮѻ⫳ᕜ໮⾡ᅠ៤乍Ⳃⱘ㒘㒛ᔶ
ᓣˈԚ෎ᴀᔶᓣা᳝ϸ⾡ˈᑊᣝ✻ϟ䴶ⱘᗱ䏃ᴹߦߚǄ
z ⣀ゟൟ㒘㒛ǄⳌᇍѢϮЏˈӮߎ⦄੼䆶ᮍ៪ᡓࣙଚㄝ໮⾡ߚ߿໘⧚䆒䅵੠ᮑᎹӏ
ࡵⱘ㒘㒛ˈ⍝ঞ䖭⾡㉏ൟ㒘㒛ⱘ‫݌‬ൟ՟ᄤ᳝˖䆒䅵੠ᮑᎹⱘӴ㒳乎ᑣ῵ᓣ˗ϧϮ
࣪ⱘᓎ䆒乍Ⳃㅵ⧚῵ᓣǄ
z 䲚㑺ൟ㒘㒛Ǆ⬅ϡৠ㒘㒛㒘៤ϔϾऩϔⱘ㘨ড়ԧˈҹ㒳ϔᣛҸᴹᡓᢙ䆒䅵੠ᮑᎹ
ӏࡵǄ䖭䞠ҟ㒡ϸ⾡ᵕッⱘ՟ᄤ˖ϮЏ㞾㸠ᓎ䗴乍Ⳃˈ೼䖭䞠᠔᳝Ꮉ԰ഛ⬅ϮЏ
‫ݙ‬䚼䚼䮼໘⧚˗Ѹ䩹࣭乍Ⳃˈेড়ৠⱘ᠔᳝Ꮉ԰‫ݙ‬ᆍ䛑Ѹ㒭ϔϾपᮍˈ⬅Ҫ䋳䋷
৥ϮЏᦤѸᅠᎹ乍ⳂǄ
ᓎ䆒乍Ⳃⱘㅵ⧚㒘㒛ᔶᓣৃ㾚‫݋‬ԧᚙ‫މ‬㗠ᅮǄϔ⾡ᚙ‫މ‬ᰃˈ乍Ⳃ᠔䳔Ҏਬ⬅㘠㛑䚼䮼
ᦤկˈ⬅ϧ㘠乍Ⳃ㒣⧚乚ᇐⳈ㟇乍Ⳃ㒧ᴳˈབ೒ 1.1 ᠔⼎Ǆ೼䖭⾡ᔶᓣϟˈ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ᖙ乏
Ң⦄᳝ⱘ㒘㒛ḚᶊЁण䇗ᑊ㦋প乍Ⳃ᠔䳔ⱘ৘⾡䌘⑤ˈ಴㗠䖭⾡㒘㒛ᔶᓣг㹿⿄Ўⶽ䰉ᓣ
㒘㒛Ǆ㗠঺ϔ⾡㒘㒛ᔶᓣᰃབ೒ 1.2 ᠔⼎ⱘⳈ㒓ᓣ㒘㒛ˈ೼䖭⾡㒘㒛ᔶᓣϟˈ㒘㒛Ў↣ϔ
Ͼ乍Ⳃᦤկ䌘⑤Ϟⱘᖙ㽕ᬃᣕˈ಴㗠г㹿⿄Ўҹ乍ⳂЎᇐ৥ⱘ㒘㒛ˈ↣ԡ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚䛑᳝ㅵ
⧚乍Ⳃⱘ㞾⊏ᴗǄ䰸ℸП໪ˈ䖬᳝݊Ҫ㉏ൟⱘ乍Ⳃ㒘㒛ৃկ䗝ᢽˈ䖭প‫އ‬Ѣ㒘㒛Ⳃᷛ੠ᓎ
䆒乍Ⳃⱘ⡍⚍Ǆ՟བˈϔᆊ⬅‫ݙ‬䚼࡯䞣ᴹ䅵ߦǃ䆒䅵੠ᓎ䆒ᮄѻક䆒໛ⱘ໻ൟ݀ৌᕜ㞾✊
ഄӮ䗝ᢽⶽ䰉ᓣ㒘㒛Ǆ✊㗠ˈᅠܼձ䴴ᓎ䆒乍Ⳃㅵ⧚∖⫳ᄬⱘᓎㄥ݀ৌˈैؒ৥Ѣ䗝ᢽҹ
乍ⳂЎᇐ৥ⱘ㒘㒛Ǆሑㅵ㒘㒛ᔶᓣ᳝᠔ϡৠˈԚㅵ⧚㒧ᵘⱘ෎ᴀॳ߭ै䗖⫼Ѣ໻໮᭄ᚙ‫މ‬Ǆ
g9g
೒ 1.1 ⶽ䰉ᓣ㒘㒛
೒ 1.2 ҹ乍ⳂЎᇐ৥ⱘ㒘㒛
Ўњ⧚㾷乍Ⳃㅵ⧚ⱘϡৠ㒘㒛ᔶᓣˈৃҹ䅸Ў㄀ϔϾ՟ᄤ᠔ҷ㸼ⱘᰃϔϾϮЏⱘㅵ⧚
㒘㒛ˈ㗠㄀ѠϾ՟ᄤ᠔ҷ㸼ⱘᰃϔϾϮЏⳈ᥹ⲥⴷϟⱘᓎㄥㅵ⧚੼䆶ᮍⱘㅵ⧚㒘㒛Ǆ
Ҏහԅಁ‫ޙ‬kѕͧ੦಴
ᇍѢ䙷ѯ㾘῵੠໡ᴖ⿟ᑺ䗖Ёⱘ᱂䗮乍ⳂˈϮЏ䗮ᐌӮ䗝ᢽϔᆊ䆒䅵ऩԡ(ᓎㄥ䆒䅵݀
ৌ)Ўᡓࣙଚ(ᘏᡓࣙଚ)ᦤկ乍Ⳃ᠔䳔ⱘ䆺㒚㾘ߦ੠䆒䅵Ǆ䆒䅵ऩԡৠᯊҷ㸼ϮЏ೼ᮑᎹᳳ
䯈ⲥⴷ乍Ⳃⱘᠻ㸠Ǆሑㅵ‫݋‬ԧᎹ԰⬅ӫ໮ⱘϧϮߚࣙଚᴹᡓᢙˈԚै⬅ᘏᡓࣙଚᇍᎹ⿟ᴀ
䑿䋳䋷Ǆ
ϮЏ䗮ᐌӮ䎳ᓎㄥ/䆒䅵(A/E)݀ৌ䖯㸠᳡ࡵ䌍⫼ⱘ䇜߸Ǆ䰸њᡓᢙ䆒䅵䋷ӏ໪ˈA/E ݀
ৌ䖬㸠Փϔᅮ⿟ᑺⱘǃ⬅ϮЏ㾘ᅮⱘǃⲥⴷᮑᎹⱘ㘠䋷ǄӴ㒳ϞˈA/E ݀ৌᰃᡞ㞾Ꮕᔧ԰
ϮЏҷ㸼ˈᑊϨϡ੠┰೼ⱘᡓࣙଚⳈ᥹㘨㋏ˈҹಲ䙓߽Ⲟ‫ކ‬さⱘϧϮ䆒䅵੼䆶ҎਬǄЎ A/E
݀ৌᎹ԰ⱘ⦄എⲥⴷҎਬ䗮ᐌ೼䆒䅵ᅠ៤Пৢᇍ乍Ⳃᅲᮑ䎳䏾ẔᶹˈᑊϨᕜᇥⳈ᥹খϢ䆒
䅵ᴀ䑿Ǆ⬅Ѣ೼䖛এ 20 ᑈ䞠䆝䆐П亢⏤ⲯˈЎ䙓‫ܡ‬䆝䆐㑴㒋ˈ໻໮᭄ⱘ A/E ݀ৌা৥Ꮉഄ
⌒㾖ᆳਬˈ㗠ϡ‫⦄⌒ݡ‬എⲥⴷǄ⦄೼ˈ⬅ᡓࣙଚᦤѸ㦋‫ⱘޚ‬䔺䯈ᅝ㺙䆺೒੠乍Ⳃ䅵ߦˈг
㹿㾚԰ A/E ݀ৌ᥼ौ䋷ӏǄ
ϮЏ᮶ৃ䗮䖛ゲѝᗻ᢯ᷛгৃ䗮䖛䇜߸ᴹ䗝ᢽᘏᡓࣙଚǄϔ㠀݀݅ᴎᵘ㹿㽕∖Փ⫼ゲ
ѝᗻ᢯ᷛᮍᓣˈ㗠⾕Ҏ㒘㒛ৃ䞛⫼ϸ⾡ᮍᓣЁⱘӏԩϔ⾡Ǆ೼ゲѝᗻ᢯ᷛЁˈϮЏᇚϡᕫ
ϡ䞛⫼䆒䅵üᮑᎹ乎ᑣ῵ᓣˈ಴Ў೼䙔䇋ゲᷛ㗙ᡩᷛࠡˈ䆺㒚ⱘ㾘ߦ੠䆒䅵ᑨᏆᅠ៤Ǆབ
ᵰ䞛⫼䇜߸ⱘড়ৠᮍᓣˈ䙷МϮЏ೼䗝ᢽᓎ䗴῵ᓣᮍ䴶᳝ᕜ໻ⱘԭഄǄ
ᘏᡓࣙଚৃ䗝ᢽ㞾Ꮕᅠ៤ᓎ䆒乍Ⳃⱘܼ䚼Ꮉ԰៪݊Ёⱘϔ䚼ߚˈгৃҹᡞᓎ䆒乍Ⳃܼ
䚼ߚࣙ㒭ߚࣙଚˈ㞾Ꮕা԰Ўㅵ⧚㗙Ǆᘏᡓࣙଚৠḋ᮶ৃ⫼ゲѝᗻ᢯ᷛгৃ䗮䖛䇜߸ᴹ䗝
g10g
ᢽߚࣙଚǄᘏᡓࣙଚ೼৥ϮЏᡩᷛ᡹ӋПࠡӮ‫ܜ‬৥ߚࣙଚህߚࣙড়ৠ䖯㸠䆶ӋǄ✊㗠ˈߚ
ࣙଚैϡ㛑ᔎ䖿ᘏᡓࣙଚ೼Ёᷛৢϔᅮ೼乍ⳂϞ䗝ᢽ㞾Ꮕˈ䖭ᅲ䰙Ϟህѻ⫳њ᠔䇧ⱘĀ᢯
ᷛय़Ӌā੠Āᡩᷛܰଂā
ǄĀ᢯ᷛय़ӋāᰃᣛЎњ䰡Ԣߚࣙড়ৠӋḐˈᘏᡓࣙଚ೼Ёᷛৢᑊ
ϡϢ݊᡹ӋᏆ㹿䞛㒇೼Ёᷛড়ৠЁⱘߚࣙଚㅒߚࣙড়ৠˈ䕀㗠঺ᇏ∖݊ҪߚࣙଚǄ
Āᡩᷛܰ
ଂā߭ᰃᣛߚࣙଚⱘ㸠Ўˈे᳝ѯߚࣙଚЎњ᣸ᥝ݊Ҫ᡹Ӌ↨Ҫᮽⱘߚࣙଚˈᜓᛣ㒭ᘏᡓ
ࣙଚᦤկ᳈ԢӋḐⱘߚࣙড়ৠǄ೼䖭ϸ⾡ᚙᔶϟˈᓎㄥ䋼䞣䛑Ӯফࠄᤳᆇˈ಴㗠᳝ѯᎲⱘ
⊩Ҹ⽕ℶ೼݀݅乍ⳂЁ䖯㸠䖭ѯᔶᓣⱘ᪡԰Ǆ
ሑㅵ⬅Ѣ݀ӫᇍѢゲѝᗻ᢯ᷛ݀ℷᗻⱘ䅸ৠ㗠Փᕫ䆒䅵̣ᮑᎹ῵ᓣҡ✊ᕫҹᑓ⊯ⱘՓ
⫼ˈԚ䆌໮⾕㧹ϮЏгᛣ䆚ࠄњ䖭⾡῵ᓣⱘ㔎⚍ˈेᔧ乍Ⳃ㾘῵Ꮌ໻Ϩ䕗Ў໡ᴖᯊˈ៪㗙
ᔧ乍Ⳃ䖿ѢᏖഎय़࡯㗠䳔ሑᮽᅠᎹᯊˈ䆹῵ᓣ֓ᰒᕫ࡯ϡҢᖗǄ
ᅥྜ‫ߙܤ‬ಁົં‫ڕ‬स੦಴
ϧϮ࣪ᓎ䆒乍Ⳃㅵ⧚ᰃᣛ⬅ϧϮᓎ䆒乍Ⳃ㒣⧚(CM)੠݊Ҫ৘ᮍ㒘៤ⱘ乍Ⳃㅵ⧚䯳ӡˈ
䖭Ͼ乍Ⳃㅵ⧚䯳ӡ䋳䋷ᅠ៤乍Ⳃⱘ㾘ߦǃ䆒䅵੠ᮑᎹㄝӏࡵⱘ䲚៤Ϣㅵ⧚Ǆ䖭⾡῵ᓣ䆩೒
ᇚ乍Ⳃ㒘㒛䯈ⱘᇍゟᚙ㒾䰡Ԣࠄ᳔Ԣ⿟ᑺˈৠᯊ᳝ࡽѢㅵ⧚䯳ӡ‫ݙ‬䚼ⱘण䇗ǄϧϮ࣪ⱘ CM
ᰃᣛҢџϟ䴶Ꮉ԰ⱘ݀ৌ˖
z ೼乍ⳂࠡᳳˈৠϮЏ੠ A/E ݀ৌϔ䘧Ꮉ԰ˈᑊህ䆒䅵ⱘᬍ䖯ǃᮑᎹᡔᴃǃ䖯ᑺᅝ
ᥦ੠ᓎㄥ㒣⌢ᦤկখ㗗ᓎ䆂Ǆ
z བᵰড়䗖ˈᦤ䆂䆒䅵៪ᮑᎹⱘ᳓ҷᮍḜˈᑊߚᵤ݊ᇍ乍Ⳃ៤ᴀ੠䖯ᑺⱘᕅડǄ
z ⲥⴷ乍Ⳃⱘ䖯ሩˈҹ䰆ℶⳂᷛⱘ‫⾏أ‬Ǆ
z ໘⧚Ϣण䇗ᴤ᭭੠䆒໛ⱘ䞛䌁ǃᡓࣙଚⱘᮑᎹ⌏ࡼǃᡓࣙଚ᳜䖯ᑺℒⱘᬃҬǃ䆒
䅵ব᳈ǃ㋶䌨੠ⲥⴷ䆒䅵㽕∖ⱘ㨑ᅲǄ
z ᠻ㸠ϮЏ੠乍Ⳃ᳝݇ⱘ݊Ҫ᳡ࡵ㽕∖Ǆ
ᔧ乍Ⳃ㾘῵ᕜ໻Ϩ䕗Ў໡ᴖᯊˈᐌᐌ䞛⫼䖭⾡ϧϮ࣪ⱘᓎㄥㅵ⧚῵ᓣǄ⡍໻ൟ乍Ⳃⱘ
㒘㒛⡍ᕕᘏ㒧Ўҹϟ޴⚍˖
z 䱣ⴔ乍Ⳃⱘ䖯ሩˈ乍Ⳃᘏԧⱘ㒘㒛ᮍᓣᇚথ⫳ব࣪ˈे⬅Ā㘠㛑ᓣā㒘㒛ব࣪៤
Āⶽ䰉ᓣā㒘㒛ˈ‫ݡ‬বࠄĀ乍Ⳃᓣā㒘㒛(ϡϔᅮϹḐᣝ✻䖭Ͼ乎ᑣ)Ǆ
z ೼ᭈϾ㒘㒛‫ݙ‬䚼ˈৃ㛑ߎ⦄㘠㛑ᓣǃ乍Ⳃᓣ੠ⶽ䰉ᓣㄝጠ༫㒘㒛݅⫳ⱘᚙ‫މ‬Ǆ䖭
㱑✊ᇍᘏ៤ᴀⱘ᥻ࠊ᳝߽ˈԚैՓㅵ⧚ⱘ⧚䆎੠ᅲ䏉䍟Ѣ໡ᴖ࣪Ǆ
z ៤ࡳⱘᎼൟ໡ᴖ㒘㒛䗮ᐌ䛑᳝ϔϾᔎⶽ䰉ጠ༫㒘㒛ˈՓᕫ෎ᴀⱘ៤ᴀ੠䖯ᑺ᥻ࠊ
䋷ӏᕫҹ㨑ᅲˈ䖭Ͼጠ༫㒘㒛㹿⿄ЎĀ៤ᴀЁᖗā៪㹿ᔧ԰ϔϾĀ乍ⳂāЎᶤϾ
乍Ⳃ㒣⧚᠔乚ᇐǄ៤ᴀЁᖗⶽ䰉䞠ⱘখϢ㗙ᕔᕔҢ৘Ͼϡৠ㘠㛑䚼䮼ߚ⌒㗠ᴹǄ
㗠䖭ѯ㘠㛑䚼䮼߭䋳䋷৥㒘㒛‫ݙ‬᳈催ⱘሖ㑻ᦤѸᡔᴃ᡹ਞǄ᳝ᬜ៤ᴀㅵ⧚ⱘ݇䬂
೼Ѣձ䴴ϔϾᕜᔎⱘ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ⱘ乚ᇐˈᡞ䖭Ͼጠ༫㒘㒛থሩ៤ϔϾ㊒ᑆⱘಶ䯳Ǆ
z ‫އ‬ㄪⱘ䲚ᴗ៪ߚᴗ⿟ᑺᇍ⡍໻ൟ乍Ⳃ㒘㒛㗠㿔㟇݇䞡㽕Ǆ
ᘏПˈ䅸䆚ࠄ㒘㒛ᴎᵘ೼乍Ⳃ䖯㸠ࠄϡৠ䰊↉ˈ݊㒘㒛ᔶᓣӮথ⫳ᬍবᰃकߚ䞡㽕ⱘǄ
ྜᅖkߙႏၮ࿯੦಴
೼䖭⾡῵ᓣ䞠ˈϮЏЎњ㓈ᣕϔϾ⫼Ѣ‫ݙ‬䚼䖤㧹ⱘǃᑲ໻ⱘࢇࡼ࡯ˈᖙ乏᳝ϔϾ〇ᅮ
g11g
ⱘ೼ᓎ乍Ⳃ⌕Ǆ✊㗠ˈेՓϮЏЎᭈড়乍Ⳃ䖯ሩЁⱘ᠔᳝Ꮉ԰㗠ֱ⬭䲚ᴗᓣ‫އ‬ㄪˈҪҡ✊
ৃҹᇚ䆒䅵੠ᓎ䗴ⱘᅲ䋼ᗻ䚼ߚ໪ࣙ㒭੼䆶Ꮬ੠ᡓࣙଚǄ
՟ 1.1 㕢೑䰚‫ݯ‬Ꮉ⿟݀ৌ㒘㒛Ǆ
㕢೑䰚‫ݯ‬Ꮉ⿟݀ৌⱘഄऎᎹ⿟Ꮬࡲ݀ᅸৃ㹿䅸԰ᰃϮЏ̣ᓎ䗴䖤㧹῵ᓣⱘ‫݌‬ൟ՟ᄤˈ
བ೒ 1.3 ᠔⼎Ǆ
೒ 1.3 㕢೑䰚‫ݯ‬Ꮉ⿟݀ৌⱘഄऎᴎᵘ㒘㒛
೼㕢೑䰚‫ݯ‬Ꮉ⿟݀ৌⱘഄऎᎹ⿟Ꮬࡲ݀ᅸˈ䗮ᐌ᳝ϔϾ䆒䅵䚼੠䖤㧹䚼ˈབᵰᰃϔϾ
໻ⱘഄऎˈ䖬Ӯ᳝ϔϾᮑᎹ䚼Ǆ↣ϔϾ䚼䮼ϟ䆒᳝㢹ᑆϾ⾥ᅸǄ⬅Ѣ乍Ⳃ䗮ᐌ㒣⬅㕢೑೑
Ӯথ䍋੠ᥜᴗˈ᠔ҹЎњ֓Ѣ᪡԰ˈ㾘ߦ੠䆒䅵䗮ᐌߚᓔ䖯㸠Ǆ঺໪ˈ⬅Ѣ乍Ⳃৃ㸠ᗻⷨ
おⱘᥜᴗ䗮ᐌ↨乍Ⳃ䆒䅵ⱘᥜᴗ㽕ᮽ޴ᑈˈ᠔ҹ↣ϔϾ䰊↉᳔ད⬅䆒䅵䚼ϟ䴶ⱘϡৠ⾥ᅸ
ᴹ䖤԰Ǆབᵰ乍ⳂⱘᮑᎹᮍḜ᳔㒜㹿ᡍ‫ˈޚ‬䙷Мህ⬅ᮑᎹ䚼䮼៪໪䚼ⱘᡓࣙଚᴹ䋳䋷乍Ⳃ
ⱘᮑᎹǄ䖤㧹䚼߭䋳䋷乍Ⳃ᮹ᐌ㒣㧹ঞ৘㉏䆒ᮑⱘ㓈ׂϢ‫ݏ‬ᡸǄ
ᔧ乍Ⳃ㹿ᡍ‫ˈৢޚ‬ᑨҢ᳔Ўড়䗖ⱘ䚼䮼⾥ᅸ䗝ᢽϔԡ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ᴹ乚ᇐ乍Ⳃˈᑊ䖲ৠҢ
݊Ҫ⾥ᅸᣥ䗝ߎⱘҎਬϔ䘧㒘៤乍Ⳃಶ䯳Ǆ㗠ᔧ乍Ⳃᅠ៤ৢˈࣙᣀ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚೼‫ⱘݙ‬᠔᳝乍
Ⳃಶ䯳៤ਬ䛑ಲᔦࠄ݊ॳᴹ᠔೼⾥ᅸⱘቫԡϞˈⳈࠄ᳝ᮄⱘ乍ⳂӏࡵǄ಴ℸˈ䆹῵ᓣⱘ乍
Ⳃㅵ⧚䞛⫼ⶽ䰉ᓣ㒘㒛Ǆ
߬ၢќၮᆴ੦಴
೼Ѹ䩹࣭乍ⳂᔧЁˈ⬅ϮЏ᠔䗝ᅮⱘᡓࣙଚᴹᡓᢙ䆒䅵੠ᮑᎹⱘ᠔᳝䋷ӏǄᡓࣙଚ೼
ϮЏᦤկᠻ㸠ᷛ‫ⱘޚ‬෎⸔Ϟˈ৥ϮЏᦤѸᅠᎹᓎㄥ䆒ᮑǄབᵰϮЏᜓᛣˈᡓࣙଚ䖬ৃᡓᢙ
䖤㧹乍Ⳃⱘ䋷ӏǄ㽕ᛇՓѸ䩹࣭乍Ⳃ៤ࡳ䖯㸠ˈϮЏ䳔৥ᡓࣙଚᦤկϔ༫↿᮴℻Нⱘᠻ㸠
ᷛ‫ˈޚ‬ৠᯊ䖬ᑨ㒭ќᡓࣙଚᅠ៤乍Ⳃⱘ㛑࡯ҹ䎇໳ⱘֵӏǄ
䖭⾡῵ᓣ੠ࠡ䴶᠔䆆ⱘϮЏüᓎ䗴䖤㧹῵ᓣℷདⳌডˈ೼䙷䞠ϮЏᇍ䆒䅵üᮑᎹ䖛⿟
‫݋‬᳔᳝໻䰤ᑺⱘ᥻ࠊᴗǄ
՟ 1.2 ϔϾѸ䩹࣭㒘㒛㣗՟Ǆ
1985 ᑈˈᖋ‫ܟ‬㧼ᮃᎲⱘᖋ‫ܟ‬㧼ᮃüᮄ๼㽓હ⬉࡯݀ৌ᥼ߎϔϾ䞛⫼Ѹ䩹࣭䖤԰῵ᓣⱘ
150MW ⱘ⬉ॖ乍ⳂǄᕕᕫᖋ‫ܟ‬㧼ᮃᎲ݀⫼џϮྨਬӮⱘᡍ‫ˈৢޚ‬ϔϾ⬅ H.B.㧼༛㙵ӑ݀
ৌǃ࿕ᮃ∔䈾ᮃ⬉࡯㙵ӑ݀ৌ੠‫ྚܟ‬ԃ⨳Ꮉ⿟᳝䰤݀ৌ㒘៤ⱘ䋶ಶ䋳䋷ᇍ䆹乍Ⳃ䖯㸠䆒䅵ǃ
ᮑᎹ੠乍Ⳃ㵡䌘Ǆ䆹乍Ⳃ℆೼ 1990 ᑈᅠᎹˈ݊乘䅵ᓎ䆒៤ᴀᣝ 1990 ᑈӋḐⱘৃ↨ӋḐЎ
2 ғ㕢‫ܗ‬Ǆ⬅Ѣ䋶ಶ㽕ᡓᢙࣙᣀ䌋ℒ៤ᴀ೼‫ⱘݙ‬ᓎ䆒ᳳⱘ᠔᳝؎ࡵˈ᠔ҹ䰡ԢњᇍѢ䌋ℒ
Ҏǃ㙵ϰ੠݀⫼џϮㅵ⧚݀ৌⱘ៤ᴀ๲ࡴⱘ亢䰽Ǆ
g12g
ົંූղকӽۤ‫ृݷ‬
乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ˈҢ䖭Ͼᴃ䇁ⱘᑓН৿Н㗠㿔ˈᰃ乍Ⳃ៤䋹ᕫ༅ⱘ݇䬂Ǆ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ᇍ乍Ⳃⱘ
㾘ߦǃ㒘㒛੠᥻ࠊ䋳᳝䋷ӏǄড䖛ᴹˈ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ᢹ᳝⬅ㅵ⧚㒘㒛ᥜќⱘ䇗ࡼ৘乍䌘⑤⫼ҹ
ᅠ៤乍Ⳃⱘᴗ࡯Ǆ
Ўњ乚ᇐ乍Ⳃಶ䯳ˈ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ᑨᮑࡴ݊ϾҎᕅડ࡯Ǆ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚䗮䖛䖤⫼ҹϟᮍ⊩ᴹ㦋
ᕫಶ䯳៤ਬⱘᬃᣕ˖
z 䗮䖛ℷᓣᥜᴗ㗠ᕫࠄথᏗᣛҸⱘᴗ࡯Ǆ
z 㒘㒛ᥜќⱘḍ᥂ϾҎ㸼⦄ᇍ݊ᅲᮑⳈ᥹៪䯈᥹༪ࢅ៪ᚽ㔮ⱘᴗ࡯Ǆ
z ᔧ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚‫݋‬໛໘⧚ᶤ乍Ꮉ԰ⱘϧϮⶹ䆚੠ᡔ㛑ᯊⱘϧᆊথ㿔ᴗǄ
z 乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ᴀ䑿‫݋‬໛ⱘ䇈᳡ҪҎⱘ㛑࡯Ǆ
೼ⶽ䰉ᓣ㒘㒛ᔧЁˈᴹ㞾৘㘠㛑䚼䮼ⱘ乍Ⳃ៤ਬҡдᛃѢㄝ㑻ᓣ㒧ᵘ䞠ऩ㒓ⱘ∛᡹ࠊ
ᑺˈ䖭ᯊ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ᑨᔧण䇗䖭ѯ䗝㞾ϡৠ㘠㛑䚼䮼ⱘҎਬП䯈ⱘ⌏ࡼǄ⬅Ѣⶽ䰉ᓣ㒘㒛Ё
ⱘ㘠㛑䚼䮼ҡӮᇍᕅડ乍Ⳃ䖯㸠ⱘᶤѯџᚙ䋳䋷ˈ᠔ҹ೼㘠㛑䚼䮼੠乍Ⳃಶ䯳П䯈ህӮ᳝
┰೼‫ކ‬さǄЎњՓ᮶ᅮⱘ乍Ⳃᮍ䩜੠䋼䞣ᷛ‫ޚ‬ϡফᤳᆇˈ߭ᑨᔧ㒭ќ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚㾷‫ކއ‬さⱘ
䋷ӏ੠ᴗ࡯Ǆབᵰ⶯Ⳓ‫ކ‬さ᳝छ㑻ⱘ䍟࢓ˈ߭ᑨゟेᓩ䍋催ሖㅵ⧚ⱘ⊼ᛣᑊќҹঞᯊ࣪㾷Ǆ
ϔ㠀㗠㿔ˈ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ⱘᴗ䋷ϡҙᑨᔧᯢ⹂ഄќҹᅮНˈ㗠Ϩ䖬ᑨᔧќҹ⹂䅸ˈᇸ݊ᰃ
೼ⶽ䰉ᓣ㒘㒛䞠Ǆ಴Ў㘠㛑䚼䮼ⱘ㒣⧚Ӏ䗮ᐌᇍ݊䚼䮼㹿᱖ᯊߚ⌒ࠄ乍ⳂϞⱘҎਬҡֱᣕ
ⴔϔᅮⱘᕅડ࡯ˈ᠔ҹᑨᔧ䙉ᅜϟ䴶ϔѯ㾘߭˖
z 乍Ⳃ㒣⧚੠㘠㛑䚼䮼㒣⧚П䯈ⱘ⬠䴶䍞ㅔऩ䍞དǄ
z ᔧ乍Ⳃ㽕㋴੠㘠㛑䚼䮼থ⫳䞡঴ᯊˈ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ᖙ乏ᢹ᳝ᇍ䖭ѯ㽕㋴ⱘ᥻ࠊᴗǄ
z 䴶ᇍ䯂乬ˈ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ᖙ乏䞛প⿃ᵕ㾷‫ⱘއ‬ᗕᑺˈ㗠ϡᰃ⍜ᵕ㾖ᳯ੠᮴᠔䗖ҢǄ
g13g

Unit 2 The Employer
Right of Access to the Site

The Employer shall give the Contractor right of access to, and possession of, all parts of the
Site within the time (or times) stated in the Particular Conditions. The right and possession may
not be exclusive to the Contractor. If, under the Contract, the Employer is required to give (to the
Contractor) possession of any foundation, structure, plant or means of access, the Employer shall
do so in the time and manner stated in the Employer’s Requirements. However, the Employer
may withhold any such right or possession until the Performance Security has been received.
If no such time is stated in the Particular Conditions, the Employer shall give the Contractor
right of access to, and possession of, the Site with effect from the Commencement Date.
If the Contractor suffers delay and/or incurs Cost as a result of a failure by the Employer to
give any such right or possession within such time, the Contractor shall give notice to the
Employer and shall be entitled subject to Sub-Clause 20.1 [Contractor’s Claims] to:
(1) an extension of time for any such delay, if completion is or will be delayed, under
Sub-Clause 8.4 [Extension of Time for Completion].
(2) payment of any such Cost plus reasonable profit, which shall be added to the Contract
Price.
After receiving this notice, the Employer shall proceed in accordance with Sub-Clause 3.5
[Determinations] to agree or determine these matters.
However, if and to the extent that the Employer’s failure was caused by any error or delay
by the Contractor, including an error in, or delay in the submission of, any of the Contractor’s
Documents, the Contractor shall not be entitled to such extension of time, cost or profit.
Permits, Licences or Approves
The Employer shall (where he is in a position to do so) provide reasonable assistance to the
Contractor at the request of the Contractor:
(1) by obtaining copies of the Laws of the Country which are relevant to the Contract but are
not readily available.
(2) for the Contractor’s applications for any permits, licences or approvals required by the
Laws of the Country:
ķ which the Contractor is required to obtain under Sub-Clause 1.13 [Compliance with
Laws].
ĸ for the delivery of goods, including clearance through customs.
Ĺ for the export of Contractor’s Equipment when it is removed from the Site.
Unit 2 The Employer g15g
Employer’s personnel
The Employer shall be responsible for ensuring that the Employer’s Personnel and the
Employer’s other contractors on the Site:
(1) co-operate with the Contractor’s efforts under Sub-Clause 4.6 [Co-operation].
(2) take actions similar to those which the Contractor is required to take under
sub-paragraphs (a), (b) and (c) of Sub-Clause 4.8 [Safety Procedures] and under Sub-Clause 4.18
[protection of the Environment].
Employer’s Financial Arrangements
The Employer shall submit, within 28 days after receiving any request from the Contractor,
reasonable evidence that financial arrangements have been made and are being maintained which
will enable the Employer to pay the Contract Price (as estimated at that time) in accordance with
Clause 14 [Contract Price and Payment]. If the Employer intends to make any material change to
his financial arrangements, the Employer shall give notice to the Contractor with detailed
particulars.
Employer’s Claims
If the Employer considers himself to be entitled to any payment under any Clause of these
Conditions or otherwise in connection with the Contract, and/or to any extension of the Defects
Notification Period, he shall give notice and particulars to the Contractor. However, notice is not
required for payments due under Sub-Clause 4.19 [Electricity, Water and Gas], under Sub-Clause
4.20 [Employer’s Equipment and Free-Issue Material], or for other services requested by the
Contractor.
The notice shall be given as soon as practicable after the Employer became aware of the
event or circumstances giving rise to the claim. A notice relating to any extension of the Defects
Notification Period shall be given before the expiry of such period.
The particulars shall specify the Clause or other basis of the claim, and shall include
substantiation of the amount and/or extension to which the Employer considers himself to be
entitled in connection with the Contract. The employer shall then proceed in accordance with
Sub-Clause 3.5 [Determinations] to agree or determine the amount (if any) which the Employer
is entitled to be paid by the Contractor, and/or the extension (if any) of the Defects Notification
Period in accordance with Sub-Clause 11.3 [Extension of the Defects Notification Period].
The Employer may deduct this amount from any moneys due, or to become due, to the
Contractor. The Employer shall only be entitled to set off against or make any deduction from an
amount due to the Contractor, or to otherwise claim against the Contractor, in accordance with
this Sub-Clause or with sub-paragraph (a) and/or (b) of Sub-Clause 14.6 [Interim Payments].
The Employer’s Representative
The Employer may appoint an Employer’s Representative to act on his behalf under the
Contract. In this event, he shall give notice to the Contractor of the name, address, duties and
authority of the Employer’s Representative.
g15g
The Employer’s Representative shall carry out the duties assigned to him, and shall exercise
the authority delegated to him, by the Employer. Unless and until the Employer notifies the
Contractor, otherwise, the Employer’s Representative shall be deemed to have the full authority
of the Employer under the Contract, except in respect of Clause 15 [Determination by Employer].
If the Employer wishes to replace any person appointed as Employer’s Representative, the
Employer shall give the Contractor not less than 14 days’ notice of the replacement’s name,
address, duties and authority, and of the date of appointment.
The Employer’s personnel
The Employer or the Employer’s Representative may from time to time assign duties and
delegate authority to assistants, and may also revoke such assignment or delegation. These
assistants may include a resident engineer, and/or independent inspectors appointed to inspect
and/or test items of Plant and/or Materials. The assignment, delegation or revocation shall not
take effect until a copy of it has been received by the Contractor.
Assistant shall be suitably qualified persons, who are competent to carry out these duties and
exercise this authority, and who are fluent in the language for communications defined in
Sub-Clause 1.4[Law and Language].
Delegated Persons
All these persons, including the Employer’s Representative and assistants, to whom duties
have been assigned or authority has been delegated, shall only be authorised to issue instructions
to the Contractor to the extent defined by the delegation. Any approval, check, certificate,
consent, examination, inspection, instruction, notice, proposal, request, test, or similar act by a
delegated person, in accordance with the delegation, shall have the same effect as though the act
had been an act of the Employer. However:
(1) unless otherwise stated in the delegated person’s communication relating to such act, it
shall not relieve the Contractor from any responsibility he has under the Contract, including
responsibility for errors, omissions, discrepancies and non-compliances.
(2) any failure to disapprove any work, Plant or Materials shall not constitute approval and
shall therefore not prejudice the right of the Employer to reject the work, Plant or Materials.
(3) if the Contractor questions any determination or instruction of a delegated person, the
Contractor may refer the matter to the Employer, who shall promptly confirm, reverse or vary the
determination or instruction.
Instructions
The Employer may issue to the Contractor instructions which may be necessary for the
Contractor to perform his obligations under the Contract. Each instruction shall be given in
writing and shall state the obligations to which it relates and the Sub-Clause (or other term of the
Contract) in which the obligations are specified. If any such instruction constitutes a variation,
Clause 13 [Variations and Adjustments] shall apply.
The Contractor shall take instructions from the Employer, or from the Employer’s
g16g
Representative or an assistant to whom the appropriate authority has been delegated under this
Clause.
Determinations
Whenever these Conditions provide that the Employer shall proceed in accordance with this
Sub-Clause 3.5 to agree or determine any matter, the Employer shall consult with the Contractor
in an endeavour to reach agreement. If agreement is not achieved, the Employer shall make a fair
determination in accordance with the Contract, taking due regard of all relevant circumstances.
The Employer shall give notice to the Contractor of each agreement or determination, with
supporting particulars. Each Party shall give effect to each agreement or determination, unless the
Contractor gives notice, to the Employer, of his dissatisfaction with a determination within 14
days of receiving it. Either Party may then refer the dispute to the DAB in accordance with
Sub-Clause 20.4 [Obtaining Dispute Adjudication Board’s Decision].
Questions
1. When shall the employer give the contractor right of access to, and possession of, all
parts of the site?
2. If the employer’s failure was caused by any error or delay by the contractor, shall the
contractor be entitled to extension of time, cost or profit?
3. What reasonable assistance should the employer provide to the contractor at the request
of the contractor?
4. If the employer intends to make any material change to his financial arrangement, shall
the employer notice to the contractor with detailed particulars?
5. When shall a notice relating to any extension of the defects notification period be given
to the contractor?
6. What’s authority of the employer’s representative?
7. Who are included in the “delegated persons”?
8. Can delegated person issue instructions to the contractor?
9. The employer may issue to the contractor instructions, what shall the instructions state?
10. Once the contractor gives notices to the employer of his dissatisfaction with a
determination, what will either party do?
employer˖䲛Џ˗ϮЏ
site˖⦄എ
right of access to the site˖䖯ܹ⦄എⱘᴗ߽
possession of the site˖ऴ⫼⦄എ
g17g
the employer’s requirements˖䲛Џ㽕∖

performance security˖ሹ㑺ᢙֱ
commencement date˖ᓔᎹ᮹ᳳ
time for completion˖シᎹᯊ䯈
an extension of time˖ᓊ䭓ᳳ
contract price˖ড়ৠӋḐ
permits, licences or approvals˖䆌ৃǃᠻ✻៪ᡍ‫ޚ‬
protection of the environment˖⦃๗ֱᡸ
financial arrangements˖䌘䞥ᅝᥦ
material change to financial arrangements˖䞡㽕ⱘ䋶ࡵব᳈
defects notification period˖㔎䱋䗮ⶹᳳ䰤
free-issue material˖‫ܡ‬䌍կᑨᴤ᭭
employer’s representative˖䲛Џҷ㸼
resident engineer˖偏ഄᎹ⿟Ꮬ
independent inspectors˖⣀ゟẔᶹਬ
delegated persons˖ফᠬҎਬ
errors, omissions, or discrepancies˖䫭䇃ˈ䘫ⓣ៪䇃Ꮒ
dispute˖ѝッ
খ 㗗䆥 ᭛
㄀ 2 ऩ‫ܗ‬ 䲛 Џ
ຣЦࠩద௣
䲛Џᑨ೼ϧ⫼ᴵӊЁ㾘ᅮⱘᯊ䯈(៪޴Ͼᯊ䯈)‫ˈݙ‬㒭ᡓࣙଚ䖯ܹ੠ऴ⫼⦄എ৘䚼ߚⱘ
ᴗ߽Ǆ䖯ܹ੠ऴ⫼ᴗৃϡЎᡓࣙଚ⣀ѿǄབᵰḍ᥂ড়ৠˈ㽕∖䲛Џ(৥ᡓࣙଚ)ᦤկӏԩ෎
⸔ǃ㒧ᵘǃ⫳ѻ䆒໛៪䖯ܹ᠟↉ⱘऴ⫼ᴗˈ䲛Џᑨᣝ䲛Џ㽕∖Ё㾘ᅮⱘᯊ䯈੠ᮍᓣᦤկǄ
Ԛ䲛Џ೼ᬊࠄሹ㑺ᢙֱࠡˈৃֱ⬭Ϟ䗄ӏԩ䖯ܹ៪ऴ⫼ᴗˈ᱖ϡ㒭ќǄ
བᵰ೼ϧ⫼ᴵӊЁ≵᳝㾘ᅮϞ䗄ᯊ䯈ˈ䲛Џᑨ㞾ᓔᎹ᮹ᳳ䍋㒭ᡓࣙଚ䖯ܹ੠ऴ⫼⦄എ
ⱘᴗ߽Ǆ
བᵰ䲛Џ᳾㛑ঞᯊ㒭ᡓࣙଚϞ䗄䖯ܹ੠ऴ⫼ⱘᴗ߽ˈՓᡓࣙଚ䙁ফᓊ䇃੠(៪)៤ᴀ๲
ࡴˈᡓࣙଚᑨ৥䲛Џথߎ䗮ⶹˈḍ᥂㄀ 20.1 ℒ[ᡓࣙଚⱘ㋶䌨]ⱘ㾘ᅮ᳝ᴗ㽕∖˖
(1) ḍ᥂㄀ 8.4 ℒ[シᎹᯊ䯈ⱘᓊ䭓]ⱘ㾘ᅮˈབᵰシᎹᏆ㒣៪ᇚফࠄᓊ䇃ˈᇍӏԩℸ㉏
ᓊ䇃ˈ㒭ќᓊ䭓ᳳǄ
(2) ӏԩℸ㉏䌍⫼੠ড়⧚߽⍺ᑨࡴܹড়ৠӋḐˈ㒭ќᬃҬǄ
೼ᬊࠄℸ䗮ⶹৢˈ䲛Џᑨᣝ✻㄀ 3.5 ℒ[⹂ᅮ]ⱘ㾘ᅮˈህℸ乍㽕∖‫ߎخ‬ଚᅮ៪⹂ᅮǄ
Ԛᰃˈབᵰߎ⦄䲛Џⱘ䖱㑺ᰃ⬅Ѣᡓࣙଚⱘӏԩ䫭䇃៪ᓊ䇃ˈࣙᣀ೼ӏԩᡓࣙଚ᭛ӊ
Ёⱘ䫭䇃៪ᦤѸᓊ䇃䗴៤ⱘᚙ‫ˈމ‬ᡓࣙଚ᮴ᴗᕫࠄϞ䗄ᓊ䭓ᳳǃ䌍⫼៪߽⍺Ǆ
g18g
༘ࢶcᄓზ‫ݧ‬ଛᅹ
䲛Џᑨ(ᣝ݊᠔㛑)ḍ᥂ᡓࣙଚⱘ䇋∖ᇍ݊ᦤկҹϟড়⧚ⱘणࡽǄ
(1) পᕫϢড়ৠ᳝݇ԚϡᯧᕫࠄⱘᎹ⿟᠔೼೑ⱘ⊩ᕟ᭛ᴀǄ
(2) णࡽᡓࣙଚ⬇ࡲᎹ⿟᠔೼೑⊩ᕟ㽕∖ⱘӏԩ䆌ৃǃᠻ✻៪ᡍ‫˖ޚ‬
ķ ḍ᥂㄀ 1.13 ℒ[䙉ᅜ⊩ᕟ]ⱘ㾘ᅮˈᡓࣙଚ䳔㽕ᕫࠄⱘǄ
ĸ Ў䖤䗕䋻⠽ˈࣙᣀ㒧݇䳔㽕ⱘǄ
Ĺ ᔧᡓࣙଚ䆒໛䖤⾏⦄എߎষᯊ䳔㽕ⱘǄ
‫چ‬ᅖఆၔ
䲛Џᑨ䋳䋷ֱ䆕೼⦄എⱘ䲛ЏҎਬ੠݊Ҫᡓࣙଚ‫˖ࠄخ‬
(1) ḍ᥂㄀ 4.6 ℒ[ড়԰]ⱘ㾘ᅮˈϢᡓࣙଚ䖯㸠ড়԰Ǆ
(2) 䞛পϢḍ᥂㄀ 4.8 ℒ[ᅝܼ⿟ᑣ](a)ǃ(b)ǃ(c)乍੠㄀ 4.18 ℒ[⦃๗ֱᡸ]㽕∖ᡓࣙଚᑨ
䞛পⱘ㉏Ԑⱘ㸠ࡼǄ
‫چ‬ᅖԅᆇ̝ࠡ૦
䲛Џᑨ೼ᬊࠄᡓࣙଚⱘӏԩ㽕∖ⱘ 28 ໽‫݊ߎᦤݙ‬Ꮖ‫خ‬ᑊᇚ㓈ᣕⱘ䌘䞥ᅝᥦⱘড়⧚䆕
ᯢˈ䇈ᯢ䲛Џ㛑໳ᣝ✻㄀ 14 ᴵ[ড়ৠӋḐ੠Ҭℒ]ⱘ㾘ᅮˈᬃҬড়ৠӋḐ(ᣝᔧᯊԄㅫ)Ǆབ
ᵰ䲛Џᢳᇍ݊䌘䞥ᅝᥦ‫خ‬ӏԩ䞡㽕ব᳈ˈᑨᇚ݊ব᳈ⱘ䆺㒚ᚙ㡖䗮ⶹᡓࣙଚǄ
‫چ‬ᅖԅൌଃ
བᵰ䲛Џ䅸Ўˈḍ᥂ᴀᴵӊⱘӏԩᴵℒ៪ড়ৠ᳝݇ⱘ݊Ҫџ乍ˈҪ᳝ᴗᕫࠄӏԩҬℒˈ
੠(៪)㔎䱋䗮ⶹᳳ䰤ⱘӏԩᓊ䭓ˈҪᑨ৥ᡓࣙଚথߎ䗮ⶹˈ䇈ᯢ㒚㡖ǄԚᇍᡓࣙଚḍ᥂㄀
4.19 ℒ[⬉ǃ∈੠➗⇨]੠㄀ 4.20 ℒ[䲛Џⱘ䆒໛੠‫ܡ‬䌍կᑨⱘᴤ᭭]㾘ᅮⱘࠄᳳҬℒˈ៪ᡓࣙ
ଚ㽕∖ⱘ݊Ҫ᳡ࡵⱘᑨҬℒˈϡ䳔থߎ䗮ⶹǄ
䗮ⶹᑨ೼䲛Џњ㾷ᓩ䍋㋶䌨ⱘџӊ៪ᚙ‫ৢމ‬ሑᖿথߎǄ݇Ѣ㔎䱋䗮ⶹ㔎䱋ӏԩᓊ䭓ⱘ
䗮ⶹˈᑨ೼䆹ᳳ䰤ࠄᳳࠡথߎǄ
䗮ⶹⱘ㒚㡖ᑨ䇈ᯢᦤߎ㋶䌨ḍ᥂ⱘᴵℒ៪݊Ҫձ᥂ˈ䖬ᑨࣙᣀ䲛Џ䅸Ўḍ᥂ড়ৠҪ᳝
ᴗᕫࠄⱘ㋶䌨䞥乱੠(៪)ᓊ䭓ᳳⱘџᅲձ᥂Ǆ✊ৢˈ䲛Џᑨᣝ✻㄀ 3.5 ℒ[⹂ᅮ]ⱘ㽕∖ˈଚ
ᅮ៪⹂ᅮ䲛Џ᳝ᴗᕫࠄᡓࣙଚᬃҬⱘ䞥乱(བᵰ᳝)੠(៪)ᣝ✻㄀ 11.3 ℒ[㔎䱋䗮ⶹᳳ䰤ⱘᓊ
䭓]ⱘ㾘ᅮˈᕫࠄ㔎䱋䗮ⶹᳳ䰤ⱘᓊ䭓ᳳ(བᵰ᳝)Ǆ
䲛ЏৃᇚϞ䗄䞥乱೼㒭ᡓࣙଚⱘࠄᳳ៪ᇚࠄᳳⱘӏԩᑨҬℒЁᠷ‫ޣ‬Ǆ䲛Џᑨҙ᳝ᴗḍ
᥂ᴀℒ៪㄀ 14.6 ℒ[ᳳЁҬℒ](a)੠(៪)(b)乍ⱘ㾘ᅮˈҢ㒭ᡓࣙଚⱘᑨҬℒЁ‫ކ‬䫔៪ᠷ‫ˈޣ‬
៪঺໪ᇍᡓࣙଚᦤߎ㋶䌨Ǆ
‫چ‬ᅖӝζ
䲛Џৃҹӏੑϔৡ䲛Џҷ㸼ˈҷ㸼Ҫᣝ✻ড়ৠ‫ݙ‬ᆍᎹ԰Ǆ೼ℸᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈҪᑨᇚ䲛Џҷ
㸼ⱘྦྷৡǃഄഔǃӏࡵ੠ᴗ߽䗮ⶹᡓࣙଚǄ
䲛Џҷ㸼ᑨᅠ៤ᣛ⌒㒭Ҫⱘӏࡵˈሹ㸠䲛ЏᠬҬ㒭Ҫⱘᴗ߽Ǆ䰸䴲੠Ⳉࠄ䲛Џ঺㸠䗮
ⶹᡓࣙଚˈ䲛Џҷ㸼ᇚ㹿䅸Ў‫݋‬᳝䲛Џḍ᥂ড়ৠ㾘ᅮⱘܼ䚼ᴗ࡯ˈ⍝ঞ㄀ 15 ᴵ[⬅䲛Џ㒜
ℶ]㾘ᅮⱘᴗ߽䰸໪Ǆ
g19g
བᵰ䲛ЏᏠᳯ᳓ᤶӏԩᏆӏੑⱘ䲛Џҷ㸼ˈᑨ೼ϡᇥѢ 14 ໽ࠡᇚ᳓ᤶҎⱘྦྷৡǃഄഔǃ
ӏࡵ੠ᴗ߽ҹঞӏੑⱘ᮹ᳳ䗮ⶹ㒭ᡓࣙଚǄ
ୣ൐‫چ‬ᅖఆၔ
䲛Џ៪䲛Џҷ㸼ৃ䱣ᯊᇍϔѯࡽ᠟ᣛ⌒੠ᠬҬϔᅮⱘӏࡵ੠ᴗ࡯ˈгৃ᩸䫔䖭ѯᣛ⌒
੠ᠬҬǄ䖭ѯࡽ᠟ৃࣙᣀ偏ഄᎹ⿟Ꮬ੠(៪)ᢙӏẔ偠ǃ੠(៪)䆩偠৘乍⫳ѻ䆒໛੠(៪)ᴤ᭭
ⱘ⣀ゟẔᶹਬǄҹϞᣛ⌒ǃᠬҬ៪᩸䫔೼ᡓࣙଚᬊࠄᡘӊৢ⫳ᬜǄ
䖭ѯࡽ᠟ᑨ‫݋‬᳝䗖ᔧⱘ䌘䋼ǃሹ㸠݊ӏࡵ੠ᴗ߽ⱘ㛑࡯ˈᑊ㛑⌕߽ഄՓ⫼㄀ 1.4 ℒ[⊩
ᕟ੠䇁㿔]㾘ᅮⱘѸ⌕䇁㿔Ǆ
೓෡ఆၔ
᠔᳝䖭ѯҎਬࣙᣀᏆ㹿ᣛ⌒ӏࡵǃᠬҬᴗ࡯ⱘ䲛Џҷ㸼੠ࡽ᠟ˈᑨা㹿ᥜᴗ೼ᠬҬ㾘
ᅮⱘ㣗ೈ‫ݙ‬৥ᡓࣙଚথᏗᣛ⼎Ǆ⬅ফᠬҎਬḍ᥂ᠬҬ‫ⱘߎخ‬ӏԩᡍ‫ޚ‬ǃ᷵Ḍǃ䆕ᯢǃৠᛣǃ
ẔᶹǃẔ偠ǃᣛ⼎ǃ䗮ⶹǃᓎ䆂ǃ㽕∖ǃ䆩偠៪㉏Ԑ㸠ࡼˈᑨབৠ䲛Џ䞛পⱘ㸠ࡼϔḋ᳝
ᬜˈԚ˖
(1) 䰸䴲೼ফᠬҎਬ݇ѢϞ䗄㸠ࡼⱘֵߑЁ঺᳝䇈ᯢˈ䆹㸠ࡼ䛑ϡ‫ܡ‬䰸ᡓࣙଚḍ᥂ড়
ৠᑨᡓᢙⱘӏԩ㘠䋷ˈࣙᣀᇍ䫭䇃ǃ䘫ⓣǃ䇃Ꮒ੠᳾䙉ࡲⱘ㘠䋷Ǆ
(2) ᳾ᇍӏԩᎹ԰ǃ⫳ѻ䆒໛៪ᴤ᭭ᦤߎ৺ᅮᛣ㾕ϡᑨᵘ៤ᡍ‫ˈޚ‬ϡᑨᕅડ䲛Џᢦ㒱
䆹Ꮉ԰ǃ⫳ѻ䆒໛៪ᴤ᭭ⱘᴗ߽Ǆ
(3) བᵰᡓࣙଚᇍফᠬҎਬⱘ‫އ‬ᅮ៪ᣛ⼎ᦤߎ䋼⭥ˈᡓࣙଚৃᇚℸџ乍ᦤѸ㒭䲛Џˈ
䲛Џᑨ䖙䗳ᇍ䆹‫އ‬ᅮ៪ᣛ⼎䖯㸠⹂䅸ǃপ⍜៪᳈ᬍǄ
ᄗವ
䲛Џৃ৥ᡓࣙଚথߎЎᡓࣙଚḍ᥂ড়ৠሹ㸠Нࡵ᠔䳔㽕ⱘᣛ⼎Ǆ↣乍ᣛ⼎䛑ᑨᰃк䴶
ⱘˈᑊ䇈ᯢ᳝݊݇ⱘНࡵˈҹঞ㾘ᅮ䖭ѯНࡵⱘᴵℒ(៪ড়ৠⱘ݊Ҫᴵℒ)Ǆᔧӏԩℸ㉏ᣛ
⼎ᵘ៤ϔ乍ব᳈ᯊˈᑨᣝ✻㄀ 13 ᴵ˷ব᳈੠䇗ᭈ˹ⱘ㾘ᅮࡲ⧚Ǆ
ᡓࣙଚᑨ᥹ফ䲛Џǃ䲛Џҷ㸼៪ḍ᥂ᴀᴵফᠬⳌᑨᴗ࡯ⱘ䲛Џҷ㸼៪ࡽ᠟ⱘᣛ⼎Ǆ
௲Շ
↣ᔧᴀᴵӊ㾘ᅮ䲛Џᑨᣝ✻㄀ 3.5 ℒᇍӏԩџ乍䖯㸠ଚᅮ៪⹂ᅮᯊˈ䲛ЏᑨϢᡓࣙଚ

णଚሑ䞣䖒៤ण䆂Ǆབᵰ䖒ϡ៤ण䆂ˈ䲛Џᑨᇍ᳝݇ᚙ‫މ‬㒭ќᑨ᳝ⱘ㗗㰥ˈᣝ✻ড়ৠ‫ߎخ‬
݀ℷⱘ‫އ‬ᅮǄ
䲛Џᑨᇚ↣ϔ乍ଚᅮ៪‫އ‬ᅮ䖲ৠձ᥂ⱘ㒚㡖䗮ⶹᡓࣙଚǄ৘ᮍ䛑ᑨሹ㸠↣乍ଚᅮ៪‫އ‬
ᅮˈ䰸䴲ᡓࣙଚ೼ᬊࠄ䗮ⶹ 14 ໽‫ݙ‬৥䲛Џথߎ䗮ⶹˈᇍᶤ乍‫އ‬ᅮ㸼⼎ϡ⒵Ǆ䖭ᯊˈӏϔᮍ
ৃձ✻㄀ 20.4 ℒ˷পᕫѝッ㺕‫ྨއ‬ਬӮ‫އ‬ᅮ˹ⱘ㾘ᅮˈᇚѝッᦤѸ DABǄ
g20g

Unit 3 Cost Estimation
Costs Associated with Constructed Facilities
The costs of a constructed facility to the owner include both the initial capital cost and the
subsequent operation and maintenance costs. Each of these major cost categories consists of a
number of cost components.
The capital cost for a construction project includes the expenses related to the initial
establishment of the facility:
z Land acquisition, including holding and improvement.
z Planning and feasibility studies.
z Architectural and engineering design.
z Construction, including materials, equipment and labor.
z Field supervision of construction.
z Construction financing.
z Insurance and taxes during construction.
z Owner’s general office overhead.
z Equipment and furnishings not included in construction.
z Inspection and testing.
The operation and maintenance cost in subsequent years over the project life cycle includes
the following expenses:
z Land rent, if applicable.
z Operating staff.
z Labor and material for maintenance and repairs.
z Periodic renovations.
z Insurance and taxes.
z Financing costs.
z Utilities.
z Owner’s other expenses.
The magnitude of each of these cost components depends on the nature, size and location of
the project as well as the management organization, among many considerations. The owner is
interested in achieving the lowest possible overall project cost that is consistent with its
investment objectives.
It is important for design professionals and construction managers to realize that while the
construction cost may be the single largest component of the capital cost, other cost components
are not insignificant. For example, land acquisition costs are a major expenditure for building
construction in high-density urban areas, and construction financing costs can reach the same
order of magnitude as the construction cost in large projects such as the construction of nuclear
power plants.
From the owner’s perspective, it is equally important to estimate the corresponding
operation and maintenance cost of each alternative for a proposed facility in order to analyze the
life cycle costs. The large expenditures needed for facility maintenance, especially for publicly
owned infrastructure, are reminders of the neglect in the past to consider fully the implications of
operation and maintenance cost in the design stage.
In most construction budgets, there is an allowance for contingencies or unexpected costs
occurring during construction. This contingency amount may be included within each cost item
or be included in a single category of construction contingency. The amount of contingency is
based on historical experience and the expected difficulty of a particular construction project. For
example, one construction firm makes estimates of the expected cost in five different areas:
z Design development changes.
z Schedule adjustments.
z General administration changes (such as wage rates).
z Differing site conditions for those expected.
z Third party requirements imposed during construction, such as new permits.
Contingent amounts not spent for construction can be released near the end of construction
to the owner or to add additional project elements.
Approaches to Cost Estimation
Cost estimating is one of the most important steps in project management. A cost estimate
establishes the base line of the project cost at different stages of development of the project. A
cost estimate at a given stage of project development represents a prediction provided by the cost
engineer or estimator on the basis of available data. According to the American Association of
Cost Engineers, cost engineering is defined as that area of engineering practice where
engineering judgment and experience are utilized in the application of scientific principles and
techniques to the problem of cost estimation, cost control and profitability.
Virtually all cost estimation is performed according to one or some combination of the
following basic approaches.
(1) Production function. In microeconomics, the relationship between the output of a
process and the necessary resources is referred to as the production function. In construction, the
production function may be expressed by the relationship between the volume of construction
and a factor of production such as labor or capital. A production function relates the amount or
volume of output to the various inputs of labor, material and equipment. For example, the amount
of output Q may be derived as a function of various input factors x1, x2,Ă, xn by means of
mathematical and/or statistical methods. Thus, for a specified level of output, we may attempt to
find a set of values for the input factors so as to minimize the production cost. The relationship
g22g
Unit 3 Cost Estimation g23g
between the sizes of a building project (expressed in square feet) to the input labor (expressed in
labor hours per square foot) is an example of a production function for construction.
(2) Empirical cost inference. Empirical estimation of cost functions requires statistical
techniques which relate the cost of constructing or operating a facility to a few important
characteristics or attributes of the system. The role of statistical inference is to estimate the best
parameter values or constants in an assumed cost function. Usually, this is accomplished by
means of regression analysis techniques.
(3) Unit costs for bill of quantities. A unit cost is assigned to each of the facility components
or tasks as represented by the bill of quantities. The total cost is the summation of the products of
the quantities multiplied by the corresponding unit costs. The unit cost method is straightforward
in principle but quite laborious in application. The initial step is to break down or disaggregate a
process into a number of tasks. Collectively, these tasks must be completed for the construction
of a facility. Once these tasks are defined and quantities representing these tasks are assessed, a
unit cost is assigned to each and then the total cost is determined by summing the costs incurred
in each task. The level of detail in decomposing into tasks will vary considerably from one
estimate to another.
(4) Allocation of joint costs. Allocations of cost from existing accounts may be used to
develop a cost function of an operation. The basic idea in this method is that each expenditure
item can be assigned to particular characteristics of the operation. Ideally, the allocation of joint
costs should be causally related to the category of basic costs in an allocation process. In many
instances, however, a causal relationship between the allocation factor and the cost item cannot
be identified or may not exist. For example, in construction projects, the accounts for basic costs
may be classified according to:
z labor.
z material.
z construction equipment.
z construction supervision.
z general office overhead.
These basic costs may then be allocated proportionally to various tasks which are
subdivisions of a project.
Types of Construction Cost Estimates
Construction cost constitutes only a fraction, though a substantial fraction, of the total
project cost. However, it is the part of the cost under the control of the construction project
manager. The required levels of accuracy of construction cost estimates vary at different stages of
project development, ranging from ball park figures in the early stage to fairly reliable figures for
budget control prior to construction. Since design decisions made at the beginning stage of a
project life cycle are more tentative than those made at a later stage, the cost estimates made at
the earlier stage are expected to be less accurate. Generally, the accuracy of a cost estimate will
g23g
reflect the information available at the time of estimation.

Construction cost estimates may be viewed from different perspectives because of different
institutional requirements. In spite of the many types of cost estimates used at different stages of
a project, cost estimates can best be classified into three major categories according to their
functions. A construction cost estimate serves one of the three basic functions: design, bid and
control. For establishing the financing of a project, either a design estimate or a bid estimate is
used.
z Design Estimates
For the owner or its designated design professionals, the types of cost estimates encountered
run parallel with the planning and design as follows:
(1) Screening estimates (or order of magnitude estimates).
(2) Preliminary estimates (or conceptual estimates).
(3) Detailed estimates (or definitive estimates).
(4) Engineer’s estimates based on plans and specifications.
For each of these different estimates, the amount of design information available typically
increases.
In the planning and design stages of a project, various design estimates reflect the progress
of the design. At the very early stage, the screening estimate or order of magnitude estimate is
usually made before the facility is designed, and must therefore rely on the cost data of similar
facilities built in the past. A preliminary estimate or conceptual estimate is based on the
conceptual design of the facility at the state when the basic technologies for the design are known.
The detailed estimate or definitive estimate is made when the scope of work is clearly defined
and the detailed design is in progress so that the essential features of the facility are identifiable.
The engineer’s estimate is based on the completed plans and specifications when they are ready
for the owner to solicit bids from construction contractors. In preparing these estimates, the
design professional will include expected amounts for contractors’ overhead and profits.
The costs associated with a facility may be decomposed into a hierarchy of levels that are
appropriate for the purpose of cost estimation. The level of detail in decomposing the facility into
tasks depends on the type of cost estimate to be prepared. For conceptual estimates, for example,
the level of detail in defining tasks is quite coarse; for detailed estimates, the level of detail can
be quite fine.
As an example, consider the cost estimates for a proposed bridge across a river. A screening
estimate is made for each of the potential alternatives, such as a tied arch bridge or a cantilever
truss bridge. As the bridge type is selected, e.g. the technology is chosen to be a tied arch bridge
instead of some new bridge form; a preliminary estimate is made on the basis of the layout of the
selected bridge form on the basis of the preliminary or conceptual design. When the detailed
design has progressed to a point when the essential details are known, a detailed estimate is made
on the basis of the well defined scope of the project. When the detailed plans and specifications
are completed, an engineer’s estimate can be made on the basis of items and quantities of work.
g24g
z Bid Estimates
For the contractor, a bid estimate submitted to the owner either for competitive bidding or
negotiation consists of direct construction cost including field supervision, plus a markup to
cover general overhead and profits. The direct cost of construction for bid estimates is usually
derived from a combination of the following approaches.
(1) Subcontractor quotations.
(2) Quantity takeoffs.
(3) Construction procedures.
The contractor’s bid estimates often reflect the desire of the contractor to secure the job as
well as the estimating tools at its disposal. Some contractors have well established cost estimating
procedures while others do not. Since only the lowest bidder will be the winner of the contract in
most bidding contests, any effort devoted to cost estimating is a loss to the contractor who is not
a successful bidder. Consequently, the contractor may put in the least amount of possible effort
for making a cost estimate if it believes that its chance of success is not high.
If a general contractor intends to use subcontractors in the construction of a facility, it may
solicit price quotations for various tasks to be subcontracted to specialty subcontractors. Thus, the
general subcontractor will shift the burden of cost estimating to subcontractors. If all or part of
the construction is to be undertaken by the general contractor, a bid estimate may be prepared on
the basis of the quantity takeoffs from the plans provided by the owner or on the basis of the
construction procedures devised by the contractor for implementing the project. For example, the
cost of a footing of a certain type and size may be found in commercial publications on cost data
which can be used to facilitate cost estimates from quantity takeoffs. However, the contractor
may want to assess the actual cost of construction by considering the actual construction
procedures to be used and the associated costs if the project is deemed to be different from
typical designs. Hence, items such as labor, material and equipment needed to perform various
tasks may be used as parameters for the cost estimates.
z Control Estimates
For monitoring the project during construction, a control estimate is derived from available
information to establish:
(1) Budget estimate for financing.
(2) Budgeted cost after contracting but prior to construction.
(3) Estimated cost to completion during the progress of construction.
Both the owner and the contractor must adopt some base line for cost control during the
construction. For the owner, a budget estimate must be adopted early enough for planning long
term financing of the facility. Consequently, the detailed estimate is often used as the budget
estimate since it is sufficient definitive to reflect the project scope and is available long before the
engineer’s estimate. As the work progresses, the budgeted cost must be revised periodically to
reflect the estimated cost to completion. A revised estimated cost is necessary either because of
change orders initiated by the owner or due to unexpected cost overruns or savings.
g25g
For the contractor, the bid estimate is usually regarded as the budget estimate, which will be
used for control purposes as well as for planning construction financing. The budgeted cost
should also be updated periodically to reflect the estimated cost to completion as well as to insure
adequate cash flows for the completion of the project.
Questions
1. Which expenses are included in the capital cost for a construction project?
2. Which expenses are included in the operation and maintenance cost in subsequent
years over the project life cycle?
3. Which cost may be the single largest component of the capital cost? Are the other cost
components insignificant?
4. How does the construction firm estimate the amount of contingency?
5. Why is a cost estimate important at different stages of development of the project?
6. Say about the required levels of accuracy of construction cost estimates vary at
different stages of project development.
7. How to classify cost estimates according to their functions?
8. For the owner or its designated design professionals, what types of cost estimates
encountered run parallel with the planning and design?
9. How does a general contractor prepare a bid estimate?
10. How do the owner and the contractor control estimate?
cost estimation˖៤ᴀԄㅫ
initial capital˖߯ࡲ៤ᴀ˗߱ྟᡩ䌘
operation and maintenance costs˖䖤㸠Ϣ‫ݏ‬ᡸ䌍⫼
land acquisition˖ೳഄ㦋ᕫ
field supervision of construction˖⦄എᮑᎹⲥⴷ
overhead˖ӕϮϔ㠀ㅵ⧚䌍⫼
project life cycle˖乍Ⳃ⫳ੑ਼ᳳ
land rent˖ೳഄ⾳䞥
periodic renovations˖਼ᳳᗻ᳈ᮄ
financial costs˖䋶ࡵ៤ᴀ
construction cost˖ᮑᎹᓎ䆒䌍
unexpected costs˖ϡৃ乘㾕䌍⫼
cost engineers˖䗴ӋᎹ⿟Ꮬ
cost engineering˖Ꮉ⿟ԄӋ
cost control˖៤ᴀ᥻ࠊ
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production function˖ѻߎߑ᭄
the amount or volume of output˖ѻߎᘏ䞣
production cost˖⫳ѻ៤ᴀ
empirical cost inference˖㒣偠៤ᴀ᥼䆎
bill of quantities˖Ꮉ⿟䞣⏙ऩ
unit cost˖ऩԡ៤ᴀ
joint costs˖㘨ড়៤ᴀ
accuracy of cost estimates˖ԄӋ㊒ᑺ
design estimate˖䆒䅵ԄӋ
bid estimate˖ᡩᷛԄӋ
screening estimates(or order of magnitude estimates)˖ㄯ䗝Ԅ䅵˗ࣵㅫ(៪᭄䞣㑻Ԅ䅵)
preliminary estimates (or conceptual estimates)˖߱ℹԄㅫ(៪ὖᗉᗻԄㅫ)
detailed estimates (or definitive estimates)˖䆺㒚Ԅ䅵(៪⹂ᅮԄ䅵)
direct construction cost˖Ⳉ᥹ᮑᎹ៤ᴀ
profits˖߽⍺
control estimate˖᥻ࠊԄӋ
budget estimate˖䋶ࡵ乘ㅫ
খ 㗗䆥 ᭛
㄀ 3 ऩ‫ܗ‬ ៤ ᴀ Ԅ ㅫ
ူߙᅝಁಠອ‫ڑ‬ԅю·
ᇍϮЏᴹ䇈ˈϔ乍ᓎㄥ䆒ᮑⱘ៤ᴀࣙᣀ߱ྟᡩ䌘੠䱣ৢⱘ䖤㸠Ϣ‫ݏ‬ᡸ䌍⫼Ǆ䖭ϸ໻乍
䌍⫼জᰃ⬅䆌໮ߚ乍䌍⫼㒘៤ⱘǄ
ᇍѢϔϾᓎ䆒乍Ⳃˈ݊߱ྟᡩ䌘ࣙᣀϢᓎ䆒䆹䆒ᮑⳌ݇ⱘ৘乍䌘ᴀᡩܹ˖
z পᕫೳഄˈࣙᣀᣕ᳝੠‫ݡ‬ᓔথǄ
z 㾘ߦ੠ৃ㸠ᗻⷨおǄ
z ᓎㄥ੠Ꮉ⿟䆒䅵Ǆ
z ᮑᎹˈࣙᣀᴤ᭭ǃ䆒໛੠ࢇࡼ࡯Ǆ
z ⦄എᮑᎹⲥⴷǄ
z ᓎ䆒㵡䌘៤ᴀǄ
z ᓎ䆒䖛⿟Ёⱘ৘⾡ֱ䰽੠⿢䌍Ǆ
z ϮЏⱘϔ㠀㸠ᬓㅵ⧚ᓔᬃǄ
z ϡࣙᣀ೼ᮑᎹЁⱘ䆒໛੠ᆊ‫݋‬Ǆ
z Ẕᶹ੠䆩偠Ǆ
೼乍Ⳃᓎ៤ৢܼᇓੑ਼ᳳЁⱘ䖤㸠Ϣ㓈ᡸ䌍⫼ࣙᣀҹϟ޴Ͼᮍ䴶˖
z ೳഄ⾳䞥(བᵰ᳝ⱘ䆱)Ǆ
g27g
z 䖤㸠Ҏਬ䌍⫼Ǆ
z 㓈ׂ੠ֱ‫࡯ࡼࢇⱘݏ‬੠ᴤ᭭䌍⫼Ǆ
z ਼ᳳᗻ㗏ᮄ䌍⫼Ǆ
z ֱ䰽੠⿢䌍Ǆ
z 䋶ࡵ៤ᴀǄ
z ݀⫼џϮ䌍Ǆ
z ϮЏⱘ݊ҪᓔᬃǄ
ҹϞ䖭ѯ䌍⫼ⱘ໮ᇥ㽕⬅乍Ⳃⱘᗻ䋼ǃ㾘῵੠ഄ⧚ԡ㕂ˈҹঞㅵ⧚㒘㒛ㄝ໮ᮍ䴶ⱘ಴
㋴ᴹ‫އ‬ᅮǄϮЏᘏᏠᳯҹሑৃ㛑ᇥⱘᡩܹᴹᅲ⦄乍ⳂⱘⳂᷛǄ
䆒䅵㗙੠ᮑᎹㅵ⧚㗙ᑨᔧ䴲ᐌᯢ⹂ⱘ䞡㽕ϔ⚍ᰃˈᮑᎹᓎ䆒䌍⫼ᰃ៤ᴀЁ᳔Џ㽕ⱘϔ
乍䌍⫼ˈԚᰃ݊Ҫ䌍⫼гϡৃᗑ㾚Ǆ՟བˈ೼催ᆚᑺᓎㄥⱘᏖऎᓎ䆒ϔϾ乍Ⳃˈপᕫೳഄ
ⱘ䌍⫼ᰃϔ乍Џ㽕ⱘ៤ᴀˈ㗠ᇍḌ⬉キㄝ䖭ḋⱘ໻ൟ乍Ⳃᓎ䆒ˈ㵡䌘៤ᴀৃ㛑Ϣ乍Ⳃⱘᓎ
䗴៤ᴀ෎ᴀᣕᑇǄ
キ೼ϮЏᮍⱘ㾦ᑺⳟˈЎњߚᵤ乍Ⳃܼᇓੑ਼ᳳⱘ៤ᴀˈᇍ↣Ͼᓎ䆒ᮍḜⱘ䖤㸠੠㓈
ᡸ៤ᴀ䖯㸠Ԅ䅵ᰃৠḋ䞡㽕ⱘǄ᳝ѯ乍Ⳃˈᇸ݊ᰃ݀݅乍Ⳃⱘ⠽Ϯֱ‫ݏ‬៤ᴀᎼ໻ˈ䖭ᯊࠏ
䛑೼ᦤ䝦៥Ӏˈϡ䆹‫ڣ‬䖛এ䙷ḋ೼乍Ⳃⱘ䆒䅵䰊↉ᗑ㾚乍Ⳃᓎ៤ৢⱘ䖤㸠੠ֱ‫ݏ‬Ǆ
೼ᕜ໮乍Ⳃⱘ乘ㅫЁˈᘏ᳝ϔ䚼ߚϡৃ乘㾕ⱘ䌍⫼‫ޚ‬໛⫼ѢᮑᎹЁⱘᛣ໪ᚙ‫ˈމ‬䖭ѯ
ϡৃ乘㾕䌍⫼᳝ৃ㛑ࣙ৿೼↣ϔ乍䌍⫼Ёˈгৃ㛑԰Ўϔ乍ᘏⱘϡৃ乘㾕䌍⫼Ǆϡৃ乘㾕
䌍⫼ⱘ໮ᇥৃḍ᥂ग़৆㒣偠੠⡍ᅮ乍Ⳃⱘᓎ䆒䲒ᑺᴹԄ䅵Ǆ՟བˈᶤϔᓎㄥ݀ৌᇍϡৃ乘
㾕䌍⫼ⱘԄㅫࣙᣀ 5 Ͼϡৠᮍ䴶Ǆ
z 䆒䅵ব᳈Ǆ
z 䖯ᑺ䇗ᭈǄ
z ᘏԧㅵ⧚ᮍ䴶ⱘব࣪(՟བˈᎹ䌘∈ᑇⱘব࣪)Ǆ
z 乘⌟ⱘ⦄എᴵӊⱘϡৠǄ
z ᓎ䆒䖛⿟Ё㄀ϝᮍ㽕∖᠔ѻ⫳ⱘ䌍⫼ˈབᮄⱘ䆌ৃ㽕∖Ǆ
≵᳝⫼ᥝⱘϡৃ乘㾕䌍⫼೼Ꮉ⿟᳿ᳳৃҹ䗔ಲϮЏᮍˈ៪㗙⫼Ѣ乍Ⳃᮄ๲䚼ߚⱘᓎ䆒Ǆ
ю·‫ٹ‬സԅֺ֥
៤ᴀԄㅫᰃ乍Ⳃㅵ⧚Ё᳔䞡㽕ⱘ⦃㡖ПϔǄᅗ೼乍Ⳃᓎ䆒ⱘϡৠ䰊↉Ў乍Ⳃⱘ៤ᴀᓎ
ゟњϔᴵ෎‫ޚ‬㒓Ǆ೼乍Ⳃᓔথ䖛⿟Ёⱘᶤϔ⡍ᅮ䰊↉ⱘ៤ᴀԄㅫህᰃ䗴ӋᎹ⿟Ꮬ೼⦄᭄᳝
᥂෎⸔Ϟᇍ᳾ᴹ៤ᴀⱘ乘⌟Ǆḍ᥂㕢೑䗴ӋᎹ⿟ᏜणӮⱘᅮНˈᎹ⿟ԄӋᰃ䖤⫼⾥ᄺ⧚䆎
੠ᡔᴃˈḍ᥂Ꮉ⿟Ꮬⱘ߸ᮁ੠㒣偠ˈ㾷‫އ‬៤ᴀԄㅫǃ៤ᴀ᥻ࠊ੠Ⲝ߽㛑࡯ㄝ䯂乬ⱘ⌏ࡼǄ
ᅲ䰙Ϟˈ᠔᳝ⱘԄӋ⌏ࡼ䛑ᰃ෎Ѣҹϟ䖭ѯ෎ᴀᮍ⊩Ёⱘϔ⾡៪޴⾡ᮍ⊩ⱘ㒘ড়Ǆ
(1) ѻߎߑ᭄Ǆ೼ᖂ㾖㒣⌢ᄺЁᡞ䖛⿟ⱘѻߎ੠䌘⑤ⱘ⍜㗫䖭ϸ㗙П䯈ⱘ݇㋏ি‫خ‬ѻ
ߎߑ᭄Ǆ೼ᓎㄥᎹ⿟Ёˈѻߎߑ᭄߭ৃ䅸Ўᰃᓎ䆒乍Ⳃⱘ㾘῵੠⫳ѻখ᭄(བҎᎹ៪䌘䞥)
П䯈ⱘ݇㋏Ǆѻߎߑ᭄ᓎゟњѻߎⱘᘏ䞣៪㾘῵Ϣ৘⾡ᡩܹ(↨བҎ࡯ǃᴤ᭭ǃ䆒໛)П䯈
ⱘ݇㋏Ǆ՟བˈҷ㸼ѻߎⱘ Q ৃҹ⫼ҷ㸼৘⾡ᡩܹⱘϡৠখ᭄ x1, x2, Ă, xn ㄝ䗮䖛᭄ᄺ੠/
៪㒳䅵ᮍ⊩㸼䖒Ǆ಴ℸˈᇍᶤϔ⡍ᅮⱘѻߎˈৃҹ䗮䖛ᇍ৘Ͼᡩܹখ᭄䌟ќϡৠⱘؐˈҢ
㗠ᡒࠄϔϾ᳔Ԣⱘ⫳ѻ៤ᴀǄ᠓ሟᓎㄥⱘ໻ᇣ(⫼ᑇᮍ㣅ሎ㸼⼎)੠⍜㗫ⱘҎ࡯(⫼ᇣᯊ/ᑇᮍ
㣅ሎᴹ㸼⼎)П䯈ⱘ݇㋏ህᰃѻߎߑ᭄ⱘϔϾ՟ᄤǄ
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(2) 㒣偠៤ᴀ᥼䆎⊩Ǆ߽⫼෎Ѣ㒣偠ⱘ៤ᴀߑ᭄Ԅㅫ៤ᴀ䳔㽕ϔѯ㒳䅵ᡔᴃˈ䖭ѯᡔ
ᴃᇚᓎ䗴៪䖤㧹ᶤ䆒ᮑϢ㋏㒳ⱘϔѯ䞡㽕⡍ᕕ៪ሲᗻ㘨㋏䍋ᴹǄ᭄⧚㒳䅵᥼⧚ⱘⳂⱘᰃЎ
њᡒࠄ᳔䗖ড়ⱘখ᭄ؐ៪㗙ᐌ᭄ˈ⫼Ѣ೼‫؛‬ᅮⱘ៤ᴀߑ᭄Ё䖯㸠៤ᴀԄㅫǄ೼䗮ᐌᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈ
䖭䳔㽕߽⫼ಲᔦߚᵤ⊩Ǆ
(3) ⫼ѢᎹ⿟䞣⏙ऩⱘऩԡ៤ᴀ⊩Ǆ⬅Ꮉ⿟䞣⏙ऩ㸼䖒ⱘ৘乍ӏࡵ៪৘Ͼ㒘៤䚼ߚⱘ
ऩԡ៤ᴀ㛑໳ᯢ⹂ˈᘏ៤ᴀህᰃ৘乍ѻકⱘ᭄䞣Ϣ݊Ⳍᑨऩԡ៤ᴀⱘЬ⿃П੠Ǆऩԡ៤ᴀ
⊩㱑✊೼⧚䆎Ϟ䴲ᐌⳈ᥹ˈԚᰃ䲒ҹᑨ⫼Ǆ㄀ϔℹᰃᇚᶤᎹ԰ߚ㾷៤䆌໮乍ӏࡵˈᔧ✊↣
乍ӏࡵ䛑ᰃЎ乍Ⳃᓎ䆒᳡ࡵⱘǄϔᮺ䖭ѯӏࡵ⹂ᅮˈᑊ᳝њᎹ԰䞣ⱘԄㅫˈ⫼ऩӋϢ↣乍
ӏࡵⱘ䞣ⳌЬህৃҹᕫࠄ↣乍ӏࡵⱘ៤ᴀˈҢ㗠ᕫߎ↣乍Ꮉ԰ⱘ៤ᴀǄᔧ✊ˈ೼ϡৠⱘԄ
ㅫЁᇍ↣乍Ꮉ԰ߚ㾷ⱘ䆺㒚⿟ᑺৃ㛑Ӯ᳝ᕜ໻Ꮒ߿Ǆ
(4) ⏋ড়៤ᴀߚ䜡⊩Ǆ᳝ᯊ‫׭‬㽕Ң⦄᳝ⱘӮ䅵䋺ⳂϞএߚ㾷ˈҢ㗠⹂ᅮᶤ乍‫݋‬ԧ᪡԰
ⱘ៤ᴀߑ᭄Ǆ䖭⾡ᮍ⊩ⱘ෎ᴀᗱᛇᰃˈ↣ϔ乍㢅䌍䛑㛑໳ᇍᑨഄߚ䜡ࠄ᪡԰䖛⿟Ёⱘᶤϔ
⡍ᅮℹ偸Ǆ⧚ᛇᚙ‫މ‬ᰃ೼៤ᴀߚ䜡䖛⿟Ёˈ⏋ড়៤ᴀ㛑໳᳝಴ᵰᇍᑨ݇㋏ഄ㹿ߚ㾷ˈᑊ⹂
ᅮЎᶤ⾡෎ᴀ៤ᴀǄԚᰃˈ೼ᕜ໮ᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈᄤ乍Ⳃ੠݊ߚ䜡៤ᴀП䯈䲒ҹ⹂ᅮ៪㗙ḍᴀϡ
ᄬ೼಴ᵰ݇㋏Ǆ՟བˈ೼ᓎ䆒乍ⳂЁˈ෎ᴀ៤ᴀৃᅮНЎҹϟ 5 Ͼᮍ䴶˖
z Ҏ࡯Ǆ
z ᴤ᭭Ǆ
z ᓎㄥ䆒໛Ǆ
z ᓎ䆒ㅵ⧚Ǆ
z ᮹ᐌࡲ݀ᓔ䫔Ǆ
䖭޴Ͼ෎ᴀ៤ᴀ᳝ৃ㛑Ӯᣝ↨՟ഄߚ䜡ࠄᎹ⿟ᄤ乍ⱘϡৠӏࡵЁএǄ
ߙႏю·‫ٹ‬സԅफ໸
ᓎ䗴៤ᴀᰃᭈϾ乍Ⳃ៤ᴀЁⱘϔ䚼ߚˈ㱑✊ᕜ䞡㽕ˈԚাᰃᮑᎹ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚᥻ࠊϟⱘ៤
ᴀⱘϔ䚼ߚǄ೼乍Ⳃᓎ䆒ⱘϡৠ䰊↉ᇍԄӋ㊒⹂ᑺⱘ㽕∖гϡϔḋˈᮽᳳাᰃ㉫⬹Ԅ䅵ˈ
ࠄᮑᎹࠡⱘ乘ㅫህᑨᔧᰃⳌᔧৃ䴴њǄ⬅Ѣ೼乍Ⳃ⫳ੑ਼ᳳᮽᳳ䆒䅵ᮍ䴶ⱘ‫އ‬ㄪ↨ৢᳳ᳈
ࡴ‫݋‬᳝ϡ⹂ᅮᗻˈ᠔ҹгህϡ㛑ᳳᳯᮽᳳ䰊↉ⱘԄӋӮ‫⹂ޚ‬Ǆᘏⱘᴹ䇈ˈԄӋⱘ‫⿟⹂ޚ‬ᑺ
ᇚড᯴ԄӋᯊ᠔㦋পⱘֵᙃǄ
⬅Ѣϡৠᴎᵘⱘ㽕∖ϡৠˈᇍᓎ䗴៤ᴀԄㅫгᄬ೼ϡৠⱘ㾖⚍Ǆ㱑✊೼乍Ⳃⱘϡৠ䰊
↉ˈᓎ䗴៤ᴀⱘԄㅫ᳝䆌໮ϡৠⱘᮍ⊩ˈԚᰃḍ᥂݊ࡳ⫼ৃߚЎ 3 ⾡Џ㽕ᮍ⊩Ǆᓎ䗴៤ᴀ
ԄㅫЏ㽕᳡ࡵѢҹϟ 3 Ͼᮍ䴶˖䆒䅵ǃᡩᷛ੠᥻ࠊǄ㽕ᇍ乍Ⳃ䖯㸠㵡䌘ˈ㽕М䳔㽕䆒䅵Ԅ
Ӌˈ㽕М䳔㽕ᡩᷛԄӋǄ
z 䆒䅵ԄӋ
ᇍѢϮЏ៪Ҫᣛᅮⱘ䆒䅵㗙㗠㿔ˈ೼㾘ߦ੠䆒䅵䖛⿟Ё㽕ᑇ㸠䖯㸠ⱘԄӋⱘ⾡㉏བϟ˖
(1) ࣵㅫ(ᅣ㾖ԄӋ)Ǆ
(2) ߱ℹԄㅫ(ὖᗉᮍḜ䰊↉ԄӋ)Ǆ
(3) 䆺㒚Ԅㅫ(ᯢ⹂ԄӋ)Ǆ
(4) Ꮉ⿟Ꮬ෎ѢᮑᎹ䅵ߦ੠䇈ᯢⱘԄㅫǄ
ᇍѢҹϞ↣ϔϾԄӋ䰊↉ˈ䆒䅵᠔ᦤկⱘֵᙃ䞣ᰃ䗤ℹ๲ࡴⱘǄ
g29g
೼乍Ⳃⱘ㾘ߦ੠䆒䅵䰊↉ˈϡৠⱘ䆒䅵Ԅㅫড᯴њ䆒䅵䖯ሩⱘϡৠ䰊↉Ǆ೼᳔߱䰊↉ˈ
ᡩ䌘ࣵㅫ៪㗙ᅣ㾖ԄӋ䗮ᐌᰃ೼乍Ⳃ䆒䅵Пࠡ‫ˈⱘߎخ‬಴ℸᖙ乏ձ䴴䖛এ㉏Ԑ乍Ⳃⱘ᭄᥂Ǆ
߱ℹԄㅫ៪㗙⿄ЎὖᗉᮍḜ䰊↉ԄӋЏ㽕෎Ѣὖᗉ䆒䅵ᮍḜ䖯㸠Ԅㅫˈℸᯊাᯢ⹂њ᳔෎
ᴀⱘᡔᴃᮍḜǄ䆺㒚Ԅㅫ៪㗙⿄Ўᯢ⹂ԄӋᰃ೼Ꮉ⿟㣗ೈ෎ᴀᯢ⹂ǃ䆺㒚䆒䅵ℷ೼䖯㸠ǃ
乍Ⳃⱘ෎ᴀ⡍ᕕᏆ㒣⹂ᅮᯊ‫ⱘߎخ‬ǄᎹ⿟ᏜԄㅫ㽕ҹᯢ⹂ⱘᮑᎹ䅵ߦ੠ᮑᎹ䇈ᯢЎ෎⸔ˈ
ᑊϨϮЏгৃҹ᥂ℸথࣙ䗝ᢽᮑᎹᡓࣙଚǄ೼‫خ‬䖭ѯԄㅫᯊˈ䆒䅵Ҏਬᑨᇚᡓࣙଚⱘ᮹⿟
ㅵ⧚䌍੠߽⍺㗗㰥䖯এǄ
Ўњ䖯㸠៤ᴀԄㅫˈৃҹᡞϔ乍䆒ᮑⱘ᳝݇៤ᴀߚ㾷៤޴Ͼ䗖ᔧⱘሖ⃵Ǆሖ⃵ߦߚⱘ
䆺㒚⿟ᑺপ‫އ‬Ѣ៤ᴀԄㅫⱘ⾡㉏ˈ՟བˈᇍѢὖᗉ䆒䅵ᮍḜ䰊↉ⱘԄӋˈሖ⃵ⱘߦߚህ↨
䕗㉫ˈ㗠ᇍѢ䆺㒚䆒䅵䰊↉ⱘԄӋˈሖ⃵ⱘߦߚህᑨ䆹ᕜ㒚Ǆ
՟བˈ㽕ᇍᶤᴵ⊇Ϟⱘᢳᓎḹṕ䖯㸠䗴ӋԄㅫˈᡩ䌘ࣵㅫᰃᇍ↣Ͼ┰೼ⱘᮍḜ䖯㸠Ԅ
ㅫˈབᰃ䞛⫼ᣅḹᮍḜ䖬ᰃ 㞖ḕᶊḹᮍḜǄᔧḹⱘ㉏ൟ⹂ᅮৢˈ↨བ䗝ᅮᣅᔶḹ㗠ϡᰃ
݊Ҫᔶᓣⱘḹˈ䖭ᯊህ㽕෎Ѣᣅᔶḹⱘᑇ䴶Ꮧ㕂ˈ೼߱ℹ៪ὖᗉ䆒䅵ⱘ෎⸔Ϟ‫߱خ‬ℹԄㅫǄ
ᔧ䆺㒚䆒䅵䖯㸠ࠄϔᅮ䰊↉ˈ᳔ḍᴀⱘ䆺㒚䆒䅵Ꮖ㒣ᅠ៤ᯊˈህ㽕෎Ѣ乍Ⳃⱘᯢ⹂㣗ೈ䖯
㸠䆺㒚ԄㅫǄᔧᅠ៤њ䆺㒚ᮑᎹ䅵ߦ੠ᮑᎹᣛᇐ䇈ᯢৢˈህৃҹḍ᥂৘乍Ꮉ԰੠݊Ꮉ⿟䞣
䖯㸠Ꮉ⿟ᏜԄㅫњǄ
z ᡩᷛԄӋ
ᇍѢᡓࣙଚᴹ䇈ˈᦤѸ㒭ϮЏⱘᡩᷛԄӋⱘⳂⱘᰃЎゲѝⱘ䳔㽕៪㗙ᰃϢϮЏ䇜߸ⱘ
䳔㽕ˈᡩᷛԄӋЁࣙᣀⳈ᥹ᮑᎹ៤ᴀ(ࣙᣀ⦄എⲥⴷҹঞ೼ℸ෎⸔Ϟ๲ࡴϔヨᘏԧㅵ⧚䌍)
੠߽⍺Ǆ⫼ѢᡩᷛԄӋЁⱘⳈ᥹ᮑᎹ៤ᴀᐌ⫼ҹϟ޴⾡ᮍ⊩㒘ড়䅵ㅫ˖
(1) ḍ᥂ߚࣙଚⱘ᡹ӋǄ
(2) Ԅ䅵ⱘᎹ⿟䞣Ǆ
(3) ᮑᎹᮍḜǄ
ᡓࣙଚⱘᡩᷛԄӋᐌᐌড᯴њᡓࣙଚᇍᅠ៤ᡩᷛᎹ⿟ⱘᳳᳯؐˈгড᯴њ݊᠔䞛⫼ⱘ
ԄӋᎹ‫݋‬Ǆ᳝ѯᡓࣙଚᢹ᳝㡃དⱘԄӋ⿟ᑣˈ㗠᳝ѯ߭≵᳝Ǆ⬅Ѣ೼໻໮᭄Ꮉ⿟᢯ᷛЁϔ
㠀䛑ᰃ᳔ԢӋЁᷛˈ᠔ҹᇍѢ᳾Ёᷛ㗙ᴹ䇈ˈ೼ᡩᷛԄӋ䖛⿟Ёⱘӏԩᡩܹ䛑ᰃ⌾䌍Ǆ಴
ℸˈབᵰϔϾᡓࣙଚ䅸Ў㞾Ꮕ㚰ߎⱘᴎӮϡᰃᕜ໻ˈҪህӮ㢅䌍ሑৃ㛑ᇥⱘ㊒࡯ᴹ䖯㸠៤
ᴀԄӋǄ
བᵰϔϾᘏᡓࣙଚ೼䆒ᮑⱘᓎ䆒䖛⿟ЁᏠᳯᇚᎹ⿟䖯㸠ߚࣙˈҪ᳝ৃ㛑㽕∖৘ϾϧϮ
ߚࣙଚᦤѸߚࣙ᡹Ӌऩˈ᠔ҹᘏᡓࣙଚᇚᡞ៤ᴀԄㅫⱘӏࡵ䕀⿏ࠄߚࣙଚ༈ϞǄབᵰ᠔᳝
ⱘᎹ⿟៪䚼ߚᎹ⿟⬅ᘏᡓࣙଚᴹᮑᎹˈᡩᷛԄ䅵ህ㽕ḍ᥂ϮЏᦤߎⱘ䅵ߦ੠Ꮉ⿟䞣៪⬅ᡓ
ࣙଚᦤկⱘᮑᎹ㒘㒛䅵ߦᴹ䖯㸠㓪ࠊǄ՟བˈᶤ㉏᠓ሟᶤ⾡෎⸔ⱘ៤ᴀৃҹҢᶤѯଚϮߎ
⠜⠽Ёᡒࠄ݊ऩӋˈ‫ݡ‬ḍ᥂Ꮉ⿟䞣ህৃҹㅫߎ៤ᴀǄԚᰃˈ乍Ⳃⱘᅲ䰙ᚙ‫ৃމ‬㛑ᇐ㟈ᅲ䰙
ᮑᎹ⿟ᑣϢϔ㠀䆒䅵㽕∖ϡৠˈ೼䖭⾡ᚙ‫މ‬ϟᡓࣙଚህ㽕ᛇࡲ⊩Ԅㅫ݊ⳳᅲⱘ៤ᴀ੠Ⳍ݇
ⱘ䌍⫼Ǆ಴ℸˈЎᅠ៤ϡৠӏࡵ᠔䳔㽕ⱘࢇࡼ࡯ǃᴤ᭭੠䆒໛ㄝህᑨ䆹԰Ў៤ᴀԄㅫⱘ
খ᭄Ǆ
z ᥻ࠊԄӋ
Ў೼ᮑᎹ䖛⿟Ё䖯㸠ㅵ⧚੠᥻ࠊˈ䳔㽕෎Ѣҹϟֵᙃ㓪ࠊϔϾ᥻ࠊᗻⱘԄӋ˖
(1) 䋶ࡵ乘ㅫǄ
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(2) ㅒ䅶ড়ৠৢ೼ᓔᎹࠡⱘ乘ㅫǄ
(3) ೼ᮑᎹ䖛⿟Ё᠔‫ⱘخ‬ᇍᅠᎹࠡⱘ៤ᴀԄㅫǄ
೼ᮑᎹ䖛⿟ЁˈϮЏ੠ᡓࣙଚ䛑Ӯ᳝ϔϾ៤ᴀⱘ෎‫ޚ‬ᴹ᥻ࠊᅲ䰙៤ᴀǄᇍϮЏᴹ䇈ˈ
ᖙ乏ሑᮽᯢ⹂乘ㅫ(budget estimate)⫼Ѣ乍Ⳃⱘ䭓ᳳ䋶ࡵ㾘ߦǄ಴㗠ˈ೼Ꮉ⿟ᏜԄㅫᅠ៤ࠡ
ⱘⳌᔧ䭓ᯊ䯈䞠ˈা㛑⫼䆺㒚Ԅㅫᴹ԰Ў᥻ࠊ乘ㅫˈ಴Ў䆺㒚Ԅㅫг㛑‫ߚܙ‬ᯢ⹂ഄড᯴乍
Ⳃⱘ㣗ೈǄ೼Ꮉ⿟䖯㸠ⱘ䖛⿟Ёˈᖙ乏ᇍ៤ᴀԄㅫ䖯㸠ᅮᳳ᳈ᮄˈҹড᯴ᅠᎹࠡⱘ乘⌟៤
ᴀǄ⬅Ѣ೼ᮑᎹЁϮЏৃ㛑ᦤߎব᳈㽕∖ˈ៪㗙᳝ϡৃ乘㾕ⱘさ⸈៤ᴀ៪㡖㑺៤ᴀⱘᚙ‫މ‬
থ⫳ˈᇍ៤ᴀԄㅫ䖯㸠ঞᯊ᳈ᮄᰃᕜᖙ㽕ⱘǄ
ᇍᡓࣙଚᴹ䇈ˈ㒣ᐌ⫼ᡩᷛԄӋ԰Ў乘ㅫˈ᮶ৃҹ䖯㸠៤ᴀ᥻ࠊˈгৃҹ䖯㸠ᮑᎹᳳ
䯈ⱘ䋶ࡵ㾘ߦǄ䆹乘ㅫ៤ᴀг㽕ᅮᳳ᳈ᮄˈҹড᯴ᅠᎹࠡⱘ乘⌟៤ᴀˈᑊ⹂ֱ乍ⳂᅠᎹࠡ
ⱘ⦄䞥ᡩܹǄ
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Unit 4 The Project Budget(1)
For cost control on a project, the construction plan and the associated cash flow estimates
can provide the baseline reference for subsequent project monitoring and control. For schedules,
progress on individual activities can be compared with the project schedule to monitor the
progress of activities. Contract and job specifications provide the criteria by which to assess and
assure the required quality of construction. The final or detailed cost estimate provides a baseline
for the assessment of financial performance during the project. To the extent that costs are within
the detailed cost estimate, then the project is thought to be under financial control. Overruns in
particular cost categories signal the possibility of problems and give an indication of exactly what
problems are being encountered. Expense oriented construction planning and control focuses
upon the categories included in the final cost estimation.
For control and monitoring purposes, the original detailed cost estimate is typically
converted to a project budget, and the project budget is used subsequently as a guide for
management. Specific items in the detailed cost estimate become job cost elements. Expenses
incurred during the course of a project are recorded in specific job cost accounts to be compared
with the original cost estimates in each category. Thus, individual job cost accounts generally
represent the basic unit for cost control. Alternatively, job cost accounts may be disaggregated or
divided into work elements which are related both to particular scheduled activities and to
particular cost accounts.
In addition to cost amounts, information on material quantities and labor inputs within each
job account is also typically retained in the project budget. With this information, actual materials
usage and labor employed can be compared to the expected requirements. As a result, cost
overruns or savings on particular items can be identified as due to changes in unit prices, labor
productivity or in the amount of material consumed.
The number of cost accounts associated with a particular project can vary considerably. For
constructors, on the order of four hundred separate cost accounts might be used on a small project.
These accounts record all the transactions associated with a project. Thus, separate accounts
might exist for different types of materials, equipment use, payroll, project office, etc. Both
physical and non-physical resources are represented, including overhead items such as computer
use or interest charges. Table 4-1 summarizes a typical set of cost accounts that might be used in
building construction. Note that this set of accounts is organized hierarchically, with seven major
divisions (accounts 201 to 207) and numerous subdivisions under each division. This hierarchical
structure facilitates aggregation of costs into pre-defined categories; for example, costs associated
with the superstructure (account 204) would be the sum of the underlying subdivisions (ie. 204.1,
204.2, etc.). The sub-division accounts in Table 4-1 could be further divided into personnel,
material and other resource costs for the purpose of financial accounting.
Unit 4 The Project Budget(1) g33g
Table 4-1 Illustrative Set of Project Cost Accounts
201 Clearing and Preparing Site

202 Substructure
202.1 Excavation and Shoring
202.2 Piling
202.3 Concrete Masonry
202.31 Mixing and Placing
202.32 Formwork
202.33 Reinforcing
203 Outside Utilities (water, gas, sewer, etc.)

204 Superstructure
204.1 Masonry Construction
204.2 Structural Steel
204.3 Wood Framing, Partitions, etc.
204.4 Exterior Finishes (brickwork, terra cotta, cut stone, etc.)
204.5 Roofing, Drains, Gutters, Flashing, etc.
204.6 Interior Finish and Trim
204.61 Finish Flooring, Stairs, Doors, Trim
204.62 Glass, Windows, Glazing
204.63 Marble, Tile, Terrazzo
204.64 Lathing and Plastering
204.65 Soundproofing and Insulation
204.66 Finish Hardware
204.67 Painting and Decorating
204.68 Waterproofing
204.69 Sprinklers and Fire Protection
204.7 Service Work
204.71 Electrical Work
204.72 Heating and Ventilating
204.73 Plumbing and Sewage
204.74 Air Conditioning
204.72 Fire Alarm, Telephone, Security, Miscellaneous
205 Paving, Curbs, Walks

206 Installed Equipment (elevators, revolving doors, mailchutes, etc.)
207 Fencing
In developing or implementing a system of cost accounts, an appropriate numbering or

coding system is essential to facilitate communication of information and proper aggregation of
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cost information. Particular cost accounts are used to indicate the expenditures associated with
specific projects and to indicate the expenditures on particular items throughout an organization.
These are examples of different perspectives on the same information, in which the same
information may be summarized in different ways for specific purposes. Thus, more than one
aggregation of the cost information and more than one application program can use a particular
cost account. Separate identifiers of the type of cost account and the specific project must be
provided for project cost accounts or for financial transactions. As a result, a standard set of cost
codes such as the MASTERFORMAT codes may be adopted to identify cost accounts along with
project identifiers and extensions to indicate organization or job specific needs. Similarly the use
of databases or, at a minimum, inter-communicating applications programs facilitate access to
cost information.
Converting a final cost estimate into a project budget compatible with an organization’s cost
accounts is not always a straightforward task. Cost estimates are generally disaggregated into
appropriate functional or resource based project categories. For example, labor and material
quantities might be included for each of several physical components of a project. For cost
accounting purposes, labor and material quantities are aggregated by type no matter for which
physical component they are employed. For example, particular types of workers or materials
might be used on numerous different physical components of a facility. Moreover, the categories
of cost accounts established within an organization may bear little resemblance to the quantities
included in a final cost estimate. This is particularly true when final cost estimates are prepared in
accordance with an external reporting requirement rather than in view of the existing cost
accounts within an organization.
One particular problem in forming a project budget in terms of cost accounts is the treatment
of contingency amounts. These allowances are included in project cost estimates to accommodate
unforeseen events and the resulting costs. However, in advance of project completion, the source
of contingency expenses is not known. Realistically, a budget accounting item for contingency
allowance should be established whenever a contingency amount was included in the final cost
estimate.
A second problem in forming a project budget is the treatment of inflation. Typically, final
cost estimates are formed in terms of real dollars and an item reflecting inflation costs is added
on as a percentage. This inflation allowance would then be allocated to individual cost items in
relation to the actual expected inflation over the period for which costs will be incurred.
Example 4.1 Project Budget for a Design Office.
An example of a small project budget is shown in Table 4-2.
This budget might be used by a design firm for a specific design project. While this budget
might represent all the work for this firm on the project, numerous other organizations would be
involved with their own budgets. In Table 4-2, a summary budget is shown as well as a detailed
listing of costs for individuals in the Engineering Division. For the purpose of consistency with
cost accounts and managerial control, labor costs are aggregated into three groups: the
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engineering, architectural and environmental divisions. The detailed budget shown in Table 4-2
applies only to the engineering division labor; other detailed budgets amounts for categories such
as supplies and the other work divisions would also be prepared. Note that the salary costs
associated with individuals are aggregated to obtain the total labor costs in the engineering group
for the project. To perform this aggregation, some means of identifying individuals within
organizational groups is required. Accompanying a budget of this nature, some estimate of the
actual man-hours of labor required by project task would also be prepared. Finally, this budget
might be used for internal purposes alone. In submitting financial bills and reports to the client,
overhead and contingency amounts might be combined with the direct labor costs to establish an
aggregate billing rate per hour.
Table 4-2 Example of a Small Project Budget for a Design Firm
Personnel Budget Summary/dollar

Architectural Division 67 251.00
Engineering Division 45 372.00
Environmental Division 28 235.00
Total 140 858.00
Other Direct Expenses
Travel 2 400.00
Supplies 1 500.00
Communication 600.00
Computer Services 1 200.00
Total 5 700.00
Overhead 175 869.60
Contingency and Profit 95 700.00
Total 418 127.60
Senior Engineer
Associate Engineer 11 562.00
Engineer 21 365.00
Technician 12 654.00
Total 45 372.00
Example 4.2 Project Budget for a Constructor.

Table 4-3 illustrates a summary budget for a constructor. This budget is developed from a
project to construct a wharf. As with the example design office budget above, costs are divided
into direct and indirect expenses. Within direct costs, expenses are divided into material,
subcontract, temporary work and machinery costs. This budget indicates aggregate amounts for
the various categories. Cost details associated with particular cost accounts would supplement
and support the aggregate budget shown in Table 4-3. A profit and a contingency amount might
be added to the basic budget of $ 1 715 147 shown in Table 4-3 for completeness.
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Table 4-3 An Example of a Project Budget for a Wharf Project
Material Cost/$ Subcontract Temporary Machinery Total Cost/$

Work/$ Work/$ Cost/$
Steel Piling 292 172 129 178 16 389 0 437 739
Tie-rod 88 233 29 254 0 0 117 487
Anchor-Wall 130 281 60 873 0 0 191 154
Backfill 242 230 27 919 0 0 300 149
Coping 42 880 22 307 13 171 0 78 358
Dredging 0 111 650 0 0 111 650
Fender 48 996 10 344 0 1 750 61 090
Other 5 000 32 250 0 0 37 250
Sub-total 849 800 423 775 29 560 1 750 1 304 885
Summary
Total of Direct Cost $1 304 885
Indirect Cost
Common Temporary Work $19 320
Common Machinery $80 934
Transportation $15 550
Office Operating Costs $294 458
Total of Indirect Cost $ 410 262
Total Project Cost $1 715 147
Questions
1. How is the original detailed cost estimate converted to a project budget?

2. What may job cost accounts be divided into?
3. In addition to cost amounts, what is also typically retained in the project budget?
4. List separate accounts that exist in different types.
5. What’s the advantage of the hierarchical structure in cost accounts?
6. Converting a final cost estimate into a project budget compatible with an organization’s
cost accounts is not always a straightforward task, why?
7. How to treat the contingency amounts in forming a project budget in terms of cost
accounts?
8. How to treat inflation in forming a project budget?
9. Say about the example of a small project budget for a design firm.
10. How is cost divided in the example of project budget for a contractor?
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project budget˖乍Ⳃ乘ㅫ
cost control˖៤ᴀ᥻ࠊ
cash flow˖⦄䞥⌕䞣
job specifications˖ᮑᎹ(Ꮉ԰)㾘㣗
financial performance˖䋶ࡵ⢊‫މ‬
overruns˖䍙ᬃ
job cost elements˖Ꮉ԰៤ᴀ㽕㋴
work elements˖԰Ϯ㽕㋴
database˖᭄᥂ᑧ
separate accounts˖ϧ䋺
contingency allowance˖ᑨᗹ‫ޚ‬໛䞥
unforeseen events˖ϡৃ乘㾕џӊ
inflation allowance˖䗮䋻㝼㚔‫ޚ‬໛䞥
a summary budget˖∛ᘏ乘ㅫ
financial bills˖䋶ࡵऩ᥂
direct labor costs˖Ⳉ᥹ҎᎹ៤ᴀ
indirect costs˖䯈᥹៤ᴀ
overhead and contingency amounts˖ӕϮㅵ⧚䌍⫼੠ᑨᗹ䌍⫼ᘏ䅵
খ 㗗䆥 ᭛
㄀ 4 ऩ‫ܗ‬ 乍Ⳃ乘ㅫ(1)
ᇍѢ乍Ⳃⱘ៤ᴀ᥻ࠊǃ乍Ⳃ䅵ߦ੠Ⳍ݇ⱘ⦄䞥⌕䞣ԄㅫৃҹЎৢ㓁ⱘ乍Ⳃⲥⴷ੠᥻ࠊ
ᦤկখ✻෎‫ޚ‬ǄᇍѢ䖯ᑺ᥻ࠊˈৃҹᇚ乍Ⳃ⌏ࡼⱘᅲ䰙䖯ᑺ੠乍Ⳃⱘ䅵ߦ䖯ᑺ䖯㸠↨䕗ˈ
ҹⲥⴷ乍Ⳃⱘ䖯ᑺᅲᮑǄড়ৠ੠Ꮉ԰ᷛ‫߭ޚ‬Ўᓎ䆒乍Ⳃⱘ䋼䞣ᦤկњ䆘Ӌ੠ֱ䆕‫߭ޚ‬Ǆ᳔
㒜ⱘ៪䆺㒚ⱘ៤ᴀ乘ㅫЎ乍Ⳃᳳⱘ䋶ࡵ⢊‫ᦤމ‬կњ䆘Ӌ෎‫ޚ‬Ǆབᵰᅲ䰙៤ᴀ≵᳝䍙ߎ䆺㒚
ⱘ៤ᴀԄㅫˈ៥Ӏ֓䅸Ў乍Ⳃⱘ䋶ࡵ᥻ࠊ‫خ‬ᕫ䕗དǄ⡍⅞៤ᴀ乍⃵ⱘ䍙ᬃথߎњৃ㛑ᄬ೼
䯂乬ⱘֵোˈᑊϨᇍ᠔䴶Ј䯂乬㒭ߎ⹂ߛⱘᣛ⼎Ǆҹ䌍⫼Ўᇐ৥ⱘᓎ䆒乍Ⳃ䅵ߦ੠᥻ࠊˈ
ջ䞡ࣙ৿೼᳔㒜៤ᴀԄㅫ‫ⱘݙ‬៤ᴀ乍⃵Ǆ
ᴀⴔ᥻ࠊ੠ⲥⴷⱘⳂⱘˈ߱ྟⱘ䆺㒚៤ᴀԄㅫ䗮ᐌ㹿䕀࣪Ў乍Ⳃ乘ㅫˈᑊ㹿⫼ᴹ԰Ў
䱣ৢ៤ᴀㅵ⧚ⱘᣛफǄ䆺㒚៤ᴀԄㅫЁⱘ‫݋‬ԧ乍⃵៤ЎᎹ԰៤ᴀ㽕㋴Ǆ೼乍Ⳃᅲᮑ䖛⿟Ё
᠔থ⫳ⱘᬃߎ㹿䆄ᔩ೼‫݋‬ԧⱘᎹ԰៤ᴀ᡹ਞЁˈҹ⫼ᴹ೼↣ϔ៤ᴀ乍⃵ϟ੠ॳྟ៤ᴀԄㅫ
Ⳍ↨䕗Ǆ䖭ḋϔᴹˈϾ߿ⱘᎹ԰៤ᴀ᡹ਞ䗮ᐌህ㹿⿄Ў៤ᴀ᥻ࠊⱘ෎ᴀऩԡǄৠᯊˈᎹ԰
៤ᴀ᡹ਞ䖬ৃߚ㾷៤Ϣ‫݋‬ԧⱘ䖯ᑺ⌏ࡼঞ‫݋‬ԧⱘ៤ᴀ᡹ਞ䛑᳝݇ⱘ԰Ϯ㽕㋴Ǆ
g37g
䰸њ៤ᴀ᡹ਞП໪ˈ乍Ⳃ乘ㅫЁ䖬ᑨֱ⬭↣乍Ꮉ԰᡹ਞ᳝݇ᴤ᭄᭭䞣੠ࢇࡼ࡯ᡩܹⱘ
ֵᙃǄ᳝њ䖭ѯֵᙃˈህৃᇚᅲ䰙ⱘᴤ᭭⫼䞣੠ҎᎹ⍜㗫Ϣ乘ᳳⱘᷛ‫ޚ‬䖯㸠↨䕗ˈ䖭ḋህ
ৃҹ䆚߿ߎ‫݋‬ԧ⌏ࡼ៤ᴀ䍙ᬃ៪㡖㑺ⱘॳ಴ˈेᰃ⬅ѢऩӋব࣪䖬ᰃ⬅Ѣࢇࡼ⫳ѻ⥛៪ᴤ
᭭⍜㗫䞣Ϟⱘব࣪᠔ᓩ䍋ⱘǄ
ϔϾ‫݋‬ԧ乍ⳂϞⱘ៤ᴀ᡹ਞ᭄ᄫᏂᓖᕜ໻ǄᇍѢᓎ䆒乍ⳂˈϔϾᇣ乍Ⳃгৃ㛑᳝໮䖒
400 ໮Ͼ⣀ゟⱘ៤ᴀ᡹ਞǄ䖭ѯ᡹ਞ䆄ᔩњ乍ⳂϞⱘ᠔᳝Ѹᯧ⌏ࡼǄ಴ℸˈᄬ೼ϡৠ㉏ൟ
ⱘϧ䋺ˈ՟བˈ᳝ॳᴤ᭭᡹ਞǃ䆒໛Փ⫼᡹ਞǃᎹ䌘᡹ਞǃࡲ݀ᅸ᡹ਞㄝǄৠᯊˈ䇌བ䅵
ㅫᴎՓ⫼៪߽ᙃᬃߎП㉏ⱘ᳝ᔶ៪᮴ᔶⱘ䌍⫼ᬃߎ䛑㽕㸼⼎೼᡹ਞᔧЁǄ㸼 4-1 ᘏ㒧њϔ
༫⫼೼ᓎ䆒乍ⳂϞⱘ៤ᴀ᡹ਞǄ⊼ᛣˈ䖭༫᡹ਞ㹿ߦߚЎ 7 ϾЏ㽕䚼ߚ(᡹ਞ 201 ࠄ᡹ਞ
207)ˈৠᯊ↣䚼ߚজࣙᣀњ໻䞣ᄤⳂǄ䖭⾡ㄝ㑻ᓣⱘ᡹ਞ㒧ᵘ᳝߽Ѣᡞ៤ᴀᣝ乘‫⹂ܜ‬ᅮད
ⱘ㉏߿䖯㸠∛ᘏǄ՟བˈЏԧ㒧ᵘⱘ៤ᴀ(᡹ਞ 204)ᰃ⬅݊ϟⱘ৘ᄤ乍Ⳃ∛ᘏ㗠ᴹⱘ(े
204.1ǃ204.2 ㄝ)Ǆ㸼 4-1 ЁⱘᄤⳂ᡹ਞজৃ䖯ϔℹ㹿ߚ㾷៤ҎᎹǃᴤ᭭੠݊Ҫ䌘⑤៤ᴀˈ
ҹᮍ֓䋶ࡵӮ䅵Ꮉ԰Ǆ
㸼 4-1 乍Ⳃ៤ᴀ᡹ਞ䇈ᯢ
201 ⏙⧚੠‫ޚ‬໛⦄എ
202 ഄϟ㒧ᵘ
202.1 䪏ᄨ੠ᬃᡸ
202.2 ᠧḽ
202.3 ⏋‫ޱ‬ೳ⌛ㄥ
202.31 ᧙ᢠ
202.32 ៤ൟ
202.33 ‫ݏ‬ᡸ
203 എ໪䆒ᮑ(∈ǃ⇨ǃᥦ∵ㄝ)
204 Џԧ㒧ᵘ
204.1 ⏋‫ޱ‬ೳᮑᎹ
204.2 䩶ㄟᎹ⿟
204.3 ⷠԧᎹ⿟
204.4 ᅸ໪Ꮉ⿟
204.5 ሟ䴶Ꮉ⿟
204.6 ᅸ‫ݙ‬㺙佄
204.61 ὐഄ䴶
204.62 ⦏⩗੠に᠋
204.63 ໻⧚⷇
204.64 ᵓᴵᢠ♄
204.65 䱨䷇Ϣ㒱㓬
204.66 Ѩ䞥
204.67 ஋⍖
204.68 䰆∈
g38g
㓁㸼
204.69 ⍜䰆
204.7 ᳡ࡵ䆒ᮑ
204.71 ⬉఼✻ᯢ
204.72 կ⛁䗮亢
204.73 ㅵ䘧Ϣᥦ∵
204.74 ぎ䇗Ꮉ⿟
204.75 ☿䄺ǃ⬉䆱ǃᅝܼ੠݊Ҫ
205 䫎വ䘧ഄⷪ
206 䆒໛ᅝܼ(⬉ẃǃᮟ䕀䮼ㄝ)
207 ೈ๭
೼ᓔথ੠䖤⫼៤ᴀ᡹ਞ㋏㒳ᯊˈ䗖ᔧⱘ㓪ⷕ៪䆥ⷕԧ㋏᳝߽Ѣֵᙃ≳䗮੠៤ᴀֵᙃⱘ
∛ᘏǄ⡍ᅮⱘ៤ᴀ᡹ਞ᮶ৃ⫼ᴹᰒ⼎᳝݇‫݋‬ԧ乍Ⳃⱘ䌍⫼ˈгৃҹᰒ⼎㒘㒛Ё‫݋‬ԧџ乍ⱘ
ᓔᬃˈ䖭ህᰃⳌৠⱘֵᙃ᳝ϡৠ㾦ᑺᑨ⫼ⱘ՟ᄤˈेⳌৠⱘֵᙃ಴Ў⡍ᅮⱘⳂⱘৃҹ⫼ϡ
ৠⱘᮍ⊩㹿䅵ㅫ੠∛ᘏǄ಴㗠ˈϔϾ៤ᴀ᡹ਞৃ㛑㹿໮Ͼ៤ᴀֵᙃ∛ᘏᑨ⫼⿟ᑣ᠔Փ⫼Ǆ
‫݋‬ԧ乍ⳂЁⱘ乍Ⳃ៤ᴀ᡹ਞ៪䋶ࡵѸᯧⱘ↣ϔ㉏៤ᴀ᡹ਞᖙ乏᳝⣀ゟⱘᷛ䆚ヺǄ䖭ḋϔᴹˈ
ህৃҹ䞛⫼ЏḐᓣ㓪ⷕ䖭ḋϔ༫ᷛ‫ޚ‬៤ᴀ㓪ⷕˈ䖲ৠ乍Ⳃ䆚߿ヺᴹ䆚߿៤ᴀ᡹ਞঞᰒ⼎㒘
㒛៪Ꮉ԰䳔∖ⱘᎹ԰㣗ೈǄৠḋഄˈ䖬ৃҹ䗮䖛Փ⫼᭄᥂ᑧˈ៪㟇ᇥ䗮䖛Փ⫼‫ݙ‬䚼㘨㒰ᑨ
⫼⿟ᑣᴹ䖯㸠៤ᴀֵᙃⱘ㦋পǄ
ᡞ᳔㒜ⱘ៤ᴀԄㅫ䕀࣪៤Ϣ㒘㒛ⱘ៤ᴀ᡹ਞ‫ݐ‬ᆍⱘ乍Ⳃ乘ㅫᑊϡᰃϔ乍ㅔऩⱘᎹ԰Ǆ
៤ᴀԄㅫ䗮ᐌ㹿ߚ㾷ࠄ෎Ѣ乍Ⳃ㣗⭈ⱘࡳ㛑៪䌘⑤ϞǄ՟བˈ乍ⳂⱘӏԩϔϾᅲԧߚ䚼䛑
ӮࣙᣀҎᎹ៪ᴤ᭭ⱘ⍜㗫䞣ˈҢ៤ᴀӮ䅵ⱘ㾦ᑺߎথˈ೼㒳䅵ҎᎹ੠ᴤ᭭ⱘ⍜㗫䞣ᯊˈᰃ
ᣝ✻݊㉏ൟ㗠ϡ㗗㰥݊‫݋‬ԧ㹿Փ⫼೼ાϾᅲԧߚ䚼ϞǄгህᰃ䇈ˈৠϔ㉏ൟⱘҎᎹ៪ᴤ᭭
ৃ㛑೼ᓎㄥѻકⱘ䆌໮ᅲԧߚ䚼Ϟ䛑㹿Փ⫼䖛Ǆℸ໪ˈᓎゟ೼㒘㒛‫ݙ‬䚼ⱘ៤ᴀ᡹ਞ⾡㉏ৠ
䆺㒚ⱘ៤ᴀԄㅫЁⱘ᭄䞣ᕜᇥ᳝ⳌԐП໘Ǆᔧ䆺㒚ⱘ៤ᴀԄㅫᰃᣝ✻໪䚼ⱘ∛᡹㽕∖㗠ϡ
ᰃᣝ✻㒘㒛‫ݙ‬䚼⦄᳝ⱘ៤ᴀ᡹ਞᴹ㓪ࠊᯊˈ݊ᚙ‫މ‬ህ᳈ࡴབℸǄ
೼ᣝ✻៤ᴀ᡹ਞᴹᔶ៤乍Ⳃ乘ㅫᯊ᠔䴶ЈⱘϔϾ‫݋‬ԧ䯂乬ᰃབԩᇍᕙᛣ໪џӊǄЎњ
ᑨҬϡৃ乘㾕џӊ੠⬅ℸѻ⫳ⱘ៤ᴀˈ䗮ᐌ೼乍Ⳃ៤ᴀԄㅫЁ㽕ᅝᥦϔᅮ᭄䞣ⱘ‫ټ‬໛䞥Ǆ
✊㗠ˈ೼乍ⳂᅠᎹࠡˈᑨᗹ‫ټ‬໛䞥ⱘࡼ⫼Ϣ৺ᰃḍ᥂ᛣ໪џӊᰃ৺থ⫳ᴹ⹂ᅮⱘǄ೼ᅲ䰙
᪡԰ᔧЁˈ᮴䆎䆺㒚ⱘ៤ᴀԄㅫЁᰃ৺ࣙᣀњᛣ໪џӊˈ乍Ⳃ乘ㅫ䛑ᑨ߫ᬃϔヨᑨᗹ‫ټ‬໛䞥Ǆ
೼ᔶ៤乍Ⳃ乘ㅫᯊ䘛ࠄⱘ㄀ѠϾ䯂乬ᰃབԩᇍᕙ䗮䋻㝼㚔Ǆ‫݌‬ൟഄˈ䆺㒚៤ᴀԄㅫᰃ
ᣝ✻㕢‫⦄ܗ‬Ӌᴹ㓪ࠊⱘˈৠᯊ䗑ࡴϔϾҹⱒߚ↨ᔶᓣߎ⦄ⱘডᑨ䗮䋻㝼㚔៤ᴀⱘ߫乍ˈे
䗮ᐌ᠔䇈ⱘ䗮䋻㝼㚔‫ޚ‬໛䞥Ǆ䖭ヨ䗮䋻㝼㚔‫ޚ‬໛䞥ḍ᥂䗮䋻㝼㚔ⱘᅲ䰙থ⫳∈ᑇ᠔ᓩথⱘ
៤ᴀ㹿ߚ䜡㟇৘Ͼ‫݋‬ԧⱘ៤ᴀ乍ⳂϞǄ
՟ 4.1 ϔϾ䆒䅵џࡵ᠔ⱘ乍Ⳃ乘ㅫǄ
ϔϾᇣⱘ乍Ⳃ乘ㅫ⼎՟㾕㸼 4-2Ǆ䖭ᰃϔϾЎ‫݋‬ԧ乍Ⳃ䖯㸠䆒䅵ⱘ䆒䅵݀ৌⱘ乘ㅫǄሑ
ㅵ䖭Ͼ乘ㅫ⎉Ⲫњ䖭ᆊ䆒䅵݀ৌ೼乍ⳂϞⱘ᠔᳝Ꮉ԰ˈ✊㗠݊Ҫⱘ㒘㒛гᑨ᳝݊㞾Ꮕⱘ乍
Ⳃ乘ㅫǄ೼㸼 4-2 ᔧЁˈϡԚ᳝ϔϾ∛ᘏ乘ㅫˈৠᯊ䖬᳝ϔϾ䆒䅵䚼ⱘҎᎹ䌍⫼ᯢ㒚㸼Ǆ
g39g
Ўњ៤ᴀ᡹ਞⱘ䖲㓁ᗻ੠֓Ѣㅵ⧚Ϟⱘ᥻ࠊˈҎᎹ䌍ᣝ䆒䅵䚼ǃᓎㄥ䚼੠⦃๗䚼 3 Ͼ䚼䮼
ᴹ䖯㸠∛ᘏǄ㸼 4-2 Ёা߫ߎњ䆒䅵䚼ⱘ䆺㒚乘ㅫˈ㗠ৢࢸㄝ݊Ҫ䚼䮼ⱘ䆺㒚乘ㅫ⧚ᑨৠ
ᯊ߫ߎˈℸ㸼ⳕ⬹њǄ೼䆒䅵䚼ˈᘏⱘࢇࡼ࡯៤ᴀᰃ⬅Ў乍ⳂᎹ԰ⱘ᠔᳝ҎਬⱘᎹ䌘㌃ࡴ
㗠ᕫࠄⱘǄЎњᅠ៤䖭乍Ꮉ԰ˈ䳔㽕ϔѯऎߚ㒘㒛‫ݙ‬䚼ϡৠҎਬᎹ䌘ঞ㒽ᬜ㗗䆘ⱘᮍ⊩ˈ
㗠䗮ᐌ៥ӀӮᣝ乍Ⳃ৘ӏࡵ᠔䳔ᅲ䰙ᎹᯊⱘԄㅫᴹ䖯㸠䖭乍Ꮉ԰Ǆ᳔ৢˈ䖭Ͼ乘ㅫা㛑Ў
㒘㒛‫ݙ‬䚼ⱘ⡍ᅮⳂᷛ᳡ࡵǄ೼৥ᅶ᠋ᦤѸ䋶ࡵऩ᥂੠᡹ਞᯊˈㅵ⧚䌍੠ᑨᗹ䌍೼Ⳉ᥹ࢇࡼ
࡯៤ᴀⱘ෎⸔Ϟˈҹ೎ᅮⱒߚ↨∛ᘏ㌃ࡴⱘᔶᓣߎ⦄Ǆ
㸼 4-2 ϔϾ䆒䅵џࡵ᠔ⱘ乍Ⳃ乘ㅫ⼎՟
ߚ㉏乘ㅫ∛ᘏ㕢‫ܗ‬
Ҏਬ᠔೼䚼䮼
ᓎㄥᄺ 67 251.00
䆒䅵䚼 45 372.00
⦃๗䚼 28 235.00
ড়䅵 140 858.00
݊ҪⳈ᥹䌍⫼
Ꮒᮙ 2 400.00
ৢࢸ 1 500.00
䗮ֵ 600.00
䅵ㅫᴎ᳡ࡵ 1 200.00
ড়䅵 5 700.00
ㅵ⧚䌍 175 869.60

ᑨᗹ䌍Ϣ߽⍺ 95 700.00
ড়䅵 418 127.60
Ꮉ⿟䚼Ҏਬᯢ㒚
催㑻Ꮉ⿟Ꮬ 11 562.00
Ꮉ⿟Ꮬ 21 365.00
ᡔᴃҎਬ 12 654.00
ড়䅵 45 372.00
՟ 4.2 ϔϾᡓࣙଚⱘ乍Ⳃ乘ㅫǄ
㸼 4-3 ᰒ⼎њϔϾᡓࣙଚⱘㅔऩ乍Ⳃⱘ乘ㅫǄ䆹乍ⳂЎϔϾᡓᓎⷕ༈ᮑᎹⱘ乍ⳂǄ੠
ࠡ䴶ⱘ՟ᄤϔḋˈ䖭䞠ᡞ៤ᴀгߚЎⳈ᥹៤ᴀ੠䯈᥹៤ᴀϸ⾡Ǆ೼Ⳉ᥹៤ᴀ䞠䴶ˈজᇚᬃ
ߎߦߚЎᴤ᭭䌍ǃড়ৠߚࣙ䌍ǃЈᯊᎹ԰䌍੠ᴎẄ䌍Ǆ䖭Ͼ乘ㅫᰃᣝϡৠⱘ乍⃵ᴹ∛ᘏⱘǄ
‫݋‬ԧ៤ᴀ᡹ਞЁⱘ៤ᴀ᭄᥂ৃҹᇍ㸼 4-3 ᠔⼎ⱘ∛ᘏ乘ㅫ䖯㸠㸹‫ܙ‬੠ᬃᣕǄᅠᎹ߽⍺੠ᑨ
ᗹ䌍ৃ೼㸼 4-3 Ё 1 715 147 㕢‫ⱘܗ‬෎ᴀ乘ㅫϞ঺㸠䅵ㅫǄ
g40g
㸼 4-3 ᶤⷕ༈乍Ⳃ乘ㅫ⼎՟
ᴤ᭭䌍$ ড়ৠߚࣙ䌍$ ᱖ᅮᎹ԰䌍$ ᴎẄ䌍$ ऩ乍∛ᘏ$

䩶ḽ 292 172 129 178 16 389 0 437 739
䖲᥹ᴚ 88 233 29 254 0 0 117 487
䫮ᅮ๭ 130 281 60 873 0 0 191 154
ಲ฿ 242 230 27 919 0 0 300 149
य़乊 42 880 22 307 13 171 0 78 358
⭣⌮ 0 111 650 0 0 111 650
ᣵ⊹ᵓ 48 996 10 344 0 1 750 61 090
݊Ҫ 5 000 32 250 0 0 37 250
ߚ乍∛ᘏ 849 800 423 775 29 560 1 750 1 304 885
ᘏ䅵
ᘏⳈ᥹៤ᴀ $1 304 885
䯈᥹៤ᴀ
݅⫼᱖ᅮᎹ԰ $19 320
݀⫼ᴎẄ $80 934
Ѹ䗮䖤䕧 $15 550
ࡲ݀䌍⫼ $294 458
ᘏ䯈᥹៤ᴀ $410 262
ᘏ乍Ⳃ៤ᴀ $1 715 147
g41g

Unit 5 The Project Budget(2)üü

Forecasting for Activity Cost Control
For the purpose of project management and control, it is not sufficient to consider only the
past record of costs and revenues incurred in a project. Good managers should focus upon future
revenues, future costs and technical problems. For this purpose, traditional financial accounting
schemes are not adequate to reflect the dynamic nature of a project. Accounts typically focus on
recording routine costs and past expenditures associated with activities. Generally, past
expenditures represent sunk costs that cannot be altered in the future and may or may not be
relevant in the future. For example, after the completion of some activity, it may be discovered
that some quality flaw renders the work useless. Unfortunately, the resources expended on the
flawed construction will generally be sunk and cannot be recovered for re-construction (although
it may be possible to change the burden of who pays for these resources by financial withholding
or charges; owners will typically attempt to have constructors or designers pay for changes due to
quality flaws). Since financial accounts are historical in nature, some means of forecasting or
projecting the future course of a project is essential for management control. In this section, some
methods for cost control and simple forecasts are described.
An example of forecasting used to assess the project status is shown in Table 5-1. In this
example, costs are reported in five categories, representing the sum of all the various cost
accounts associated with each category.
Table 5-1 Illustration of a Job Status Report
Budgeted Estimated Cost Cost Cost To Over or

Factor
Cost/$ Total Cost/$ Committed/$ Exposure/$ Date/$ Under/$
Labor 99 406 102 342 49 596 ü 52 746 2 936
Material 88 499 88 499 42 506 45 993 ü 0
Subcontracts 198 458 196 323 83 352 97 832 15 139 (2 135)
Equipment 37 543 37 543 23 623 ü 13 920 0
Other 72 693 81 432 49 356 ü 32 076 8 739
Total 496 509 506 139 248 433 143 825 113 881 5 950
z Budgeted cost.
The budgeted cost is derived from the detailed cost estimate prepared at the start of the
project. Examples of project budgets were presented in above section. The factors of cost would
be referenced by cost account.
Unit 5 The Project Budget(2)——Forecasting for Activity Cost Control g43g
z Estimated total cost.

The estimated or forecast total cost in each category is the current best estimate of costs
based on progress and any changes since the budget was formed. Estimated total costs are the
sum of cost to date, commitments and exposure. Methods for estimating total costs are described
below.
z Cost to date.
The actual cost incurred to date is recorded in column 6 and can be derived from the
financial record keeping accounts.
z Over or Under.
A final column in Table 5-1 indicates the amount over or under the budget for each category.
This column is an indicator of the extent of variance from the project budget; items with
unusually large overruns would represent a particular managerial concern. Note that variance is
used in the terminology of project control to indicate a difference between budgeted and actual
expenditures. The term is defined and used quite differently in statistics or mathematical analysis.
In Table 5-1, labor costs are running higher than expected, whereas subcontracts are less than
expected.
The current status of the project is a forecast budget overrun of $ 5 950, with 23 percent of
the budgeted project costs incurred to date.
For project control, managers would focus particular attention on items indicating
substantial deviation from budgeted amounts. In particular, the cost overruns in the labor and in
the other expense category would be worthy of attention by a project manager in Table 5-1. A
next step would be to look in greater detail at the various components of these categories.
Overruns in cost might be due to lower than expected productivity, higher than expected wage
rates, higher than expected material costs, or other factors. Even further, low productivity might
be caused by inadequate training, lack of required resources such as equipment or tools, or
inordinate amounts of re-work to correct quality problems. Review of a job status report is only
the first step in project control.
The job status report illustrated in Table 5-1 employs explicit estimates of ultimate cost in
each category of expense. These estimates are used to identify the actual progress and status of an
expense category. Estimates might be made from simple linear extrapolations of the productivity
or cost of the work to date on each project item. Algebraically, a linear estimation formula is
generally one of two forms. Using a linear extrapolation of costs, the forecast total cost, Cf , is:
Ct
Cf (5-1)
Pt
Where Ct is the cost incurred to time t and pt is the proportion of the activity completed at
time t. For example, an activity which is 50 percent complete with a cost of $40 000 would be
estimated to have a total cost of $40 000/0.5 = $80 000. More elaborate methods of forecasting
costs would disaggregate costs into different categories, with the total cost the sum of the forecast
costs in each category.
Alternatively, the use of measured unit cost amounts can be used for forecasting total cost.
g43g
The basic formula for forecasting cost from unit costs is:
Cf Wct (5-2)
Where Cf is the forecast total cost, W is the total units of work, and ct is the average cost per
unit of work experienced up to time t. If the average unit cost is $50 per unit of work on a
particular activity and 1 600 units of work exist, then the expected cost is 1 600h50 = $80 000
for completion. The unit cost in Equation (5-2) may be replaced with the hourly productivity and
the unit cost per hour (or other appropriate time period), resulting in the equation:
C f Wht ut (5-3)
where the cost per work unit ct is replaced by the time per unit, ht, multiplied by the cost per unit
of time, XW.
More elaborate forecasting systems might recognize peculiar problems associated with work
on particular items and modify these simple proportional cost estimates. For example, if
productivity is improving as workers and managers become more familiar with the project
activities, the estimate of total costs for an item might be revised downward. In this case, the
estimating equation would become:
Cf Ct (W Wt )ct (5-4)
where forecast total cost, C f , is the sum of cost incurred to date, Ct, and the cost resulting from
the remaining work ( W Wt ) multiplied by the expected cost per unit time period for the
remainder of the activity, Ft.
As a numerical example, suppose that the average unit cost has been $50 per unit of work,
but the most recent figure during a project is $45 per unit of work. If the project manager was
assured that the improved productivity could be maintained for the remainder of the project
(consisting of 800 units of work out of a total of 1 600 units of work), the cost estimate would be
50h800+45h800= $76 000 for completion of the activity. Note that this forecast uses the actual
average productivity achieved on the first 800 units and uses a forecast of productivity for the
remaining work.
In addition to changes in productivities, other components of the estimating formula can be
adjusted or substituted. For example, the change in unit prices due to new labor contracts or
material supplier’s prices might be reflected in estimating future expenditures. In essence, the
same problems encountered in preparing the detailed cost estimate are faced in the process of
preparing exposure estimates, although the number and extent of uncertainties in the project
environment decline as work progresses. The only exception to this rule is the danger of quality
problems in completed work which would require re-construction.
Each of the estimating methods described above require current information on the state of
work accomplishment for particular activities. There are several possible methods to develop
such estimates, including:
z Units of work completed.
For easily measured quantities the actual proportion of completed work amounts can be
measured. For example, the linear feet of piping installed can be compared to the required
g44g
amount of piping to estimate the percentage of piping work completed.

z Incremental milestones.
Particular activities can be sub-divided or “decomposed” into a series of milestones, and the
milestones can be used to indicate the percentage of work complete based on historical averages.
For example, the work effort involved with installation of standard piping might be divided into
four milestones.
ķSpool in place: 20% of work and 20% of cumulative work.
ĸEnds welded: 40% of work and 60% of cumulative work.
ĹHangars and Trim Complete: 30% of work and 90% of cumulative work.
ĺHydrotested and Complete: 10% of work and 100% of cumulative work.
Thus, a pipe section for which the ends have been welded would be reported as 60%
complete.
z Opinion.
Subjective judgments of the percentage complete can be prepared by inspectors, supervisors
or project managers themselves. Clearly, this estimated technique can be biased by optimism,
pessimism or inaccurate observations. Knowledgeable estimaters and adequate field observations
are required to obtain sufficient accuracy with this method.
z Cost ratio.
The cost incurred to date can also be used to estimate the work progress. For example, if an
activity was budgeted to cost $20 000 and the cost incurred at a particular date was $10 000, then
the estimated percentage complete under the cost ratio method would be 10 000/20 000 = 0.5 or
fifty percent. This method provides no independent information on the actual percentage
complete or any possible errors in the activity budget: the cost forecast will always be the
budgeted amount. Consequently, managers must use the estimated costs to complete an activity
derived from the cost ratio method with extreme caution.
Systematic application of these different estimating methods to the various project activities
enables calculation of the percentage complete or the productivity estimates used in preparing job
status reports.
In some cases, automated data acquisition for work accomplishments might be instituted.
For example, transponders might be moved to the new work limits after each day’s activity and
the new locations automatically computed and compared with project plans. These measurements
of actual progress should be stored in a central database and then processed for updating the
project schedule.
Example 5.1 Estimated total cost to complete an activity.
Suppose that we wish to estimate the total cost to complete piping construction activities on
a project. The piping construction involves 1 000 linear feet of piping which has been divided
into 50 sections for management convenience. At this time, 400 linear feet of piping has been
installed at a cost of $40 000 and 500 man-hours of labor. The original budget estimate was
g45g
$90 000 with a productivity of one foot per man-hour, a unit cost of $60 per man hour and a total
material cost of $ 30 000. Firm commitments of material delivery for the $30 000 estimated cost
have been received.
The first task is to estimate the proportion of work completed. First, 400 linear feet of pipe is
in place out of a total of 1 000 linear feet, so the proportion of work completed is 400/1 000 = 0.4
or 40%. This is the “units of work completed” estimation method. Second, the cost ratio method
would estimate the work complete as the cost-to-date divided by the cost estimate or $40 000/
$ 90 000 = 0.44 or 44%.Third, the “incremental milestones” method would be applied by
examining each pipe section and estimating a percentage complete and then aggregating to
determine the total percentage complete. For example, suppose the following quantities of piping
fell into four categories of completeness:
complete (100%) 380 ft
hangars and trim complete (90%) 20 ft
ends welded (60%) 5 ft
spool in place (20%) 0 ft
Then using the incremental milestones shown above, the estimate of completed work would
be 380 + 20h0.9 + 5h0.6 + 0 = 401 ft and the proportion complete would be 401 ft/1 000 ft =
0.401 or 40% after rounding.
Once an estimate of work completed is available, then the estimated cost to complete the
activity can be calculated. First, a simple linear extrapolation of cost results in an estimate of
$40 000/0.4 = $100 000 for or the piping construction using the 40% estimate of work completed.
This estimate projects a cost overrun of 100 00090 000 = $10 000.
Second, a linear extrapolation of productivity results in an estimate of (1 000 ft)(500 hrs/400
ft)($60/hr) + 30 000 = $105 000 for completion of the piping construction. This estimate suggests
a variance of 105 00090 000 = $15 000 above the activity estimate. The source of the variance
can also be identified in this calculation: compared to the original estimate, the labor productivity
is 1.25 hours per foot or 25% higher than the original estimate.
Example 5.2 Estimated Total Cost for Completion.
The forecasting procedures described above assumed linear extrapolations of future costs,
based either on the complete experience on the activity or the recent experience. For activities
with good historical records, it can be the case that a typically non-linear profile of cost
expenditures and completion proportions can be estimated. Figure 5.1 illustrates one possible
non-linear relationships derived from experience in some particular activity. For example, point
A in Figure 5.1 suggests a higher expenditure than is normal for the completion proportion. This
point represents 40% of work completed with an expenditure of 60% of the budget. Since the
historical record suggests only 50% of the budget should be expended at time of 40% completion,
a 60%50%=10% overrun in cost is expected. If comparable cost overruns continue to
accumulate, then the cost-to-complete will be even higher.
g46g
Figure 5.1 Illustration of Proportion Completion versus Expenditure for an Activity
Questions
1. What’s the disadvantage of traditional financial accounting schemes?

2. What does the term “sunk costs” mean?
3. How to calculate the estimated total cost?
4. For project control, managers would focus particular attention on items indicating
substantial deviation from budgeted accounts, why?
5. Which factors may cause overruns in cost?
6. How many methods can be used to get the forecast total cost? What are they?
7. What does the term “units of work completed” mean?
8. How to understand the term “incremental milestone”?
9. How to calculate cost ratio?
10. In some cases, automated data acquisition for work accomplishments might be
instituted, why?
financial accounting˖䋶ࡵ䅵ㅫ˗䋶ࡵӮ䅵
sunk cost˖≝≵៤ᴀ˗ᏆᬃҬ៤ᴀ
forecasting for activity cost˖Ꮉ԰៤ᴀ乘⌟
cost to date˖ᅠᎹ៤ᴀ
cost committed˖ᡓ䇎៤ᴀ
cost exposure˖䰘ࡴ៤ᴀ
project control˖乍Ⳃ᥻ࠊ
job status report˖Ꮉ԰⢊‫މ‬᡹ਞ
units of work completed˖ᅠᎹࢇࡼऩ‫ܗ‬
incremental milestones˖䞠⿟⹥㌃䅵
g47g
field observations˖⦄എ㾖ᆳ
cost ratio˖៤ᴀ⥛
estimated total cost for completion˖乘䅵ᅠᎹᘏ៤ᴀ
খ 㗗䆥 ᭛
㄀ 5 ऩ‫ܗ‬ 乍Ⳃ乘ㅫ(2)üüᎹ԰៤ᴀ乘⌟
ᇍѢ乍Ⳃⱘㅵ⧚੠᥻ࠊ㗠㿔ˈҙ㗗㰥乍ⳂЁᏆ㒣থ⫳њⱘ៤ᴀ੠ᬊⲞᰃϡ໳ⱘǄདⱘ
乍Ⳃ㒣⧚䖬Ӯ݇⊼᳾ᴹ៤ᴀǃᬊⲞ੠ϔѯᡔᴃ䯂乬ǄӴ㒳ⱘ䋶ࡵӮ䅵䅵ߦ᮴⊩ড᯴ߎ乍Ⳃ
ⱘࡼᗕ⡍ᕕˈ㗠া㛑䲚Ё೼ᇍ᮹ᐌᗻ៤ᴀ੠Ꮖথ⫳ⱘ৘乍Ꮉ԰ᓔᬃⱘ䆄ᔩϞǄ䗮ᐌᡞ䖛এ
Ꮖ㒣থ⫳Ϩ೼᳾ᴹ᮴⊩‫ݡ‬ᬍবⱘᬃߎ⿄ЎĀ≝≵៤ᴀāǄ՟བˈᔧᶤѯᎹ԰ᅠ៤ৢˈ᳝ᯊӮ
থ⦄⬅Ѣᄬ೼䋼䞣㔎䱋㗠Փᕫѻક↿᮴⫼໘Ǆ䘫ធⱘᰃˈ㗫䌍೼㔎䱋ⱘᓎㄥѻકϞⱘ৘⾡
䌘⑤䗮ᐌህĀ≝≵њāˈᑊϨ᮴⊩䗮䖛䞡ᓎ㗠ᕫࠄᘶ໡(ሑㅵৃҹḍ᥂䋷ӏⱘᔦሲᴹ⹂ᅮ⬅
䇕ᡓᢙ᠔䗴៤ⱘᤳ༅ˈϮЏгӮ㽕∖ᡓࣙଚ៪䆒䅵ᮍᴹ䋳ᢙ⬅Ѣ䋼䞣㔎䱋㗠ѻ⫳ⱘ䌍⫼)Ǆ
⬅Ѣ䋶ࡵ᡹ਞⱘग़৆ሔ䰤ᗻˈЎњ䖯㸠᳝ᬜⱘㅵ⧚੠᥻ࠊˈ᳝ᖙ㽕Փ⫼ϔѯ乘⌟੠㾘ߦ乍
Ⳃ᳾ᴹ䖯⿟ⱘᮍ⊩੠᠟↉Ǆϟ䴶ᇚҟ㒡ϔѯ᳝݇៤ᴀ᥻ࠊ੠乘⌟ⱘᮍ⊩Ǆ
ϔϾ⫼ᴹ乘⌟੠䆘Ӌ乍Ⳃ⢊‫ⱘމ‬՟ᄤ㾕㸼 5-1Ǆ೼䖭Ͼ՟ᄤᔧЁˈ៤ᴀᣝ 5 Ͼ乍⃵䖯㸠
㒳䅵ˈ↣Ͼ乍⃵‫ݡ‬ᣝϡৠষᕘ䖯㸠∛ᘏǄ
㸼 5-1 Ꮉ԰⢊‫މ‬᡹ਞ⼎՟
乘ㅫ 乘䅵 ᡓ䇎䰘ࡴ ᅠᎹ 䍙ᬃ៪

㽕㋴
៤ᴀ$ ᘏ៤ᴀ$ ៤ᴀ$ ៤ᴀ ៤ᴀ$ 㡖㑺$
ҎᎹ 99 406 102 342 49 596 ü 52 746 2 936
ᴤ᭭ 88 499 88 499 42 506 45 993 ü 0
ড়ৠߚࣙ 198 458 196 323 83 352 97 832 15 139 (2 135)
䆒໛ 37 543 37 543 23 623 ü 13 920 0
݊Ҫ 72 693 81 432 49 356 ü 32 076 8 739
ᘏ䅵 496 509 506 139 248 433 143 825 113 881 5 950
z 乘ㅫ៤ᴀǄ
乘ㅫ៤ᴀ⬅乍Ⳃ߱ྟ䰊↉ⱘ䆺㒚៤ᴀԄㅫᕫᴹǄ乍Ⳃ乘ㅫⱘ՟ᄤ೼Ϟϔ䚼ߚᏆ㒣ҟ㒡
䖛Ǆ៤ᴀ㽕㋴ৃখ㗗៤ᴀ᡹ਞǄ
z 乘䅵ᘏ៤ᴀǄ
↣ϔ乍⃵ⱘ乘䅵ᘏ៤ᴀᰃḍ᥂乘ㅫᔶ៤ৢ乍Ⳃⱘᅲ䰙䖯ሩ੠ব࣪ᇍᔧࠡ៤ᴀⱘ᳔Ў㊒
⹂ⱘԄㅫǄ乘䅵ᘏ៤ᴀ⬅ᅠᎹ៤ᴀǃᡓ䇎៤ᴀ੠䰘ࡴ៤ᴀ㌃ࡴᕫࠄǄԄㅫᘏ៤ᴀⱘᮍ⊩ᇚ
೼ϟ䴶ҟ㒡Ǆ
z ᅠᎹ៤ᴀǄ
ᏆᅠᎹⱘᅲ䰙៤ᴀ䆄ᔩ೼㸼 5-1 ⱘ㄀ 6 ᷣ䞠ˈᅗৃ⬅䋶ࡵ䆄ᔩ᡹ਞᕫࠄǄ
g48g
z 䍙ᬃ៪㡖㑺Ǆ
㸼 5-1 ⱘ᳔ৢϔᷣᰒ⼎њ↣ϔ乍⃵乘ㅫ䍙ᬃ៪㡖㑺ⱘ᭄ؐˈ䖭ϔᷣгᰃ乘ㅫ‫أ‬Ꮒⱘᣛ
⼎఼Ǆ䙷ѯ䍙ߎড়⧚㣗ೈⱘ៤ᴀ‫أ‬Ꮒᑨᔧᓩ䍋ㅵ⧚Ϟⱘ݇⊼Ǆ⊼ᛣˈ㹿⫼೼乍Ⳃ᥻ࠊЁⱘ
Ā‫أ‬Ꮒāϔ䆡ᣛⱘᰃ乘ㅫؐ੠ᅲ䰙ؐП䯈ⱘᏂᓖǄ೼㒳䅵ᄺ੠᭄ᄺߚᵤЁˈ䖭Ͼᴃ䇁ⱘᅮ
Н੠Փ⫼ᰃᅠܼϡৠⱘǄ೼㸼 5-1 ЁˈҎᎹ៤ᴀ↨乘ᳳⱘ催ˈ㗠ߚࣙড়ৠ៤ᴀै↨乘ᳳⱘԢǄ
乍ⳂⳂࠡⱘ⢊‫މ‬ᰃ乘䅵ᘏ៤ᴀⳌᇍѢ乘ㅫ៤ᴀ䍙ᬃ 5 950 㕢‫ˈܗ‬ৠᯊᅠᎹ៤ᴀऴ乘ㅫ
៤ᴀⱘ↨՟Ў 23%Ǆ
Ң乍Ⳃ᥻ࠊⱘ㾦ᑺ㗠㿔ˈ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ᑨᇍ䙷ѯ੠乘ㅫ៤ᴀ᳝䞡໻‫أ‬Ꮒⱘ乍⃵㒭ќ⡍⅞ⱘ
݇⊼Ǆ‫݋‬ԧഄ䇈ˈ೼㸼 5-1 Ёˈ
ĀҎᎹā੠݊ҪϸϾ乍⃵䛑ߎ⦄њ䍙ᬃⱘ⦄䈵ˈᑨᔧᓩ䍋⊼
ᛣǄ㗠ϟϔℹ߭㽕‫݋‬ԧߚᵤ䖭ѯ乍⃵ⱘϡৠ㒘៤䚼ߚⱘ‫݋‬ԧᚙ‫މ‬Ǆ՟བˈ៤ᴀⱘ䍙ᬃৃ㛑
ᰃ⬅Ѣࢇࡼ⫳ѻ⥛ⱘ䰡ԢǃᎹ䌘ⱘᦤ催ǃᴤ᭭⍼Ӌ៪݊Ҫॳ಴ㄝᓩ䍋ⱘǄ䖯ϔℹ䆆ˈࢇࡼ
⫳ѻ⥛ⱘ䰡Ԣজ᳝ৃ㛑⑤ѢᮄᴹⱘᎹҎ᳾㒣෍䆁ǃ㔎Уᴎ఼੠䆒໛ㄝ⫳ѻ᠔䳔ⱘ䌘⑤ǃ㑴
ℷ䋼䞣䯂乬ⱘ䞡໡Ꮉ԰ϡᔧㄝॳ಴ǄߚᵤᎹ԰⢊‫މ‬᡹ਞাᰃ乍Ⳃ᥻ࠊⱘ㄀ϔℹǄ
㸼 5-1 ᠔⼎ⱘᎹ԰⢊‫މ‬᡹ਞᇍ↣ϔϾ䌍⫼乍⃵䛑㒭ߎњ䕗Ў㊒⹂ⱘ᳔㒜៤ᴀԄㅫǄ䖭
ϾԄㅫ㹿⫼ᴹ߸߿乍Ⳃⱘᅲ䰙䖯ሩ੠ᶤ៤ᴀ乍⃵ⱘ⢊‫މ‬Ǆ䖭ϾԄㅫؐৃҹ⫼↣ϔ乍⃵ⱘࢇ
ࡼ⫳ѻ⥛៪ᅠᎹ៤ᴀ䖯㸠ㅔऩⱘ㒓ᗻ᥼ⓨᕫࠄǄ೼ҷ᭄ᄺЁˈϔϾ㒓ᗻԄㅫⱘᮍ⿟䗮ᐌ᳝
ϸ⾡ᔶᓣǄ⫼៤ᴀⱘ㒓ᗻ᥼ⓨৃᕫ乘⌟ᘏ៤ᴀ Cfˈे
Ct
Cf (5-1)
Pt
݊ЁˈCt ЎᶤᎹ԰೼ t ᯊࠏ᠔থ⫳ⱘ៤ᴀˈPt Ў t ᯊࠏᶤᎹ԰ᅠᎹⱘⱒߚ↨Ǆ՟བˈᶤ

㢅䌍 40 000 㕢‫ܗ‬ϨᏆᅠᎹ 50%ⱘᎹ԰݊乘⌟ᘏ៤ᴀЎ 40 000 㕢‫ܗ‬/0.5=80 000 㕢‫ܗ‬Ǆ᳈Ў
㊒⹂ⱘᮍ⊩ᰃᇚ៤ᴀߚ㾷៤ϡৠⱘ乍⃵ˈ‫ݡ‬ᇚ↣ϔ乍⃵ⱘ乘⌟៤ᴀ∛ᘏᕫࠄᘏ乘⌟៤ᴀǄ
ℸ໪ˈ䖬ৃҹ⫼ऩԡ៤ᴀ᭄ᴹᕫࠄ乘⌟ᘏ៤ᴀǄ݊݀ᓣЎ
C f Wct (5-2)
݊ЁˈCf Ў乘⌟ᘏ៤ᴀˈW Ўᘏࢇࡼऩ‫ܗ‬᭄ˈ㗠 ct ЎᏆᅠᎹࢇࡼऩ‫ⱘܗ‬ᑇഛ៤ᴀǄབ
ᵰᶤ乍‫݋‬ԧᎹ԰ࣙ৿ 1 600 Ͼࢇࡼऩ‫ˈܗ‬㗠↣Ͼࢇࡼऩ‫ⱘܗ‬ᑇഛ៤ᴀЎ 50 㕢‫߭ˈܗ‬ᅠᎹᯊ
ⱘ乘⌟ᘏ៤ᴀЎ 1 600h50 㕢‫=ܗ‬80 000 㕢‫ˈܗ‬ᮍ⿟(5-2)Ёⱘऩԡ៤ᴀৃ⫼↣ᇣᯊࢇࡼ⫳ѻ
⥛੠↣ᇣᯊ(៪݊Ҫড়䗖ⱘᯊ䯈↉)ऩԡ៤ᴀⱘЬ⿃ҷ᳓ˈे
C f Wht ut (5-3)
݊Ёˈht Ў↣ϔࢇࡼऩ‫ܗ‬᠔㗫ᯊ䯈ˈut Ў↣ϔऩԡᯊ䯈᠔㗫៤ᴀǄ
ϔѯ᳈Ў㊒⹂ⱘᮍ⊩ৃҹড᯴ߎᶤ乍‫݋‬ԧᎹ԰ЁϢࢇࡼ᳝݇ⱘ⡍⅞䯂乬ˈᑊ䗖ᔧ䇗ᭈ
៤ᴀ乘⌟ⱘ↨՟Ǆ՟བˈབᵰ⬅ѢᎹҎ੠乍Ⳃ㒣⧚᳈ࡴ❳ᙝ乍ⳂᎹ԰㗠Փᕫࢇࡼ⫳ѻ⥛ᕫ
ҹᦤ催ˈ䙷М乍ⳂᎹ԰ⱘ乘⌟ᘏ៤ᴀᑨ৥ϟ䇗ᭈǄ೼䖭⾡ᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈ乘⌟ᮍ⿟ህবЎ
Cf Ct (W Wt )ct (5-4)
݊Ёˈ乘⌟ᘏ៤ᴀ Cf ㄝѢᅠᎹ៤ᴀ Ct ࡴϞ࠽ԭᎹ԰(WWt)੠࠽ԭᎹ԰ⱘ乘⌟ᳳऩԡ៤
ᴀ ct ⱘЬ⿃Ǆ
೼ࠡ䴶ⱘ՟ᄤᔧЁˈ᳒㒣‫؛‬ᅮ↣ࢇࡼऩ‫ⱘܗ‬ᑇഛ៤ᴀЎ 50 㕢‫ˈܗ‬Ԛ乍Ⳃ䖥ᳳࢇࡼऩ‫ܗ‬
៤ᴀЎ 45 㕢‫ܗ‬Ǆབᵰ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚⹂ֵ乍Ⳃⱘ࠽ԭᎹ԰㛑໳ᇚᬍ䖯њⱘ⫳ѻ⥛ֱᣕϟএ(೼
1 600 Ͼࢇࡼऩ‫ܗ‬Ёˈ᳝ 800 Ͼ࠽ԭࢇࡼऩ‫ˈ)ܗ‬䙷М乍Ⳃᅠ៤ⱘ乘⌟៤ᴀᑨЎ 50h800 㕢
g49g
‫ܗ‬+45h800 㕢‫=ܗ‬76 000 㕢‫ܗ‬Ǆ⊼ᛣˈ䖭䞠䴶ߚ߿⫼ࠄњᏆᅠᎹ 800 Ͼࢇࡼऩ‫ⱘܗ‬ᅲ䰙ᑇ

ഛ⫳ѻ⥛੠࠽ԭࢇࡼऩ‫ⱘܗ‬乘䅵⫳ѻ⥛Ǆ
䰸њ⫳ѻ⥛ⱘব࣪П໪ˈ乘⌟ᮍ⿟Ёⱘ݊Ҫ㒘៤䚼ߚгৃҹ䖯㸠᳓ᤶ៪䇗ᭈǄ՟བˈ
⬅Ѣᮄⱘࢇࡼড়ৠ៪ᴤ᭭ӋḐ᠔ᓩ䍋ⱘऩ‫ܗ‬Ϟⱘব࣪гৃҹ೼乘⌟ᘏ៤ᴀЁᕫҹড᯴Ǆᅲ
䰙Ϟˈ೼䅵ㅫ䰘ࡴ៤ᴀᯊгӮ䘛ࠄৠḋⱘ䯂乬ˈሑㅵ䱣ⴔ乍Ⳃⱘϡᮁ䖯ሩˈ乍ⳂᔧЁϡ⹂
ᅮᗻⱘ䞣੠ᑺ䛑ਜϟ䰡䍟࢓Ǆ䖭Ͼ㾘߭ⱘଃϔ՟໪ᰃᅠᎹѻક಴ЎϹ䞡䋼䞣䯂乬㗠䳔䖨ׂ
䞡ᓎⱘᚙᔶǄ
Ϟ䴶᠔ҟ㒡ⱘ↣ϔ⾡乘⌟ᮍ⊩䛑䳔㽕‫݋‬ԧᎹ԰ⱘࢇࡼ䞣ᅠ៤⢊ᗕֵᙃǄϟ䴶ⱘ޴⾡ᮍ
⊩᳝ࡽѢ䖯㸠៤ᴀⱘ乘⌟Ǆ
z ᅠᎹࢇࡼऩ‫ܗ‬Ǆ
ᇍѢᯧѢ⌟䞣ⱘࢇࡼ᭄䞣ˈৃⳈ᥹ᕫࠄᅲ䰙ᅠᎹࢇࡼ䞣ऴᘏࢇࡼ䞣ⱘ↨՟Ǆ՟བˈᇚ
Ꮖᅝ㺙ⱘⳈ㒓ㅵ䘧੠䳔㽕ᅝ㺙ⱘㅵ䘧᭄䞣䖯㸠↨䕗֓ৃ⌟ㅫߎᏆᅠᎹㅵ䘧ࢇࡼ䞣ⱘⱒߚ↨Ǆ
z 䞠⿟⹥㌃䅵Ǆ
ᶤ乍‫݋‬ԧᎹ԰ৃ㹿ߚ㾷៤ϔ㋏߫ⱘ䞠⿟⹥ˈ㗠䖭ѯ䞠⿟⹥ৃ⫼ᴹᰒ⼎ᅠᎹࢇࡼ䞣෎Ѣ
ग़৆ᑇഛؐⱘⱒߚ↨Ǆ՟བˈᶤᷛ‫ޚ‬ㅵ䘧ᅝ㺙Ꮉ԰ⱘࢇࡼৃ㹿ߦߚЎབϟ 4 Ͼ䞠⿟⹥Ǆ
ķ ㅵ䕈ህԡ˖20%ⱘࢇࡼ䞣੠ 20%ⱘ㌃䅵ࢇࡼ䞣Ǆ
ĸ ㅵ䘧⛞᥹˖40%ⱘࢇࡼ䞣੠ 60%ⱘ㌃䅵ࢇࡼ䞣Ǆ
Ĺ ᬃᑻ੠⏙⧚˖30%ⱘࢇࡼ䞣੠ 90%ⱘ㌃䅵ࢇࡼ䞣Ǆ
ĺ ⛁य़⌟䆩੠ᅠᎹ˖10%ⱘࢇࡼ䞣੠ 100%ⱘ㌃䅵ࢇࡼ䞣Ǆ
Ң䖭䞠ৃҹⳟߎˈㅵ㓱⛞᥹ᅠᎹᯊˈᎹ԰ᘏࢇࡼ䞣ⱘ 60%Ꮖ㒣ᅠ៤Ǆ
z ߸ᮁǄ
ᇍѢᅠᎹⱒߚ↨ⱘЏ㾖߸ᮁৃ⬅ⲥⴷᮍǃⲥ⧚ᮍ៪乍Ⳃ㒣⧚㞾Ꮕ‫ߎخ‬Ǆᰒ✊ˈ⬅ѢФ
㾖ǃᚆ㾖៪㾖ᆳϡ໳㒚㟈ㄝЏ㾖ॳ಴ˈӮՓϞ䴶᠔‫߸ⱘߎخ‬ᮁ᳝᠔‫أ‬乛Ǆ಴ℸˈՓ⫼䖭⾡
ᮍ⊩㽕ᛇֱ䆕Ⳍᔧⱘ‫⹂ޚ‬ᗻˈህ㽕∖乘⌟㗙ϡԚ‫݋‬᳝Єᆠⱘⶹ䆚ˈ䖬ᑨ᳝䎇໳ⱘ⦄എ㾖ᆳǄ
z ៤ᴀ⥛Ǆ
ᅠᎹ៤ᴀг㛑⫼ᴹ乘⌟Ꮉ԰䖯ᑺǄ՟བˈབᵰᶤᎹ԰ⱘ乘ㅫ៤ᴀЎ 20 000 㕢‫ܗ‬㗠៾ℶ
ᶤ⡍ᅮ᮹ᳳᏆথ⫳ⱘ៤ᴀЎ 10 000 㕢‫ˈܗ‬䙷М⫼៤ᴀ⥛ᴹ㸼⼎乘⌟ᅠᎹⱒߚ⥛ህᰃ 10 000/
20 000=0.5 ៪ 50%Ǆ✊㗠ˈ⫼䖭⾡ᮍ⊩ᴹ‫⹂ޚ‬ഄড᯴Ꮉ԰ᅲ䰙ᅠᎹ↨՟䖬䳔ձ䴴݊Ҫֵᙃˈ
ᑊϨӮѻ⫳Ꮉ԰乘ㅫϞⱘϔѯ䫭䇃ˈ಴Ў೼䖭䞠ˈ乘⌟៤ᴀྟ㒜ㄝѢ乘ㅫ៤ᴀǄ಴ℸˈ乍
Ⳃ㒣⧚೼⫼៤ᴀ⥛ᇐߎⱘ乘⌟៤ᴀᴹᅠ៤ᶤᎹ԰ᯊᖙ乏ᵕ݊ᅵᜢǄ
䗮䖛ᇍ৘⾡乍ⳂᎹ԰㋏㒳ഄ䖤⫼ϡৠⱘ乘⌟ᮍ⊩ˈৃҹ䅵ㅫߎᎹ԰⢊‫މ‬᡹ਞ㽕⫼ࠄⱘ
ᅠᎹⱒߚ↨੠⫳ѻ⥛ⱘԄㅫؐǄ
೼᳝ѯᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈ䳔㽕ᵘᓎϔϾ㞾ࡼ䇏পᅠᎹ᭄᥂ⱘ㋏㒳Ǆ՟བˈ೼ᔧ໽Ꮉ԰ᅠ៤Пৢˈ
䇏প఼Ӯ㞾ࡼ⿏৥ᮄⱘᎹ԰㸼ঞ݊ഄഔ䖯㸠䖤ㅫᑊ੠乍Ⳃ䅵ߦ䖯㸠↨䕗Ǆ乍Ⳃⱘᅲ䰙䖯ᑺ
Ӯ㹿ᄬ‫ࠄټ‬Ё༂᭄᥂ᑧЁˈ㒣䖛໘⧚ৢ⫼ҹ᳈ᮄ乍Ⳃ䅵ߦǄ
՟ 5.1 ᅠ៤ᶤ乍Ꮉ԰ⱘ乘䅵ᘏ៤ᴀǄ
‫؛‬ᅮ℆Ԅㅫᶤ乍ⳂⳈ㒓ㅵ䘧䫎䆒Ꮉ⿟ⱘᘏ៤ᴀǄ䆹ㅵ䘧Ꮉ⿟ᰃᘏ䭓Ў 1 000 㣅ሎ(1 㣅
ሎ=0.304 8 ㉇)ⱘⳈ㒓ㅵ䘧䫎䆒ˈЎњᮍ֓ㅵ⧚㹿ߦߚ៤ 50 ↉ǄℸᯊˈᏆ᳝ 400 㣅ሎⱘⳈ㒓
ㅵ䘧ҹ 40 000 㕢‫ⱘܗ‬៤ᴀ੠ 500 ҎᎹᯊⱘࢇࡼ࡯䖯㸠њ䫎䆒Ǆ߱ྟ乘ㅫ㑺Ў 90 000 㕢‫ˈܗ‬
݊Ё⫳ѻ⥛Ў 1 㣅ሎ/Ꮉᯊˈ↣Ꮉᯊⱘऩԡ៤ᴀЎ 60 㕢‫ˈܗ‬Ϩᘏⱘᴤ᭭៤ᴀЎ 30 000 㕢‫ܗ‬Ǆ
g50g
ᴤ᭭ⱘ䖤䕧Ꮖᕫࠄֱ䆕Ǆ
㄀ϔ乍Ꮉ԰ᰃԄㅫᅠᎹࢇࡼⱘ↨՟Ǆ佪‫ˈܜ‬Ꮖᇍᘏ䭓ᑺЎ 1 000 㣅ሎⱘⳈ㒓ㅵ䘧Ёⱘ
400 㣅ሎ䖯㸠њ䫎䆒ˈ᠔ҹᏆᅠᎹࢇࡼⱘⱒߚ↨Ў 400/1 000=0.4 ៪ 40%Ǆ䖭䞠⫼ࠄⱘᰃᅠ
Ꮉࢇࡼऩ‫ܗ‬Ԅㅫ⊩Ǆ݊⃵ˈ⫼៤ᴀ⥛⊩ᴹԄㅫᅠᎹࢇࡼ⥛ˈे⫼ᅠᎹ៤ᴀ䰸ҹԄㅫ៤ᴀˈ
Ѻे 40 000 㕢‫ܗ‬/90 000 㕢‫=ܗ‬0.44 ៪ 44%Ǆ᳔ৢˈ⫼Ā䞠⿟⹥㌃䅵ā⊩ᴹḌᇍㅵ䘧ⱘ↣ϔ
ߚ乍Ꮉ⿟ˈԄㅫ݊ᅠᎹⱒߚ↨ᑊ䖯㸠䗤乍㌃䅵ˈҹ⹂ᅮᘏᅠᎹⱒߚ↨Ǆ՟བˈ‫؛‬ᅮᡞㅵ䘧
Ꮉ⿟ⱘᅠ៤ᣝ 4 Ͼ㉏߿䖯㸠ߦߚǄ
ܼ䚼ᅠ៤(100%)˖380 㣅ሎǄ
ᅠ៤њᬃᑻ੠⏙⧚(90%)˖20 㣅ሎǄ
ᅠ៤њㅵ㓱⛞᥹(60%)˖5 㣅ሎǄ
ᅠ៤њㅵ䕈ህԡ(20%)˖0 㣅ሎǄ
ḍ᥂Ϟ䴶ⱘ䞠⿟⹥㌃䅵ˈᅠᎹࢇࡼⱘԄㅫᑨᔧЎ(380+20h0.9+5h0.6+0)㣅ሎ=401 㣅
ሎˈᅠᎹ↨՟Ў 401 㣅ሎ/1 000 㣅ሎ=0.401ˈ៪䖥Ԑপ 0.4Ǆ
ϔᮺᕫࠄњᅠᎹࢇࡼ䞣ⱘԄㅫؐˈህৃҹ䖯㸠Ꮉ԰ᅠᎹ៤ᴀⱘ䅵ㅫǄ佪‫⬅ˈܜ‬Ѣㅵ䘧
Ꮉ⿟Ꮖᅠ៤њ㑺 40%ˈ᠔ҹ⫼㒓ᗻ᥼ⓨᕫࠄⱘ乘䅵៤ᴀЎ 40 000 㕢‫ܗ‬/0.4=100 000 㕢‫ܗ‬Ǆ
䖭ᛣੇⴔᣝᔧࠡ⢊ᗕ乍ⳂᇚӮߎ⦄(100 00090 000)㕢‫=ܗ‬10 000 㕢‫ⱘܗ‬៤ᴀ䍙ᬃǄ
݊⃵ˈབᵰ⫼⫳ѻ⥛䖯㸠㒓ᗻ᥼ⓨˈৃᕫㅵ䘧Ꮉ⿟ⱘᅠᎹԄㅫ៤ᴀЎ 1 000 㣅ሎh500
ᇣᯊ/400 㣅ሎ×60 㕢‫ܗ‬/ᇣᯊ+30 000 㕢‫=ܗ‬105 000 㕢‫ܗ‬Ǆ೼䖭⾡ᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈ乘䅵᳝(105 000
90 000)㕢‫=ܗ‬15 000 㕢‫ⱘܗ‬៤ᴀ‫أ‬ᏂǄ‫أ‬Ꮒⱘॳ಴гৃҹ⧚㾷Ў੠߱ྟԄㅫⳌ↨ˈࢇࡼ⫳ѻ
⥛Ў 1.25 ᇣᯊ/㣅ሎ៪↨߱ྟԄㅫЁⱘࢇࡼ⫳ѻ⥛೼↣㣅ሎㅵ䘧Ϟ໮⫼њ 0.25 ᇣᯊǄ
՟ 5.2 ᅠᎹ乍Ⳃⱘ乘䅵ᘏ៤ᴀǄ
Ϟ՟Ёⱘ乘⌟⿟ᑣᰃ೼ᇍᎹ԰᳝ᅠܼⱘ៪䖥ᳳⱘ㒣偠෎⸔Ϟˈ⫼㒓ᗻᮍ⊩ᴹ᥼ᮁ᳾ᴹ
ⱘ៤ᴀǄ㗠ᇍ᳝ѯग़৆᭄᥂ᅠᭈⱘᎹ԰ˈेՓ᭄᥂П䯈៤䴲㒓ᗻ݇㋏ˈҡৃ乘⌟݊៤ᴀ䍙
ᬃ੠ᅠᎹⱒߚ↨Ǆ೒ 5.1 ᠔⼎Ў៤ᴀ੠ᅠᎹⱒߚ↨ਜ䴲㒓ᗻ݇㋏ⱘᶤᎹ԰Ǆ՟བˈ೒ 5.1 Ё
ⱘ A ⚍㸼⼎೼ᇍᑨⱘᅠᎹⱒߚ↨Ϟ݊៤ᴀै᳝᠔䍙ᬃˈे೼䆹⚍ࢇࡼ䞣ᅠ៤њ 40%ˈԚ៤
ᴀᬃߎैऴࠄњ乘ㅫ៤ᴀⱘ 60%Ǆ㗠ḍ᥂ग़৆㒳䅵ˈᔧࢇࡼ䞣ᅠ៤ 40%ᯊˈ៤ᴀᬃߎᑨऴ
乘ㅫ៤ᴀⱘ 50%ˈ಴ℸߎ⦄њ 60%50%=10%ⱘ៤ᴀ‫أ‬ᏂǄབᵰ䖭⾡ৃ↨ⱘ៤ᴀ䍙ᬃ㒻㓁
㌃䅵ϟএˈ䙷МᅠᎹ៤ᴀᇚব催Ǆ
೒ 5.1 Ꮉ԰៤ᴀ੠ᅠᎹⱒߚ↨
g51g

Unit 6 The Contractor
The Contractor’s General Obligations
The Contractor shall design, execute and complete the Works in accordance with the
Contract, and shall remedy any defects in the Works. When completed, the Works shall be fit for
the purposes for which the Works are intended as defined in the Contract.
The Contractor shall provide the Plant and Contractor’s Documents specified in the Contract,
and all contractor’s Personnel, Goods, consumables and other things and services, whether of a
temporary or permanent nature, required in and for this design, execution, completion and
remedying of defects.
The Works shall include any work which is necessary to satisfy the Employer’s
Requirements, or is implied by the Contract, and all works which (although not mentioned in the
Contract) are necessary for stability or for the completion, or safe and proper operation, of the
Works.
The Contractor shall be responsible for the adequacy, stability and safety of all Site
operations, of all methods of construction and of all the Works.
The Contractor shall, whenever required by the Employer, submit details of the
arrangements and methods which the Contractor proposes to adopt for the execution of the Works.
No significant alteration to these arrangements and methods shall be made without this having
previously been notified to the Employer.
Performance security
The Contractor shall obtain (at his cost) a Performance Security for proper performance, in
the amount and currencies stated in the Particular Conditions if an amount is not stated in the
Particular Conditions, this Sub-Clause shall not apply.
The Contractor shall deliver the Performance Security to the Employer within 28 days after
both Parties have signed the Contract Agreement. The Performance Security shall be issued by an
entity and from within a country (or other jurisdiction) approved by the Employer, and shall be in
the form annexed to the Particular Conditions or in another form approved by the Employer.
The Contractor shall ensure that the Performance Security is valid and enforceable until the
Contractor has executed and completed the Works and remedied any defects. If the terms of the
Performance Security specify its expiry date, and the Contractor has not become entitled to
receive the Performance Certificate by the date 28 days prior to the expiry date, the Contractor
shall extend the validity of the Performance Security until the Works have been completed and
any defects have been remedied.
The Employer shall not make a claim under the Performance Security, except for amounts to
Unit 6 The Contractor g53g
which the Employer is entitled under the Contract in the event of:
(1) failure by the Contractor to extend the validity of the Performance Security as described
in the preceding paragraph, in which event the Employer may claim the full amount of the
Performance Security.
(2) failure by the Contractor to pay the Employer an amount due, as either agreed by the
Contractor or determined under Sub-Clause 2.5 [Employer’s Claims] or Clause 20 [Claims,
Disputes and Arbitration], within 42 days after this agreement or determination.
(3) failure by the Contractor to remedy a default within 42 days after receiving the
Employer’s notice requiring the default to be remedied.
(4) circumstances which entitle the Employer to termination under Sub-Clause 15.2
[Termination by Employer], irrespective of whether notice of termination has been given.
The Employer shall indemnify and hold the Contractor harmless against and from all
damages, losses and expenses (including legal fees and expenses) resulting from a claim under
the Performance Security to the extent to which the Employer was not entitled to make the claim.
The Employer shall return the Performance Security to the Contractor within 21 days after
the Contractor has become entitled to receive the Performance Certificate.
Contractor’s Representative
The Contractor shall appoint the Contractor’s Representative and shall give him all authority
necessary to act on the Contractor’s behalf under the Contract.
Unless the Contractor’s Representative is named in the Contract, the Contractor shall, prior
to the Commencement Date, submit to the Employer for consent the name and particulars of the
person the Contractor proposes to appoint as Contractor’s Representative. If consent is withheld
or subsequently revoked, or if the appointed person fails to act as Contractor’s Representative,
the Contractor shall similarly submit the name and particulars of another suitable person for such
appointment.
The Contractor shall not, without the prior consent of the Employer, revoke the appointment
of the Contractor’s Representative or appoint a replacement.
The Contractor’s Representative shall, on behalf of the Contractor, receive instructions
under Sub-Clause 3.4 [Instructions].
The Contractor’s Representative may delegate any powers, functions and authority to any
competent person, and may at any time revoke the delegation. Any delegation or revocation shall
not take effect until the Employer has received prior notice signed by the Contractor’s
Representative, naming the person and specifying the powers, functions and authority being
delegated or revoked.
The Contractor’s Representative and all these persons shall be fluent in the language for
communications defined in Sub-Clause 1.4 [Law and Language].
Subcontractors
The Contractor shall not subcontract the whole of the Works.
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The Contractor shall be responsible for the acts or defaults of any Subcontractor, his agents
or employees, as if they were the acts or defaults of the Contractor. Where specified in the
Particular Conditions, the Contractor shall give the Employer not less than 28 days’ notice of:
(1) the intended appointment of the Subcontractor, with detailed particulars which shall
include his relevant experience.
(2) the intended commencement of the Subcontractor’s work.
(3) the intended commencement of the Subcontractor’s work on the Site.
Nominated Subcontractors
In this Sub-Clause, “nominated Subcontractor” means a Subcontractor whom the Employer,

under Clause 13 [Variations and Adjustments], instructs the Contractor to employ as a
Subcontractor. The Contractor shall not be under any obligation to employ a nominated
Subcontractor against whom the Contractor raises reasonable objection by notice to the Employer
as soon as practicable, with supporting particulars.
Co-operation
The Contractor shall, as specified in the Contract or as instructed by the Employer, allow
appropriate opportunities for carrying out work to:
z the Employer’s personnel
z any other contractors employed by the Employer
z the personnel of any legally constituted public authorities
who may be employed in the execution on or near the Site of any work not included in the
Contract.
Any such instruction shall constitute a variation if and to the extent that it causes the
Contractor to incur Cost in an amount which was not reasonably foreseeable by an experienced
contractor by the date for submission of the Tender. Services for these personnel and other
contractors may include the use of Contractor’s Equipment, Temporary Works or access
arrangements which are the responsibility of the Contractor.
The Contractor shall be responsible for his construction activities on the Site, and shall
co-ordinate his own activities with those of other contractors to the extent (if any) specified in the
Employer’s Requirements.
If, under the Contract, the Employer is required to give to the Contractor possession of any
foundation, structure, plant or means of access in accordance with Contractors Documents, the
Contractor shall submit such documents to the Employer in the time and manner stated in the
Employer’s Requirements.
Setting Out
The Contractor shall set out the Works in relation to original points, lines and levels of
reference specified in the Contract. The Contractor shall be responsible for the correct positioning
of all parts of the works, and shall rectify any error in the positions, levels, dimensions or
g54g
alignment of the Works.

Safety Procedures
The Contractor shall:

(1) comply with all applicable safety regulations.
(2) take care for the safety of all persons entitled to be on the Site.
(3) use reasonable efforts to keep the Site and Works clear of unnecessary obstruction so as
to avoid danger to these persons.
(4) providing fencing, lighting, guarding and watching of the Works until completion and
taking over under Clause 10 [Employer’s Taking Over].
(5) provide any Temporary Works (including roadways, footways, guards and fences) which
may be necessary, because of the execution of the Works, for the use and protection of the public
and of owners and occupiers of adjacent land.
Quality Assurance
The Contractor shall institute a quality assurance system to demonstrate compliance with the
requirements of the Contract. The system shall be in accordance with the details stated in the
Contract. The Employer shall be entitled to audit any aspect of the system.
Details of all procedures and compliance documents shall be submitted to the Employer for
information before each design and execution stage is commenced. When any document of a
technical nature is issued to the Employer, evidence of the prior approval by the Contractor
himself shall be apparent on the document itself.
Compliance with the quality assurance system shall not relieve the Contractor of any of his
duties, obligations or responsibilities under the Contract.
Site Data
The Employer shall have made available to the Contractor for his information, prior to the
Base Date, all relevant data in the Employer’s possession on subsurface and hydrological
conditions at the Site, including environmental aspects. The Employer shall similarly make
available to the Contractor all such data which come into the Employer’s possession after the
Base Date.
The contractor shall be responsible for verifying and interpreting all such data. The
Employer shall have no responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of such data, except as
stated in Sub-Clause 5.1 [General Design Responsibilities].
Sufficiency of the Contract Price
The Contractor shall be deemed to have satisfied himself as to the correctness and
sufficiency of the Contract Price.
Unless otherwise stated in the Contract, the Contract price covers all the Contractor’s
obligations under the Contract (including those under Provisional Sums, if any) and all things
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necessary for the proper design, execution and completion of the Works and the remedying of
any defects.
Unforeseeable Difficulties
Except as otherwise stated in the Contract:

(1) the Contractor shall be deemed to have obtained all necessary information as to risks,
contingencies and other circumstances which may influence or affect the Works.
(2) by signing the Contract, the Contractor accepts total responsibility for having foreseen
all difficulties and costs of successfully completing the Works.
(3) the Contract Price shall not be adjusted to take account of any unforeseen difficulties or
costs.
Rights of Way and Facilities
The Contractor shall bear all costs and charges for special and/or temporary rights-of-way
which he may require, including those for access to the Site. The Contractor shall also obtain, at
his risk and cost, any additional facilities outside the Site which he may require for purposes of
the Works.
Avoidance of Interference
The Contractor shall not interfere unnecessarily or improperly with:

(1) the convenience of the public.
(2) the access to and use and occupation of all roads and footpaths, irrespective of whether
they are public or in the possession of the Employer or of others.
The Contractor shall indemnify and hold the Employer harmless against and from all
damages, losses and expenses (including legal fees and expenses) resulting from any such
unnecessary or improper interference.
Access Route
The Contractor shall be deemed to have been satisfied as to the suitability and availability of
access routes to the Site. The Contractor shall use reasonable efforts to prevent any road or bridge
from being damaged by the Contractor’s traffic or by the Contractor’s Personnel. These efforts
shall include the proper use of appropriate vehicles and routes.
Except as otherwise stated in these Conditions:
(1) the Contractor shall (as between the Parties) be responsible for any maintenance which
may be required for his use of access routes.
(2) the Contractor shall provide all necessary signs or directions along access routes, and
shall obtain any permission which may be required from the relevant authorities for his use of
routes, signs and directions.
(3) the Employer shall not be responsible for any claims which may arise from the use or
otherwise of any access route.
(4) the Employer does not guarantee the suitability or availability of particular access routes.
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(5) Costs due to non-suitability or non-availability, for the use required by the Contractor, of
access routes shall be borne by the Contractor.
Transport of Goods
Unless otherwise stated in the Particular Conditions.

(1) the Contractor shall give the Employer not less than 21 days’ notice of the date on which
any Plant or a major item of other Goods will be delivered to the Site.
(2) the Contractor shall be responsible for packing, loading, transporting, receiving,
unloading, storing and protecting all Goods and other things required for the Works.
(3) the Contractor shall indemnify and hold the Employer harmless against and from all
damages, losses and expenses (including legal fees and expenses) resulting from the transport of
Goods, and shall negotiate and pay all claims arising from their transport.
Contractor’s Equipment
The Contractor shall be responsible for all Contractor’s Equipment. When brought on to the
Site, Contractor’s Equipment shall be deemed to be exclusively intended for the execution of the
Works.
Protection of the Environment
The Contractor shall take all reasonable steps to protect the environment (both on and off
the Site) and to limit damage and nuisance to people and property resulting from pollution, noise
and other results of his operations.
The Contractor shall ensure that emissions, surface discharges and effluent from the
Contractor’s activities shall not exceed the values indicated in the Employer’s Requirements, and
shall not exceed the values prescribed by applicable Laws.
Electricity, Water and Gas
The Contractor shall, except as stated below, be responsible for the provision of all power,
water and other services he may require.
The Contractor shall be entitled to use for the purposes of the Works such supplies of
electricity, water, gas and other services as may be available on the Site and of which details and
prices are given in the Employer’s Requirements. The Contractor shall, at his risk and cost,
provide any apparatus necessary for his use of these services and for measuring the quantities
consumed.
The quantities consumed and the amounts due (at these prices) for such services shall be
agreed or determined in accordance with Sub-Clause 2.5 [Employer’s Claims] and Sub-Clause
3.5 [Determinations]. The Contractor shall pay these amounts to the Employer.
Employer’s Equipment and Free-Issue Material
The Employer shall make the Employer’s Equipment (if any) available for the use of the
Contractor in the execution of the Works in accordance with the details, arrangements and prices
stated in the Employer’s Requirements. Unless otherwise stated in the Employer’s Requirements:
g57g
(1) the Employer shall be responsible for the Employer’s Equipment, except that stated in (2).
(2) the Contractor shall be responsible for each item of Employer’s Equipment whilst any of
the Contractor’s Personnel is operating it, driving it, directing it or in possession or control of it.
The appropriate quantities and the amounts due (at such stated price) for the use of
Employer’s Equipment shall be agreed or determined in accordance with Sub-Clause 2.5
[Employer’s Claims] and Sub-Clause 3.5 [Determinations]. The Contractor shall pay these
amounts to the Employer.
The Employer shall supply, free of charge, the “free-issue material” (if any) in accordance
with the details stated in the Employer’s Requirement. The Employer shall, at his risk and cost,
provide these materials at the time and place specified in the contractor. The Contractor shall then
visually inspect them, and shall promptly give notice to the Employer of any shortage, defect or
default in these materials. Unless otherwise agreed by both Parties, the Employer shall
immediately rectify the notified shortage, defect or default.
After this visual inspection, the free-issue materials shall come under the care, custody and
control of the Contractor. The Contractor’s obligations of inspection, care, custody and control
shall not relieve the Employer of liability for any shortage, defect or default not apparent from a
visual inspection.
Progress Reports
Unless otherwise stated in the Particular Conditions, monthly progress reports shall be
prepared by the Contractor and submitted to the Employer in six copies. The first report shall
cover the period up to the end of the first calendar month following the Commencement Date.
Reports shall be submitted monthly thereafter, each within 7 days after the last day of the period
to which it relates.
Reporting shall continue until the Contractor has completed all work which is known to be
outstanding at the completion date stated in the Taking-Over Certificate for the Works.
Each report shall include:
(1) charts and detailed descriptions of progress, including each stage of design, Contractor’s
Documents, procurement, manufacture, delivery to Site, construction, erection, testing,
commissioning and trial operation.
(2) photographs showing the status of manufacture and of progress on the Site.
(3) for the manufacture of each main item of Plant and Materials, the name of the
manufacturer, manufacture location, percentage progress, and the actual or expected dated of:
z commencement of manufacture.
z Contractor’s inspections.
z test.
z shipment and arrival at the Site.
(4) the details described in Sub-Clause 6.10 [Records of Contractor’s personnel and
Equipment].
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(5) copies of quality assurance document documents, test results and certificates of
Materials.
(6) list of Variations, notices given under Sub-Clause 2.5 [Employer’s Claims] and notices
given under Sub-Clause 20.1 [Contractor’s Claims].
(7) safety statistic, including details of any hazardous incidents and activities relating to
environmental aspect and public relations.
(8) comparisons of actual and planned progress, with details of any events or circumstances
which may jeopardize the completion in accordance with the Contract, and the measures being
(or to be) adopted to overcome delays.
Security of the Site
Unless otherwise stated in the Particular Conditions:

(1) the Contractor shall be responsible for keeping unauthorized persons off the Site.
(2) authorized persons shall be limited to the Contractor’s Personnel and the Employer’s
Personnel; and to any other personnel notified to the Contractor, by (or on behalf of) the
Employer, as authorized personnel of the Employer’s other contractors on the Site.
Contractor’s Operations on Site
The Contractor shall confine his operations to the Site, and to any additional areas which
may be obtained by the Contractor and agreed by the Employer as working areas. The Contractor
shall take all necessary precautions to keep Contractor’s Equipment and Contractor’s Personnel
within the Site and these additional areas, and to keep them off adjacent land.
During the execution of the Works, the Contractor shall keep the Site free from all
unnecessary obstruction, and shall store or dispose of any Contractor’s Equipment or surplus
materials. The Contractor shall clear away and remove from the Site any wreckage, rubbish and
Temporary Works which are no longer required.
Upon the issue of the Taking-Over Certificate for the Works, the Contractor shall clear away
and remove all Contractor’s Equipment, surplus material, wreckage, rubbish and Temporary
Works. The Contractor shall leave the Site and the Works in a clean and safe condition. However,
the Contractor may retain on Site, during the Defects Notification Period, such goods as are
required for the Contractor to fulfill obligations under the Contract.
Fossils
All fossils, coins, articles of value or antiquity, and structures and other remains or items of
geological or archaeological interest found on the Site shall be placed under the care and
authority of the Employer. The Contractor shall take reasonable precautions to prevent
Contractor’s Personnel or other persons from removing or damaging any of these findings.
The Contractor shall, upon discovery of any such finding, promptly give notice to the
Employer, who shall issue instructions for dealing with it. If the Contractor suffers delay and/or
incurs cost from complying with the instructions, the Contractor shall give a further notice to the
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Employer and shall be entitled subject to Sub-Clause 20.1[Contractor’s Claims] to:

(1) an extension of time for any such delay, if completion is or will be delayed, under
Sub-Clause 8.4 [Extension of Time for Completion].
(2) payment of any such cost, which shall be added to the Contract Price.
After receiving this further notice, the Employer shall proceed in accordance with
Sub-Clause 3.5[Determinations] to agree or determine these matters.
Questions
1. What shall contractor do according to the contractor’s general obligations?

2. By whom shall the performance security be issued?
3. In what event may the employer claim the full amount of the performance security?
4. When shall the employer return the performance security to the contractor?
5. Who shall appoint the contractor’s representative, the contractor or the employer?
6. Shall the contractor be responsible for the acts or defaults of any subcontractor, his
agents or employees, as if they were the acts or defaults of the contractor?
7. Of what notice shall the contractor give the employer not less than 28 day’s ?
8. Who shall set out the works in relation to original points, lines and levels of reference
specified in the contract?
9. Who shall be responsible for the correct positioning of all parts of the works?
10. Shall the employer be entitled to audit any aspect of the quality assurance system?
performance security˖ሹ㑺ᢙֱ
expiry date˖᳝ᬜᳳ䰤˗⒵ᳳ᮹˗㒜ℶ᮹ᳳ
contractor’s representative˖ᡓࣙଚҷ㸼
subcontractor˖ߚࣙଚ
agents˖ҷ⧚(ଚ)
nominated subcontractor˖ᣛᅮⱘߚࣙଚ
variation˖ব᳈˗ব࣪
set out˖ᬒ㒓
safety procedures˖ᅝܼ⿟ᑣ
quality assurance system˖䋼䞣ֱ䆕ԧ㋏
base date˖෎‫ޚ‬᮹ᳳ
site data˖⦄എ᭄᥂
contract price˖ড়ৠӋḐ
rights-of-way˖䘧䏃䗮㸠ᴗ
additional facilities outside the site˖⦄എҹ໪ⱘ䰘ࡴ䆒ᮑ
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access routes˖䖯എ䗮䏃
permission˖䆌ৃ
transport of goods˖䋻⠽䖤䕧
negotiate˖䇜߸˗णଚ
protection of the environment˖⦃๗ֱᡸ
contractor’s equipment˖ᡓࣙଚ䆒໛
employer’s equipment˖䲛Џ䆒໛
free-issue material˖‫ܡ‬䌍կᑨᴤ᭭
progress reports˖䖯ᑺ᡹ਞ
security of the site˖⦄എֱᅝ
contractor’s operations on site˖ᡓࣙଚⱘ⦄എ԰Ϯ
temporary works˖ЈᯊᎹ⿟
taking-over certificate˖᥹ᬊ䆕к
খ 㗗䆥 ᭛
㄀ 6 ऩ‫ܗ‬ ᡓ ࣙ ଚ
ѕͧ౥ԅྡྷ͎࿌๠
ᡓࣙଚᑨᣝ✻ড়ৠ䆒䅵ǃᅲᮑ੠ᅠ៤Ꮉ⿟ˈᑊׂ㸹Ꮉ⿟Ёⱘӏԩ㔎䱋Ǆᅠ៤ৢˈᎹ⿟
ᑨ㛑⒵䎇ড়ৠ㾘ᅮⱘᎹ⿟乘ᳳⳂⱘǄ
ᡓࣙଚᑨᦤկড়ৠ㾘ᅮⱘ⫳ѻ䆒໛੠ᡓࣙଚ᭛ӊˈҹঞ䆒䅵ǃᮑᎹǃシᎹ੠ׂ㸹㔎䱋
᠔䳔ⱘ᠔᳝Јᯊᗻ៪∌ЙᗻⱘᡓࣙଚҎਬǃ䋻⠽ǃ⍜㗫કঞ݊Ҫ⠽ક੠᳡ࡵǄ
Ꮉ⿟ᑨࣙᣀЎ⒵䎇䲛Џ㽕∖៪ড়ৠ䱤৿㽕∖ⱘӏԩᎹ԰ˈҹঞ(ড়ৠ㱑᳾ᦤঞԚ)ЎᎹ
⿟ⱘ〇ᅮ៪ᅠᭈǃᅝܼ੠᳝ᬜ䖤㸠᠔䳔ⱘ᠔᳝Ꮉ԰Ǆ
ᡓࣙଚᑨᇍ᠔᳝⦄എ԰Ϯǃ᠔᳝ᮑᎹᮍ⊩੠ܼ䚼Ꮉ⿟ⱘᅠ໛ᗻǃ〇ᅮᗻ੠ᅝܼᗻᡓᢙ
䋷ӏǄ
ᔧ䲛Џᦤߎ㽕∖ᯊˈᡓࣙଚᑨᦤѸ݊ᓎ䆂䞛⫼ⱘᎹ⿟ᮑᎹᅝᥦ੠ᮍ⊩ⱘ㒚㡖Ǆ㢹џ‫ܜ‬
᳾䗮ⶹ䲛Џˈᇍ䖭ѯᅝᥦ੠ᮍ⊩ϡᕫ‫خ‬䞡㽕ᬍবǄ
োၟӤͬ
ᡓࣙଚᑨᇍϹḐሹ㑺(㞾䌍)পᕫሹ㑺ᢙֱˈֱ䆕䞥乱ϢᏕ⾡ᑨヺড়ϧ⫼ᴵӊЁⱘ㾘ᅮǄ
ϧ⫼ᴵӊЁ≵᳝ᦤߎֱ䆕䞥乱ⱘˈᴀℒᑨϡ䗖⫼Ǆ
ᡓࣙଚᑨ೼ঠᮍㅒ㕆ড়ৠण䆂кৢ 28 ໽‫ˈݙ‬ᇚሹ㑺ᢙֱѸ㒭䲛ЏǄሹ㑺ᢙֱᑨ⬅䲛Џ
ᡍ‫ⱘޚ‬೑ᆊ(៪݊Ҫৌ⊩ㅵ䕪ऎ)‫ⱘݙ‬ᅲԧᦤկˈᑊ䞛⫼ϧ⫼ᴵӊ᠔䰘Ḑᓣ៪䞛⫼䲛Џᡍ‫ޚ‬
ⱘ݊ҪḐᓣǄ
ᡓࣙଚᑨ⹂ֱሹ㑺ᢙֱⳈࠄ݊ᅠ៤Ꮉ⿟ⱘᮑᎹǃシᎹ੠ׂ㸹ᅠӏԩ㔎䱋ࠡᣕ㓁᳝ᬜ੠
ৃᠻ㸠Ǆབᵰ೼ሹ㑺ᢙֱⱘᴵℒЁ㾘ᅮњ݊ᳳ⒵᮹ᳳˈ㗠ᡓࣙଚ೼䆹ᳳ⒵᮹ᳳ 28 ໽ࠡᇮ᮴
g61g
ᴗᣓࠄሹ㑺䆕кˈᡓࣙଚᑨᇚሹ㑺ᢙֱⱘ᳝ᬜᳳᓊ㟇Ꮉ⿟シᎹ੠ׂ㸹ᅠӏԩ㔎䱋ᯊЎℶǄ
䰸ߎ⦄ҹϟᚙ‫މ‬䲛Џḍ᥂ড়ৠ᳝ᴗ㦋ᕫ䌨ٓ䞥乱໪ˈ䲛Џϡᑨḍ᥂ሹ㑺ᢙֱᦤߎ㋶䌨˖
(1) ᡓࣙଚ᳾㛑ᣝࠡϔ↉᠔䗄ᓊ䭓ሹ㑺ᢙֱⱘ᳝ᬜᳳˈ䖭ᯊ䲛Џৃҹ㋶䌨ሹ㑺ᢙֱⱘ
ܼ䚼䞥乱Ǆ
(2) ᡓࣙଚ᳾㛑೼ଚᅮ៪‫އ‬ᅮৢ 42 ໽‫ˈݙ‬ᇚᡓࣙଚৠᛣⱘˈ៪ḍ᥂㄀ 2.5 ℒ˷䲛Џⱘ
㋶䌨˹៪㄀ 20 ᴵ˷㋶䌨ǃѝッ੠ӆ㺕˹ⱘ㾘ᅮ⹂ᅮⱘᡓࣙଚᑨҬ䞥乱Ҭ㒭䲛ЏǄ
(3) ᡓࣙଚ᳾㛑೼ᬊࠄ䲛Џ㽕∖㑴ℷ䖱㑺ⱘ䗮ⶹৢ 42 ໽‫ݙ‬䖯㸠㑴ℷǄ
(4) ḍ᥂㄀ 15.2 ℒ˷⬅䲛Џ㒜ℶ˹ⱘ㾘ᅮˈ䲛Џ᳝ᴗ㒜ℶⱘᚙ‫ˈމ‬ϡㅵᰃ৺Ꮖথߎ㒜
ℶ䗮ⶹǄ
䲛Џᑨֱ䱰ᑊֱᣕᡓࣙଚ‫ܡ‬ফ಴䲛Џḍ᥂ሹ㑺ᢙֱᦤߎⱘ䍙ߎ䲛Џ᳝ᴗ㋶䌨㣗ೈⱘ㋶
䌨ᓩ䍋ⱘ᠔᳝ᤳᆇ䌨ٓ䌍ǃᤳ༅੠ᓔᬃ(ࣙᣀ⊩ᕟ䌍⫼੠ᓔᬃ)ⱘӸᆇǄ
䲛Џᑨ೼ᡓࣙଚ᳝ᴗ㦋ᕫሹ㑺䆕кৢ 21 ໽‫ˈݙ‬ᇚሹ㑺ᢙֱ䗔䖬ᡓࣙଚǄ
ѕͧ౥ӝζ
ᡓࣙଚᑨӏੑᡓࣙଚҷ㸼ˈᑊᥜќҪҷ㸼ᡓࣙଚḍ᥂ড়ৠ䞛প㸠ࡼ᠔䳔㽕ⱘܼ䚼ᴗ࡯Ǆ
䰸䴲ড়ৠЁᏆ‫ݭ‬ᯢᡓࣙଚҷ㸼ⱘྦྷৡˈᡓࣙଚᑨ೼ᓔᎹ᮹ᳳࠡˈᇚ݊ᢳӏੑЎᡓࣙଚҷ㸼
ⱘҎਬྦྷৡ੠䆺㒚䌘᭭ᦤѸ㒭䲛ЏˈҹপᕫৠᛣǄབᵰ᳾㦋ৠᛣˈ៪䱣ৢ᩸䫔њৠᛣˈ៪
ӏੑⱘҎϡ㛑ᢙӏᡓࣙଚҷ㸼ˈᡓࣙଚᑨৠḋഄᦤѸ঺໪䗖ড়Ҏ䗝ⱘྦྷৡǃ䆺㒚䌘᭭ˈҹ
পᕫ䆹乍ӏੑǄ
᳾㒣䲛Џџ‫ܜ‬ৠᛣˈᡓࣙଚϡᑨ᩸䫔ᡓࣙଚҷ㸼ⱘӏੑˈ៪ӏੑ᳓ҷҎਬǄ
ᡓࣙଚҷ㸼ᑨҷ㸼ᡓࣙଚফ⧚ḍ᥂㄀ 3.4 ℒ˷ᣛ⼎˹㾘ᅮⱘᣛ⼎Ǆ
ᡓࣙଚҷ㸼ৃ৥ӏԩ㚰ӏⱘҎਬᠬҬӏԩ㘠ᴗǃӏࡵ੠ᴗ࡯ˈᑊৃ䱣ᯊ᩸䫔ᠬҬǄӏ
ԩᠬҬ៪᩸䫔ˈᑨ೼䲛Џᬊࠄᡓࣙଚҷ㸼ㅒথⱘᣛᯢҎਬྦྷৡᑊ䇈ᯢᠬҬ៪᩸䫔ⱘ㘠ᴗǃ
ӏࡵ੠ᴗ࡯ⱘџ‫ܜ‬䗮ⶹৢ⫳ᬜǄ
ᡓࣙଚҷ㸼੠᠔᳝䖭ѯҎਬᑨ㛑⌕߽ഄՓ⫼㄀ 1.4 ℒ˷⊩ᕟ੠䇁㿔˹㾘ᅮⱘѸ⌕䇁㿔Ǆ
‫ͧד‬౥
ᡓࣙଚϡᕫᇚᭈϾᎹ⿟ߚࣙߎএǄ
ᡓࣙଚᑨᇍӏԩߚࣙଚǃ݊ҷ⧚Ҏ៪䲛ਬⱘ㸠Ў៪䖱㑺ˈབৠᡓࣙଚ㞾Ꮕⱘ㸠Ў៪䖱
㑺ϔḋഄ䋳䋷Ǆᇍϧ⫼ᴵӊЁ᳝㾘ᅮⱘˈᡓࣙଚᑨ೼ϡᇥѢ 28 ໽ࠡ৥䲛Џ䗮ⶹҹϟџ乍Ǆ
(1) ᢳ䲛⫼ⱘߚࣙଚˈᑊ䰘ࣙᣀ݊Ⳍ݇㒣偠ⱘ䆺㒚䌘᭭Ǆ
(2) ߚࣙଚᡓᢙᎹ԰ⱘᢳᅮᓔᎹ᮹ᳳǄ
(3) ߚࣙଚᡓᢙ⦄എᎹ԰ⱘᢳᅮᓔᎹ᮹ᳳǄ
ᄗՇԅ‫ͧד‬౥
೼ᴀℒЁˈĀᣛᅮⱘߚࣙଚā㋏ᣛ䲛Џḍ᥂㄀ 13 ᴵ˷ব᳈੠䇗ᭈ˹ⱘ㾘ᅮˈᣛ⼎ᡓࣙ
ଚ䲛⫼ⱘߚࣙଚǄབᵰᡓࣙଚᇍᣛᅮⱘߚࣙଚሑᖿ৥䲛Џথߎ䗮ⶹˈᦤߎড়⧚ⱘডᇍᛣ㾕ˈ
ᑊ䰘᳝䆺㒚ⱘձ᥂䌘᭭ˈᡓࣙଚϡᑨ᳝ӏԩ䲛⫼НࡵǄ
‫ۦ‬ᆴ
ᡓࣙଚᑨձ᥂ড়ৠⱘ㾘ᅮ៪䲛Џⱘᣛ⼎ˈЎৃ㛑㹿䲛⫼೼⦄എ៪݊䰘䖥Ңџᴀড়ৠ᳾
g62g
ࣙᣀⱘӏԩᎹ԰ⱘϟ߫Ҏਬ䖯㸠Ꮉ԰ᦤկ䗖ᔧⱘᴎӮ˖
z 䲛ЏҎਬ
z 䲛Џ䲛⫼ⱘӏԩ݊Ҫᡓࣙଚ
z ӏԩড়⊩ᓎゟⱘ݀݅ᔧሔⱘҎਬ
བᵰӏԩℸ㉏ᣛ⼎ᇐ㟈ᡓࣙଚ๲ࡴ䌍⫼ˈ䖒ࠄϔϾ᳝㒣偠ⱘᡓࣙଚ೼ᦤѸᡩᷛкᯊϡ
㛑ড়⧚乘㾕ⱘ᭄乱ᯊˈ䆹ᣛ⼎ᑨᵘ៤ϔ乍ব᳈ǄЎ䖭ѯҎਬ੠݊Ҫᡓࣙଚⱘ᳡ࡵৃࣙᣀՓ
⫼ᡓࣙଚ䆒໛ҹঞ⬅ᡓࣙଚ䋳䋷ⱘЈᯊᎹ⿟៪䖯ܹⱘᅝᥦǄ
ᡓࣙଚᑨᇍ݊೼⦄എⱘᮑᎹ⌏ࡼ䋳䋷ˈᑊᑨᣝ✻䲛Џ㽕∖Ё㾘ᅮⱘ㣗ೈ(བᵰ᳝)ण䇗
݊㞾ᏅϢ݊Ҫᡓࣙଚⱘ⌏ࡼǄ
བᵰḍ᥂ড়ৠˈ㽕∖䲛Џᣝ✻ᡓࣙଚ᭛ӊ৥ᡓࣙଚᦤկӏԩ෎⸔ǃ㒧ᵘǃ⫳ѻ䆒໛៪
䖯ܹ᠟↉ⱘऴ⫼ᴗˈᡓࣙଚᑨᣝ䲛Џ㽕∖Ёᦤߎⱘᯊ䯈੠ᮍᓣˈ৥䲛ЏᦤѸℸ㉏᭛ӊǄ
ׂຬ
ᡓࣙଚᑨḍ᥂ড়ৠЁ㾘ᅮⱘॳྟ෎‫⚍ޚ‬ǃ෎‫ޚ‬㒓੠෎‫ޚ‬ᷛ催ˈ㒭Ꮉ⿟ᬒ㒓Ǆᡓࣙଚᑨ
䋳䋷ᇍᎹ⿟ⱘ᠔᳝䚼ߚℷ⹂ᅮԡˈᑊ㑴ℷ೼Ꮉ⿟ⱘԡ㕂ǃᷛ催ǃሎᇌ៪ᅮ㒓Ёߎ⦄ⱘӏ
ԩᏂ䫭Ǆ
̝௦ё༝
ᡓࣙଚᑨ˖
(1) 䙉ᅜ᠔᳝䗖⫼ⱘᅝܼ㾘߭Ǆ
(2) ✻᳝᭭ᴗ೼⦄എⱘ᠔᳝ҎਬⱘᅝܼǄ
(3) ሑড়⧚ⱘࡾ࡯ֱᣕ⦄എ੠Ꮉ⿟≵᳝ϡ䳔㽕ⱘ䱰⹡⠽ˈҹ䙓‫ܡ‬ᇍ䖭ѯҎਬ䗴៤ॅ䰽Ǆ
(4) ೼Ꮉ⿟シᎹ੠ᣝ✻㄀ 10 ᴵ[䲛Џⱘ᥹ᬊ]ⱘ㾘ᅮ⿏Ѹࠡˈᦤկೈᷣǃ✻ᯢǃֱि੠
ⳟᅜǄ
(5) ಴ᅲᮑᎹ⿟Ў݀ӫ੠Ј䖥ೳഄⱘ᠔᳝Ҏǃऴ⫼ҎՓ⫼੠ᦤկֱᡸˈᦤկৃ㛑䳔㽕
ⱘӏԩЈᯊᎹ⿟(ࣙᣀ䘧䏃ǃҎ㸠䏃ǃ䰆ᡸ⠽੠ೈᷣㄝ)Ǆ
ᄩ२ͬᄃ
ᡓࣙଚᑨᓎゟ䋼䞣ֱ䆕ԧ㋏ˈҹ䆕ᅲヺড়ড়ৠ㽕∖Ǆ䆹ԧ㋏ᑨヺড়ড়ৠⱘ䆺㒚㾘ᅮǄ
䲛Џ᳝ᴗᇍԧ㋏ⱘӏԩᮍ䴶䖯㸠ᅵᶹǄ
ᡓࣙଚᑨ೼↣ϔ䆒䅵੠ᅲᮑ䰊↉ᓔྟࠡˈ৥䲛ЏᦤѸ᠔᳝⿟ᑣ੠བԩ䌃ᕏ㽕∖ⱘ᭛ӊ
ⱘ㒚㡖ˈկ݊খ㗗Ǆ৥䲛Џথ䗕ӏԩᡔᴃᗻ᭛ӊᯊˈ᭛ӊᴀ䑿ᑨ᳝㒣ᡓࣙଚᴀҎџ‫ܜ‬ᡍ‫ޚ‬
ⱘᯢᰒ䆕᥂Ǆ
䙉ᅜ䋼䞣ֱ䆕ԧ㋏ˈϡᑨ㾷䰸ড়ৠ㾘ᅮⱘᡓࣙଚⱘӏԩӏࡵǃНࡵ੠㘠䋷Ǆ
ຣЦ೴࡬
䲛Џᑨ೼෎‫ޚ‬᮹ᳳࠡˈᇚ݊পᕫⱘ⦄എഄϟ੠∈᭛ᴵӊঞ⦃๗ᮍ䴶ⱘ᠔᳝᳝݇䌘᭭ᦤ
Ѹ㒭ᡓࣙଚǄৠḋഄˈ䲛Џ೼෎‫ޚ‬᮹ᳳৢᕫࠄⱘ᠔᳝ℸ㉏䌘᭭гᑨᦤѸ㒭ᡓࣙଚǄ
ᡓࣙଚᑨ䋳䋷Ḍᅲ੠㾷䞞᠔᳝ℸ㉏䌘᭭Ǆ䰸㄀ 5.1 ℒ[䆒䅵Нࡵϔ㠀㽕∖]ᦤߎⱘᚙ‫މ‬ҹ
໪ˈ䲛Џᇍ䖭ѯ䌘᭭ⱘ‫⹂ޚ‬ᗻǃ‫ߚܙ‬ᗻ੠ᅠᭈᗻϡᡓᢙ䋷ӏǄ
g63g
‫ۦ‬ලޮٌ
ᡓࣙଚᑨ㹿䅸ЎᏆ⹂ֵড়ৠӋḐⱘℷ⹂ᗻ੠‫ߚܙ‬ᗻǄ
䰸䴲ড়ৠ঺᳝㾘ᅮˈড়ৠӋḐࣙᣀᡓࣙଚḍ᥂ড়ৠ᠔ᡓᢙⱘܼ䚼Нࡵ(ࣙᣀḍ᥂᱖߫䞥
乱᠔ᡓᢙⱘНࡵˈབᵰ᳝)ˈҹঞЎℷ⹂䆒䅵ǃᅲᮑ੠ᅠ៤Ꮉ⿟ᑊׂ㸹ӏԩ㔎䱋᠔䳔ⱘܼ䚼
᳝݇џ乍Ǆ
Ϣࢶ၇ߎԅࣲઔ
䰸ড়ৠ঺᳝䇈ᯢ໪˖
(1) ᡓࣙଚᑨ㹿䅸ЎᏆপᕫњᇍᎹ⿟ৃ㛑ѻ⫳ᕅડ੠԰⫼ⱘ᳝݇亢䰽ǃᛣ໪џӊ੠݊
Ҫᚙ‫ܼⱘމ‬䚼ᖙ㽕䌘᭭Ǆ
(2) 䗮䖛ㅒ㕆ড়ৠˈᡓࣙଚ᥹ফᇍ乘㾕ࠄⱘ᠔᳝ೄ䲒੠៤ࡳᅠ៤Ꮉ⿟᠔䳔ⱘ䌍⫼᠔䋳
ⱘܼ䚼䋷ӏǄ
(3) ᇍѢӏԩ᳾乘㾕ࠄⱘೄ䲒੠䌍⫼ϡᑨ㗗㰥䇗ᭈড়ৠӋḐǄ
ԁাඹ໻௣ူಁಠ
ᡓࣙଚᑨЎ݊᠔䳔㽕ⱘϧ⫼੠(៪)Јᯊ䘧䏃ࣙᣀ䖯എ䘧䏃ⱘ䗮㸠ᴗᡓᢙܼ䚼䌍⫼੠ᓔ
ᬃǄᡓࣙଚ䖬ᑨ㞾ᢙ亢䰽੠䌍⫼ˈপᕫЎᎹ⿟Ⳃⱘৃ㛑䳔㽕ⱘ⦄എҹ໪ⱘӏԩ䰘ࡴ䆒ᮑǄ
Υੇ‫ؤ‬ఀ
ᡓࣙଚᑨ䙓‫ܡ‬ᇍҹϟџ乍ѻ⫳ϡᖙ㽕៪ϡᔧⱘᑆᡄǄ
(1) ݀ӫⱘᮍ֓Ǆ
(2) ᠔᳝䘧䏃੠Ҏ㸠䘧ⱘ䖯ܹǃՓ⫼੠ऴ⫼ˈϡ䆎ҪӀᰃ݀݅ⱘˈ䖬ᰃ䲛Џ៪ᰃ݊Ҫ
Ҏ᠔᳝ⱘǄ
ᡓࣙଚᑨֱ䱰ᑊֱᣕ䲛Џ‫ܡ‬ফ಴ӏԩℸ㉏ϡᖙ㽕៪ϡᔧⱘᑆᡄ䗴៤ӏԩᤳᆇ䌨ٓ䌍ǃ
ᤳ༅੠ᓔᬃ(ࣙᣀ⊩ᕟ䌍⫼੠ᓔᬃ)ⱘӸᆇǄ
ࠩЦඹা
ᡓࣙଚᑨ㹿䅸ЎᏆᇍ⦄എⱘ䖯ܹ䘧䏃ⱘ䗖ᅰᗻ੠ৃ⫼ᗻᛳࠄ⒵ᛣǄᡓࣙଚᑨሑড়⧚ⱘ
ࡾ࡯ˈ䰆ℶӏԩ䘧䏃៪ḹṕ಴ᡓࣙଚⱘ䗮㸠៪ᡓࣙଚҎਬফࠄᤳണǄ䖭ѯࡾ࡯ᑨࣙᣀℷ⹂
Փ⫼䗖ᅰⱘ䔺䕚੠䘧䏃Ǆ
䰸ᴀᴵӊ঺᳝㾘ᅮ໪˖
(1) ᡓࣙଚᑨ(ህঠᮍ㗠㿔)ᇍ಴ҪՓ⫼⦄എ䗮䏃㗠䳔㽕ⱘӏԩ㓈ᡸ䋳䋷Ǆ
(2) ᡓࣙଚᑨᦤկ䖯എ䘧䏃ⱘ᠔᳝ᖙ䳔ⱘᷛᖫ៪ᮍ৥ᣛ⼎ˈ䖬ᑨЎҪՓ⫼䖭ѯ䘧䏃ǃ
ᷛᖫ੠ᮍ৥ᣛ⼎পᕫᖙ㽕ⱘ᳝݇ᔧሔⱘ䆌ৃǄ
(3) 䲛Џϡᑨᇍ⬅Ѣӏԩ䖯എ䗮䏃ⱘՓ⫼៪݊Ҫॳ಴ᓩ䍋ⱘ㋶䌨䋳䋷Ǆ
(4) 䲛Џϡֱ䆕⡍ᅮ䖯എ䗮䏃ⱘ䗖ᅰᗻ੠ৃ⫼ᗻǄ
(5) ಴䖯എ䗮䏃ᇍᡓࣙଚⱘՓ⫼㽕∖ϡ䗖ᅰǃϡ㛑⫼㗠থ⫳ⱘ䌍⫼ᑨ⬅ᡓࣙଚ䋳ᢙǄ
‫ݪ‬๞ၮ೛
䰸䴲ϧ⫼ᴵӊЁ঺᳝㾘ᅮ˖
(1) ᡓࣙଚᑨ೼ϡᇥѢ 21 ໽ࠡˈᇚӏԩᎹ⿟䆒໛៪↣乍݊ҪЏ㽕䋻⠽ᇚ䖤ࠄ⦄എⱘ᮹
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ᳳ䗮ⶹ㒭䲛ЏǄ
(2) ᡓࣙଚᑨ䋳䋷Ꮉ⿟䳔㽕ⱘ᠔᳝䋻⠽੠݊Ҫ⠽કⱘࣙ㺙ǃ㺙䋻ǃ䖤䕧ǃ᥹ᬊǃौ䋻ǃ
ᄬ‫ټ‬੠ֱᡸǄ
(3) ᡓࣙଚᑨֱ䱰ᑊֱᣕ䲛Џ‫ܡ‬ফ಴䋻⠽䖤䕧ᓩ䍋ⱘ᠔᳝ᤳᆇ䌨ٓ䌍ǃᤳ༅੠ᓔᬃ(ࣙ
ᣀ⊩ᕟ䌍⫼੠ᓔᬃ)ⱘӸᆇˈᑊᑨणଚ੠ᬃҬ⬅Ѣ䋻⠽䖤䕧ᓩ䍋ⱘ᠔᳝㋶䌨Ǆ
ѕͧ౥ಁ΁
ᡓࣙଚᑨ䋳䋷᠔᳝ᡓࣙଚ䆒໛Ǆᡓࣙଚ䆒໛䖤ࠄ⦄എৢˈᑨ㾚԰‫ޚ‬໛ЎᎹ⿟ᮑᎹϧ⫼Ǆ
‫ܙͬࡂܬ‬
ᡓࣙଚᑨ䞛পϔߛ䗖ᔧ᥾ᮑˈֱᡸ(⦄എ‫ݙ‬໪)⦃๗ˈ䰤ࠊ⬅݊ᮑᎹ԰Ϯᓩ䍋ⱘ∵ᶧǃ
ా䷇੠݊Ҫৢᵰᇍ݀ӫ੠䋶ѻ䗴៤ⱘᤳᆇ੠ོᆇǄ
ᡓࣙଚᑨ⹂ֱ಴݊⌏ࡼѻ⫳ⱘ⇨ԧᥦᬒǃഄ䴶ᥦ∈ঞᥦ∵ㄝϡ䍙䖛䲛Џ㽕∖Ё㾘ᅮⱘ
᭄ؐˈгϡ䍙䖛䗖⫼⊩ᕟ㾘ᅮⱘ᭄ؐǄ
Ԩcഃۤ௷୷
䰸ϟ䗄ᚙ‫މ‬໪ˈᡓࣙଚᑨ䋳䋷կᑨ݊᠔䳔ⱘ᠔᳝⬉ǃ∈੠݊Ҫ᳡ࡵǄ
ᡓࣙଚᑨ᳝ᴗ಴Ꮉ⿟ⱘ䳔㽕Փ⫼⦄എৃկⱘ⬉࡯ǃ∈ǃ➗⇨੠݊Ҫ᳡ࡵˈ݊䆺㒚㾘ᅮ
੠ӋḐ㾕䲛Џ㽕∖Ǆᡓࣙଚᑨ㞾ᢙ亢䰽੠䌍⫼ˈᦤկҪՓ⫼䖭ѯ᳡ࡵ੠䅵䞣᠔䳔㽕ⱘӏԩ
Ҿ఼Ǆ
䖭ѯ᳡ࡵⱘ㗫⫼᭄䞣੠ᑨҬ䞥乱(ᣝ݊ӋḐ)ᑨḍ᥂㄀ 2.5 ℒ[䲛Џⱘ㋶䌨]੠㄀ 3.5 ℒ[⹂
ᅮ]ⱘ㽕∖ଚᅮ៪⹂ᅮǄᡓࣙଚᑨ৥䲛ЏᬃҬℸ䞥乱Ǆ
‫چ‬ᅖಁ΁ۤੇ‫׎‬٢࿫ԅϫॸ
䲛Џᑨ‫ޚ‬໛䲛Џ䆒໛(བᵰ᳝)ˈկᡓࣙଚᣝ✻䲛Џ㽕∖Ёᦤߎⱘ㒚㡖ǃᅝᥦ੠ӋḐˈ
೼Ꮉ⿟ᅲᮑЁՓ⫼Ǆ䰸䴲೼䲛Џ㽕∖Ё঺᳝䇈ᯢ˖
(1) 䰸(2)᠔߫ᚙ‫މ‬໪ˈ䲛Џᑨᇍ䲛Џ䆒໛䋳䋷Ǆ
(2) ᔧӏԩᡓࣙଚҎਬ᪡԰ǃ偒偊ǃᣛ᣹៪ऴ⫼៪᥻ࠊᶤ乍䲛Џ䆒໛ᯊˈᡓࣙଚᑨᇍ
䆹乍䆒໛䋳䋷Ǆ
Փ⫼䲛Џ䆒໛ⱘ䗖ᔧ᭄䞣੠ᑨҬ䌍⫼䞥乱(ᣝ㾘ᅮӋḐ)ᑨᣝ㄀ 2.5 ℒ[䲛Џⱘ㋶䌨]੠㄀
3.5 ℒ[⹂ᅮ]ⱘ㽕∖ଚᅮ៪⹂ᅮǄᡓࣙଚᑨᣝℸ䞥乱Ҭ㒭䲛ЏǄ
䲛Џᑨᣝ✻䲛Џ㽕∖Ё㾘ᅮⱘ㒚㡖‫ܡ‬䌍ᦤկĀ‫ܡ‬䌍կᑨⱘᴤ᭭ā(བᵰ᳝)Ǆ䲛Џᑨ㞾
㸠ᡓᢙ亢䰽੠䌍⫼ˈᣝ✻ড়ৠ㾘ᅮⱘᯊ䯈੠ഄ⚍կᑨ䖭ѯᴤ᭭Ǆ䱣ৢˈᡓࣙଚᑨᇍ݊䖯㸠
Ⳃ㾚Ẕᶹˈᑊᇚ䖭ѯᴤ᭭ⱘⷁᇥǃ㔎䱋៪㔎乍䖙䗳䗮ⶹ㒭䲛ЏǄ䰸䴲ঠᮍ঺᳝ण䆂ˈ䲛Џ
ᑨゟेᬍℷ䗮ⶹᣛߎⱘⷁᇥǃ㔎䱋៪㔎乍Ǆ
Ⳃ㾚Ẕᶹৢˈ䖭ѯ‫ܡ‬䌍կᑨⱘᴤ᭭ᑨ⬅ᡓࣙଚ✻ㅵǃⲥᡸ੠᥻ࠊǄᡓࣙଚⱘẔᶹǃ✻
ㅵǃⲥᡸ੠᥻ࠊⱘНࡵˈϡᑨ㾷䰸䲛ЏᇍⳂ㾚Ẕᶹ䲒থ⦄ⱘӏԩⷁᇥǃ㔎䱋៪㔎乍᠔䋳ⱘ
䋷ӏǄ
ࠩէͱ‫ف‬
䰸䴲ϧ⫼ᴵӊЁ঺᳝㾘ᅮˈᡓࣙଚᑨ㓪ࠊ᳜䖯ᑺ᡹ਞˈϔᓣ݁ӑˈᦤѸ㒭䲛ЏǄ㄀ϔ
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⃵᡹ਞ᠔ࣙᣀⱘᳳ䯈ˈᑨ㞾ᓔᎹ᮹ᳳ䍋㟇ᔧ᳜ⱘ᳜ᑩℶǄҹৢᑨ↣᳜᡹ਞϔ⃵ˈ೼↣⃵᡹
ਞᳳ᳔ৢϔ໽ৢ 7 ᮹‫ݙ‬᡹ߎǄ
᡹ਞᑨᣕ㓁ࠄᡓࣙଚᅠ៤೼Ꮉ⿟⿏Ѹ䆕кϞ⊼ᯢⱘシᎹ᮹ᳳᯊ᠔᳝᳾ᅠᠿሒᎹ԰ЎℶǄ
↣ӑ᡹ਞᑨࣙᣀ˖
(1) 䆒䅵ǃᡓࣙଚ᭛ӊǃ䞛䌁ǃࠊ䗴ǃ䋻⠽䖤䖒⦄എǃᮑᎹǃᅝ㺙ǃ䆩偠ǃᡩѻ‫ޚ‬໛
੠䆩䖤㸠ㄝ↣ϔ䰊↉䖯ሩᚙ‫ⱘމ‬೒㸼੠䆺㒚䇈ᯢǄ
(2) ড᯴ࠊ䗴ᚙ‫މ‬੠⦄എ䖯ሩᚙ‫✻ⱘމ‬⠛Ǆ
(3) ݇Ѣ↣乍Џ㽕Ꮉ⿟䆒໛੠ᴤ᭭ⱘ⫳ѻˈࠊ䗴ଚৡ⿄ǃࠊ䗴ഄ⚍ǃ䖯ᑺⱒߚ↨ˈҹ
ঞϟ߫џ乍ⱘᅲ䰙៪乘䅵᮹ᳳǄ
z ᓔྟࠊ䗴Ǆ
z ᡓࣙଚẔ偠Ǆ
z 䆩偠Ǆ
z থ䋻੠䖤ᢉ⦄എǄ
(4) ㄀ 6.10 ℒ[ᡓࣙଚⱘҎਬ੠䆒໛ⱘ䆄ᔩ]Ё᠔䗄ⱘ㒚㡖Ǆ
(5) ᴤ᭭ⱘ䋼䞣ֱ䆕᭛ӊǃ䆩偠㒧ᵰঞড়Ḑ䆕ⱘࡃᴀǄ
(6) ব᳈ǃḍ᥂㄀ 2.5 ℒ[䲛Џⱘ㋶䌨]ⱘ㾘ᅮথߎⱘ䗮ⶹ੠ḍ᥂㄀ 20.1 ℒ[ᡓࣙଚⱘ㋶
䌨]ⱘ㾘ᅮথߎⱘ䗮ⶹⱘ⏙ऩǄ
(7) ᅝܼ㒳䅵ˈࣙᣀᇍ⦃๗੠݀݅݇㋏᳝ॅᆇⱘӏԩџӊϢ⌏ࡼⱘ䆺㒚ᚙ‫މ‬Ǆ
(8) ᅲ䰙䖯ᑺϢ䅵ߦ䖯ᑺⱘᇍ↨ˈࣙᣀৃ㛑ᕅડᣝড়ৠシᎹⱘӏԩџӊ៪ᚙ‫ⱘމ‬䆺ᚙˈ
ҹঞЎ⍜䰸ᓊ䇃ℷ೼(៪‫ޚ‬໛)䞛পⱘ᥾ᮑǄ
ຣЦ̝ͬ
䰸䴲ϧ⫼ᴵӊЁ঺᳝㾘ᅮˈ৺߭˖
(1) ᡓࣙଚᑨ䋳䋷䰏ℶ᳾㒣ᥜᴗⱘҎਬ䖯ܹ⦄എǄ
(2) ᥜᴗҎਬᑨҙ䰤ѢᡓࣙଚҎਬ੠䲛ЏҎਬˈҹঞ⬅(៪ҷ㸼)䲛Џ䗮ⶹᡓࣙଚˈ԰Ў
䲛Џ೼⦄എⱘ݊ҪᡓࣙଚⱘᥜᴗҎਬⱘӏԩ݊ҪҎਬǄ
ѕͧ౥ԅຣЦᆴྜ
ᡓࣙଚᑨᇚ݊԰Ϯ䰤ࠊ೼⦄എˈҹঞᡓࣙଚৃᕫࠄᑊ㒣䲛Џৠᛣ԰ЎᎹ԰എഄⱘӏԩ
䰘ࡴऎඳ‫ݙ‬Ǆᡓࣙଚᑨ䞛পϔߛᖙ㽕ⱘ乘䰆᥾ᮑˈҹֱᣕᡓࣙଚ䆒໛੠ᡓࣙଚҎਬ໘೼⦄
എ੠ℸ㉏䰘ࡴऎඳ‫ˈݙ‬䙓‫ܡ‬ҪӀ䖯ܹ䚏䖥ഄऎǄ
೼Ꮉ⿟ᮑᎹᳳ䯈ˈᡓࣙଚᑨֱᣕ⦄എ≵᳝ϔߛϡᖙ㽕ⱘ䱰⹡⠽ˈᑊᑨཹ୘ᄬᬒ੠໘㕂
ᡓࣙଚ䆒໛៪໮ԭⱘᴤ᭭ǄᡓࣙଚᑨҢ⦄എ⏙䰸ᑊ䖤䍄ӏԩ⅟⠽ǃൗഒ੠ϡ‫ݡ‬䳔㽕ⱘЈᯊ
Ꮉ⿟Ǆ
೼乕থᎹ⿟᥹ᬊ䆕кৢˈᡓࣙଚᑨ⏙䰸ᑊ䖤䍄᠔᳝ᡓࣙଚ䆒໛ǃ࠽ԭᴤ᭭ǃ⅟⠽ǃൗ
ഒ੠ЈᯊᎹ⿟ǄᡓࣙଚᑨՓ⦄എ੠Ꮉ⿟໘Ѣ⏙⋕੠ᅝܼⱘ⢊‫މ‬ǄԚ೼㔎䱋䗮ⶹᳳ䰤‫ˈݙ‬ᡓ
ࣙଚৃ೼⦄എֱ⬭݊ḍ᥂ড়ৠᅠ៤㾘ᅮНࡵ᠔䳔㽕ⱘℸ㉏䋻⠽Ǆ
‫ܤ‬ದ
೼⦄എথ⦄ⱘ᠔᳝࣪⷇ǃ⹀Ꮥǃ᳝Ӌؐⱘ⠽ક៪᭛⠽ˈҹঞ‫݋‬᳝ഄ䋼៪㗗সᛣНⱘ㒧
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ᵘ⠽੠݊Ҫ䘫䗍៪⠽કˈᑨ㕂Ѣ䲛Џⱘ✻ㅵ੠ᴗ䰤ϟǄᡓࣙଚᑨ䞛পড়⧚ⱘ乘䰆᥾ᮑˈ䰆
ℶᡓࣙଚҎਬ៪݊ҪҎਬ⿏ࡼ៪ᤳണӏԩ䖭㉏থ⦄⠽Ǆ
ϔᮺথ⦄ӏԩϞ䗄⠽કˈᡓࣙଚᑨゟे䗮ⶹ䲛ЏǄ䲛Џᑨህ໘⧚Ϟ䗄⠽કথߎᣛ⼎Ǆ
བᵰᡓࣙଚ಴ᠻ㸠䖭ѯᣛ⼎䙁ফᓊ䇃੠(៪)᢯㟈䌍⫼ˈᡓࣙଚᑨ৥䲛Џ‫⃵ݡ‬থߎ䗮ⶹˈ᳝
ᴗḍ᥂㄀ 20.1 ℒ[ᡓࣙଚⱘ㋶䌨]ⱘ㾘ᅮᦤߎ˖
(1) ḍ᥂㄀ 8.4 ℒ[シᎹᯊ䯈ⱘᓊ䭓]ⱘ㾘ᅮˈབᵰシᎹᏆ៪ᇚফࠄᓊ䇃ˈᇍӏԩℸ㉏ᓊ
䇃㒭ќᓊ䭓ᳳǄ
(2) ӏԩϞ䗄䌍⫼ᑨࡴܹড়ৠӋḐˈ㒭ќᬃҬǄ
䲛Џᬊࠄ䖯ϔℹⱘ䗮ⶹৢˈᑨᣝ✻㄀ 3.5 ℒ[⹂ᅮ]ⱘ㽕∖ଚᅮ៪⹂ᅮ䖭ѯџ乍Ǆ
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Unit 7 Types of Construction Contracts
While construction contracts serve as a means of pricing construction, they also structure the
allocation of risk to the various parties involved. The owner has the sole power to decide what
type of contract should be used for a specific facility to be constructed and to set forth the terms
in a contractual agreement. It is important to understand the risks of the contractors associated
with different types of construction contracts.
z Lump Sum Contract.
In a lump sum contract, the owner has essentially assigned all the risk to the contractor, who
in turn can be expected to ask for a higher markup in order to take care of unforeseen
contingencies. Beside the fixed lump sum price, other commitments are often made by the
contractor in the form of submittal such as a specific schedule, the management reporting system
or a quality control program. If the actual cost of the project is underestimated, the
underestimated cost will reduce the contractor’s profit by that amount. An overestimate has an
opposite effect, but may reduce the chance of being a low bidder for the project.
z Unit Price Contract.
In a unit price contract, the risk of inaccurate estimation of uncertain quantities for some key
tasks has been removed from the contractor. However, some contractors may submit an
“unbalanced bid” when it discovers large discrepancies between its estimates and the owner’s
estimates of these quantities. Depending on the confidence of the contractor on its own estimates
and its propensity on risk, a contractor can slightly raise the unit prices on the underestimated
tasks while lowering the unit prices on other tasks. If the contractor is correct in its assessment, it
can increase its profit substantially since the payment is made on the actual quantities of tasks;
and if the reverse is true, it can lose on this basis. Furthermore, the owner may disqualify a
contractor if the bid appears to be heavily unbalanced. To the extent that an underestimate or
overestimate is caused by changes in the quantities of work, neither error will affect the
contractor’s profit beyond the markup in the unit prices.
z Cost Plus Fixed Percentage Contract.
For certain types of construction involving new technology or extremely pressing needs, the
owner is sometimes forced to assume all risks of cost overruns. The contractor will receive the
actual direct job cost plus a fixed percentage, and have little incentive to reduce job cost.
Furthermore, if there are pressing needs to complete the project, overtime payments to workers
are common and will further increase the job cost. Unless there are compelling reasons, such as
the urgency in the construction of military installations, the owner should not use this type of
contract.
z Cost Plus Fixed Fee Contract.
Under this type of contract, the contractor will receive the actual direct job cost plus a fixed
Unit 7 Types of Construction Contracts g69g
fee, and will have some incentive to complete the job quickly since its fee is fixed regardless of
the duration of the project. However, the owner still assumes the risks of direct job cost overrun
while the contractor may risk the erosion of its profits if the project is dragged on beyond the
expected time.
z Cost Plus Variable Percentage Contract.
For this type of contract, the contractor agrees to a penalty if the actual cost exceeds the
estimated job cost, or a reward if the actual cost is below the estimated job cost. In return for
taking the risk on its own estimate, the contractor is allowed a variable percentage of the direct
job-cost for its fee. Furthermore, the project duration is usually specified and the contractor must
abide by the deadline for completion. This type of contract allocates considerable risk for cost
overruns to the owner, but also provides incentives to contractors to reduce costs as much as
possible.
z Target Estimate Contract.
This is another form of contract which specifies a penalty or reward to a contractor,
depending on whether the actual cost is greater than or less than the contractor’s estimated direct
job cost. Usually, the percentages of savings or overrun to be shared by the owner and the
contractor are predetermined and the project duration is specified in the contract. Bonuses or
penalties may be stipulated for different project completion dates.
z Guaranteed Maximum Cost Contract.
When the project scope is well defined, an owner may choose to ask the contractor to take
all the risks, both in terms of actual project cost and project time. Any work change orders from
the owner must be extremely minor if at all, since performance specifications are provided to the
owner at the outset of construction. The owner and the contractor agree to a project cost
guaranteed by the contractor as maximum. There may be or may not be additional provisions to
share any savings if any in the contract. This type of contract is particularly suitable for turnkey
operation.
Principles of Competitive Bidding
Competitive bidding on construction projects involves decision making under uncertainty

where one of the greatest sources of the uncertainty for each bidder is due to the unpredictable
nature of his competitors. Each bid submitted for a particular job by a contractor will be
determined by a large number of factors, including an estimate of the direct job cost, the general
overhead, the confidence that the management has in this estimate, and the immediate and
long-range objectives of management. So many factors are involved that it is impossible for a
particular bidder to attempt to predict exactly what the bids submitted by its competitors will be.
It is useful to think of a bid as being made up of two basic elements:
(1) the estimate of direct job cost, which includes direct labor costs, material cost,
equipment costs, and direct filed supervision.
(2) the markup or return, which must be sufficient to cover a portion of general overhead
g69g
costs and allow a fair profit on the investment.

A large return can be assured simply by including a sufficiently high markup. However, the
higher the markup, the less chance there will be of getting the job. Consequently a contractor
who includes a very large markup on every bid could become bankrupt from lack of business.
Conversely, the strategy of bidding with very little markup in order to obtain high volume is also
likely to lead to bankruptcy. Somewhere in between the two extreme approaches to bidding lies
an “optimum markup” which considers both the return and the likelihood of being low bidder in
such a way that, over the long run, the average return maximized.
From all indications, most contractors confront uncertain bidding conditions by exercising a
high degree of subjective judgment, and each contractor may give different weights to various
factors. The decision on the bid price, if a bid is indeed submitted, reflects the contractor’s best
judgment on how well the proposed project fits into the overall strategy for the survival and
growth of the company, as well as the contractor’s propensity to risk greater profit versus the
chance of not getting a contract.
One major concern in bidding competitions is the amount of “money left on the table” of the
difference between the winning and the next best bid. The winning bidder would like the amount
of “money left on the table” to be as small as possible. For example, if a contractor wins with a
bid of $200 000, and the next lowest bid was $225 000 (representing $25 000 of “money left on
the table”), then the winning contractor would have preferred to have bid $220 000 (or perhaps
$224 999) to increase potential profits.
Some of the major factors impacting bidding competitions include:
z Exogenous Economic Factors.
Contractors generally tend to specialize in a submarket of construction and concentrate their
work in particular geographic locations. The level of demand in a submarket at a particular time
can influence the number of bidders and their bid prices. When work is scarce in the submarket,
the average number of bidders for projects will be larger than at times of plenty. The net result of
scarcity is likely to be the increase in the number of bidders per project and downward pressure
on the bid price for each project in the submarket. At times of severe scarcity, some contractors
may cross the line between segments to expand their activities, or move into new geographic
locations to get a larger share of the existing submarket. Either action will increase the risks
incurred by such contractors as they move into less familiar segments or territories. The trend of
market demand in construction and of the economy at large may also influence the bidding
decisions of a contractor in other ways. If a contractor perceives drastic increases in labor wages
and material prices as a result of recent labor contract settlements, it may take into consideration
possible increases in unit prices for determining the direct project cost. Furthermore, the
perceptions of increase in inflation rates and interest rates may also cause the contractor to use a
higher markup to hedge the uncertainty.Consequently, at times of economic expansion and/or
higher inflation rate, contractors are reluctant to commit themselves to long-term fixed price
contracts.
g70g
z Characteristics of Bidding Competition.

All other things being equal, the probability of winning a contract diminishes as more
bidders participate in the competition. Consequently, a contractor tries to find out as much
information as possible about the number and identities of potential bidders on a specific project.
Such information is often available in the Dodge Bulletin [Dodge Bulletin (daily publication), F.
W. Dodge Corp., New York, N.Y.] or similar publications which provide data of potential projects
and names of contractors who have taken out plans and specifications. For certain segments,
potential competitors may be identified through private contacts, and bidders often confront the
same competitor’s project after project since they have similar capabilities and interests in
undertaking the same type of work, including size, complexity and geographical location of the
projects. A general contractor may also obtain information of potential subcontractors from
publications such as Credit Reports (Credit Reports, Building Construction Division, and
Bradstreet, Inc., New York, N.Y.) published by Dun and Bradstreet, Inc. However, most
contractors form an extensive network with a group of subcontractors with whom they have had
previous business transactions. They usually rely on their own experience in soliciting
subcontract bids before finalizing a bid price for the project.
z Objectives of General Contractors in Bidding.
The bidding strategy of some contractors is influenced by a policy of minimum percentage
markup for general overhead and profit. However, the percentage markup may also reflect
additional factors stipulated by the owner such as high retention and slow payments for
completed work, or perceptions of uncontrollable factors in the economy. The intensity of a
contractor’s efforts in bidding a specific project is influenced by the contractor’s desire to obtain
additional work. The winning of a particular project may be potentially important to the overall
mix of work in progress or the cash flow implications for the contractor. The contractor’s
decision is also influenced by the availability of key personnel in the contractor organization. The
company sometimes wants to reserve its resources for future projects, or commits itself to the
current opportunity for different reasons.
z Contractor’s Comparative Advantages.
A final important consideration in forming bid prices on the part of contractors is the
possible special advantages enjoyed by a particular firm. As a result of lower costs, a particular
contractor may be able to impose a higher profit markup yet still have a lower total bid than
competitors. These lower costs may result from superior technology, greater experience, better
management, better personnel or lower unit costs. A comparative cost advantage is the most
desirable of all circumstances in entering a bid competition.
Questions
1. Who has the sole power to decide what type of contract should be used for a specific
facility to be constructed and to set forth the terms in a contractual agreement?
g71g
2. In a lump sum contract, who will bear all the risks?

3. When may some contractors submit an “unbalanced bid”?
4. What may the owner do if the bid appears to be heavily unbalanced?
5. Unless there are compelling reasons, such as the urgency in the construction of military
installations, the owner should not use cost plus fixed percentage contract, why?
6. How shall the risks be shared between the contractor and the employer under the cost
plus fixed fee contract?
7. How shall the risks be shared between the contractor and the employer under the cost
plus variable percentage contract?
8. What are the principles of competitive bidding?
9. What are the major factors impacting bidding competitions?
10. What will influence the bidding strategy of some contractors?
construction contract˖Ꮉ⿟ᡓࣙড়ৠ
a lump sum contract˖ᘏӋড়ৠ
a low bidder˖ԢӋᡩᷛҎ
a unit price contract˖ऩӋড়ৠ
unbalanced bid˖ϡᑇ㸵᡹Ӌ
a cost plus fixed percentage contract˖៤ᴀࡴ೎ᅮⱒߚ↨䌍⫼ড়ৠ
a cost plus fixed fee contract˖៤ᴀࡴ೎ᅮ䌍⫼ড়ৠ
a cost plus variable percentage contract˖៤ᴀࡴবࡼ↨՟䌍⫼ড়ৠ
a target estimate contract˖ⳂᷛԄㅫড়ৠ
a guaranteed maximum cost contract˖ֱ䆕᳔໻៤ᴀড়ৠ
decision making˖‫އ‬ㄪ
optimum markup˖᳔Ӭ๲ࡴؐ
exogenous economic factors˖໪䚼㒣⌢಴㋴
potential competitors˖┰೼ⱘゲѝ㗙
comparative advantages˖ⳌᇍӬ࢓˗↨䕗Ӭ࢓
খ 㗗䆥 ᭛
㄀ 7 ऩ‫ܗ‬ Ꮉ⿟ᡓࣙড়ৠⱘ㉏ൟ
Ꮉ⿟ᡓࣙড়ৠ԰ЎᎹ⿟ᅮӋᎹ‫ⱘ݋‬ৠᯊˈ䖬㾘ᅮњ亢䰽೼খϢ৘ᮍП䯈ⱘߚ䜡ǄϮЏ
ᢹ᳝ऩ⣀ⱘᴗ߽‫އ‬ᅮᑨ䆹Ўᓎ䆒ϔϾ⡍ᅮⱘᎹ⿟㗠䞛⫼ા⾡ড়ৠᔶᓣˈᑊ೼ড়ৠЁ⫼ᴵℒ
䯤ᯢǄᥠᦵ৘⾡ϡৠড়ৠᔶᓣЁᡓࣙଚⱘ亢䰽ᰃ䴲ᐌ䞡㽕ⱘǄ
g72g
z ᘏӋড়ৠǄ
೼ᘏӋড়ৠЁˈϮЏᴀ䋼Ϟᰃᇚ᠔᳝ⱘ亢䰽䌟ќњᡓࣙଚˈৃҹ᭭ᛇˈᡓࣙଚ㒻㗠Ӯ
ᇏ∖᳈໻ⱘ๲ࡴؐҹ㽚Ⲫϡৃ乘㾕ⱘ䌍⫼Ǆ䰸೎ᅮᘏӋ໪ˈᡓࣙଚ䗮ᐌҹᦤկ݊Ҫ᭛ӊⱘ
ᔶᓣ‫঺ߎخ‬໪ⱘᡓ䇎ˈ՟བˈᶤϔ⡍ᅮⱘ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦǃㅵ⧚᡹ਞ㋏㒳៪䋼䞣᥻ࠊ䅵ߦǄབᵰ
Ꮉ⿟ⱘⳳᅲ䌍⫼㹿ԢԄˈ䙷М㹿ԢԄⱘ䌍⫼ᇚ‫ޣ‬ᇥᡓࣙଚⱘ߽⍺Ǆ㹿催Ԅⱘ䌍⫼‫݋‬᳝Ⳍড
ⱘ㒧ᵰˈԚৃ㛑‫ޣ‬ᇣ៤ЎᎹ⿟ԢӋᡩᷛҎⱘᴎӮǄ
z ऩӋড়ৠǄ
೼ऩӋড়ৠЁˈᡓࣙଚϡ‫ݡ‬಴ᶤѯЏ㽕ߚ乍Ꮉ⿟䞣ⱘϡᯢ⹂㗠ᡓᢙԄㅫϡ‫ⱘ⹂ޚ‬亢䰽Ǆ
Ԛᰃˈϔѯᡓࣙଚ೼থ⦄㞾ᏅⱘᎹ⿟䞣ԄㅫϢϮЏⱘԄㅫП䯈ᄬ೼ᕜ໻Ꮒ䎱ᯊˈৃ㛑ᦤѸ
Āϡᑇ㸵᡹ӋāǄ෎Ѣᇍ㞾ᏅԄㅫⱘֵᖗҹঞᇍ亢䰽ᡓᢙⱘᗕᑺˈᡓࣙଚৃ㛑೼㹿ԢԄ᭄䞣
ⱘߚ乍Ꮉ⿟Ϟ⬹ᖂᦤ催ⳌᑨऩӋˈ㗠ᇚ݊Ҫߚ乍Ꮉ⿟ⱘऩӋ䰡ԢǄབᵰᡓࣙଚⱘԄㅫᰃℷ
⹂ⱘˈᡓࣙଚህৃҹ๲ࡴⳌᔧⱘ߽⍺ˈ಴ЎϮЏⱘᬃҬᰃḍ᥂ᅲ䰙Ꮉ⿟䞣ᴹ⹂ᅮⱘ˗བᵰ
ϮЏⱘԄㅫᰃᇍⱘˈᡓࣙଚⱘ߽⍺߭ৃ㛑᥂ℸ㗠‫ޣ‬ᇥǄℸ໪ˈབᵰᡩᷛ᡹Ӌ䖛Ѣϡᑇ㸵ˈ
ϮЏৃ㛑ᇚ䆹ᡓࣙଚᥦ䰸೼໪Ǆህ⬅Ꮉ⿟䞣ব࣪ᓩ䍋ⱘԢԄ៪催Ԅ䖭⾡ᚙ‫މ‬㗠㿔ˈϡㅵԄ
ㅫ䫭䇃Ϣ৺ˈ䛑ϡӮᕅડᡓࣙଚ᠔᡹ऩӋ๲ࡴؐП໪ⱘ߽⍺Ǆ
z ៤ᴀࡴ೎ᅮⱒߚ↨䌍⫼ড়ৠǄ
ᇍѢϔѯ䞛⫼ᮄᡔᴃ៪᳝ᗹ䖿䳔∖ⱘ⡍ᅮᎹ⿟ˈϮЏ᳝ᯊ‫׭‬㹿䖿ᡓᢙ៤ᴀ䍙ᬃⱘ᠔᳝
亢䰽Ǆᡓࣙଚᇚᕫࠄᅲ䰙៤ᴀҹঞ೎ᅮ↨՟ⱘ䝀䞥ˈ಴㗠≵᳝䰡ԢᎹ⿟៤ᴀⱘࡼ࡯Ǆ㗠Ϩˈ
བᵰᇍᎹ⿟ᅠ៤ᯊ䯈᳝ᗹ䖿ⱘ㽕∖ˈ߭ᎹҎ䍙ᯊᎹ԰䌍⫼ⱘᬃҬᰃ᱂䘡ⱘˈ䖭гᇚ䖯ϔℹ
ᦤ催Ꮉ⿟៤ᴀǄ䰸䴲᳝⡍⅞ⱘॳ಴ˈ՟བˈ㋻ᗹ‫ݯ‬џᎹ⿟ⱘᓎ䗴ˈϮЏϡᑨ䞛⫼䖭⾡ᔶᓣ
ⱘড়ৠǄ
z ៤ᴀࡴ೎ᅮ䌍⫼ড়ৠǄ
೼䖭⾡ড়ৠᔶᓣϟˈᡓࣙଚᇚᕫࠄᅲ䰙៤ᴀࡴϞ೎ᅮⱘ䝀䞥ˈᑊᕫࠄ▔ࢅ㗠ሑᖿᅠ៤
Ꮉ⿟ˈ಴ЎϡㅵᎹ⿟ग़ᯊ໮Йˈ䝀䞥ᰃ೎ᅮⱘǄԚᰃˈϮЏҡ✊㽕ᡓᢙᎹ⿟៤ᴀ䍙ᬃⱘ亢
䰽ˈᡓࣙଚ߭ᡓᢙᎹ⿟ᅲ䰙Ꮉᳳ䍙䖛乘䅵ᯊ䯈㗠ᇐ㟈߽⍺‫ޣ‬ᇥⱘ亢䰽Ǆ
z ៤ᴀࡴবࡼ↨՟䌍⫼ড়ৠǄ
ᇍѢ䖭⾡ড়ৠᔶᓣˈᡓࣙଚৠᛣ೼ᅲ䰙៤ᴀ䍙䖛Ԅㅫ៤ᴀᯊ᥹ফ໘㔮ˈ៪㗙೼ᅲ䰙៤
ᴀԢѢԄㅫ៤ᴀᯊ㦋ᕫ༪ࢅǄ԰Ўᡓᢙ㞾ᏅԄㅫ៤ᴀ亢䰽ⱘಲ᡹ˈᡓࣙଚ㹿‫ܕ‬䆌ҹⳈ᥹៤
ᴀⱘবࡼ↨՟԰Ў᡹䝀Ǆℸ໪ˈ乍ⳂᎹᳳ䗮ᐌᰃᯢ⹂㾘ᅮⱘˈᡓࣙଚᖙ乏ᣝᳳ䰤ᅠ៤Ꮉ⿟Ǆ
䖭㉏ড়ৠᇚⳌᔧⱘ៤ᴀ䍙ᬃ亢䰽ߚ䜡㒭ϮЏˈԚг㒭ќᡓࣙଚ▔ࢅˈሑৃ㛑ഄ䰡Ԣ៤ᴀǄ
z ⳂᷛԄㅫড়ৠǄ
䖭ᰃḍ᥂ᅲ䰙៤ᴀ催Ѣ៪ԢѢᡓࣙଚԄㅫⱘⳈ᥹៤ᴀ㗠㒭ќᡓࣙଚᚽ㔮៪༪ࢅⱘ঺ϔ
⾡ড়ৠᔶᓣǄ䗮ᐌˈ⬅ϮЏ੠ᡓࣙଚߚᢙ㡖㑺៪䍙ᬃ䚼ߚⱘ↨՟џ‫ܜ‬㑺ᅮˈ乍ⳂᎹᳳ೼ড়
ৠЁᯢ⹂㾘ᅮǄ༪䞥៪㔮䞥ḍ᥂ϡৠⱘᎹ⿟ᅠ៤᮹ᳳᴹ⹂ᅮǄ
z ֱ䆕᳔໻៤ᴀড়ৠǄ
ᔧᎹ⿟㣗ೈ⏙ἮᅮНৢˈϮЏৃ㛑䗝ᢽ㽕∖ᡓࣙଚᡓᢙ᠔᳝ⱘ亢䰽ˈ᮶ࣙᣀᅲ䰙Ꮉ⿟
៤ᴀˈгࣙᣀᎹᳳǄӏԩᴹ㞾ϮЏᮍⱘᎹ⿟ব᳈ᛇᖙकߚᖂᇣˈ಴Ў乍Ⳃⱘࡳ㛑䇈ᯢ೼ᮑ
Ꮉᓔྟࠡህᦤկ㒭ϮЏǄϮЏ੠ᡓࣙଚৠᛣ⬅ᡓࣙଚֱ䆕ⱘϔϾᎹ⿟៤ᴀؐ԰Ў᳔໻ؐǄ
೼ড়ৠЁৃ㛑᳝гৃ㛑≵᳝䰘ࡴᴵℒᴹߚѿৃ㛑ⱘ㡖㑺乱Ǆ䖭⾡ড়ৠᔶᓣ⡍߿䗖ড়ѢѸ䩹
࣭Ꮉ⿟Ǆ
g73g
ࡉჺ໿෇γԅၐ႕
ᓎ䆒Ꮉ⿟ⱘゲѝᗻᡩᷛࣙᣀ೼ϡ⹂ᅮⱘᚙ‫މ‬ϟ䖯㸠‫އ‬ㄪˈᇍ↣ϔϾᡩᷛҎ㗠㿔䖭⾡ϡ
⹂ᅮⱘḍ⑤Пϔ೼Ѣゲѝ㗙ⱘϡৃ乘ⶹᗻǄᡓࣙଚЎᶤϔ⡍ᅮᎹ⿟ᦤѸⱘᡩᷛᇚপ‫އ‬Ѣᕜ
໮಴㋴ˈࣙᣀⳈ᥹៤ᴀⱘԄㅫǃᘏㅵ⧚䌍⫼ǃㅵ⧚㗙ᇍ䖭ϔԄㅫⱘֵᖗҹঞⷁᳳ੠䭓ᳳⱘ
ㅵ⧚ⳂᷛǄབℸП໮ⱘ಴㋴ˈՓᕫϔϾ⡍ᅮⱘᡩᷛҎ䆩೒‫⹂ޚ‬乘⌟ゲѝ㗙ⱘᡩᷛᰃϡৃ
㛑ⱘǄ
ᇚᡩᷛߚЎϸϾ෎ᴀ㒘៤㽕㋴ᰃ᳝⫼ⱘ˖
(1) Ⳉ᥹៤ᴀⱘԄㅫˈࣙᣀⳈ᥹ҎᎹ䌍ǃᴤ᭭䌍ǃᴎẄ䌍੠Ⳉ᥹⦄എㅵ⧚䌍Ǆ
(2) ๲ࡴؐ៪ಲ᡹ˈ݊ᖙ乏䎇ҹ㽚Ⲫᘏㅵ⧚䌍䚼ߚˈҹঞ㦋ᕫⳌᔧⱘᡩ䌘߽⍺Ǆ
া㽕ㅔऩഄ⏏ࡴϔϾ䎇໳催ⱘ๲ࡴؐˈህ㛑ֱ䆕催ಲ᡹ǄԚᰃˈ๲ࡴؐ䍞催ˈ㦋ᕫᎹ
⿟ⱘᴎӮህ䍞ᇣǄ಴ℸˈ೼↣ϔ⃵ᡩᷛЁˈ๲ࡴؐপᕫ䴲ᐌ໻ⱘᡓࣙଚӮ಴᥹ϡࠄᎹ⿟㗠
⸈ѻǄⳌডˈЎњ㦋ᕫ໻䞣Ꮉ⿟㗠䞛⫼Ԣ๲ࡴؐᡩᷛㄪ⬹ⱘᡓࣙଚгৃ㛑ᇐ㟈⸈ѻǄ೼ϸ
⾡ᵕッᡩᷛᮍ⊩Ёˈᄬ೼ϔϾĀ᳔Ӭ๲ࡴؐāˈᅗ᮶㗗㰥ಲ᡹ˈг㗗㰥៤ЎԢӋᡩᷛҎⱘৃ
㛑ᗻˈҢ䭓䖰ᴹⳟˈ䞛⫼䖭⾡ᮍ⊩ⱘᑇഛಲ᡹᳔໻Ǆ
᠔ҹ⦄䈵㸼ᯢˈ໻໮᭄ᡓࣙଚ䴶ᇍϡ⹂ᅮⱘᡩᷛᴵӊˈ೼ᕜ໻⿟ᑺϞ䞛⫼Џ㾖ⱘ߸ᮁ
ᴹᑨᇍˈ↣Ͼᡓࣙଚৃ㛑ᇍϡৠⱘ಴㋴㒭ќϡৠⱘᴗ䞡ǄབᵰᡩᷛⳳℷᦤѸˈᡩᷛӋḐⱘ
‫އ‬ㄪህড᯴њᡓࣙଚབԩՓᢳᅮⱘ䅵ߦ䗖ড়݀ৌ⫳ᄬ੠থሩⱘᭈԧ៬⬹ˈҹঞড᯴ᡓࣙଚ
ᇍᕙপᕫ䕗໻߽⍺Ϣ༅এড়ৠᴎӮ䖭ϔ亢䰽ⱘᗕᑺǄ
݇ѢᡩᷛゲѝⱘϔϾЏ㽕䯂乬ᰃĀḠ䴶Ϟ࠽ϟⱘ䪅āЎ໮ᇥˈ㦋㚰Ϣ⃵᳔ՇᡩᷛП䯈
ⱘⳌᏂؐᰃ໮ᇥǄ㦋㚰ⱘᡩᷛҎᏠᳯĀḠ䴶Ϟ࠽ϟⱘ䪅ā䍞ᇥ䍞དǄ↨བˈབᵰϔϾᡓࣙ
ଚҹ 200 000 㕢‫ⱘܗ‬ᡩᷛӋ㦋㚰ˈ㗠⃵ԢⱘᡩᷛӋЎ 225 000 㕢‫˄ܗ‬ᛣੇⴔĀḠ䴶Ϟ࠽ϟⱘ
䪅āᰃ 25 000 㕢‫ˈ˅ܗ‬䙷М㦋㚰ⱘᡓࣙଚህᏠᳯ㞾Ꮕ᳔དҹ 220 000 㕢‫˄ܗ‬гৃ㛑ᰃ 224 999
㕢‫˅ܗ‬ᡩᷛˈҹ๲ࡴ┰೼ⱘ߽⍺Ǆ
ᕅડᡩᷛゲѝⱘЏ㽕಴㋴ࣙᣀབϟ޴ϾǄ
z ໪䚼㒣⌢಴㋴Ǆ
ᡓࣙଚϔ㠀ؒ৥Ѣϧ⊼ᶤϔϧϮᎹ⿟ⱘᡓࣙᏖഎҹঞᇚҪӀᡓࣙᎹ⿟ⱘ㣗ೈ䲚ЁѢ⡍
ᅮⱘऎඳǄ೼ϔ⡍ᅮᯊ䯈ˈᏖഎⱘ䳔∖∈ᑇৃҹᕅડᡩᷛҎⱘ᭄䞣੠ᡩᷛӋḐǄᔧᡓࣙᏖ
എϞⱘᎹ⿟⿔ᇥᯊˈᎹ⿟ᡩᷛҎⱘᑇഛ᭄Ⳃᇚ↨Ꮉ⿟໮ⱘᯊ‫׭‬໻ǄᎹ⿟⿔ᇥⱘ᳔㒜㒧ᵰৃ
㛑ᇐ㟈ᡓࣙᏖഎϞখࡴ↣ϔᎹ⿟ᡩᷛⱘҎ᭄๲ࡴˈᎹ⿟ᡩᷛӋḐ䴶Ј৥ϟⱘय़࡯ǄᔧᎹ⿟
Ϲ䞡⿔ᇥᯊˈϔѯᡓࣙଚৃ㛑Ӯ䍞䖛ϧϮ⬠㒓ҹᠽሩ㞾Ꮕⱘ⌏ࡼ㣗ೈˈ៪㗙䖕⿏ࠄϔϾᮄ
ⱘഄऎ䇟∖㦋ᕫᏆ᳝ᡓࣙᏖഎϞⱘ᳈໻ӑ乱ǄӏԩϔϾ䖭ḋⱘ㸠ࡼˈ䛑Ӯ๲ࡴᡓࣙଚⱘ亢
䰽ˈ಴ЎҪӀᰃ䖯ܹϔϾϡ❳ᙝⱘϧϮ乚ඳ៪ഄऎǄᎹ⿟ⱘᏖഎ䳔∖䍟࢓੠㒣⌢ⱘব࣪䍟
࢓гৃ㛑ҹ঺ϔ⾡ᮍᓣᕅડᡓࣙଚⱘᡩᷛ‫އ‬ㄪǄབᵰᡓࣙଚᛳࠄᣝⳂࠡㅒ䅶ⱘҎᎹড়ৠⱘ
㒧ᵰˈᎹҎᎹ䌘੠ᴤ᭭ӋḐӮ໻ᐙᑺᦤ催ˈ߭݊೼⹂ᅮⳈ᥹៤ᴀᯊৃ㛑㗗㰥䗖ᔧᦤ催ऩӋǄ
ℸ໪ˈབᵰ乘ᛳ䗮䋻㝼㚔⥛੠߽⥛Ӯᦤ催ˈгৃ㛑Ӯᓩ䍋ᡓࣙଚ䞛⫼䕗催ⱘ๲ࡴؐᴹ㾘䙓
ϡ⹂ᅮᗻǄ಴ℸˈᔧ೼㒣⌢㝼㚔੠/៪䗮䋻㝼㚔⥛䕗催ᯊˈᡓࣙଚϡᜓᛣㅒ䅶Ꮉᳳ䕗䭓ⱘ೎
ᅮӋḐড়ৠǄ
g74g
z ᡩᷛゲѝⱘ⡍ᕕǄ
Ϣ᠔᳝݊Ҫᚙᔶϔḋˈབᵰ᳝䆌໮Ҏখࡴゲѝˈ䌶ᕫড়ৠⱘৃ㛑ᗻህӮ‫ޣ‬ᇣǄ಴ℸˈ
ᡓࣙଚᘏᰃ䆩೒㦋ᕫሑৃ㛑໮ⱘ᳝݇ᶤϔ⡍ᅮᎹ⿟┰೼ᡩᷛҎ᭄Ⳃ੠ᡩᷛҎ⡍⚍ⱘֵᙃǄ
䖭⾡ֵᙃᐌᐌৃҹ೼ Dodge ᡹ਞ(Dodge ᡹ਞ˄↣᮹ߎ⠜˅ˈF. W. Dodge ݀ৌˈ㒑㑺)Ё㦋পˈ
៪ᰃҢᦤկᢳ᢯ᷛᎹ⿟ⱘ᭄᥂੠Ꮖ㒣পᕫ䅵ߦ੠䇈ᯢкⱘᡓࣙଚⱘৡऩⱘ㉏Ԑߎ⠜⠽Ёᕫ
ࠄǄᇍѢᶤѯ⡍⅞ⱘϧϮˈ┰೼ゲѝ㗙ⱘᚙ‫ৃމ‬㛑䗮䖛⾬ᆚᮍ⊩⹂ᅮˈᡩᷛҎ㒣ᐌ೼ϔϾ
᥹ϔϾⱘᎹ⿟ϞϢⳌৠゲѝ㗙Ⳍ䘛ˈ಴ЎҪӀᇍᡓᢙৠϔ㉏ൟⱘᎹ⿟ˈࣙᣀ㾘῵ǃ໡ᴖᗻ
ҹঞഄ⧚ԡ㕂䛑᳝Ⳍৠⱘ㛑࡯੠݈䍷ǄᘏᡓࣙଚгৃҹҢ⬅ Dun & Bradstreet ݀ৌߎ⠜ⱘ
Credit ᡹ਞ(Credit ᡹ਞˈBuilding Construction Division ˈBradstreet ݀ৌˈ㒑㑺)䖭ḋⱘ
ߎ⠜⠽Ёᕫࠄ┰೼ߚࣙଚⱘֵᙃǄԚᰃˈ໻䚼ߚᘏᡓࣙଚᰃ䗮䖛Ϣҹ᳝ࠡ䖛Ѹᯧⱘߚࣙଚ
㕸ᓎゟⱘᑓ⊯㔥㒰ˈҢЁ㦋প┰೼ߚࣙଚⱘֵᙃⱘǄ೼᳔ৢ⹂ᅮᎹ⿟ᡩᷛӋḐПࠡˈҪӀ
䗮ᐌᰃḍ᥂㞾Ꮕⱘ㒣偠ᴹ䗝ᢽߚࣙଚⱘǄ
z ᡩᷛЁᘏᡓࣙଚⱘⳂᷛǄ
ϔѯᡓࣙଚⱘᡩᷛ៬⬹ফ๲ࡴؐ↨՟᳔ᇣ䖭ḋⱘᡩᷛᮍ䩜ⱘᕅડˈҹℸ㦋ᕫᘏㅵ⧚䌍
੠߽⍺ǄԚᰃˈ๲ࡴؐ↨՟гৃ㛑ড᯴ϮЏ㾘ᅮⱘ݊Ҫ಴㋴ˈ՟བˈᡓࣙଚᇍᏆᅠᎹᎹ⿟
䕗催ⱘֱㅵ⥛ঞ݊ϮЏ㓧᜶ⱘᬃҬˈ៪ᇍ㒣⌢Ёϡৃ᥻ࠊ಴㋴ⱘ乘䅵Ǆᇍᡩᷛᶤϔ⡍ᅮᎹ
⿟ⱘࡾ࡯⿟ᑺˈফᡓࣙଚᇍ㦋ᕫ᳈໮Ꮉ⿟␈ᳯ⿟ᑺⱘᕅડǄᇍѢᡓࣙଚᴹ䇈ˈ㦋ᕫᶤϔ⡍
ᅮᎹ⿟ᇍ᠔᳝䖯㸠ЁⱘᎹ⿟៪೼䱤৿ⱘ⦄䞥⌕ᮍ䴶ৃ㛑‫݋‬᳝┰೼ⱘ䞡㽕ᗻǄᡓࣙଚⱘ‫އ‬ㄪ
䖬ফࠄ㛑৺Ңᡓࣙଚ㞾Ꮕⱘ㒘㒛Ё㦋ᕫ݇䬂ҎਬⱘᕅડǄ݀ৌ᳝ᯊ‫׭‬䳔㽕ЎᇚᴹⱘᎹ⿟‫ټ‬
໛䌘⑤ˈ៪⬅Ѣ݊Ҫϡৠⱘॳ಴㗠䲚Ё݇⊼ѢⳂࠡⱘᴎӮǄ
z ᡓࣙଚⱘ↨䕗Ӭ࢓Ǆ
ᡓࣙଚ೼⹂ᅮᡩᷛ᡹Ӌᯊ㗗㰥ⱘ᳔䞡㽕ⱘ಴㋴ᰃᴹ㞾݀ৌৃ㛑ⱘ⡍⅞Ӭ࢓Ǆ԰ЎԢ៤
ᴀⱘ㒧ᵰˈᶤϔᡓࣙଚህৃ㛑ࡴϞϔϾ᳝䕗催߽⍺ⱘ๲ࡴؐ㗠ՓᘏⱘᡩᷛӋḐҡ↨݊Ҫゲ
ѝ㗙ԢǄ䖭ѯ᳈Ԣⱘ៤ᴀৃ㛑ᴹ㞾Ѣ‫ܜ‬䖯ⱘᡔᴃǃЄᆠⱘ㒣偠ǃӬ⾔ⱘㅵ⧚ǃߎ㡆ⱘਬᎹ
៪㗙䕗Ԣⱘऩԡ៤ᴀǄ↨䕗៤ᴀӬ࢓ᰃখϢᡩᷛゲѝᯊ೼᠔᳝ⱘ᥾ᮑЁ᳔᳝ӋؐⱘǄ
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Unit 8 Tendering Procedure(1)
The FIDIC Conditions of Contract envisage that a contractor will be selected by the
Employer following competitive tendering.
Experience has shown that, for major projects and those involving international tendering,
prequalification of tenderers is desirable since it enables the Employer /Engineer to establish, in
advance, the competence of firms subsequently invited to tender. It also ensures that invitations
are addressed to leading companies who would not necessarily participate in open or unrestricted
tendering. Such unrestricted tendering does not always facilitate appropriate competition because
the number of tenderers may be so great as to make the odds against tendering successfully
unacceptable. Additionally, prequalification has the advantage of reducing the inflationary effect
which must arise where firms incur unproductive expense in submitting a large number of tenders
in the knowledge that a high proportion of these must be unsuccessful.
The documents issued to tenderers (the Tender documents) normally comprise Conditions of
Contract, Specification, Drawings, Bill of Quantities and form of Tender, together with
Instructions to Tenderers. All except Instructions to Tenderers become Contract documents on
award of Contract. It is usual to send the Tender documents to tenderers under cover of a letter
which should be limited to identifying the documents and giving the recipient an invitation to
tender.
Conditions of Contract
The Conditions of Contract will consist of Part I and Part II of the Red Book. The
Conditions set out the legal /contractual arrangements that will apply to the Contract.
Specification
The Specification will define the scope and the technical requirements of the Contract. The
quality of materials and the standards of workmanship to be provided by the Contractor must be
clearly described, together with the extent, if any, to which the Contractor will be responsible for
the design of the permanent works. Details must be included of samples to be provided and tests
to be carried out by the Contractor during the course of the Contract. Any limitations on the
Contractor’s freedom of choice in the order,timing or methods of executing the work or sections
of the works must be clearly set out and any restrictions in his use of the site of the works, such
as the provision of access or space for other contractors, must be given.
Drawings
The Drawings must be in sufficient detail to enable tenderers to assess accurately, in

conjunction with the Specification and the Bill of Quantities, the nature and scope of work
Unit 8 Tendering Procedure(1) g77g
included in the Contract. Only rarely is it possible to provide, at tender stage, a complete set of
drawings so fully detailed that the work can be executed without any further drawings becoming
necessary. On most contracts supplementary drawings will be issued after award as work
proceeds.
Bill of Quantities
The Bill of Quantities is a list of items giving descriptions and estimated quantities of work
to be executed under the Contract. The Red Book assumes a remeasurement form of contract,
although that does not preclude the inclusion of a number of lump sum items in the Bill of
Quantities provided that the scope of work to be covered by each lump sum item is adequately
defined.
The Tender
It is highly desirable when inviting competitive offers from a number of tenderers, that the
tenders received should be based as far as possible on equal terms and conditions and presented
in a standardised manner. In this way evaluation and comparison between the tenders received
can be made more simply and accurately with less risk of misunderstandings, errors and
omissions.
The Tender is the most important single document submitted by the tenderer. It is here that
each tenderer confirms that he has read and understood the requirements of the Tender documents
and based on such requirements. It is here that he states his tender sum for undertaking and
fulfilling all his obligations under the Contract. It is therefore essential for the Employer that all
Tenders received are stated in identical terms and thus it is necessary for the Employer, when
inviting Tenders, to provide tenderers with a standard form of tender which each tenderer is
required to complete and sign.
The form of Tender which is included at the end of the first volume of the Red Book
following Part I of the Conditions of Contract is recommended for this purpose. It is short , it is
clear and when signed and submitted creates a legally binding and valid offer.
It is common for Tenders to be identified by a tender reference or contract number which
should be added to link the Tender to the project in question.
The organisation to which the Tender is being submitted must be stated in the appropriate
space on the form.
The sum to be entered under paragraph 1 of the Tender is the tenderer’s total Tender sum,
which should be the same as the total from the summary page of the Bill of Quantities. The
amount shall be entered in words and in figures and in the event of a discrepancy between the
two it is common practice in most countries that the written amount shall prevail over the amount
expressed in figures.
The sum agreed may vary during the execution of the project depending on what
circumstances occur, e. g. the instruction of variations, the occurrence of unforeseen events,
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which in accordance with the Conditions of Contract entitle the Contractor to additional (or
reduced) payment.
Under paragraph 4 the Employer must state the time during which he requires the Tender to
remain valid and open to acceptance. This time should be adequate to permit proper evaluation
and award procedures to be completed.
In the event that the stated time proves to be insufficient, the Employer may ask tenderers to
extend the period of validity of their Tenders for a further named period. At the same time
tenderers should be asked to extend the validity of any tender bond accordingly. Tenderers are
free to extend or not, if so requested, and in the event that they choose not to do so, the Employer
has no right to cash or hold their tender bond.
Instructions to Tenderers
Instructions to Tenderers must be prepared to meet the requirements of individual contracts.
Their purpose is to convey information and instructions which apply during the tendering period.
Any material on which it is intended to rely after award must be included elsewhere, e. g. in the
Conditions of Contract or the Specification.
The following notes provide a guide to subjects to be covered, but they are not necessarily
exhaustive.
(1) General. Under this heading should be included brief details of the organisation
(Government, Ministry, Department, Authority, etc. ) calling for Tenders, together with an outline
of the project to be covered by the Contract.
Any stipulations regarding firms and persons qualified to tender, such as prior
prequalification and/or requirements in the event of formation of joint ventures, should be stated,
together with details of any special requirements to establish the validity of the Tender and the
authority of the signatory, e. g. Power of Attorney.
Tenderers must be advised if the successful tenderer will be required to establish a locally
registered company for the purpose of the Contract.
(2) Documents. A list of documents issued to tenderers should be included together with
instructions as to which of these documents must be completed by the tenderer and handed in on
the submission date.
If the Tender documents are not issued free of charge then the sum required for the original
set and for any additional sets should be stated and whether payment is to be made in local or
equivalent foreign currency. Tenderers should be advised as to how the extra sets of documents
can be obtained and also of procedures to be followed for the return of the documents by
unsuccessful tenderers.
(3) Completion and Submission of Tenders. Concise instructions as to the time, date and
place for the submission of Tenders should be given.
It should also be made clear to tenderers that all entries and signatures should be in indelible
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ink and that no erasures or additions are permitted other than those necessary to correct errors.
All such corrections must be initialled.
It is normal to ask for more than one copy of the Tender, in which case tenderers should be
instructed as to the manner in which the Tenders are to be packaged.
It is usual to stipulate that one set of documents should be clearly marked “Original Tender”
and others marked “Copy” , and that if there are discrepancies the Original Tender takes
precedence. Photocopies of the Original Tender minimize the risk of discrepancies.
The tenderer should be told whether, if he has handed in his Tender before the formal
submission date or has sent it by post, he has the right to withdraw, modify or correct it after
dispatch. This would normally be permitted, provided that a request for modification, etc. , has
been received by the Employer either in writing or by cable, telex or facsimile transmission
before the time set for receiving Tenders. The Original Tender as amended would then be
considered as the official offer.
(4) Supplementary Information Required. Tenderers should be advised of any
supplementary information to be submitted with the Tender documents , such as details of the
proposed sureties for any performance security, general terms of insurance, the constitution of the
tenderer’s organization together with the address to be used for the purposes of the Contract, a
preliminary programme of work (the Instructions to Tenderers should give an indication of what
is required) and a list of major items of Contractor’s Equipment required for the purpose of
executing the works.
A forecast of labour and staff, local and foreign, may be requested. Where a Tender sum has
been requested on the basis that it is adjustable by reason of changes in the cost of labour,
materials and transport, the tenderer should, unless the particulars are given by the Employer in
the Tender documents, be requested to indicate the formula or formulae which he wishes to use
as the basis for adjusting the sum. If his formula is to be index based, officially published indices
should be used. These would normally be indices published in the country where the project is to
be located. The Tenderer should also provide the names of any subcontractors he proposes to
employ, together with details of those parts of the works proposed to be subcontracted.
It must also be made clear in the Instructions to Tenderers to what extent the supplementary
information is required by the Employer purely to demonstrate that the tenderer has understood
the extent and nature of the work and the programme required and to what extent, if at all, the
supplementary information is required as a part of the offer for inclusion in the Contract
documents on award.(to be continued.)
Questions
1. Why is prequalification necessary for major projects and those involving international
tendering?
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2. What should be included in the specification?

3. Is it possible to provide a detailed complete set of drawings at tender stage? Why?
4. What is the bill of quantities?
5. Why is the tender the most important single document submitted by the tenderer?
6. Why dose the tender sum agreed may vary during the execution of the project?
7. What is the purpose of “instructions to tenderers” ?
8. What should be included or stated under the heading “general” in “instructions to
tenderers” ?
9. On what condition is the tenderer permitted to withdraw, modify or correct his tender
after dispatch?
10. What are the supplementary information required to be submitted with the tender
documents?
tender˖᢯ᷛ˗ᡩᷛ
competitive tendering˖ゲѝᗻ᢯ᷛ
prequalification˖䌘Ḑ乘ᅵ
conditions of contract˖ড়ৠᴵӊ
specification˖㾘㣗˗䆺䗄˗䇈ᯢк
drawings˖೒㒌
bill of quantities˖Ꮉ⿟䞣㸼
instructions to tenderers˖ᡩᷛ㗙乏ⶹ˗ᡩᷛ㗙ᣛҸ
contract documents˖ড়ৠ᭛ӊ
permanent works˖∌ЙᗻᎹ⿟
standards of workmanship˖Ꮉ㡎ᷛ‫ޚ‬
supplementary drawings˖㸹‫ܙ‬೒㒌
tender reference number˖ᡩ⼼খ㗗㓪ো
contract number˖ড়ৠ㓪ো
award procedures˖ᥜќ⿟ᑣ
period of validity of tenders˖ᡩᷛкⱘ᳝ᬜᳳ
tender bond˖ᡩֱᷛߑ˗ᡩֱᷛ䆕䞥
original tender˖ᡩᷛкℷᴀ
official offer˖ℷᓣ᡹Ӌ
supplementary information˖㸹‫ֵܙ‬ᙃ
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খ 㗗䆥 ᭛
㄀ 8 ऩ‫ܗ‬ ᢯ᷛ⿟ᑣ(1)
FIDIC ড়ৠᴵӊ䆒ᛇ⬅䲛Џ䞛⫼ゲѝᗻ᢯ᷛᮍᓣ䗝ᢽᡓࣙଚǄ
㒣偠㸼ᯢˈᇍѢ໻ൟⱘ੠⍝ঞ೑䰙᢯ᷛⱘ乍Ⳃᴹ䇈ˈᇍᡩᷛ㗙ⱘ䌘Ḑ乘ᅵᰃᖙ乏ⱘǄ
಴Ўˈ䗮䖛䌘Ḑ乘ᅵৃҹՓ䲛Џ(៪Ꮉ⿟Ꮬ)ᦤࠡњ㾷ᑨ䙔ᡩᷛⱘ݀ৌⱘ㛑࡯Ǆৠᯊˈгֱ
䆕њ৥ϡϔᅮᜓᛣখࡴ݀ᓔ៪᮴䰤ࠊᡩᷛⱘ໻݀ৌথߎ䙔䇋Ǆ䙷⾡᮴䰤ࠊ᢯ᷛᑊϡᘏᰃ᳝
߽Ѣড়⧚ゲѝˈ಴Ўᡩᷛ㗙᭄䞣ৃ㛑໾໮ҹ㟈ᕅડࠄ៤ࡳⱘᡩᷛড㗠ϡ㛑㹿᥹ফǄℸ໪ˈ
བᵰ৘݀ৌᯢⶹ໻䚼ߚᡩᷛϡৃ㛑Ёᷛҡ䗦Ѹ໻䞣ᡩᷛˈᅗӀᇚЎℸҬߎ᮴ᬜⱘ䌍⫼Ң㗠
ᇐ㟈໻䞣ⱘ໮ԭᡩᷛˈ㗠䌘Ḑ乘ᅵህ‫݋‬᳝‫ޣ‬ᇥϞ䗄໮ԭᡩᷛⱘӬ⚍Ǆ
乕থ㒭ᡩᷛ㗙ⱘ᭛ӊ(᢯ᷛ᭛ӊ)ϔ㠀ࣙᣀড়ৠᴵӊǃ㾘㣗ǃ೒㒌ǃᎹ⿟䞣㸼ǃᡩᷛк
Ḑᓣҹঞᡩᷛ㗙乏ⶹǄ䰸ᡩᷛ㗙乏ⶹ໪ˈϞ䗄ܼ䚼᭛ӊ೼ᥜќড়ৠᯊᵘ៤Ўড়ৠ᭛ӊǄ䗮
ᐌˈᡞ᢯ᷛ᭛ӊ䖲ৠϔᇕֵߑ䗕㒭ᡩᷛ㗙ˈֵߑҙ䰤Ѣ䇈ᯢϞ䗄᭛ӊᑊথ㒭ᬊӊҎϔӑᡩ
ᷛ䙔䇋кǄ
‫ۦ‬ලඨߑ
ড়ৠᴵӊ⬅㑶Ⲃк㄀ϔ䚼ߚ੠㄀Ѡ䚼ߚ㒘៤Ǆᴵӊ䇈ᯢњ䗖⫼Ѣড়ৠⱘ⊩ᕟ(៪༥㑺)
ᅝᥦǄ
‫ֳڟ‬
㾘㣗ᇚ㾘ᅮড়ৠⱘ㣗ೈ੠ᡔᴃ㽕∖Ǆᇍᡓࣙଚᦤկⱘᴤ᭭ⱘ䋼䞣੠Ꮉ㡎ᷛ‫ˈޚ‬ҹঞᡓ
ࣙଚᇍ∌ЙᗻᎹ⿟ⱘ䆒䅵᠔䋳䋷ⱘ⿟ᑺ(བ᳝ᯊ)ˈᖙ乏‫ߎخ‬ᯢ⹂㾘ᅮǄ㾘㣗䖬ᑨࣙᣀড়ৠ
ᳳ䯈ᡓࣙଚᦤկⱘḋકঞ݊䖯㸠ⱘ䆩偠ⱘ㒚㡖˗ᇍᡓࣙଚᅲᮑᎹ⿟៪ऎ↉ⱘ乎ᑣǃᯊ䯈ᅝ
ᥦ៪ᮍ⊩ⱘ䗝ᢽ㞾⬅བ᳝ӏԩ䰤ࠊᯊˈ䛑䳔ᯢ⹂㾘ᅮ˗ৠᯊ䖬䳔㒭ߎᇍᡓࣙଚՓ⫼Ꮉ⿟⦄
എⱘӏԩ䰤ࠊˈ՟བˈЎ݊Ҫᡓࣙଚᦤկ䗮䘧੠ぎ䯈Ǆ
෍ᄜ
೒㒌ᖙ乏䎇໳䆺㒚ˈҹՓᡩᷛ㗙೼খ㗗њ㾘㣗੠Ꮉ⿟䞣㸼ৢˈ㛑‫⹂⹂ޚ‬ᅮড়ৠ᠔ࣙᣀ
ⱘᎹ԰ᗻ䋼੠㣗ೈǄ೼ᡩᷛ䰊↉ˈᵕᇥৃ㛑ᦤկߎϔᭈ༫ᅠ໛ⱘ೒㒌ˈҢ㗠гᵕᇥৃ㛑೼
ϡ䳔㽕ᦤկӏԩ䖯ϔℹⱘ೒㒌ⱘᚙ‫މ‬ϟ䖯㸠Ꮉ԰ǄᇍѢ໻໮᭄ড়ৠᴹ䇈ˈ㸹‫ܙ‬೒㒌ᇚ೼ᥜ
ќড়ৠПৢⱘᎹ԰ЁথᬒǄ
ٝё२ζ
Ꮉ⿟䞣㸼ᰃϔϾ乍Ⳃ⏙ऩˈ䕑᳝ᣝ✻ড়ৠᅲᮑⱘᎹ԰ⱘ䇈ᯢҹঞԄㅫⱘᎹ⿟䞣Ǆ㑶Ⲃ
к䞛⫼ড়ৠ䞡ᮄ䅵䞣ⱘᮍᓣˈ㱑✊䖭ᑊϡᥦ䰸Ꮉ⿟䞣㸼Ёࣙ৿᳝㢹ᑆϾࣙᑆ乍Ⳃˈা㽕↣
ϔࣙᑆ乍Ⳃࣙ৿ⱘᎹ԰㣗ೈ᳝䆺㒚ⱘ㾘ᅮेৃǄ
෇γೠ
ᔧ䙔䇋ӫ໮ᡩᷛ㗙খϢゲѝᗻ᡹Ӌᯊˈ᠔ᬊࠄⱘᷛкᑨሑৃ㛑ഄ෎Ѣᑇㄝⱘᴵℒ੠ᴵ
g81g
ӊˈᑊᑨҹᷛ‫ޚ‬ḐᓣᦤѸˈ䖭ϔ⚍ᰃकߚᖙ㽕ⱘǄ಴Ўˈ䖭ḋ‫خ‬᳝߽Ѣ᳈Ўㅔऩǃ‫⹂ޚ‬ഄ
ᇍᬊࠄⱘᡩᷛ䖯㸠䆘Ӌ੠↨䕗ˈᑊ㛑‫ޣ‬ᇥߎ⦄䇃㾷ǃ䫭䇃੠䘫ⓣⱘৃ㛑Ǆ
ᡩᷛкᰃᡩᷛ㗙ᦤѸⱘ᳔䞡㽕ⱘऩ乍᭛ӊǄ೼ℸ᭛ӊЁˈ↣ԡᡩᷛ㗙⹂䅸ҪᏆ䯙䇏њ
᢯ᷛ᭛ӊᑊ⧚㾷њ݊Ёⱘ㽕∖ˈ෎Ѣ䖭ѯ㽕∖ˈ೼ℸ᭛ӊЁˈҪ⬇ᯢњ⫼Ѣᡓᢙ੠ᅠ៤ড়
ৠ㾘ᅮⱘܼ䚼Нࡵⱘᡩᷛ䞥乱Ǆ಴㗠ˈᇍ䲛Џᴹ䇈ˈᬊࠄⱘ᠔᳝ᷛкᑨᰃḍ᥂㒳ϔᴵӊࠊ
ᅮⱘˈ᢯ᷛᯊˈ䲛Џ᳝ᖙ㽕Ўᡩᷛ㗙ᦤկ㒳ϔᷛ‫ⱘޚ‬ᷛкḐᓣˈ㽕∖↣ԡᡩᷛ㗙ܼ䚼฿‫ݭ‬
੠ㅒᄫǄ
ЎℸⳂⱘˈᓎ䆂䞛⫼䰘೼㑶Ⲃк㄀ϔोৢ䴶㋻᥹ড়ৠᴵӊ㄀ϔ䚼ߚⱘᡩᷛкḐᓣǄ ᅗ
᮶ㅔⷁজᯢ⹂ˈϔ㒣ㅒᄫ੠ᦤѸˈ᡹Ӌे⫳ᬜˈᑊ‫݋‬᳝⊩ᕟ㑺ᴳ࡯Ǆ
䗮ᐌˈЎњᇚᡩᷛкϢ᳝݇Ꮉ⿟乍Ⳃ㘨㋏೼ϔ䍋ˈᡩᷛкᑨᷛᯢᡩᷛখ㗗㓪ো៪ড়ৠ
োⷕǄ
೼ᡩᷛкḐᓣⱘ䗖ᔧԡ㕂ˈᖙ乏ᷛᯢᇚᷛк䗕Ѹⱘᴎᵘⱘৡ⿄Ǆᡩᷛк㄀ϔ↉฿‫ⱘݭ‬
䞥乱Ўᡩᷛ㗙ⱘᡩᷛкᘏ䞥乱ˈ䆹䞥乱ᖙ乏ϢᎹ⿟䞣㸼Пϔ㾜㸼Ё᠔߫ⱘᘏӋϔ㟈Ǆ䆹䞥
乱ᑨৠᯊ⫼᭛ᄫ੠᭄ᄫ฿‫ˈݭ‬བ᭛ᄫ੠᭄ᄫП䯈ᄬ೼Ꮒᓖˈ໻໮᭄೑ᆊⱘϔ㠀ᛃ՟ᰃˈ᭛
ᄫᷛᯢⱘ䞥乱ᑨӬ‫ܜ‬Ѣ᭄ᄫ㸼䖒ⱘ䞥乱Ǆ
ঠᮍৠᛣⱘ䞥乱ৃ㛑೼乍Ⳃᅲᮑ䖛⿟Ёḍ᥂থ⫳ⱘᚙ‫މ‬㗠ব࣪Ǆབব᳈ᣛ⼎ˈߎ⦄ϡ
ৃ乘㾕џӊǄᇍℸˈᑨḍ᥂ড়ৠᴵӊՓᡓࣙଚ㛑໳ᕫࠄ๲ࡴ៪‫ޣ‬ᇥⱘҬℒǄ
೼ᡩᷛк㄀ಯ↉Ёˈ䲛Џᖙ乏⊼ᯢ݊㽕∖ᡩᷛкֱᣕ᳝ᬜ੠ৠᛣ㹿᥹ফⱘᯊ䯈Ǆ䖭ϔ
ᯊ䯈ᑨ㛑⒵䎇⫼ᴹᅠ៤䗖ᔧⱘ䆘Ԅ੠ᥜќড়ৠⱘ⿟ᑣⱘ㽕∖Ǆ
‫׬‬㢹থ⦄⊼ᯢⱘᯊ䯈ϡ㛑⒵䎇㽕∖ˈ䲛Џৃ㽕∖ᡩᷛ㗙ᇚ݊ᡩᷛкⱘ᳝ᬜᳳ‫ݡ‬ᓊ䭓ϔ
↉ᣛᯢⱘᯊ䯈Ǆৠᯊˈ䖬ᑨ㽕∖ᡩᷛ㗙Ⳍᑨⱘᓊ䭓ӏԩᡩֱᷛߑⱘ᳝ᬜᳳǄᡩᷛ㗙೼᥹ࠄ
ℸ㉏㽕∖ৢˈ᳝ᴗ‫އ‬ᅮᰃ৺ᓊ䭓Ǆ‫׬‬㢹ҪӀ‫އ‬ᅮϡќᓊ䭓ˈ߭䲛Џ᮴ᴗᇚҪӀⱘᡩֱᷛߑ
‫ܥ‬ᤶ៤⦄䞥៪ᣕ᳝䆹ֱߑǄ
෇γრ༖ᄉ
ᖙ乏㓪ࠊᡩᷛ㗙乏ⶹҹ⒵䎇↣ϔ‫݋‬ԧড়ৠⱘ䳔㽕Ǆ Ā乏ⶹāⱘⳂⱘ೼Ѣˈᡞ᢯ᷛᳳ䯈䗖
⫼ⱘֵᙃ੠ᣛҸӴ䗦ߎএˈԚ೼ᥜᷛПৢ䳔԰Ўձ᥂ⱘӏԩ䌘᭭䛑ᖙ乏㹿ࣙᣀ೼঺໪ⱘ᭛
ӊЁˈབࣙᣀ೼ড়ৠᴵӊ៪ᡔᴃ㾘㣗ЁǄ
ҹϟ㾷䞞ᦤկњϔϾĀ乏ⶹā‫ݙ‬ᆍⱘᣛफˈԚϡϔᅮᕜܼ䴶Ǆ
(1) ὖ䗄Ǆ೼ℸᷛ乬ϟˈᑨࣙᣀᇍ᢯ᷛᴎᵘ(ᬓᑰǃ䚼ǃ䚼䮼ǃᔧሔㄝ)ⱘㅔⷁⱘ‫݋‬ԧҟ
㒡ˈҹঞড়ৠ᠔ࣙ৿ⱘ乍Ⳃⱘὖ‫މ‬Ǆ
⍝ঞ᳝䌘Ḑᡩᷛⱘ݀ৌ៪ϾҎⱘӏԩ㾘ᅮˈ䇌བᦤࠡ䌘Ḑ乘ᅵ੠(៪)ᇍ㒘៤㘨㧹ԧⱘ
㽕∖ҹঞ᳝݇⹂ᅮᡩᷛк᳝ᬜᗻ੠ㅒ㕆Ҏⱘᴗ߽(བҷ⧚Ҏⱘᴗ߽)ⱘӏԩ⡍⅞㾘ᅮⱘ䆺㒚
ᚙ‫ˈމ‬ᑨќ⬇ᯢǄ
བᵰ㽕∖Ёᷛ㗙಴ড়ৠᓎゟϔϾ೼ᔧഄ⊼‫݀ⱘݠ‬ৌˈ乏ਞПᡩᷛ㗙Ǆ
(2) ᭛ӊǄ乕থ㒭ᡩᷛ㗙ⱘ᭛ӊЁᑨࣙᣀϔӑ᭛ӊ⏙ऩˈℸ㉏᭛ӊ⏙ऩᑨ䇈ᯢ݊Ёા
ѯ᭛ӊᑨ⬅ᡩᷛ㗙฿‫ݭ‬ᑊ೼㾘ᅮⱘᦤѸ᮹ᳳᦤѸǄ
བᵰ᢯ᷛ᭛ӊϡᰃ‫ܡ‬䌍থᬒⱘˈ߭ᑨ䇈ᯢϔ༫ℷᴀ੠ӏԩ䰘ࡴ༫᭄ⱘᑨᬊ䞥乱ˈᑊ䇈
ᯢᰃ৺Փ⫼ᔧഄ䋻Ꮥ៪ㄝؐ໪ᏕᬃҬǄ䖬ᑨਞ䆝ᡩᷛ㗙བԩ㦋ᕫ乱໪ⱘ৘༫᭛ӊˈҹঞ᳾
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Ёᷛⱘᡩᷛ㗙䗔䖬䖭ѯ᭛ӊᯊᑨ䙉ᕾⱘ⿟ᑣǄ
(3) ᡩᷛкⱘᅠ៤Ϣ䗦ѸǄᑨ㒭ߎ᳝݇ᦤѸᡩᷛкⱘᯊ䯈ǃ᮹ᳳ੠ഄ⚍ⱘㅔᯢᣛ⼎Ǆ
䖬ᑨ৥ᡩᷛ㗙䇈ᯢ᠔᳝ᴵⳂ੠ㅒᄫഛᑨՓ⫼ϡ㻾㡆๼∈ˈ䰸䴲ᖙ乏ᬍℷⱘ䫭䇃ˈ৺߭ˈ
ϡ‫ܕ‬䆌ӏԩⱘߴ‫៪ޣ‬๲ࡴˈ᠔᳝ⱘᬍℷഛ乏㤝ㅒǄ
䗮ᐌˈഛ㽕∖ϔӑҹϞⱘᡩᷛкࡃᴀǄ೼ℸᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈᑨᇍᡩᷛ㗙㺙䅶ᡩᷛкⱘᮍ⊩ࡴ
ҹᣛᇐǄ
䗮ᐌ㾘ᅮˈϔ༫᭛ӊᑨ⏙ἮഄᷛᯢĀᡩᷛкℷᴀāˈ݊ҪഛᑨᷛᯢĀࡃᴀāˈབߎ⦄Ꮒ
ᓖˈᡩᷛкℷᴀӬ‫ܜ‬Ǆᡩᷛкℷᴀⱘᕅॄᴀৃᇚߎ⦄Ꮒᓖⱘ亢䰽䰡㟇᳔Ԣ⿟ᑺǄ
ᑨਞ䆝ᡩᷛ㗙ˈབᵰ೼ℷᓣᦤѸ᮹ᳳПࠡҪᏆᦤѸ៪䚂ᆘߎᡩᷛкˈҪᰃ৺ᢹ᳝೼থ
䗕Пৢ᩸ಲǃׂℷ៪᳈ᬍᡩᷛкⱘᴗ࡯Ǆབᵰ೼ᬊࠄᡩᷛкⱘ㾘ᅮᯊ䯈Пࠡˈ䲛ЏᏆᬊࠄ
ҹк䴶៪ҹ⬉᡹ǃ⬉ӴǃӴⳳㄝᮍᓣ䖯㸠ׂᬍⱘ䇋∖ˈϔ㠀ᰃ‫ܕ‬䆌ⱘǄׂᬍৢⱘᡩᷛкℷ
ᴀ㹿䅸Ўᰃℷᓣⱘ᡹ӋǄ
(4) 㽕∖ᦤկⱘ㸹‫ֵܙ‬ᙃǄᑨᇚ䱣ᡩᷛ᭛ӊৠᯊᦤѸⱘӏԩ㸹‫ֵܙ‬ᙃਞПᡩᷛ㗙ˈ՟
བˈЎӏԩሹ㑺ᢙֱ᠔ᢳ⫼ⱘֱ䆕Ҏⱘ䆺ᚙ˗ֱ䰽ⱘϔ㠀ᴵӊ˗ᡩᷛ㗙ⱘᴎᵘ㒘៤੠Ўড়
ৠ᠔Փ⫼ⱘഄഔ˗Ꮉ԰ⱘ߱ℹ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦ(ᡩᷛ㗙乏ⶹЁᑨ䇈ᯢ㽕∖)˗ҹঞЎᮑᎹⳂⱘ᠔䳔
㽕ⱘᡓࣙଚⱘ䆒໛ⱘЏ㽕乍Ⳃϔ㾜㸼Ǆ
ৃ㛑䳔㽕ᇍᔧഄ੠໪೑ⱘࢇࡵϢ㘠ਬⱘ䳔∖䞣䖯㸠乘⌟Ǆᔧ㽕∖ᡩᷛкⱘ䞥乱ৃҹ಴
ࢇࡵǃᴤ᭭੠䖤䕧៤ᴀⱘব࣪䖯㸠䇗ᭈᯊˈᑨ㽕∖᠔᳝ᡩᷛ㗙ˈ䇈ᯢҪᏠᳯՓ⫼ⱘ԰Ў䇗
Ӌ෎⸔ⱘϔ⾡៪޴⾡䅵ㅫ݀ᓣˈ䰸䴲᢯ᷛ᭛ӊЁᏆ৿᳝䲛Џ㒭ߎⱘ䆺㒚䇈ᯢǄབᵰ݊݀ᓣ
ҹᣛ᭄Ў෎⸔ˈ䙷МˈህᑨՓ⫼ℷᓣথᏗⱘᣛ᭄Ǆ䖭ѯᣛ᭄ϔ㠀ᰃ乍Ⳃ᠔೼೑Ꮖ݀ᓔথᏗ
ⱘǄᡩᷛ㗙䖬乏ᦤկ݊ᢳ䲛⫼ⱘӏԩߚࣙଚⱘྦྷৡঞ݊‫ޚ‬໛ߚࣙⱘ䙷䚼ߚᎹ⿟ⱘ㒚㡖Ǆ
ৠᯊ䖬乏೼ᡩᷛ㗙乏ⶹЁ䇈ᯢˈᅠܼЎ㸼ᯢᡩᷛ㗙ᇍᎹ԰㣗ೈ੠ᗻ䋼ҹঞ᠔㽕∖ⱘ䖯
ᑺ䅵ߦⱘ⧚㾷ˈ䲛Џ᠔䳔ⱘ㸹‫ֵܙ‬ᙃⱘ⿟ᑺˈҹঞ೼䖯㸠ড়ৠᥜќᯊˈ԰Ўࣙ৿೼ড়ৠ᭛
ӊ‫ⱘݙ‬᡹Ӌⱘϔ䚼ߚ᠔䳔ⱘ㸹‫ֵܙ‬ᙃⱘ⿟ᑺǄ(᳾ᅠᕙ㓁Ǆ)
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Unit 9 Tendering Procedure(2)
5) Amendments to Tender Documents

It is possible that explanations, revisions, additions or deletions to the documents issued to
tenderers may be necessary during the tendering period. Tenderers should be told how these will
be dealt with, the normal method being by formal addenda. If a tenderer is in doubt about the
meaning of some item in the Tender documents, he should be advised to notify the Engineer not
later than a given number of days (e. g. 42 days) before the Tender submission date. The
Engineer will then issue to all tenderers an explanation in the form of an addendum. Each
addendum should be accompanied by a receipt form which must be returned so that the Employer
and the Engineer have confirmation that each tenderer has received all the necessary information.
Failure to acknowledge receipt of an addendum may result in rejection of a Tender. The addenda
become part of the Tender documents and the numbers issued should be inserted by tenderers in
the space provided in paragraph 1 of the form of Tender.
Tenderers would normally be required to submit their offers strictly in accordance with the
requirements of the Tender documents. If tenderers are permitted to offer an alternative Tender,
any departure from the documents issued to tenderers should be clearly identified and detailed.
The option to submit alternative Tenders may make the evaluation process difficult.
6) Currency Requirements and Exchange Rates
Tenderers should be required to give notice to the Employer of the various currencies in
which they may wish to be paid if the Contract is awarded to them. This information should be
supplied as soon as possible after invitations to tender have been issued and not less than a given
number of days (e. g. 42 days) before the Tender submission date.
The Employer may wish to specify in the Instructions to Tenderers that payments will be
made only in the currencies of the countries from which the goods and services are to be
acquired.
The Tender documents should include a schedule in which tenderers record the sums in the
various approved currencies that together constitute their total Tender sum. This schedule
becomes part of the Contract when awarded.
It is common practice to require tenderers to submit their Tenders in a single currency—
usually of the country in which the Works are to be executed. If this is the case it is necessary to
define the rates of exchange which have been used to convert the various currencies, in which
payment is required, into a single currency unit. As more than one tenderer may request part
payment in one particular currency, it is preferable that the exchange rates to be used should be
consistent and, therefore, that they should be defined by the Employer and notified by him, or the
Engineer on his behalf, to each tenderer a reasonable time before the date of submission. In
accordance with Sub-Clause 72.2 of the Conditions of Contract, these rates shall be stated in Part
II or if not so stated, shall be those prevailing, as determined by the Central Bank of the country
in which the works are to be executed, on the date 28 days prior to the latest date for the
submission of Tenders or as provided for in the Tender. The rates quoted are incorporated in the
Contract when awarded.
In order to assist in forward budgeting it is useful to request tenderers to provide an estimate
of the payments to be made by the Employer to the Contractor during the period of the Contract,
preferably in quarterly periods.
The estimate of payments referred to above does not become a part of the Contract and
should not be regarded as binding. The figures may have to be reviewed and adjusted as the work
proceeds. Expenditure under Provisional Sums will affect the figures, and so also will changes in
the source of supply of materials and modifications to the programme or variations of the Works.
7) Site Visits
It is customary to expect tenderers to visit the site of the project during the tender period.
Details should be given of the date and arrangements for visiting when staff of the Employer and
the Engineer will be on site to answer questions and when any exploratory work carried out will
be available for inspection, e. g. borehole cores laid out and exploratory adits lit. A summary of
all questions and answers thereto should be issued to all tenderers. Tenderers should not be
restricted in their site visits and details of who to contact for further visits should be given.
8) Tender Bond
If a tender bond is required, a pro forma version of such bond should be included in the
Tender documents. The amount of the bond should be stated and the currency or currencies
required. In all cases the surety or sureties must be satisfactory to the Employer. If a tender bond
has been requested, any Tender that has not been so secured will be rejected unless otherwise
indicated.
Tenderers should be advised that the bond will be released after a specified period, or earlier
if one of the Tenders has, within the period, been accepted by the Employer and an acceptable
performance security has been submitted by the successful tenderer. It should also be made clear
what will happen to the tender bond if the tenderer who has been accepted fails to provide a
performance security within a specified number of days after being requested to do so. Usually
the tender bond will be forfeited.
9) Bonus
If a bonus in relation to early completion is to be included in the Contract, tenderers should
be reminded to state in the space provided in the Appendix to Tender what proportions of local
and foreign currencies they wish to receive if they earn it.
10) Local Legislation
If there are any local laws or decrees or any special arrangements which the Employer
wishes the tenderers to note particularly, these should be listed in the Instructions to Tenderers. It
should be made clear that the list is not comprehensive.
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11) Examination of Tenders

Tenderers should be advised that the Employer, or the Engineer on behalf of the Employer,
may ask any tenderer for clarification of his Tender, but that no tenderer will be permitted to alter
his Tender sum after Tenders have been opened. Clarifications that do not change the Tender sum
may, if they are acceptable, be incorporated in the Contract. It should be made clear that all
Tenders must remain valid for a specified validity period and any extension thereto agreed to by
the respective tenderer.
Tenderers should be advised if any factors other than the Tender sum, such as foreign
currency proportions, are to be taken into account when evaluating Tenders.
12) Acceptance of Tender
The Employer will normally state that he does not bind himself to award the Contract to the
tenderer submitting the lowest tender or to any tenderer.
Evaluation of Tenders
Tenders for major and international contracts are generally opened in public when the names
of the tenderers are announced together with the Tender sum. No other details are given at that
time. Thereafter the Tenders are checked and studied by the Engineer on behalf of the Employer.
One of the first tasks of the Engineer is to establish whether the Tenders are arithmetically
correct and, if they are not, how to overcome any errors. Another task is to check that the Tenders
are responsive, that all the required information has been provided and that everything is
consistent with the terms of the Tender documents.
If errors, omissions or inconsistencies are apparent a meeting should be held with the lowest
tenderer, and possibly with one or two other tenderers, to clarify the position and to agree how to
deal with the points in the event of an award. At such meetings, tenderers should not be permitted
to change the substance of their Tenders. If it does not prove possible to clarify and agree how
differences are to be resolved , the particular Tender should be treated as unresponsive and no
further consideration should be given to that Tender.
Award of Contract
When the Engineer has completed the evaluation of tenders, and has obtained any necessary
clarifications, he will make a recommendation to the Employer on the award of the Contract. If
the Employer agrees with the Engineer’s recommendation and is in a position to award the
Contract immediately he will issue a Letter of Acceptance to the successful tenderer.
On occasions certain steps may still be necessary before the Employer can award the
Contract, e. g. Government approval or ratification of a loan agreement. In such a case, the
Employer may decide to issue to the potential Contractor a letter of intent. Such a letter should
state the conditions that must be met before the award can be made. In most cases letters of intent
are worded in such a way as to create no commitment on the part of the Employer and the
potential Contractor carries out any preliminary work or incurs costs at his own risk. Sometimes
a letter of intent gives instructions to the potential Contractor to take some action, such as to
order materials and plant or to carry out limited work. In this case, it is necessary for the letter of
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intent to be clear about how, and to what extent, the potential Contractor will be paid for what he
does if, for any reason, the Contract is not ultimately entered into.
In most cases it is the Employer’s Letter of Acceptance which, together with tenderer’s
Tender, will form a binding Contract between the two parties. valid from the date of issue of the
Letter. If on account of errors, omissions or inconsistencies in the Tender, or for any other reason,
any changes have been tentatively agreed at a meeting of clarification, the Employer’s letter may
constitute only a counter-offer and the Contract will only be binding on the date that the
Contractor acknowledges and confirms, in writing, agreement to the terms of the Letter of
Acceptance.
Contract Agreement
The Conditions of Contract, Sub-Clause 9.1, make provision for the execution of a Contract
Agreement between the parties which will record all the terms of the Contract between them.
However, the execution of this document is not normally necessary to create a legally binding
contract.
Nevertheless, in some countries a Contract Agreement is a requirement of law to create a
binding Contract irrespective of the existence of a Tender and a Letter of Acceptance. In such
cases, in particular, the Contract Agreement must be carefully prepared to comply with the
requirements of the relevant law.
It is important to ensure that the exact wording of the Contract Agreement, including the
documents listed as forming part thereof, properly records what has been agreed. The parties
must ensure that the signatories and method of signature are in accordance with all the applicable
laws.
Questions
1. What is the normal method for dealing with the explanations, revisions, additions or
deletions to the documents issued to tenderers?
2. Why does the option to submit alternative tender make the evaluation process difficult?
3. What are the tenders required to do in terms of currency/currencies they intent to use to
submit their tender and payment they will receive?
4. What is preferable if terderers request part payment in one particular currency?
5. What will happen to the tender bond if the tenderer fails to provide a performance
security within a specified number of days?
6. What are the tasks of the engineer in the evaluation of tenders?
7. What should be the engineer do if errors, omissions or inconsistencies are apparent in
tenders?
8. What should a letter of intent contain in most cases?
9. What makes a binding contract between the employer and the potential contractor in
most cases?
10. Why is the contract agreement a requirement in some countries?
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formal addenda˖ℷᓣ㸹䘫
receipt˖ಲᠻ˗ᬊ᥂
an alternative tender˖৿᳓ҷᮍḜⱘᡩᷛк
currency requirements˖䋻Ꮥ㽕∖
exchange rates˖∛⥛
tender submission date˖ᡩᷛкᦤѸ᮹ᳳ
provisional sums˖᱖ᅮ䞥乱
site visits˖⦄എ㗗ᆳ
appendix to tender˖ᡩᷛк䰘ᔩ
a bonus in relation to early completion˖ᦤࠡᅠᎹ༪䞥
local laws or decrees˖ᔧഄ⊩ᕟ៪⊩Ҹ
acceptance of tender˖Ёᷛ
evaluation of tenders˖䆘ᷛ
award of the Contract˖ᥜќড়ৠ
a letter of acceptance˖Ёᷛߑ
contract agreement˖ড়ৠण䆂
signatories˖ㅒ㕆Ҏ
খ 㗗䆥 ᭛
㄀ 9 ऩ‫ܗ‬ ᢯ᷛ⿟ᑣ(2)
5) ᢯ᷛ᭛ӊⱘׂℷ
೼᢯ᷛᳳ䯈ৃ㛑᳝ᖙ㽕ᇍথ㒭ᡩᷛ㗙ⱘ᭛ӊ䖯㸠㾷䞞ǃׂℷǃ๲ࡴ៪ߴ‫ޣ‬Ǆᑨਞ䆝ᡩ
ᷛ㗙໘⧚䖭ѯ䯂乬ⱘᮍᓣˈϔ㠀䞛⫼ℷᓣ㸹䘫ⱘᮍᓣǄབᵰᡩᷛ㗙ᇍ᢯ᷛ᭛ӊЁⱘᶤϔᴵ
Ⳃⱘ৿Нᄬ᳝⭥䯂ˈᑨᓎ䆂Ҫ೼ᡩᷛкᦤѸ᮹ᳳࠡᶤϔ⹂ᅮⱘᳳ䰤(՟བ 42 ໽)‫ݙ‬䗮ⶹᎹ⿟
ᏜǄ✊ৢˈ⬅Ꮉ⿟Ꮬҹ㸹䘫ⱘᮍᓣ৥᠔᳝ᡩᷛ㗙䖯㸠㾷䞞Ǆ↣乍㸹䘫ᖙ乏䰘᳝ಲᠻˈҹ֓
䲛ЏϢᎹ⿟Ꮬ⹂ֵ↣ԡᡩᷛ㗙ഛᏆᬊࠄ᠔᳝ᖙ㽕ⱘֵᙃǄབ᳾㛑ਞⶹᬊࠄ㸹䘫ˈৃ㛑ᇐ㟈
ᡩᷛк㹿ᢦ㒱Ǆ㸹䘫៤Ў᢯ᷛ᭛ӊⱘϔ䚼ߚˈথߎⱘ㓪োᑨ⬅ᡩᷛ㗙฿ܹᡩᷛк㄀ϔ↉᠔
乘⬭ⱘぎⱑ໘Ǆ
䗮ᐌˈ㽕∖ᡩᷛ㗙ϹḐᣝ✻᢯ᷛ᭛ӊⱘ㽕∖ᦤѸ᡹ӋǄབᵰᡩᷛ㗙㹿‫ܕ‬䆌ᦤѸϔϾ৿
᳝᳓ҷᮍḜⱘᡩᷛкˈ߭݊ЁϢ乕থ㒭ᡩᷛ㗙ⱘ᭛ӊӏԩⳌ‫ⱘ⾏أ‬ഄᮍഛᑨ⏙Ἦഄᷛᯢ
ᑊ䆺㒚䇈ᯢǄ‫ܕ‬䆌ᦤѸ᳓ҷᮍḜⱘᡩᷛкⱘ‫ৃ⊩خ‬㛑Փ䆘ᷛ䖛⿟᳈ೄ䲒Ǆ
6) 䋻Ꮥ㽕∖Ϣ∛⥛
བᵰᇚড়ৠᥜќᡩᷛ㗙ˈህᑨ㽕∖ҪӀ䗮ⶹ䲛ЏˈҪӀᏠᳯ䲛ЏᬃҬԩ⾡䋻ᏕǄℸ㉏
ֵᙃᑨ೼᢯ᷛ᭛ӊ乕থПৢˈᑊѢᡩᷛкᦤѸ᮹ᳳПࠡϡ䖳Ѣᶤϔ⡍ᅮⱘᳳ䰤(བ 42 ໽)‫ݙ‬
g88g
ሑᖿᦤկǄ
䲛Џৃ㛑Ꮰᳯˈ೼ᡩᷛ㗙乏ⶹЁ㾘ᅮҙՓ⫼㦋ᕫ䋻⠽੠᳡ࡵⱘ೑ᆊⱘ䋻Ꮥ䖯㸠ᬃҬǄ
᢯ᷛ᭛ӊᑨࣙᣀϔӑ䅵ߦ㸼ˈ㸼Ё⬅ᡩᷛ㗙䆄䕑ᵘ៤ᡩᷛᘏ䞥乱ⱘ৘⾡㒣ᡍ‫ⱘޚ‬䋻Ꮥ
䞥乱Ǆᥜќড়ৠᯊˈℸ㉏䅵ߦ㸼ᵘ៤ড়ৠⱘϔ䚼ߚǄ
䗮ᐌⱘ‫⊩خ‬ᰃˈ㽕∖ᡩᷛ㗙ᦤѸᷛкᯊՓ⫼ऩϔ䋻Ꮥˈϔ㠀ЎᎹ⿟ᅲᮑ᠔೼೑ⱘ䋻ᏕǄ
೼ℸ㉏ᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈ᳝ᖙ㽕⹂ᅮᡞ㽕∖ᬃҬⱘ৘⾡䋻Ꮥ‫ܥ‬ᤶ៤ऩϔ䋻Ꮥ㗠䞛⫼ⱘ∛⥛Ǆ⬅Ѣϡ
ℶϔԡᡩᷛ㗙ৃ㛑㽕∖䚼ߚᬃҬՓ⫼ᶤϔ⡍ᅮ䋻Ꮥˈ䞛⫼ⱘ∛⥛ҹϔ㟈ЎᅰǄ᠔ҹˈϞ䗄
∛⥛乏⬅䲛Џ⹂ᅮˈᑊ೼ᦤѸᡩᷛкࠡⱘϔ↉ড়⧚ᯊ䯈‫⬅ˈݙ‬䲛Џ៪⬅Ꮉ⿟Ꮬҷ㸼䲛Џ䗮
ⶹ↣ԡᡩᷛ㗙Ǆḍ᥂ড়ৠᴵӊ㄀ 72.2 ℒˈℸ㉏∛⥛ᑨ೼Ā㄀Ѡ䚼ߚāЁ㾘ᅮǄབᵰ≵᳝䖭
ḋⱘ㾘ᅮˈ߭䞛⫼ᦤѸᡩᷛк៾ℶ᮹ᳳࠡ 28 ໽ᔧ໽ˈ៪ᣝᡩᷛкЁ㾘ᅮⱘ᮹ᳳˈ⬅Ꮉ⿟ᅲ
ᮑ᠔೼೑Ё༂䫊㸠⹂ᅮⱘ䗮㸠∛⥛Ǆᥜќড়ৠᯊˈℸ㉏∛⥛ᑨ䕑ܹড়ৠЁǄ
Ўњ᳝ࡽѢᦤࠡ乘ㅫˈ㽕∖ᡩᷛ㗙ᦤկϔϾ೼ড়ৠᳳ䯈(ҹ↣ᄷᑺЎᅰ)䲛ЏᑨᬃҬ㒭
ᡓࣙଚℒ乍ⱘԄㅫ乱ᰃᖙ㽕ⱘǄ
Ϟ䗄ҬℒⱘԄㅫ乱ϡᵘ៤ড়ৠⱘϔ䚼ߚˈ಴㗠ϡᑨ㹿䅸Ў‫݋‬᳝㑺ᴳ࡯Ǆ᭄݊乱೼Ꮉ԰
䖯⿟Ёৃ㛑ϡᕫϡࡴҹ໡ᶹ੠䇗ᭈǄ᱖ᅮ䞥乱ϟⱘᬃߎᇚᇍ᭄乱ѻ⫳ᕅડˈৠḋˈᴤ᭭ᴹ
⑤ⱘব࣪ǃ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦⱘׂℷ៪Ꮉ⿟ব᳈гᇚᕅડℸ㉏᭄乱Ǆ
7) ⦄എ㗗ᆳ
ᡩᷛᳳ䯈ᐌᳳᳯᡩᷛ㗙ࠡᕔ⦄എ㗗ᆳǄᔧ䲛Џⱘ㘠ਬ੠Ꮉ⿟Ꮬৃ೼⦄എಲㄨ䯂乬ᑊৃ
ᇚᏆ䖯㸠ⱘӏԩࢬ᥶Ꮉ԰(བሩ⼎䪏ࠄⱘች㢃੠᳝✻ᯢⱘࢬ᥶ᑇ⋲)ᦤկ㾚ᆳᯊˈ߭ᑨᅝᥦ
㗗ᆳⱘ‫݋‬ԧ᮹ᳳ੠Ⳍ݇џᅰǄϞ䗄᠔᳝᳝݇䯂乬੠ಲㄨⱘὖ㽕ᚙ‫ˈމ‬ᑨথ㒭᠔᳝ᡩᷛ㗙Ǆ
ᡩᷛ㗙ⱘ⦄എ㗗ᆳϡᑨফࠄ䰤ࠊˈৠᯊˈ䖬ᑨ㒭ߎ‫⃵ݡ‬㗗ᆳᯊϢԩҎ㘨㋏ⱘ㒚㡖Ǆ
8) ᡩֱᷛߑ
བᵰ䳔㽕ᡩֱᷛߑˈֱߑⱘᔶᓣ᭛ᴀᑨ㹿ࣙᣀ೼᢯ᷛ᭛ӊЁˈᑊ䳔㽕䇈ᯢֱߑⱘ䞥乱
ঞ᠔㽕∖ⱘϔ⾡៪޴⾡䋻ᏕǄ೼᠔᳝ᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈᢙֱҎᖙ乏Փ䲛Џ⒵ᛣǄབᵰ㽕∖ᦤѸᡩᷛ
ֱߑˈ߭᳾䰘ֱߑⱘӏԩᡩᷛкᇚӮ㹿ᢦ㒱ˈ䰸䴲঺᳝䇈ᯢǄ
ᑨ䗮ⶹᡩᷛ㗙ˈ೼㾘ᅮⱘϔϾᯊ䯈↉ৢֱߑᇚ㹿䗕䖬Ǆབᵰ݊Ёϔӑᡩᷛк೼䆹ᯊ䯈
↉‫ݙ‬㹿䲛Џ᥹ᬊˈϨЁᷛ㗙ᏆᦤկњϔϾৃ᥹ফⱘሹ㑺ֱ䆕ˈ߭䆹ֱߑᇚ㹿ᦤࠡ䗕䖬Ǆৠ
ᯊ䖬ᑨ䇈ᯢˈབথ⫳Ϟ䗄ᚙ‫ˈމ‬ᡩֱᷛߑᇚ䴶Јⱘ䯂乬ˈेབᵰᏆ㹿᥹ফⱘᡩᷛ㗙೼㹿㽕
∖ᦤկሹ㑺ֱ䆕Пৢ᳾㛑Ѣ㾘ᅮⱘᯊ䯈‫ᦤݙ‬Ѹሹ㑺ֱ䆕ˈ䗮ᐌˈᡩֱᷛߑᇚ㹿≵ᬊǄ
9) ༪䞥
བᵰড়ৠЁࣙᣀ᳝݇ᦤࠡシᎹⱘ༪䞥ˈ‫؛‬བᡩᷛ㗙㛑໳㦋ᕫℸ㉏༪䞥ˈ߭ᑨᦤ䝦ҪӀˈ
೼ᡩᷛк䰘ӊЁ乘⬭ⱘぎⱑ໘ˈᷛᯢҪӀᏠᳯᬊࠄⱘᔧഄ䋻ᏕϢ໪Ꮥⱘ↨՟Ǆ
10) ഄᮍ⊩㾘
བᵰ᳝ӏԩഄᮍ⊩ᕟ៪ᴵ՟ˈ៪䲛ЏᏠᳯᡩᷛ㗙Ḑ໪⊼ᛣⱘӏԩ⡍⅞ण䆂ˈ߭ᑨᇚᅗ
Ӏܹ߫ᡩᷛ㗙乏ⶹЁˈԚᑨ䇈ᯢˈ᠔߫᭛ӊᑊϡܼ䴶Ǆ
11) ᇍᡩᷛкⱘᅵᶹ
ᑨਞⶹᡩᷛ㗙ˈ䲛Џ៪ҷ㸼䲛ЏⱘᎹ⿟Ꮬг䆌Ӯ㽕∖ӏԩᡩᷛ㗙䯤ᯢ݊ᡩᷛкˈԚ೼
ᓔᷛПৢ߭ϡ‫ܕ‬䆌ӏԩᡩᷛ㗙ᬍব݊ᡩᷛ䞥乱Ǆ᳾ᬍবᡩᷛ䞥乱ⱘᡩᷛк䇈ᯢབ㹿᥹ফˈ
߭ৃ㒇ܹড়ৠЁǄ
ᑨᔧ䇈ᯢˈ᠔᳝ᡩᷛкᖙ乏೼㾘ᅮⱘ᳝ᬜᳳ‫ֱݙ‬ᣕ᳝ᬜˈ៪೼↣ԡᡩᷛ㗙ৠᛣⱘӏԩ
g89g
ᓊ䭓ᳳ‫ֱݙ‬ᣕ᳝ᬜǄ
䆘ᷛᯊˈབᵰ㗗㰥ᡩᷛ䞥乱ҹ໪ⱘӏԩ݊Ҫ಴㋴ˈབ໪Ꮥ↨՟ˈ߭ᑨਞⶹᡩᷛ㗙Ǆ
12) Ёᷛ
䲛Џϔ㠀ᇚℷᓣໄᯢˈҪ㞾Ꮕϡফᇚড়ৠᥜќ᡹Ӌ᳔Ԣⱘᡩᷛ㗙៪ӏԩᡩᷛ㗙ⱘ㑺ᴳǄ
ିγ
໻ൟ೑䰙ড়ৠⱘᡩᷛϔ㠀ഛ䞛⫼݀ᓔᓔᷛⱘᔶᓣˈሞᯊ݀Ꮧᡩᷛ㗙ྦྷৡঞ݊ᡩᷛ䞥乱Ǆ
ℸᯊˈϡ݀Ꮧ݊Ҫӏԩ㒚㡖Ǆ䱣ৢˈ⬅Ꮉ⿟Ꮬҷ㸼䲛Џᇍᡩᷛк䖯㸠ᅵᶹ੠ⷨおǄ
Ꮉ⿟Ꮬⱘ佪㽕ӏࡵПϔᰃḌᅲᡩᷛкⱘ䅵ㅫᰃ৺ℷ⹂ˈ㢹ϡℷ⹂ˈᑨᗢḋ㑴ℷ↣ϔϾ
䫭䇃Ǆ঺ϔӏࡵᰃẔᶹᡩᷛкᰃ৺ܼ䚼฿‫ˈݭ‬᠔᳝㽕∖ⱘ䌘᭭ᰃ৺ᏆᦤѸҹঞ᠔᳝џ乍ᰃ
৺Ϣ᢯ᷛ᭛ӊᴵℒⳌϔ㟈Ǆ
བᵰ᳝ᯢᰒⱘ䫭䇃ǃ䘫ⓣ៪ϡϔ㟈ˈৃীᓔϔ⃵ᷛӋ᳔Ԣⱘᡩᷛ㗙ҹঞ঺໪ϔϸԡ݊
Ҫᡩᷛ㗙ৃ㛑খࡴⱘӮ䆂ˈህϔᮺㅒ䅶ড়ৠᯊབԩ㾷‫އ‬Ϟ䗄䯂乬㸼ᯢᗕᑺᑊ䖒៤ϔ㟈ᛣ㾕Ǆ
೼Ӯ䆂ᳳ䯈ˈϡ‫ܕ‬䆌ᡩᷛ㗙ᬍব݊ᡩᷛкⱘ‫ݙ‬ᆍǄབᵰ᮴⊩ህᗢḋ㾷‫އ‬Ꮒᓖ㸼ᯢᗕᑺᑊপᕫ
ϔ㟈ᛣ㾕ˈ߭ℸ㉏ᡩᷛкᑨᣝ≵᳝ܼ䚼฿‫ⱘݭ‬ᡩᷛк໘⧚ˈϨᇍℸ㉏ᡩᷛкϡ‫ݡ‬ќҹ㗗㰥Ǆ
೑ိ‫ۦ‬ල
Ꮉ⿟Ꮬᅠ៤䆘ᷛᑊᕫࠄᖙ㽕ⱘ╘⏙ПৢˈҪᇚህᥜќড়ৠПџ৥䲛Џᦤߎᓎ䆂Ǆབᵰ
䲛ЏৠᛣᎹ⿟Ꮬⱘᓎ䆂ᑊ‫ޚ‬໛ゟेᥜќড়ৠˈҪᇚ৥Ёᷛ㗙乕থЁᷛߑǄ
೼䲛Џᥜќড়ৠПࠡˈ᳝ᯊᶤѯℹ偸ৃ㛑ҡ✊ᰃᖙ㽕ⱘˈབᬓᑰᇍ䌋ℒण䆂ⱘᡍ‫៪ޚ‬
䅸ৃǄ೼ℸᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈ䲛Џৃҹ‫އ‬ᅮ৥᳝ᳯЁᷛⱘᡓࣙଚ乕থϔᛣ৥кǄℸ㉏ᛣ৥кᑨ䇈ᯢˈ
೼㛑໳㹿ᥜќড়ৠПࠡᖙ乏䖒ࠄⱘᴵӊǄ೼໻໮᭄ᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈ೼ᛣ৥кⱘ᥾䕲Ё䲛Џϔᮍϡ
‫خ‬ӏԩ䆌䇎Ǆ಴ℸˈ᳝ᳯЁᷛⱘᡓࣙଚা㛑㞾ᢙ亢䰽䖯㸠ӏԩ‫ޚ‬໛Ꮉ԰៪ᬃҬ৘㉏䌍⫼Ǆ
᳝ᯊˈᛣ৥к㛑໳ᣛ⼎᳝ᳯЁᷛⱘᡓࣙଚ䞛পᶤ⾡㸠ࡼˈབ䅶䌁ᴤ᭭੠䆒໛៪䖯㸠᳝䰤ⱘ
Ꮉ԰Ǆ೼ℸᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈᛣ৥к᳝ᖙ㽕䯤ᯢˈབᵰ⬅Ѣӏԩॳ಴≵᳔᳝㒜㓨㒧ড়ৠˈᇍ䆹᳝ᳯ
Ёᷛⱘᡓࣙଚ᠔‫ⱘخ‬Ꮉ԰ᑨབԩᬃҬˈҹঞᬃҬⱘ⿟ᑺǄ
೼໻໮᭄ᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈ䲛ЏⱘЁᷛߑ䖲ৠᡩᷛ㗙ⱘᡩᷛк㒘៤ϔϾᇍঠᮍ䛑‫݋‬᳝㑺ᴳ࡯ⱘ
ড়ৠˈᑊ㞾Ёᷛߑ乕থП᮹䍋⫳ᬜǄབᵰ⬅ѢᡩᷛкЁⱘ䫭䇃ǃ䘫ⓣ៪ϡϔ㟈ˈ៪಴ӏԩ
݊Ҫॳ಴ˈ೼╘⏙䯂乬ⱘӮ䆂ϞᏆᇍӏԩবࡼ᱖ᯊ䖒៤ण䆂ˈ߭䲛Џⱘֵߑҙ԰ЎϔϾ䖬
Ӌˈ೼ᡓࣙଚಲߑᑊҹк䴶ᔶᓣ⹂䅸ৠᛣЁᷛߑⱘᴵӊП᮹䍋ˈড়ৠᠡ‫݋‬᳝㑺ᴳ࡯Ǆ
‫ۦ‬ල໘࿐
ড়ৠᴵӊ㄀ 9.1 ℒᇍ䆄ᔩঠᮍܼ䚼ড়ৠᴵℒⱘড়ৠण䆂кⱘᅲᮑ԰њ㾘ᅮˈ✊㗠ˈℸ
᭛ӊⱘᅲᮑϔ㠀ᑊϡϔᅮѻ⫳‫݋‬᳝⊩ᕟ㑺ᴳ࡯ⱘড়ৠǄ
೼ϔѯ೑ᆊˈሑㅵᏆ᳝ᡩᷛк੠Ёᷛߑˈ✊㗠ˈ㽕ѻ⫳ϔϾ‫݋‬᳝㑺ᴳ࡯ⱘড়ৠˈ⊩ᕟ
ҡ㽕∖᳝ϔϾড়ৠण䆂кǄ೼ℸᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈᇸ݊䳔㽕㒚ᖗ㓪ࠊড়ৠण䆂кҹヺড়᳝݇⊩ᕟⱘ
㽕∖Ǆ
ֱ䆕ড়ৠण䆂к(ࣙᣀᵘ៤ण䆂кϔ䚼ߚⱘ᭛ӊ)ⱘ‫᥾⹂ޚ‬䕲ϹḐഄ䆄ᔩϮᏆ䖒៤ⱘण
䆂ˈ䖭ᰃᕜ䞡㽕ⱘǄ
ঠᮍᖙ乏ֱ䆕ㅒ㕆Ҏ੠ㅒ㕆ᮍ⊩ヺড়᠔᳝䗖⫼ⱘ⊩ᕟǄ
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Unit 10 Project Finance
More and more major construction projects involve project financing. Contractors,
engineers and designer-builders are finding their work, compensation and risks are shaped by this
method of financing. The following guide is provided to help them understand the overall process,
their role in it and the risks involved.
Introduction
1) Definition
Project financing involves non-recourse financing of the development and construction of a
particular project in which the lender looks principally to the revenues expected to be generated
by the project for the repayment of its loan and to the assets of the project as collateral for its loan
rather than to the general credit of the project sponsor.
Project financing is commonly used as a financing method in capital-intensive industries for
projects requiring large investments of funds, such as the construction of power plants, pipelines,
transportation systems, mining facilities, industrial facilities and heavy manufacturing plants. The
sponsors of such projects frequently are not sufficiently creditworthy to obtain traditional
financing or are unwilling to take the risks and assume the debt obligations associated with
traditional financings. Project financing permits the risks associated with such projects to be
allocated among a number of parties at levels acceptable to each party.
2) Principal Advantages and Objectives
(1) Non-recourse.
The typical project financing involves a loan to enable the sponsor to construct a project
where the loan is completely “non-recourse” to the sponsor, i.e., the sponsor has no obligation to
make payments on the project loan if revenues generated by the project are insufficient to cover
the principal and interest payments on the loan. In order to minimize the risks associated with a
non-recourse loan, a lender typically will require indirect credit supports in the form of
guarantees, warranties and other covenants from the sponsor, its affiliates and other third parties
involved with the project.
(2) Maximize leverage.
In a project financing, the sponsor typically seeks to finance the costs of development and
construction of the project on a highly leveraged basis. Frequently, such costs are financed using
80 to 100 percent debt. High leverage in a non-recourse project financing permits a sponsor to
put less in funds at risk, permits a sponsor to finance the project without diluting its equity
investment in the project.
(3) Off-Balance-Sheet treatment.
Depending upon the structure of a project financing, the project sponsor may not be required
to report any of the project debt on its balance sheet because such debt is non-recourse or of
limited recourse to the sponsor. Off-balance-sheet treatment can have the added practical benefit
of helping the sponsor comply with covenants and restrictions relating to borrowing funds
contained in other indentures and credit agreements to which the sponsor is a party.
(4) Maximize tax benefits.
Project financings should be structured to maximize tax benefits and to assure that all
available tax benefits are used by the sponsor or transferred, to the extent permissible, to another
party through a partnership, lease or other vehicle.
3) Disadvantages
Project financings are extremely complex. It may take a much longer period of time to
structure, negotiate and document a project financing than a traditional financing, and the legal
fees and related costs associated with a project financing can be very high. Because the risks
assumed by lenders may be greater in a non-recourse project financing than in a more traditional
financing, the cost of capital may be greater than with a traditional financing.
4) Project Financing Participants and Agreements
(1) Sponsor/Developer.
The sponsor(s) or developer(s) of a project financing is the party that organizes all of the
other parties and typically controls, and makes an equity investment in, the company or other
entity that owns the project. If there is more than one sponsor, the sponsors typically will form a
corporation or enter into a partnership or other arrangement pursuant to which the sponsors will
form a “project company” to own the project and establish their respective rights and
responsibilities regarding the project.
(2) Additional equity investors.
In addition to the sponsor(s), there frequently are additional equity investors in the project
company. These additional investors may include one or more of the other project participants.
(3) Construction Contractor.
The construction contractor enters into a contract with the project company for the design,
engineering and construction of the project.
(4) Operator.
The project operator enters into a long-term agreement with the project company for the
day-to-day operation and maintenance of the project.
(5) Feedstock supplier.
The feedstock supplier(s) enters into a long-term agreement with the project company for
the supply of feedstock (i.e., energy, raw materials or other resources) to the project (e.g., for a
power plant, the feedstock supplier will supply fuel; for a paper mill, the feedstock supplier will
supply wood pulp).
(6) Product offtaker.
The product offtaker(s) enters into a long-term agreement with the project company for the
purchase of all of the energy, goods or other product produced at the project.
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Unit 10 Project Finance g93g
(7) Lender.
The lender in a project financing is a financial institution or group of financial institutions
that provide a loan to the project company to develop and construct the project and that take a
security interest in all of the project assets.
First Step in a Project Financing: The Feasibility Study
1) Generally
As one of the first steps in a project financing the sponsor or a technical consultant hired by
the sponsor will prepare a feasibility study showing the financial viability of the project.
Frequently, a prospective lender will hire its own independent consultants to prepare an
independent feasibility study before the lender will commit to lend funds for the project.
2) Contents
The feasibility study should analyze every technical, financial and other aspect of the project,
including the time-frame for completion of the various phases of the project development, and
should clearly set forth all of the financial and other assumptions upon which the conclusions of
the study are based. The more important items contained in a feasibility study are:
z Description of project.
z Description of sponsor(s).
z Sponsors’ Agreements.
z Project site.
z Governmental arrangements.
z Source of funds.
z Feedstock Agreements.
z Offtake Agreements.
z Construction Contract.
z Management of project.
z Capital costs.
z Working capital.
z Equity sourcing.
z Debt sourcing.
z Financial projections.
z Market study.
The Project Company
1) Legal Form
Sponsors of projects adopt many different legal forms for the ownership of the project. The
specific form adopted for any particular project will depend upon many factors, including:
z The amount of equity required for the project.
z The concern with management of the project.
z The availability of tax benefits associated with the project.
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z The need to allocate tax benefits in a specific manner among the project company
investors.
(1) Corporations.
This is the simplest form for ownership of a project. A special purpose corporation may be
formed under the laws of the jurisdiction in which the project is located, or it may be formed in
some other jurisdiction and be qualified to do business in the jurisdiction of the project.
(2) General partnerships.
The sponsors may form a general partnership. In most jurisdictions, a partnership is
recognized as a separate legal entity and can own, operate and enter into financing arrangements
for a project in its own name. A partnership is not a separate taxable entity, and although a
partnership is required to file tax returns for reporting purposes, items of income, gain, losses,
deductions and credits are allocated among the partners, which include their allocated share in
computing their own individual taxes. Consequently, a partnership frequently will be used when
the tax benefits associated with the project are significant. Because the general partners of a
partnership are severally liable for all of the debts and liabilities of the partnership, a sponsor
frequently will form a wholly owned, single-purpose subsidiary to act as its general partner in a
partnership.
(3) Limited partnerships.
A limited partnership has similar characteristics to a general partnership except that the
limited partners have limited control over the business of the partnership and are liable only for
the debts and liabilities of the partnership to the extent of their capital contributions in the
partnership. A limited partnership may be useful for a project financing when the sponsors do not
have substantial capital and the project requires large amounts of outside equity.
(4) Limited Liability Companies.
They are a cross between a corporation and a limited partnership.
2) Project Company Agreements
Depending on the form of project company chosen for a particular project financing, the
sponsors and other equity investors will enter into a stockholder agreement, general or limited
partnership agreement or other agreement that sets forth the terms under which they will develop,
own and operate the project. At a minimum, such an agreement should cover the following
matters:
z Ownership interests.
z Capitalization and capital calls.
z Allocation of profits and losses.
z Accounting.
z Governing body and voting.
z Day-to-day management.
z Budgets.
z Transfer of ownership interests.
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z Admission of new participants.

z Default.
z Termination and dissolution.
Principal Agreements in a Project Financing
1) Construction Contract
Some of the more important terms of the construction contract are:
(1) Project description.
The construction contract should set forth a detailed description of all of the work necessary
to complete the project.
(2) Price.
Most project financing construction contracts are fixed-price contracts although some
projects may be built on a cost-plus basis. If the contract is not fixed-price, additional debt or
equity contributions may be necessary to complete the project, and the project agreements should
clearly indicate the party or parties responsible for such contributions.
(3) Payment.
Payments typically are made on a “milestone” or “completed work” basis, with a retainage.
This payment procedure provides an incentive for the contractor to keep on schedule and useful
monitoring points for the owner and the lender.
(4) Completion date.
The construction completion date, together with any time extensions resulting from an event
of force majeure, must be consistent with the parties’ obligations under the other project
documents. If construction is not finished by the completion date, the contractor typically is
required to pay liquidated damages to cover debt service for each day until the project is
completed. If construction is completed early, the contractor frequently is entitled to an early
completion bonus.
(5) Performance guarantees.
The contractor typically will guarantee that the project will be able to meet certain
performance standards when completed. Such standards must be set at levels to assure that the
project will generate sufficient revenues for debt service, operating costs and a return on equity.
Such guarantees are measured by performance tests conducted by the contractor at the end of
construction. If the project does not meet the guaranteed levels of performance, the contractor
typically is required to make liquidated damages payments to the sponsor. If project performance
exceeds the guaranteed minimum levels, the contractor may be entitled to bonus payments.
2) Feedstock Supply Agreements
The project company will enter into one or more feedstock supply agreements for the supply
of raw materials, energy or other resources over the life of the project. Frequently, feedstock
supply agreements are structured on a “put-or-pay” basis, which means that the supplier must
either supply the feedstock or pay the project company the difference in costs incurred in
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obtaining the feedstock from another source. The price provisions of feedstock supply
agreements must assure that the cost of the feedstock is fixed within an acceptable range and
consistent with the financial projections of the project.
3) Product Offtake Agreements
In a project financing, the product offtake agreements represent the source of revenue for the
project. Such agreements must be structured in a manner to provide the project company with
sufficient revenue to pay its project debt obligations and all other costs of operating, maintaining
and owning the project. Frequently, offtake agreements are structured on a “take-or-pay” basis,
which means that the offtaker is obligated to pay for product on a regular basis whether or not the
offtaker actually takes the product unless the product is unavailable due to a default by the project
company. Like feedstock supply arrangements, offtake agreements frequently are on a fixed or
scheduled price basis during the term of the project debt financing.
4) Operations and Maintenance Agreement
The project company typically will enter into a long-term agreement for the day-to-day
operation and maintenance of the project facilities with a company having the technical and
financial expertise to operate the project in accordance with the cost and production
specifications for the project. The operator may be an independent company, or it may be one of
the sponsors. The operator typically will be paid a fixed compensation and may be entitled to
bonus payments for extraordinary project performance and be required to pay liquidated damages
for project performance below specified levels.
5) Management Agreement
6) Loan and Security Agreement
The borrower in a project financing typically is the project company formed by the
sponsor(s) to own the project. The loan agreement will set forth the basic terms of the loan and
will contain general provisions relating to maturity, interest rate and fees. The typical project
financing loan agreement also will contain provisions such as these:
(1) Disbursement controls.
These frequently take the form of conditions precedent to each drawdown, requiring the
borrower to present invoices, builders’ certificates or other evidence as to the need for and use of
the funds.
(2) Progress reports.
The lender may require periodic reports certified by an independent consultant on the status
of construction progress.
(3) Covenants not to amend.
The borrower will covenant not to amend or waive any of its rights under the construction,
feedstock, offtake, operations and maintenance, or other principal agreements without the consent
of the lender.
(4) Completion covenants.
These require the borrower to complete the project in accordance with project plans and
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specifications and prohibit the borrower from materially altering the project plans without the
consent of the lender.
(5) Dividend restrictions.
These covenants place restrictions on the payment of dividends or other distributions by the
borrower until debt service obligations are satisfied.
(6) Debt and guarantee restrictions.
The borrower may be prohibited from incurring additional debt or from guaranteeing other
obligations.
(7) Financial covenants.
Such covenants require the maintenance of working capital and liquidity ratios, debt service
coverage ratios, debt service reserves and other financial ratios to protect the credit of the
borrower.
(8) Subordination.
Lenders typically require other participants in the project to enter into a subordination
agreement under which certain payments to such participants from the borrower under project
agreements are restricted (either absolutely or partially) and made subordinate to the payment of
debt service.
(9) Security.
The project loan typically will be secured by multiple forms of collateral, including:
z Mortgage on the project facilities and real property.
z Assignment of operating revenues.
z Pledge of bank deposits.
z Assignment of any letters of credit or performance or completion bonds relating to the
project under which borrower is the beneficiary.
z Liens on the borrower’s personal property.
z Assignment of insurance proceeds.
z Assignment of all project agreements.
z Pledge of stock in project company or assignment of partnership interests.
z Assignment of any patents, trademarks or other intellectual property owned by the
borrower.
7) Site Lease Agreement
The project company typically enters into a long-term lease for the life of the project
relating to the real property on which the project is to be located. Rental payments may be set in
advance at a fixed rate or may be tied to project performance.
Insurance
The general categories of insurance available in connection with project financings are:
1) Standard Insurance
The following types of insurance typically are obtained for all project financings and cover
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the most common types of losses that a project may suffer.

z Property Damage, including transportation, fire and extended casualty.
z Boiler and Machinery.
z Comprehensive General Liability.
z Worker’s Compensation.
z Automobile Liability and Physical Damage.
z Umbrella or Excess Liability.
2) Optional Insurance
The following types of insurance often are obtained in connection with a project financing.
Coverages such as these are more expensive than standard insurance and require more tailoring
to meet the specific needs of the project.
z Business Interruption.
z Performance Bonds.
z Cost Overrun/Delayed Opening.
z Design Errors and Omissions.
z System Performance (Efficiency).
z Pollution Liability.
Questions
1. What is project financing?

2. Say the differences between project financing and traditional financing?
3. What are the principal advantages and disadvantages of project financing?
4. Say the main participants and the agreements in project financing?
5. What are main contents included in the feasibility study?
6. What legal forms are used by the project company?
7. Say the principal agreements in project financing?
8. What are the important items in the construction contract?
9. Interpret the feedstock supply agreements and the product offtake agreements.
10. What types of insurance typically are obtained for all project financings?
project financing˖乍Ⳃ㵡䌘
non-recourse˖᮴䗑㋶ᴗ
traditional financing˖Ӵ㒳㵡䌘
leverage˖ᴴᴚ԰⫼
limited recourse˖᳝䰤䗑㋶ᴗ
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off-balance-sheet treatment˖䌘ѻ䋳؎㸼໪໘⧚
tax benefits˖⿢ᬊӬᚴ
sponsor˖থ䍋ᮍ
Construction Contractor˖ᓎㄥᡓࣙଚ
project operator˖乍Ⳃ䖤㧹ଚ
feedstock supplier˖ॳᴤ᭭կᑨଚ
product offtaker˖ѻકᡓ䌁ଚ
lender˖䌋ℒҎ
feasibility study˖ৃ㸠ᗻⷨお
general partnerships˖᱂䗮ড়ӭ݀ৌ
file tax returns˖᡹䗕㒇⿢⬇᡹ऩԡ
wholly owned subsidiary˖ᅠܼ᥻㙵ᄤ݀ৌ
liquidated damages˖䖱㑺䌨ٓ䞥
financial projections˖䋶ࡵ乘ㅫ
put-or-pay˖៪կ៪Ҭण䆂
owning cost˖ऴ᳝៤ᴀ
take-or-pay contract˖✻Ҭϡ䆂ড়ৠ
on a regular basis˖ᅮᳳഄ
project performance˖乍Ⳃ㒽ᬜ
general provisions˖ϔ㠀ᴵℒ
Financial Covenants˖䋶ࡵᡓ䇎
debt service coverage ratios˖߽ᙃֱ䱰⥛
performance bonds˖ሹ㑺ᢙֱ
completion bonds˖ᅠᎹᢙֱ
an assignment of˖ĂĂᦤկⱘᢙֱ
assignment of interest˖ֱ䰽ᴗⲞ䕀䅽
intellectual property˖ⶹ䆚ѻᴗ
Comprehensive General Liability˖݀ӫ䋷ӏ䰽
খ 㗗䆥 ᭛
㄀ 10 ऩ‫ܗ‬ 乍 Ⳃ 㵡䌘
䍞ᴹ䍞໮ⱘ໻ൟᓎㄥ乍ⳂӮ⍝ঞ乍Ⳃ㵡䌘ǄᡓࣙଚǃᎹ⿟Ꮬǃ䆒䅵Ꮬ੠䆒䅵ᓎㄥҎਬ
থ⦄ҪӀⱘᎹ԰ǃ᡹䝀੠䴶Јⱘ亢䰽ℷ಴䖭⾡㵡䌘ᮍᓣ㗠থ⫳䇗ᭈǄҹϟⱘ‫ݙ‬ᆍᇚᐂࡽᡓ
ࣙଚǃᎹ⿟Ꮬ੠ᓎㄥ䆒䅵ᏜӀ⧚㾷乍Ⳃ㵡䌘ⱘᭈϾ䖛⿟ˈҹঞҪӀ೼乍Ⳃ㵡䌘Ёⱘ㾦㡆੠
᠔⍝ঞⱘ亢䰽Ǆ
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ࠚ౵
1) ᅮН
乍Ⳃ㵡䌘ᰃᶤϾ⡍ᅮ乍Ⳃথሩ੠ᓎ䆒㗠⍝ঞⱘ㵡䌘ᮍᓣˈ䌋ℒ㗙ᳳᳯЏ㽕ҹ乍Ⳃᴀ䑿
ѻ⫳ⱘᬊܹҹঞ乍Ⳃᴀ䑿䌘ѻٓ䖬䌋ℒˈ㗠ϡᰃ乍Ⳃথ䍋Ҏⱘϔ㠀ֵ⫼Ǆ
乍Ⳃ㵡䌘ϔ㠀⫼Ѣ䌘䞥ᆚ䲚ൟѻϮЁ䳔㽕໻䞣䌘䞥ⱘ乍Ⳃˈ՟བˈᓎ䆒থ⬉キǃ䖤䕧
ㅵ䘧ǃѸ䗮㋏㒳ǃ䞛ⷓॖǃᎹϮ䆒໛੠䞡ᎹϮǄ䖭ѯ乍Ⳃⱘথ䍋Ҏ䗮ᐌ≵᳝䎇໳ⱘֵ⫼䖯
㸠Ӵ㒳㵡䌘ˈ៪ᰃϡᜓᛣᡓᢙ⬅Ӵ㒳㵡䌘ᓩথⱘ亢䰽੠؎ࡵ䋷ӏǄ乍Ⳃ㵡䌘‫ܕ‬䆌ᇚ䆹乍Ⳃ
ѻ⫳ⱘ亢䰽೼乍ⳂখϢᮍП䯈ҹᆍ䆌ⱘ∈ᑇ䖯㸠ߚ䜡Ǆ
2) Џ㽕ⱘӬ࢓੠Ⳃⱘ
(1) ᮴䗑㋶ᴗǄ
‫݌‬ൟⱘ乍Ⳃ㵡䌘Ўথ䍋ᮍᦤկᅠܼĀ᮴䗑㋶ᴗāⱘ䌋ℒᐂࡽ乍Ⳃᓎ䆒Ǆгህᰃ䇈ˈᔧ
乍Ⳃᴀ䑿ѻ⫳ⱘᬊⲞϡ䎇ҹٓ䖬䌋ℒᴀ䞥੠߽ᙃᯊˈ乍Ⳃথ䍋ᮍ≵᳝䋷ӏ㒻㓁ٓ䖬䌋ℒǄ
Ўњᵕᇣ࣪᮴䗑㋶䌋ℒѻ⫳ⱘ亢䰽ˈ䌋ℒҎ䗮ᐌӮ㽕∖䯈᥹ֵ⫼ᬃᣕˈЏ㽕ᔶᓣࣙᣀᢙֱǃ
ֱ䆕ǃ䆹乍Ⳃথ䍋ᮍ੠݊ҪখϢᮍҹঞ㄀ϝᮍП䯈ⱘϔѯ݊Ҫⱘ༥㑺Ǆ
(2) ᵕ໻࣪ᴴᴚ԰⫼Ǆ
೼乍Ⳃ㵡䌘Ёˈ乍Ⳃথ䍋ᮍ䗑∖೼ᕜ催ⱘ䋶ࡵᴴᴚ෎⸔ϞЎ乍Ⳃথሩᓎ䆒᠔䳔៤ᴀㅍ
᥾䌘䞥Ǆ䗮ᐌˈ䖭㉏៤ᴀ䌘䞥Ёⱘ 80%̚100%Ў؎ࡵ䌘䞥Ǆ೼᮴䗑㋶ᴗⱘ乍Ⳃ㵡䌘Ёˈ催
ⱘᴴᴚ԰⫼Փᕫথ䍋Ҏⱘᇥ䞣䌘䞥໘Ѣ亢䰽ЁˈᑊϨথ䍋Ҏ᮴乏ࠞᔅ೼䆹乍ⳂϞⱘⳈ᥹
ᡩ䌘Ǆ
(3) 䌘ѻ䋳؎㸼໪໘⧚Ǆ
䡈Ѣ乍Ⳃ䌘䞥ㅍ᥾㒧ᵘˈ಴Ў䖭ḋⱘ؎ࡵᇍথ䍋Ҏᰃ᮴䗑㋶ᴗ៪᳝䰤䗑㋶ᴗⱘˈ乍Ⳃ
থ䍋Ҏৃҹϡᖙᇚ乍Ⳃ؎ࡵ߫Ѣ݊䌘ѻ䋳؎㸼䞠Ǆ䌘ѻ䋳؎㸼໪໘⧚䖬᳝᳈໮Ⲟ໘ˈेᐂ
ࡽ乍Ⳃথ䍋Ҏሹ㸠᳝݇‫׳‬ℒⱘ༥㑺੠㾘ᅮˈ㗠থ䍋Ҏᰃࣙ৿䖭ѯ༥㑺੠㾘ᅮⱘ䌋ℒणᅮ੠
ড়ৠⱘㅒ䅶ᮍǄ
(4) ᳔໻࣪⿢ᬊӬᚴǄ
乍Ⳃ㵡䌘㒧ᵘৃҹ᳔໻࣪⿢ᬊӬᚴˈֱ䆕᠔᳝ⱘ⿢ᬊӬᚴ㹿থ䍋Ҏ߽⫼ˈ៪㗙䗮䖛ড়
ӭ༥㑺ǃ⾳㑺ҹঞ݊Ҫ᠟↉ሑৃ㛑ഄᇚ⿢ᬊӬᚴ䕀⿏㒭乍Ⳃ㵡䌘ⱘ݊ҪᮍǄ
3) ࡷ࢓
乍Ⳃ㵡䌘ᵕ݊໡ᴖǄϢӴ㒳㵡䌘ᮍᓣⳌ↨ˈ乍Ⳃ㵡䌘䳔㽕᳈䭓ⱘᯊ䯈ᴹ㒘㒛ǃ䇜߸੠
‫ޚ‬໛᭛ӊˈᑊϨ乍Ⳃ㵡䌘ⱘ⊩ᕟ䌍⫼੠Ⳍ݇៤ᴀⳌᔧ催Ǆ಴Ў೼᮴䗑㋶ⱘ乍Ⳃ㵡䌘Ё䌋ℒ
㗙᠔ᡓᢙⱘ亢䰽↨೼Ӵ㒳㵡䌘ᮍᓣЁ㽕໻ᕫ໮ˈ᠔ҹ䌘䞥៤ᴀг㽕催ᕫ໮Ǆ
4) 乍Ⳃ㵡䌘খϢ㗙Ϣण䆂
(1) থ䍋ᮍ/ЏࡲᮍǄ
乍Ⳃ㵡䌘থ䍋ᮍ៪Џࡲᮍ䋳䋷㒘㒛੠䇗᥻৘খϢᮍˈᑊϨЎ乍Ⳃ݀ৌ៪ᢹ᳝䆹乍Ⳃⱘ
݊ҪᅲԧᦤկⳈ᥹ᡩ䌘Ǆབᵰ᳝໮Ͼথ䍋ᮍˈ߭ҪӀḍ᥂᳝䰤䋷ӏࠊˈ៪ᰃϔϾড়ӭࠊˈ
៪ᰃ݊Ҫᔶᓣⱘण䆂ˈ㒘ᓎϔϾĀ乍Ⳃ݀ৌāᢹ᳝䖭Ͼ乍ⳂˈᑊϨḍ᥂乍Ⳃ䆒ゟ৘㞾ⱘᴗ
߽੠䋷ӏǄ
(2) ݊ҪᴗⲞᡩ䌘㗙Ǆ
䰸থ䍋ᮍ໪ˈ乍Ⳃ݀ৌ㒣ᐌӮ᳝݊ҪⱘᴗⲞᡩ䌘㗙ˈ݊Ёৃ㛑ࣙᣀϔϾ៪໮Ͼ䆹乍Ⳃ
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ⱘখϢᮍǄ
(3) ᓎㄥᡓࣙଚǄ
ᓎㄥᡓࣙଚϢ乍Ⳃ݀ৌㅒ䅶䆹乍Ⳃ䆒䅵ǃࠊ䗴੠ᮑᎹড়ৠǄ
(4) 䖤㧹ଚǄ
䖤㧹ଚϢ乍Ⳃ݀ৌㅒ䅶ϔӑᇍ乍Ⳃ䖯㸠᮹ᐌ䖤㧹Ϣ㓈ᡸⱘ䭓ᳳⱘড়ৠǄ
(5) ॳᴤ᭭կᑨଚǄ
ॳᴤ᭭կᑨଚϢ乍Ⳃ݀ৌㅒ䅶ϔӑ䭓ᳳⱘЎ䆹乍Ⳃᦤկॳᴤ᭭(े㛑⑤ǃॳᴤ᭭៪݊Ҫ
䌘⑤)ⱘড়ৠ(՟བˈЎথ⬉ॖᦤկ➗᭭ˈЎ䗴㒌ॖᦤկ᳼䋼㒌⌚)Ǆ
(6) ѻકᡓ䌁ଚǄ
ѻકᡓ䌁ଚϢ乍Ⳃ݀ৌㅒ䅶ϔӑ䭓ᳳⱘѻક䌁фড়ৠˈ⫼Ѣ䌁ф乍Ⳃ݀ৌ⫳ѻⱘ㛑⑤ǃ
䋻⠽៪݊ҪѻકǄ
(7) 䌋ℒᮍǄ
乍Ⳃ㵡䌘䌋ℒᮍ⬅ϔϾ䞥㵡ᴎᵘ៪ϔ㒘䞥㵡ᴎᵘ㒘៤ˈЎ乍Ⳃথሩᓎ䆒ᦤկ䌘䞥ˈᑊ
Ϩᢹ᳝᠔᳝乍Ⳃ䌘ѻⱘᢙֱ⠽ᴗǄ
ົંకᆇԛྡྷϤġࢶ໻໿ཙࡎ
1) ϔ㠀ᗻ
԰Ў乍Ⳃ㵡䌘㄀ϔℹˈথ䍋Ҏ៪⬅থ䍋Ҏ䲛⫼ⱘᡔᴃ乒䯂㽕‫ޚ‬໛ϔӑৃ㸠ᗻⷨお᡹ਞˈ
ᴹ䰜䗄䆹乍Ⳃⱘ㒣⌢⫳ᄬ㛑࡯Ǆ
2) ‫ݙ‬ᆍ
ৃ㸠ᗻ᡹ਞᑨ䆹ⷨお䆹乍Ⳃⱘܼ䚼ᡔᴃǃ䋶ࡵ੠݊Ҫ䯂乬ˈࣙᣀ乍Ⳃϡৠথሩ䰊↉ⱘ
ᅠᎹᳳ䰤ˈ䖬ᑨ䆹⏙᱄ഄ䯤䗄԰Ўⷨお᡹ਞ෎⸔ⱘ䋶ࡵᮍ䴶੠݊Ҫᮍ䴶ⱘ᠔᳝‫؛‬䆒Ǆϔӑ
ৃ㸠ᗻⷨお᡹ਞЁࣙᣀⱘ↨䕗䞡㽕ⱘ‫ݙ‬ᆍ᳝˖
z 乍Ⳃ䇈ᯢǄ
z থ䍋Ҏ䇈ᯢǄ
z থ䍋Ҏण䆂Ǆ
z 乍ⳂഄഔǄ
z ᬓᑰण䆂Ǆ
z 䌘䞥ᴹ⑤Ǆ
z ॳᴤ᭭կᑨण䆂Ǆ
z ᡓ䌁ण䆂Ǆ
z ᓎㄥᡓࣙড়ৠǄ
z 乍Ⳃ㒣㧹ㅵ⧚Ǆ
z 䌘䞥៤ᴀǄ
z 䖤㧹䌘䞥Ǆ
z ᴗⲞ䌘䞥ᴹ⑤Ǆ
z ؎ࡵᴹ⑤Ǆ
z 䋶ࡵ䅵ߦǄ
z ᏖഎⷨおǄ
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ົં٤ഓ
1) ⊩ᕟᔶᓣ
乍Ⳃথ䍋ᮍ䞛⫼ϡৠⱘ⊩ᕟᔶᓣᢹ᳝䆹乍ⳂǄ⡍⅞ⱘ乍ⳂӮ䞛প⡍⅞ⱘ⊩ᕟᔶᓣˈ䖭
ձ䌪Ѣҹϟ಴㋴˖
z 乍Ⳃ᠔䳔ⱘ䌘ѻᘏ䞣Ǆ
z ᇍ乍Ⳃㅵ⧚ⱘ݇⊼⿟ᑺǄ
z Ϣ乍ⳂⳌ݇ⱘ⿢ᬊӬᚴⱘৃ⫼ᗻǄ
z ೼乍Ⳃᡩ䌘㗙П䯈ᯢ⹂ഄߚ䜡⿢ᬊӬᚴⱘᖙ㽕ᗻǄ
(1) ⊩Ҏ݀ৌǄ
䖭ᰃϔ⾡᳔ㅔऩⱘ乍Ⳃ᠔᳝ᴗᮍᓣǄḍ᥂乍Ⳃ᠔೼ഄ⊩ᕟⱘㅵ䕪ᴗᓎゟ‫݋‬᳝⡍⅞Ⳃⱘ
ⱘ乍Ⳃ݀ৌˈ៪ᰃḍ᥂ϔѯ݊Ҫㅵ䕪ᴗ㒘ᓎǄ乍Ⳃ݀ৌ᳝ᴗ೼㞾Ꮕᴗ䰤‫ݙ‬㧹ϮǄ
(2) ᱂䗮ড়ӭ݀ৌǄ
থ䍋ᮍৃҹ㒘ᓎϔϾ᱂䗮ড়ӭ݀ৌǄড়ӭӕϮᰃ݀䅸ⱘ⣀ゟ⊩Ҏᅲԧˈᅗৃҹ೼᳔໻
ᴗ䰤㣗ೈ‫ݙ‬ᢹ᳝ǃ䖤㧹乍Ⳃ݀ৌˈᑊϨৃҹҹ㞾ᏅⱘৡНЎ乍Ⳃㅒ䅶㵡䌘ण䆂Ǆড়ӭӕϮ
ϡᰃऩ⣀ⱘ㒇⿢ᅲԧˈሑㅵߎѢϞ᡹ⱘⳂⱘˈড়ӭӕϮг㹿㽕∖᡹䗕㒇⿢⬇᡹ऩˈԚᰃᬊ
ܹǃ߽⍺ǃѣᤳǃᠷ䰸੠䫊㸠ᄬℒ㽕೼৘ᮍП䯈ߚ䜡ˈ✊ৢ৘㞾䅵ㅫ⿢ℒˈ䖬㽕㗗㰥৘㞾
ߚᕫⱘ㙵ӑǄ಴ℸˈᔧϢ乍Ⳃ᳝݇ⱘ⿢ᬊӬᚴৃ㾖ᯊˈ᱂䗮ড়ӭ݀ৌⱘᔶᓣӮ㹿䞛⫼Ǆ಴
Ўড়ӭӕϮЁ䋳᮴䰤䋷ӏⱘড়ӭҎߚ߿ᇍӕϮⱘܼ䚼؎ࡵ䋳䋷ˈথ䍋ᮍ䗮ᐌӮ㒘ᓎϔϾⳂ
ⱘऩϔⱘǃᅠܼ᥻㙵ⱘᄤ݀ৌ‫ܙ‬ᔧড়ӭ݀ৌⱘড়ӭҎǄ
(3) ᳝䰤ড়ӭ݀ৌǄ
᳝䰤ড়ӭ݀ৌϢ᱂䗮ড়ӭ݀ৌⱘ෎ᴀ⡍ᕕⳌৠˈԚᰃ᳝䰤䋷ӏড়ӭҎᇍ݀ৌџࡵ‫݋‬᳝
᳝䰤᥻ࠊᴗˈᑊϨাᇍҪӀЎ݀ৌߎ䌘㣗ೈ‫ࡵ؎ⱘݙ‬䋳䋷ӏǄᔧথ䍋Ҏ≵᳝䎇໳ⱘ䌘䞥ˈ
㗠乍Ⳃ䳔㽕໻䞣ⱘ໪䚼ᡩ䌘ᯊˈ᳝䰤ড়ӭ݀ৌⱘᔶᓣᰃ᳝⫼ⱘǄ
(4) ᳝䰤䋷ӏ݀ৌǄ
ᰃ㒧ড়ড়ӭ݀ৌ੠⊩Ҏ݀ৌⱘ⊩ᕟ⡍ᕕⱘ⊩ҎಶԧǄ
2) 乍Ⳃ݀ৌण䆂
ḍ᥂Ў⡍ᅮⱘ乍Ⳃ㵡䌘䗝ᅮⱘ݀ৌᔶᓣˈথ䍋ᮍ੠݊ҪᴗⲞᡩ䌘㗙ᇚӮㅒᅮ㙵ϰण䆂ˈ
᱂䗮ড়ӭ៪᳝䰤ড়ӭण䆂ˈ៪ᰃ݊Ҫण䆂ˈण䆂Ё䯤ᯢҪӀথሩǃᢹ᳝੠䖤㧹䆹乍Ⳃ݀ৌ
᠔ḍ᥂ⱘᴵℒǄण䆂Ё㟇ᇥ㽕ࣙᣀҹϟџ乍˖
z ᠔᳝㗙ᴗⲞǄ
z 䌘ᴀᘏ乱Ϣ䌘ᴀ䳔∖Ǆ
z ߽⍺Ϣѣᤳⱘߚ䜡ᮍḜǄ
z ⏙ㅫ䋺ⳂǄ
z ЏㅵಶԧϢ䗝ВᴎࠊǄ
z ᮹ᐌㅵ⧚Ǆ
z 乍Ⳃ乘ㅫǄ
z ᠔᳝ᴗ䕀䅽ᴗⲞǄ
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z ᮄখϢ㗙䖯ܹǄ
z 䖱㑺䋷ӏǄ
z 㾷䰸Ϣ㒜ℶ㾘ᅮǄ
ົંకᆇᄯԅᅖྑ໘࿐
1) ᓎㄥᡓࣙড়ৠ
ᓎㄥᡓࣙড়ৠЁⱘϔѯ䞡㽕ⱘᴵℒࣙᣀ˖
(1) 乍Ⳃᦣ䗄Ǆ
ᓎㄥᡓࣙড়ৠЁᑨ䆺㒚䯤ᯢᅠ៤乍Ⳃ᠔䳔ⱘ৘乍Ꮉ԰Ǆ
(2) ড়ৠӋḐǄ
ሑㅵϔѯ乍ⳂՓ⫼៤ᴀࡴ䌍⫼ⱘড়ৠӋḐˈԚ໻໮᭄乍Ⳃ㵡䌘ⱘᓎㄥᡓࣙড়ৠЎ೎ᅮ
Ӌড়ৠǄབᵰϡᰃ೎ᅮӋড়ৠˈৃ㛑䳔㽕ᡩܹ乱໪ⱘ؎ࡵ䌘ᴀ៪ᴗⲞ䌘ᴀᴹᅠ៤乍Ⳃˈ乍
Ⳃण䆂Ёᑨ䆹ᯢ⹂ᣛߎાϔᮍ៪ાѯҎᇍ䖭ѯ乱໪ⱘᡩܹ䋳䋷Ǆ
(3) ᬃҬǄ
ᬃҬ䗮ᐌҹĀᎹ⿟䕀ᡬ⚍ā៪ĀᏆᅠᎹ䚼ߚāЎ෎⸔ˈ⬭᳝䚼ߚᎹ⿟ֱ⬭ℒǄ䖭⾡ᬃ
Ҭᮍᓣৃҹ▔ࢅᡓࣙଚᣝ䖯ᑺᮑᎹˈᑊϨЎϮЏ੠䌋ℒᮍᦤկњ᳝⫼ⱘⲥ⌟⚍Ǆ
(4) ᅠᎹ᮹ᳳǄ
ᓎㄥᎹ⿟ᅠᎹ᮹ᳳˈҹঞ⬅Ѣϡৃᡫ࡯䗴៤ⱘᯊ䯈ᓊ䇃ˈᖙ乏ḍ᥂݊Ҫⱘ乍Ⳃ᭛ӊϢ
৘ᮍⱘ䋷ӏ㘨㋏೼ϔ䍋Ǆབᵰ೼㾘ᅮᅠᎹᳳ䰤‫≵ݙ‬᳝ᅠᎹˈᡓࣙଚ䳔㽕㔈㒇㾘ᅮⱘ䖱㑺ٓ
䞥ˈ⫼ҹᬃҬᓊ䇃ᳳ‫↣ݙ‬໽ⱘ؎ࡵ䌍⫼ˈⳈࠄ乍ⳂᅠᎹǄབᵰᦤࠡᅠᎹˈᡓࣙଚ᳝ᴗ㦋ᕫ
ᦤࠡᅠᎹⱘ乱໪ᬊܹǄ
(5) ሹ㑺ֱ䆕Ǆ
䗮ᐌˈᡓࣙଚᑨ䆹ֱ䆕乍ⳂᅠᎹৢ䖒ࠄϔᅮⱘᗻ㛑ᷛ‫ޚ‬Ǆ䖭ѯᷛ‫ޚ‬ᖙ乏ֱ䆕乍Ⳃৃҹ
ѻ⫳䎇໳ⱘᬊܹˈ⫼Ѣ䌋ℒⱘ䖬ᴀҬᙃˈᬃҬ䖤㧹䌍⫼੠ᴗⲞ䌘䞥᡹䝀Ǆ
2) ॳᴤ᭭կᑨण䆂
೼乍Ⳃ⫳ੑ਼ᳳ‫ˈݙ‬乍Ⳃ݀ৌ㽕ㅒ䅶ϔӑ៪໮ӑॳᴤ᭭կᑨण䆂ˈЎ乍Ⳃᦤկॳ᭭ǃ
㛑⑤៪݊Ҫ䌘⑤Ǆ㒣ᐌഄˈॳᴤ᭭կᑨण䆂ᰃĀ៪կ៪Ҭāড়ৠˈेկᑨଚ៪ᰃᦤࠡկᑨ
ॳᴤ᭭ˈ៪ᰃᬃҬ಴乍Ⳃ݀ৌҢ݊Ҫᴹ⑤䌁ܹॳᴤ᭭ᓩ䍋ⱘ៤ᴀᏂӋǄ䖭⾡ॳᴤ᭭կᑨড়
ৠЁⱘӋḐᴵℒৃҹᇚॳᴤ᭭៤ᴀ᥻ࠊ೼ৃ᥹ফ㣗ೈ‫ˈݙ‬ᑊϨヺড়乍Ⳃ䋶ࡵ乘ㅫǄ
3) ѻકᡓ䌁ण䆂
೼乍Ⳃ㵡䌘Ёˈѻકᡓ䌁ण䆂ҷ㸼њ乍Ⳃᬊܹⱘᴹ⑤Ǆㅒᅮ䖭㉏ण䆂ᖙ乏㛑໳Ў乍Ⳃ
݀ৌᦤկ䎇໳ⱘᬊܹˈ⫼ҹᬃҬ乍Ⳃ䌋ℒ؎ࡵ੠᠔᳝݊Ҫⱘ䖤㧹ǃ㓈ᡸ੠ऴ᳝䌍⫼Ǆ䗮ᐌˈ
ѻકᡓ䌁ण䆂ᰃϔ⾡Ā✻Ҭϡ䆂āড়ৠˈेᡓ䌁ଚϡ䆎ᰃ৺প䍄њѻકˈ䛑᳝䋷ӏᅮᳳഄ
ᬃҬѻક䋻ℒˈ䰸䴲಴Ў乍Ⳃ݀ৌ䖱㑺㗠ϡ㛑㦋ᕫѻકǄབৠॳᴤ᭭կᑨण䆂ˈ೼乍Ⳃ؎
ࡵ㵡䌘ᳳ䯈ˈѻકᡓ䌁ण䆂䗮ᐌᓎゟ೼೎ᅮӋḐ៪乘ᅮӋḐ෎⸔ϞǄ
4) 䖤㧹㓈ᡸण䆂
ЎњᎹ⿟䆒ᮑⱘ᮹ᐌ䖤䕀Ϣ㓈ᡸˈ乍Ⳃ݀ৌ䗮ᐌӮϢϔᆊ‫݋‬᳝ᡔᴃ੠䋶ࡵϧ䭓ˈᑊϨ
㛑໳ḍ᥂乍Ⳃ៤ᴀ੠⫳ѻᡔᴃᴵӊ䖤㧹乍Ⳃⱘ݀ৌㅒ䅶ϔӑ䭓ᳳण䆂Ǆ䖤㧹ଚৃҹᰃϔϾ
⣀ゟⱘ݀ৌˈ៪ᰃ乍Ⳃথ䍋ᮍПϔǄᔧ乍Ⳃ㒽ᬜᰒ㨫ᯊˈ䖤㧹ଚ䗮ᐌӮᕫࠄ೎ᅮ᡹䝀ˈᑊ
Ϩৃ㛑㦋ᕫ༪䞥Ǆᔧ乍Ⳃ㒽ᬜԢѢ㾘ᅮ∈ᑇᯊˈ㽕∖䖤㧹ଚᬃҬ㾘ᅮⱘ䖱㑺ٓ䞥Ǆ
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5) 㒣㧹ण䆂
6) 䌋ℒ੠ᢙֱण䆂
‫׳‬ℒҎ䗮ᐌᰃᢹ᳝䆹乍Ⳃ݀ৌⱘথ䍋ᮍǄ䌋ℒण䆂ᑨ䯤ᯢ෎ᴀᴵℒˈࣙᣀᳳ䰤ǃ߽⥛
੠䌍⫼ㄝϔ㠀ᴵℒǄ‫݌‬ൟⱘ䌋ℒण䆂䖬ᑨࣙᣀҹϟᴵℒǄ
(1) ᬃߎ᥻ࠊǄ
䗮ᐌᇍ↣ϔヨ䌘䞥䞛⫼‫އܜ‬ᴵӊⱘᔶᓣˈ䳔㽕‫׳‬ℒᮍᦤկ䳔∖੠Փ⫼䌘䞥ⱘ⏙ऩǃᓎ
ㄥ㗙䆕ᯢ៪݊Ҫ䆕᥂Ǆ
(2) 䖯ᑺ᡹ਞǄ
䌋ℒᮍ䳔㽕⬅⣀ゟ乒䯂ㅒ䅶ⱘǃ݇ѢᎹ⿟䖯ሩᚙ‫ⱘމ‬ᅮᳳ᡹ਞǄ
(3) ϡׂᬍण䆂ֱ䆕Ǆ
೼≵᳝㒣䖛䌋ℒҎৠᛣⱘᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈ‫׳‬ℒҎֱ䆕ϡӮׂᬍᓎㄥᡓࣙण䆂ǃॳᴤ᭭կᑨण
䆂ǃ䖤㧹Ϣ㓈ᡸण䆂៪݊ҪЏ㽕ण䆂ˈֱ䆕ϡӮᬒᓗ㞾Ꮕⱘᴗ߽Ǆ
(4) ᅠᎹֱ䆕Ǆ
㽕∖‫׳‬ℒҎᣝ乍Ⳃ䅵ߦ੠㾘ᅮᅠ៤乍Ⳃˈ⽕ℶ‫׳‬ℒҎ೼≵᳝পᕫ䌋ℒҎৠᛣⱘᚙ‫މ‬ϟ
ᇍ乍Ⳃ䅵ߦ䖯㸠䞡໻䇗ᭈǄ
(5) 㙵ᙃ䰤ࠊǄ
䖭㉏ᴵℒ䰤ࠊ‫׳‬ℒҎ೼≵᳝Ў䌋ℒ䖬ᴀҬᙃПࠡᬃҬ㙵ᙃ៪䖯㸠݊Ҫߚ䜡Ǆ
(6) ؎ࡵ੠ᢙֱ䰤ࠊǄ
⽕ℶ‫׳‬ℒҎᡓফ঺໪ⱘ؎ࡵˈ⽕ℶ‫׳‬ℒҎЎ݊Ҫ؎ࡵ‫خ‬ᢙֱǄ
(7) 䋶ࡵᡓ䇎Ǆ
䖭㉏ᡓ䇎㽕∖乍Ⳃ݀ৌֱᣕϔᅮⱘ㧹䖤䌘䞥ǃ⌕ࡼ↨⥛ǃ߽ᙃֱ䱰⥛ǃٓ؎‫ټ‬໛䌘䞥
੠݊Ҫⱘ䋶ࡵ↨⥛ˈҹֱ֓䱰‫׳‬ℒҎֵ⫼Ǆ
(8) Ңሲण䆂Ǆ
䌋ℒҎ䗮ᐌ㽕∖乍Ⳃⱘ݊ҪখϢ㗙ㅒ䅶ϔӑҢሲण䆂Ǆḍ᥂䖭ӑҢሲण䆂ˈ‫׳‬ℒҎձ
᥂乍Ⳃড়ৠᑨᬃҬ㒭䖭ѯখϢᮍⱘ⹂ᅮⱘℒ乍ᰃফࠄ䰤ࠊⱘ(៪ᰃᅠܼ䰤ࠊˈ៪ᰃ䚼ߚ䰤
ࠊ)ˈᑊϨ䖭ѯℒ乍ⱘᬃҬᑨ೼乍Ⳃ݀ৌ䖬ᴀҬᙃПৢǄ
(9) ᢙֱǄ
乍Ⳃ݀ৌЎ䌋ℒᦤկ໮⾡ᢉᢐ⠽ᢙֱˈࣙᣀ˖
z ҹ乍Ⳃ䆒໛੠ϡࡼѻ‫خ‬ᢉᢐǄ
z 㧹ϮᬊܹᦤկⱘᢙֱǄ
z ҹ䫊㸠ᄬℒ‫خ‬ᢉᢐǄ
z Ϣ乍ⳂⳌ݇ᑊϨফⲞҎЎ‫׳‬ℒҎⱘֵ⫼䆕ǃሹ㑺ֱߑǃᅠᎹֱ䆕ᦤկⱘᢙֱǄ
z ᇍ‫׳‬ℒҎϾҎ䌘ѻⱘ⬭㕂ᴗǄ
z ֱ䰽ᬊⲞᦤկⱘᢙֱǄ
z ҹ᠔᳝乍Ⳃण䆂‫خ‬ᢙֱǄ
z ҹ乍Ⳃ݀ৌ㙵⼼‫خ‬ᢉᢐ៪䕀䅽খϢᮍⱘֱ䰽ᴗⲞǄ
z ҹ‫׳‬ℒҎᢹ᳝ⱘϧ߽ᴗǃଚᷛ៪݊Ҫⶹ䆚ѻᴗ‫خ‬ᢙֱǄ
7) Ꮉഄ⾳⫼ण䆂
䗮ᐌˈ೼乍Ⳃ⫳ੑ਼ᳳ‫ˈݙ‬乍Ⳃ݀ৌ㽕ㅒ䅶ϔӑ䭓ᳳϡࡼѻ⾳⫼ण䆂ˈ԰Ў乍Ⳃ᠔೼
ഄǄ⾳䞥៪ᰃҹ೎ᅮ↨⥛ᦤࠡᬃҬˈ៪ᰃḍ᥂乍Ⳃᠻ㸠ᚙ‫މ‬ᬃҬǄ
g104g
ͬຢ
乍Ⳃ㵡䌘⍝ঞⱘ᳝⫼ⱘֱ䰽᳝ҹϟ㉏ൟǄ
1) ᷛ‫ֱޚ‬䰽㉏
ҹϟᰃ೼乍Ⳃ㵡䌘Ё㹿䞛⫼ⱘ‫݌‬ൟⱘֱ䰽⾡㉏ˈᑊϨ㽚Ⲫњ໻䚼ߚ乍Ⳃ݀ৌৃ㛑᱂䘡
ᡓফⱘᤳ༅Ǆ
z 䋶ѻᤳ༅ֱ䰽ˈࣙᣀ䖤䕧ǃ☿♒៪݊Ҫ㣗ೈ‫ⱘݙ‬ӸѵǄ
z 䫙♝੠ᴎẄֱ䰽Ǆ
z ݀݅䋷ӏ䰽Ǆ
z ࢇᎹֱ䰽Ǆ
z ᴎࡼ䔺䋷ӏ䰽੠䔺ԧᤳ༅䰽Ǆ
z Ӳᡸᓣ៪䍙乱䋷ӏ䰽Ǆ
2) ৃ䗝ᢽֱ䰽㉏
ϟ䴶ᰃ乍Ⳃ㵡䌘Ё㒣ᐌ䞛⫼ⱘֱ䰽⾡㉏Ǆ䖭ѯ⾡㉏ֱ䰽ⱘ䌍⫼↨ᷛ‫ֱⱘ㉏⾡ޚ‬䰽䌍⫼
㽕ᯖ䌉ˈᑊϨ䳔㽕‫خ‬᳈໮䇗ᭈᴹ䗖ᑨ乍Ⳃⱘ⡍⅞䳔∖Ǆ
z 㧹ϮЁᮁֱ䰽Ǆ
z ሹ㑺ֱߑǄ
z ៤ᴀ䍙ᬃֱ䰽/ᓊᳳᓔᎹֱ䰽Ǆ
z 䆒䅵䇃Ꮒ੠⭣ᗑֱ䰽Ǆ
z ㋏㒳ᠻ㸠ᬜ⥛ֱ䰽Ǆ
z ∵ᶧ䋷ӏֱ䰽Ǆ
g105g

Unit 11 The Critical Path Method
The most widely used scheduling technique is the critical path method (CPM) for
scheduling, often referred to as critical path scheduling. This method calculates the minimum
completion time for a project along with the possible start and finish times for the project
activities. Indeed, many texts and managers regard critical path scheduling as the only usable and
practical scheduling procedure. Computer programs and algorithms for critical path scheduling
are widely available and can efficiently handle projects with thousands of activities.
The critical path itself represents the set or sequence of predecessor/successor activities
which will take the longest time to complete. The duration of the critical path is the sum of the
activities’ durations along the path. Thus, the critical path can be defined as the longest possible
path through the “network” of project activities, as described in Unit 9. The duration of the
critical path represents the minimum time required to complete a project. Any delays along the
critical path would imply that additional time would be required to complete the project.
There may be more than one critical path among all the project activities, so completion of
the entire project could be delayed by delaying activities along any one of the critical paths. For
example, a project consisting of two activities performed in parallel that each requires three days
would have each activity critical for a completion in three days.
Formally, critical path scheduling assumes that a project has been divided into activities of
fixed duration and well defined predecessor relationships. A predecessor relationship implies that
one activity must come before another in the schedule. No resource constraints other than those
implied by precedence relationships are recognized in the simplest form of critical path
scheduling.
To use critical path scheduling in practice, construction planners often represent a resource
constraint by a precedence relation. A constraint is simply a restriction on the options available to
a manager, and a resource constraint is a constraint deriving from the limited availability of some
resource of equipment, material, space or labor. For example, one of two activities requiring the
same piece of equipment might be arbitrarily assumed to precede the other activity. This artificial
precedence constraint insures that the two activities requiring the same resource will not be
scheduled at the same time. Also, most critical path scheduling algorithms impose restrictions on
the generality of the activity relationships or network geometries which are used.
In essence, these restrictions imply that the construction plan can be represented by a
network plan in which activities appear as nodes in a network, and no two nodes can have the
same number or designation. Two nodes are introduced to represent the start and completion of
the project itself.
The actual computer representation of the project schedule generally consists of a list of
Unit 11 The Critical Path Method g107g
activities along with their associated durations, required resources and predecessor activities.
Graphical network representations rather than a list are helpful for visualization of the plan and to
insure that mathematical requirements are met. The actual input of the data to a computer
program may be accomplished by filling in blanks on a screen menu, reading an existing datafile,
or typing data directly to the program with identifiers for the type of information being provided.
With an activity-on-branch network, dummy activities may be introduced for the purposes
of providing unique activity designations and maintaining the correct sequence of activities. A
dummy activity is assumed to have no time duration and can be graphically represented by a
dashed line in a network. Several cases in which dummy activities are useful are illustrated in
Figure 11.1. In Figure 11.1(a), the elimination of activity C would mean that both activities B and
D would be identified as being between nodes 1 and 3. However, if a dummy activity X is
introduced, as shown in part (b) of the figure, the unique designations for activity B (node 1 to 2)
and D (node 1 to 3) will be preserved. Furthermore, if the problem in part (a) is changed so that
activity E cannot start until both C and D are completed but that F can start after D alone is
completed, the order in the new sequence can be indicated by the addition of a dummy activity Y,
as shown in part (c). In general, dummy activities may be necessary to meet the requirements of
specific computer scheduling algorithms, but it is important to limit the number of such dummy
link insertions to the extent possible.
Figure 11.1 Dummy Activities in a Project Network
Many computer scheduling systems support only one network representation, either
activity-on-branch or acitivity-on-node. A good project manager is familiar with either
representation.
Example 11.1 Formulating a network diagram.
Suppose that we wish to form an activity network for a seven-activity network with the
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following precedences:
Activity Predecessors
A …
B …
C ˝ˈ˞
D C
E ˟
F D
G DˈE
Forming an activity-on-branch network for this set of activities might begin with drawing
activities A, B and C as shown in Figure 11.2(a). At this point, we note that two activities (A and
B) lie between the same two event nodes; for clarity, we insert a dummy activity X and continue
to place other activities as in Figure 11.2(b). Placing activity G in the figure presents a problem,
however, since we wish both activity D and activity E to be predecessors. Inserting an additional
dummy activity Y along with activity G completes the activity network, as shown in Figure 11.2(c).
A comparable activity-on-node representation is shown in Figure 11.3, including project start and
finish nodes. Note that dummy activities are not required for expressing precedence relationships
in activity-on-node networks.
Figure 11.2 An Activity-on-Branch Network for Critical Path Scheduling
Figure 11.3 An Activity-on-Node Network for Critical Path Scheduling
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Calculations for Critical Path Scheduling
With the background provided by the previous sections, we can formulate the critical path
scheduling mathematically. We shall present an algorithm or set of instructions for critical path
scheduling assuming an activity-on-branch project network. We also assume that all precedences
are of a finish-to-start nature, so that a succeeding activity cannot start until the completion of a
preceding activity. In a later section, we present a comparable algorithm for activity-on-node
representations with multiple precedence types.
Suppose that our project network has n+1 nodes, the initial event being 0 and the last event
being n. Let the time at which node events occur be X1, X2,Ă, Xn, respectively. The start of the
project at X0 will be defined as time 0. Nodal event times must be consistent with activity
durations, so that an activity’s successor node event time must be larger than an activity’s
predecessor node event time plus its duration. For an activity defined as starting from event i and
ending at event j, this relationship can be expressed as the inequality constraint, Xj˚Xi+Dij where
Dij is the duration of activity (i,j). This same expression can be written for every activity and must
hold true in any feasible schedule. Mathematically, then, the critical path scheduling problem is
to minimize the time of project completion (Xn) subject to the constraints that each node
completion event cannot occur until each of the predecessor activities have been completed:
Minimize
z =Xn (11-1)
subject to
X0=0
Xj Xi Dijı0 [for each activity(i,j)]
This is a linear programming problem since the objective value to be minimized and each of
the constraints is a linear equation.
Rather than solving the critical path scheduling problem with a linear programming
algorithm (such as the Simplex method), more efficient techniques are available that take
advantage of the network structure of the problem. These solution methods are very efficient with
respect to the required computations, so that very large networks can be treated even with
personal computers. These methods also give some very useful information about possible
activity schedules. The programs can compute the earliest and latest possible starting times for
each activity which are consistent with completing the project in the shortest possible time. This
calculation is of particular interest for activities which are not on the critical path (or paths), since
these activities might be slightly delayed or re-scheduled over time as a manager desires without
delaying the entire project.
An efficient solution process for critical path scheduling based upon node labeling is shown
in Table 11-1. Three algorithms appear in the table. The “event numbering algorithm” numbers
the nodes (or events) of the project such that the beginning event has a lower number than the
ending event for each activity. Technically, this algorithm accomplishes a “topological sort” of
the activities. The project start node is given number 0. As long as the project activities fulfill the
g109g
conditions for an activity-on-branch network, this type of numbering system is always possible.
Some software packages for critical path scheduling do not have this numbering algorithm
programmed, so that the construction project planners must insure that appropriate numbering is
done.
Table 11-1 Critical Path Scheduling Algorithms (Activity-on-Branch Representation)
Event Numbering Algorithm
Step 1: Give the starting event number 0.
Step 2: Give the next number to any unnumbered event whose predecessor events are each
already numbered.
Repeat Step 2 until all events are numbered.
Earliest Event Time Algorithm
Step 1: Let E(0) = 0.
Step 2: For j = 1,2,3,Ă,n (where n is the last event), let
E(j) = maximum {E(i) + Dij}
where the maximum is computed over all activities (i,j) that have j as the ending event.
Latest Event Time Algorithm
Step 1: Let L(n) equal the required completion time of the project.
Note: L(n) must equal or exceed E(n).
Step 2: For i = n1, n2, Ă, 0, let
L(i) = minimum {L(j) Dij}
where the minimum is computed over all activities (i,j) that have i as the starting event.
The earliest event time algorithm computes the earliest possible time, E(i), at which each
event, i, in the network can occur. Earliest event times are computed as the maximum of the
earliest start times plus activity durations for each of the activities immediately preceding an
event. The earliest start time for each activity (i,j) is equal to the earliest possible time for the
preceding event E(i):
ES(I, j)= E(i) (11-2)
The earliest finish time of each activity (i,j) can be calculated by:
EF(i,j)= E(i)+ Dij (11-3)
Activities are identified in this algorithm by the predecessor node (or event) i and the
successor node j. The algorithm simply requires that each event in the network should be
examined in turn beginning with the project start (node 0).
The “latest event time algorithm” computes the latest possible time, L(j), at which each
event j in the network can occur, given the desired completion time of the project, L(n) for the
last event n. Usually, the desired completion time will be equal to the earliest possible completion
time, so that E(n) = L(n) for the final node n. The procedure for finding the latest event time is
analogous to that for the earliest event time except that the procedure begins with the final event
and works backwards through the project activities. Thus, the earliest event time algorithm is
often called a “forward pass” through the network, whereas the latest event time algorithm is the
the “backward pass” through the network. The latest finish time consistent with completion of the
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project in the desired time frame of L(n) for each activity (i,j) is equal to the latest possible time
L(j) for the succeeding event:
LF(i,j)=L(j) (11-4)
The latest start time of each activity (i,j) can be calculated by:
LS(i,j)=L(j) Dij (11-5)
The earliest start and latest finish times for each event are useful pieces of information in
developing a project schedule. Events which have equal earliest and latest times, E(i) = L(i), lie
on the critical path or paths. An activity (i,j) is a critical activity if it satisfies all of the following
conditions:
E(i)=L(i) (11-6)
E(j)=L(j) (11-7)
E(j)+ Dij = L(j) (11-8)
Hence, activities between critical events are also on a critical path as long as the activity’s
earliest start time equals its latest start time, ES(i,j) = LS(i,j). To avoid delaying the project, all
the activities on a critical path should begin as soon as possible, so each critical activity (i,j) must
be scheduled to begin at the earliest possible start time, E(i).
Example 11.2 Critical path scheduling calculations.
Consider the network shown in Figure 11.4 in which the project start is given number 0.
Then, the only event that has each predecessor numbered is the successor to activity A, so it
receives number 1. After this, the only event that has each predecessor numbered is the successor
to the two activities B and C, so it receives number 2. The other event numbers resulting from the
algorithm are also shown in the figure. For this simple project network, each stage in the
numbering process found only one possible event to number at any time. With more than one
feasible event to number, the choice of which to number next is arbitrary. For example, if activity
C did not exist in the project for Figure 11.4, the successor event for activity A or for activity B
could have been numbered 1.
Figure 11.4 A Nine-Activity Project Network
Once the node numbers are established, a good aid for manual scheduling is to draw a small
rectangle near each node with two possible entries. The left hand side would contain the earliest
time the event could occur, whereas the right hand side would contain the latest time the event
could occur without delaying the entire project. Figure 11.5 illustrates a typical box.
Figure 11.5 E(i) and L(i) Display for Hand Calculation of Critical Path
for Activity-on-Branch Representation
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For the network in Figure 11.4 with activity durations in Table 11-2, the earliest event time
calculations proceed as follows:
Table 11-2 Precedence Relations and Durations for a Nine-Activity Project Example
Activity Description Predecessors Duration
A Site clearing ü 4
B Removal of trees ü 3
C General excavation A 8
D Grading general area A 7
E Excavation for trenches B, C 9
F Placing formwork and reinforcement for concrete B, C 12
G Installing sewer lines D, E 2
H Installing other utilities D, E 5
I Pouring concrete F, G 6
Step 1 E(0) = 0
Step 2
j=1 E(1) = Max{E(0) + D01} = Max{ 0 + 4 } = 4
j=2 E(2) = Max{E(0) + D02; E(1) + D12} = Max{0 + 3; 4 + 8} = 12
j=3 E(3) = Max{E(1) + D13; E(2) + D23} = Max{4 + 7; 12 + 9} = 21
j=4 E(4) = Max{E(2) + D24; E(3) + D34} = Max{12 + 12; 21 + 2} = 24
j=5 E(5) = Max{E(3) + D35; E(4) + D45} = Max{21 + 5; 24 + 6} = 30
Thus, the minimum time required to complete the project is 30 since E(5) = 30. In this case,
each event had at most two predecessors.
For the “backward pass”, the latest event time calculations are:
Step 1 L(5) = E(5) = 30
Step 2
j=4 L(4) = Min {L(5) D45} = Min {30 6} = 24
j=3 L(3) = Min {L(5) D35; L(4) D34} = Min {30 5; 24 2} = 22
j=2 L(2) = Min {L(4) D24; L(3) D23} = Min {24 12; 22 9} = 12
j=1 L(1) = Min {L(3) D13; L(2) D12} = Min {22 7; 12 8} = 4
j=0 L(0) = Min {L(2) D02; L(1) D01} = Min {12 3; 4 4} = 0
In this example, E(0) = L(0), E(1) = L(1), E(2) = L(2), E(4) = L(4),and E(5) = L(5). As a
result, all nodes but node 3 are in the critical path. Activities on the critical path include A (0,1),
C (1,2), F (2,4) and I (4,5) as shown in Table 11-3.
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Table 11-3 Identification of Activities on the Critical Path for a Nine-Activity Project
Duration Earliest start time Latest finish time Latest start time
Activity
Dij E(i)=ES(i,j) L(j)=LF(i,j) LS(i,j)
A (0,1) 4 0* 4* 0
B (0,2) 3 0 12 9
C (1,2) 8 4* 12* 4
D (1,3) 7 4 22 15
E (2,3) 9 12 22 13
F (2,4) 12 12* 24* 12
G (3,4) 2 21 24 22
H (3,5) 5 21 30 25
I (4,5) 6 24 30* 24
*Activity on a critical path since E(i) + Dij = L(j).
Questions
1. How to define the critical path?

2. What be assumed by critical path scheduling?
3. What is the simplest form of critical path scheduling?
4. What are the advantages of graphical network representation of the project schedule?
5. For what purpose to introduce dummy activities with an activity-on-branch network?
6. To tell the difference between an activity-on-branch network and an activity-on-node
network.
7. How to calculate the earliest starting time and the latest starting time of an activity?
8. How to calculate the earliest finishing time and the latest finishing time of an activity?
9. How to identify the critical activities of the project schedule?
10. How to calculate the desired completion?
the critical path method (CPM)˖݇䬂䏃ᕘ⊩

duration of the critical path˖݇䬂䏃ᕘⱘᣕ㓁ᯊ䯈
the longest possible path˖᳔䭓ৃ㛑䏃ᕘ
fixed duration˖೎ᅮᣕ㓁ᯊ䯈
precedence relationships˖ࠡৢ乎ᑣ݇㋏
resource constraint˖䌘⑤䰤ࠊ
precedence constraint˖Ӭ‫ܜ‬䰤ࠊ
a network plan˖㔥㒰䅵ߦ
g113g
nodes in a network˖㔥㒰㡖⚍
predecessor activities˖㋻ࠡᎹ԰
successor activities˖㋻ৢᎹ԰
graphical network˖೒㾷㔥㒰䅵ߦ
an activity-on-branch network˖᳝ߚᬃⱘ㔥㒰䅵ߦ
dummy activities˖㰮Ꮉ԰
an activity-on-branch network˖ঠҷো㔥㒰䅵ߦ೒
an activity-on-node network˖ऩҷো㔥㒰䅵ߦ೒
precedence of a finish-to-start nature˖㒧ᴳᓔྟൟ乎ᑣ
constraints˖㑺ᴳᴵӊ
a linear programming problem˖㒓ᗻ㾘ߦ䯂乬
network structure˖㔥㒰㒧ᵘ
the earliest starting time˖᳔ᮽᓔྟᯊ䯈
the latest starting time˖᳔ᰮᓔྟᯊ䯈
the earliest finishing time˖᳔ᮽ㒧ᴳᯊ䯈
the latest finishing time˖᳔ᰮ㒧ᴳᯊ䯈
event (or node)numbering algorithm˖ᣝ㡖⚍㓪োㅫ⊩
earliest event time algorithm˖㡖⚍᳔ᮽᯊ䯈ㅫ⊩
latest event time algorithm˖㡖⚍᳔ᰮᯊ䯈ㅫ⊩
forward pass˖乎৥䖛⿟
backward pass˖䗚৥䖛⿟
critical activities˖݇䬂Ꮉᑣ
খ 㗗䆥 ᭛
㄀ 11 ऩ‫ܗ‬ ݇䬂䏃ᕘ⊩
݇䬂䏃ᕘ⊩ᰃՓ⫼᳔ᑓⱘ䅵ߦ㓪ࠊᮍ⊩ˈг㹿⿄Ў݇䬂䏃ᕘ䅵ߦǄ䖭⾡ᮍ⊩㛑᥼ㅫߎ
乍Ⳃⱘ᳔ⷁᅠ៤ᯊ䯈੠乍Ⳃ৘乍⌏ࡼⱘৃ㛑ᓔྟ੠㒧ᴳᯊ䯈Ǆ⹂ᅲˈᕜ໮ᬭᴤ੠ㅵ⧚Ҏਬ
䛑ᡞ݇䬂䏃ᕘ⊩ⳟ԰᳔ᅲ⫼ⱘ䅵ߦ㓪ࠊ⿟ᑣǄ݇䬂䏃ᕘ⊩ⱘ䅵ㅫᴎ⿟ᑣ੠䖤ㅫ⊩߭Ꮖ㒣㹿
ᑓ⊯ᑨ⫼ˈৃҹ᳝ᬜഄ໘⧚ࣙ৿᭄ग⌏ࡼⱘ乍ⳂǄ
݇䬂䏃ᕘᴀ䑿ҷ㸼њϔ㋏߫ࠡ㒻ৢ㓁ⱘ⌏ࡼˈ䖭ѯ⌏ࡼᇚӮᣕ㓁᳔䭓ⱘᯊ䯈ˈ݇䬂䏃
ᕘⱘᣕ㓁ᯊ䯈ㄝѢ݇䬂㒓䏃Ϟܼ䚼⌏ࡼᣕ㓁ᯊ䯈ⱘᘏ੠Ǆ಴ℸˈ݇䬂䏃ᕘህ‫ڣ‬೼㄀ 9 ऩ‫ܗ‬
ᦣ䗄ⱘ䙷ḋˈ㹿ᅮНЎ乍Ⳃ⌏ࡼ㔥㒰Ё᳔䭓ⱘৃ㛑䏃ᕘǄ݇䬂䏃ᕘⱘᯊ䯈ህҷ㸼њᅠ៤乍
Ⳃ᠔䳔ⱘ᳔ⷁᯊ䯈Ǆ݇䬂䏃ᕘϞⱘӏԩ⌏ࡼ᥼䖳䛑ᇚᇐ㟈乍Ⳃᅠ៤ᯊ䯈ⱘ๲ࡴǄ
೼ܼ䚼ⱘ乍Ⳃ⌏ࡼЁˈৃ㛑Ӯ᳝໮ᴵ݇䬂䏃ᕘǄ᠔ҹˈᭈϾᎹ⿟ⱘᅠ៤ᯊ䯈Ӯ಴ӏԩ
ϔᴵ݇䬂䏃ᕘϞ⌏ࡼⱘ᥼䖳㗠ᓊৢǄ՟བˈϔϾ乍Ⳃ⬅ϸϾᑊ߫䖯㸠ⱘ⌏ࡼ㒘៤ˈ↣Ͼ⌏
ࡼ䛑䳔 3 ໽ᅠ៤ˈ䙷Мህ㽕∖↣Ͼ݇䬂Ꮉ԰೼ 3 ໽‫ݙ‬ᅠ៤Ǆ
݇䬂䏃ᕘ⊩೼ᔶᓣϞ‫؛‬䆒乍ⳂᏆ㹿ߚ៤‫݋‬᳝೎ᅮᣕ㓁ᯊ䯈੠ᯢ⹂ࠡৢ乎ᑣ݇㋏ⱘ⌏
g114g
ࡼǄࠡৢ乎ᑣ݇㋏೼䅵ߦЁᛣੇⴔϔϾ⌏ࡼᖙ乏೼঺ϔϾ⌏ࡼࠡᓔྟǄ䰸њ䖭⾡೼ᯊ䯈Ϟ
ᄬ೼ࠡৢ乎ᑣⱘ݇㋏໪ˈ≵᳝䌘⑤䰤ࠊⱘ݇䬂䏃ᕘ䅵ߦ㹿䅸Ўᰃ᳔ㅔऩⱘᔶᓣǄ
೼ᅲ䰙䖤⫼݇䬂䏃ᕘ⊩ᯊˈᎹ⿟䅵ߦ㗙㒣ᐌ䗮䖛Ӭ‫ᦣ㋏݇ܜ‬䗄䌘⑤ⱘ䰤ࠊǄ䰤ࠊᰃᇍ
ㅵ⧚Ҏਬৃ㛑䗝ᢽⱘϔ⾡㑺ᴳˈ䌘⑤ⱘ䰤ࠊᴹ⑤Ѣ᳝䰤ⱘৃ⫼䌘⑤ˈབ䆒໛ǃᴤ᭭ǃぎ䯈
៪ࢇࡼ࡯Ǆ՟བˈབᵰϸϾ⌏ࡼ䳔㽕ৠḋⱘ䆒໛ˈህৃ㛑‫؛‬䆒ӏᛣϔϾ⌏ࡼӬ‫ܜ‬Ѣ঺ϔϾǄ
ҎЎߦߚⱘӬ‫ܜ‬䰤ࠊ⹂ֱϸϾ䳔㽕ৠϔ䌘⑤ⱘ⌏ࡼϡ㹿ᅝᥦ೼ৠϔᯊ䯈Ǆ໻䚼ߚ݇䬂䏃ᕘ
ⱘ䖤ㅫᮍ⊩г߽⫼њ⌏ࡼ݇㋏៪᠔Փ⫼ⱘ㔥㒰޴ԩᄺॳ߭ࡴҹ䰤ࠊǄ
䖭ѯ䰤ࠊᴵӊ㸼ᯢˈᎹ⿟䅵ߦ㛑໳⫼㔥㒰䅵ߦ⊩㸼⼎Ǆ೼㔥㒰䅵ߦЁˈ⫼ϸϾ㡖⚍㸼
⼎⌏ࡼˈ㡖⚍㽕䖯㸠㓪োˈϸϾ㡖⚍ϡ㛑⫼ⳌৠⱘোⷕˈᓩܹⱘϸϾ㡖⚍㸼⼎ϔ乍Ꮉ԰ⱘ
䍋ྟ੠㒜ℶǄ
Ꮉ⿟䖯ᑺ䅵ߦⱘ⦄㸠䅵ㅫᴎ㸼⼎⊩ϔ㠀⬅ϔᓴ㸼⼎Ꮉ԰ҹঞ䖭ѯᎹ԰Ⳍᑨⱘᣕ㓁ᯊ
䯈ǃ᠔䳔ⱘ䌘⑤੠㋻ࠡᎹ԰ㄝ‫ݙ‬ᆍⱘϔ㾜㸼㒘៤Ǆ೒㾷㔥㒰㸼⼎⊩ϡ䳔㽕ϔ㾜㸼ˈԚᦤ催
њ䅵ߦⱘৃ㾚ᗻˈг⹂ֱњ⒵䎇᭄ᄺᴵӊǄⳂࠡˈ䅵ㅫᴎ⿟ᑣⱘ᭄᥂䕧ܹৃ䗮䖛೼ሣᐩ㦰
ऩϞ฿㸼ᅠ៤ˈ៪䇏ܹ⦄᭄᳝᥂᭛ӊˈ៪ᇚ᠔䳔ᦤկⱘֵᙃҹᷛ䆚ヺᔶᓣⳈ᥹৥⿟ᑣ䕧ܹǄ
೼ϔϾ᳝ߚᬃⱘ㔥㒰೒Ёˈ㰮Ꮉ԰㹿⫼ᴹᦤկ⡍⅞ⱘᎹ԰ᅝᥦ੠ֱᣕᎹ԰ⱘℷ⹂乎ᑣǄ
ϔ乍㰮Ꮉ԰ⱘᣕ㓁ᯊ䯈㹿‫؛‬䆒Ў䳊ˈᑊϨ೼԰೒ᯊ⫼㔥㒰Ёⱘϔᴵ㰮㒓ᦣ䗄ǄՓ⫼㰮Ꮉ԰
ⱘ޴⾡ᚙ‫މ‬བ೒ 11.1 ᠔⼎Ǆ೼೒ 11.1(a)Ёˈབᵰএᥝ⌏ࡼ C ህᛣੇⴔ⌏ࡼ B ੠ D ᇚԡѢ
㡖⚍ 1 ੠ 3 П䯈ǄԚᰃˈབᵰࡴܹϔϾ㰮Ꮉ԰ Xˈབ೒ 11.1(b)᠔⼎ˈ⡍⅞ⱘᎹ԰ B(㡖⚍ 1
ࠄ 2)੠(㡖⚍ 1 ࠄ 3)ⱘ⡍⅞ᅝᥦህ㛑㹿ֱᄬϟᴹǄབᵰ೒ 11.1(a)Ёⱘ䯂乬ᬍবˈ⌏ࡼ C ੠ D
ϡᅠ៤ˈ⌏ࡼ E ֓ϡ㛑ᓔྟ˗া᳝⌏ࡼ D ऩ⣀ᅠ៤ПৢˈF ᠡ㛑ᓔྟǄ䖭⾡ᮄ乎ᑣⱘᅝᥦ
ৃҹ䗮䖛๲ࡴ㰮Ꮉ԰ Y ᴹ㸼⼎ˈབ೒ 11.1(c)᠔⼎Ǆ䗮ᐌᖙ乏⫼㰮Ꮉ԰ᴹ⒵䎇‫݋‬ԧⱘ䅵ㅫᴎ
䖯ᑺㅫ⊩ⱘ㽕∖ˈԚᰃ೼ϔᅮ⿟ᑺϞሑৃ㛑䰤ࠊᦦܹ㰮Ꮉ԰ⱘ᭄䞣гৠḋᰃ䴲ᐌ䞡㽕ⱘǄ
㔥㒰೒ߚЎঠҷো㔥㒰೒੠ऩҷো㔥㒰೒ϸ⾡ˈ䆌໮䅵ㅫᴎ䖯ᑺ⿟ᑣাᬃᣕ݊Ёⱘϔ
⾡ǄϔϾ៤ࡳⱘ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ᇍѢ䖭ϸ⾡㸼⼎ᮍ⊩䛑㽕❳ᙝǄ
՟ 11.1 㔥㒰೒ⱘ㸼䗄Ǆ
‫؛‬䆒㽕ḍ᥂ϟ߫䘏䕥݇㋏㒬ࠊϔϾ৿᳝ 7 乍Ꮉ԰ⱘঠҷো㔥㒰೒˖
Ꮉ԰ҷো ㋻ࠡ⌏ࡼ
A …
B …
C ˝ˈ˞
D C
E ˟
F D
G DˈE
㽕ᇍϞ䴶ⱘϔ㋏߫Ꮉ԰㒬ࠊঠҷো㔥㒰೒ˈ佪‫ܜ‬ҢᎹ԰ AǃBǃC ᓔྟˈབ೒ 11.2(a)

᠔⼎ǄA ੠ B ϸϾᎹ԰ԡѢϸϾⳌৠⱘ㡖⚍П䯈ˈЎℸ䳔㽕๲ࡴϔϾ㰮ᢳᎹ԰˴ˈ✊ৢ‫ݡ‬
ձ⃵㒬ࠊ݊ԭᎹ԰ˈབ೒ 11.2(b)᠔⼎ǄԚ䖭ᯊӮߎ⦄ϔϾ䯂乬˖བԩᅝᥦ G Ꮉ԰˛಴Ў㽕
Փᅗ⒵䎇ࠡᇐᎹ԰Ў D ੠ E ⱘ㽕∖Ǆ㾷‫އ‬䖭Ͼ䯂乬ህ䳔㽕೼ G Ꮉ԰ПࠡᦦܹϔϾ㰮Ꮉ԰˵ˈ
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བ೒ 11.2(c)᠔⼎Ǆ
೒ 11.1 Ꮉ⿟㔥㒰೒Ёⱘ㰮ᢳᎹ԰ ೒ 11.2 ঠҷো㔥㒰೒݇䬂䏃ᕘ㸼⼎⊩
ৠḋഄˈৃҹ㒬ࠊࣙᣀᓔྟϢ㒧ᴳ㡖⚍ⱘऩҷো㔥㒰೒ˈབ೒ 11.3 ᠔⼎Ǆ⊼ᛣ೼ऩҷ

ো㔥㒰೒Ёᑊϡ䳔㽕⏏ࡴ㰮Ꮉ԰ᴹ㸼⼎Ꮉ԰П䯈ⱘ䘏䕥݇㋏Ǆ
೒ 11.3 ऩҷো㔥㒰೒݇䬂䏃ᕘ㸼⼎⊩
‫ߏڑ‬াࡅࠩէ‫ܣޙ‬ԅ‫ޙ‬സ
ḍ᥂ࠡ䴶޴䚼ߚ᠔ᦤկⱘ㚠᱃ˈৃҹ⫼᭄ᄺ݀ᓣᦣ䗄݇䬂䏃ᕘ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦǄᇍϔϾ‫؛‬ᅮ
乍Ⳃⱘঠҷো㔥㒰೒ˈᑨ䆹ࠊᅮϔ༫݇䬂䏃ᕘ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦⱘ䖤ㅫ㾘߭៪䇈ᯢǄৠᯊˈ䖬‫؛‬ᅮ
᠔᳝ⱘᎹ԰乎ᑣ݇㋏䛑ᰃ㒧ᴳüᓔྟൟˈ᠔ҹা᳝ᔧࠡᇐᎹ԰㒧ᴳৢˈৢ㓁Ꮉ԰ᠡ㛑ᓔྟǄ
ϟ䴶ᇚᇍ‫݋‬᳝໮⾡ࠡᇐᎹ԰㉏ൟⱘऩҷো㔥㒰೒㸼⼎⊩гᦤߎϔ༫Ⳍᑨⱘ䖤ㅫ㾘߭Ǆ
ϟ䴶ҟ㒡ϔ༫㉏Ԑⱘ䩜ᇍ᳝໮⾡џӊ㘨㋏݇㋏ⱘঠҷো㔥㒰೒ⱘ䅵ㅫ㾘߭㋏㒳Ǆ
‫؛‬䆒乍Ⳃ㔥㒰೒Ё᳝ nˇˍϾ㡖⚍ˈ䍋ྟ㡖⚍Ўˌ㗠㒜ℶ㡖⚍Ў nǄҸ৘Ͼ㡖⚍ⱘᯊ䯈
ߚ߿Ў X1ˈX2ˈĂˈXnǄ乍Ⳃⱘᓔྟ㡖⚍Ў X0 ᅮНЎᯊ䯈ⱘ 0 ⚍ˈ㡖⚍ᯊ䯈ᖙ乏ϢᎹ԰ⱘ
ᣕ㓁ᯊ䯈Ⳍヺড়ˈᬙϔ乍Ꮉ԰ⱘ㒜ℶ㡖⚍ᯊ䯈ᖙ乏໻Ѣ݊䍋ྟᯊ䯈Ϣ䆹Ꮉ԰ᣕ㓁ᯊ䯈П੠Ǆ
ᇍѢϔϾᓔྟ㡖⚍Ў i 㗠㒜ℶ㡖⚍Ў j ⱘ⌏ࡼˈ䖭⾡݇㋏ৃҹ䗮䖛ϔϾϡㄝᓣ㑺ᴳᴵӊ㸼⼎
ߎᴹ˖Xj˚Xi+DijǄ䖭䞠ˈDij ЎᎹ԰(i,j)ⱘᣕ㓁ᯊ䯈Ǆ↣ϾᎹ԰䛑㛑໳‫ߎݭ‬ৠḋⱘ㸼䖒ᓣˈ
ᑊ೼ӏԩৃ㸠ⱘ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦЁ䛑ᖙ乏䙉ᅜ䖭⾡㑺ᴳǄ䙷МˈҢ᭄ᄺϞⳟˈ݇䬂䏃ᕘ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦ
㽕㾷‫ⱘއ‬䯂乬ህᰃ೼䙉ᅜ↣Ͼ㡖⚍џӊা᳝೼݊ࠡᇐᎹ԰ᅠ៤ৢᠡ㛑থ⫳ⱘ㑺ᴳᴵӊϟˈ
Փ乍Ⳃⱘᅠ៤ᯊ䯈 Xn ᳔ᇣǄ
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᳔ᇣ࣪ˈे
z =Xn (11-1)
㑺ᴳᴵӊЎ
X0=0
Xj Xi Dijı0 [ᇍӏԩᎹ԰(i,j)]
䖭ᰃϔϾ㒓ᗻ㾘ߦ䯂乬ˈ಴ЎⳂᷛؐ㽕∖᳔ᇣ࣪ˈ㗠↣Ͼ㑺ᴳᴵӊ䛑ᰃ㒓ᗻᮍ⿟Ǆ
䰸њ䖤⫼㒓ᗻ㾘ߦㅫ⊩(བऩ㒃ൟ⊩)㾷‫݇އ‬䬂䏃ᕘ䖯ᑺ໪ˈ䖬ৃҹ߽⫼㔥㒰㒧ᵘᡔᴃ
᳈᳝ᬜഄ㾷‫އ‬䆹䯂乬Ǆ䖭⾡㾷⊩ᇍѢ᠔䳔ⱘ䅵ㅫᕜ᳝ᬜˈ಴㗠ेՓᰃᕜ໻ൟⱘ㔥㒰гৃҹ
⫼ϾҎ䅵ㅫᴎ䖯㸠䖤ㅫˈৠᯊгᇍৃ㸠ⱘᎹ԰䖯ᑺ䅵ߦᦤկњϔѯ䴲ᐌ᳝⫼ⱘֵᙃǄ೼ֱ
䆕乍Ⳃ೼᳔ⷁⱘৃ㛑ᯊ䯈‫ݙ‬ᅠ៤ⱘᴵӊϟˈ䅵ㅫ↣乍Ꮉ԰ⱘ᳔ᮽᓔྟ੠᳔䖳ᓔྟᯊ䯈ˈ䖭
ᇍѢ䴲݇䬂䏃㒓ϞⱘᎹ԰ᇸЎ䞡㽕ˈ಴Ў䖭ѯᎹ԰ৃҹᣝ乍Ⳃㅵ⧚㗙ⱘ㽕∖䖯㸠ϔᅮⱘ᥼
䖳៪䱣ᯊ䇗ᭈˈैϡӮᕅડᭈϾ乍ⳂⱘᎹᳳǄ
㸼 11-1 㒭ߎњҹ㡖⚍Ўᷛ䆚∖݇䬂䏃ᕘ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦⱘ㾷乬䖛⿟Ǆ೼㸼 11-1 Ё᳝ 3 ⾡䖤ㅫ
⊩߭Ǆᣝ㡖⚍㓪ো⊩Ў乍Ⳃⱘ↣Ͼ㡖⚍(៪џӊ)䖯㸠㓪োˈҹֱ䆕↣乍Ꮉ԰ᓔྟ㡖⚍ⱘ㓪
োᘏᰃᇣѢ㒜ℶ㡖⚍ⱘ㓪োǄҢᡔᴃϞ䇈ˈ䖭Ͼ㾘߭ᅲ⦄њᇍᎹ԰ⱘĀᢧᠥᥦᑣā Ǆ乍Ⳃⱘ
䍋ྟ㡖⚍㓪োЎ 0Ǆা㽕乍ⳂⱘᎹ԰ヺড়ঠҷো㔥㒰೒ⱘᴵӊˈ䖭⾡㓪ো㋏㒳ህৃҹᅲᮑǄ
ϔѯ䩜ᇍ݇䬂䏃ᕘ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦⱘ䕃ӊ≵᳝䖭ḋⱘ⿟ᑣ㞾ࡼ㓪ো㾘߭ˈ䙷МᎹ⿟乍Ⳃⱘ䅵ߦҎ
ਬህᖙ乏䖯㸠ড়⧚ⱘ㓪োǄ
㸼 11-1 ݇䬂䏃ᕘ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦ䅵ㅫ㾘߭(ҹঠҷো㔥㒰೒Ў՟)
㡖⚍㓪ো㾘߭
㄀ϔℹ˖Ҹ䍋ྟ㡖⚍㓪োЎ 0
㄀Ѡℹ˖ᇚϟϔϾোⷕ䌟ќӏԩϔϾࠡϔ㡖⚍Ꮖ㓪ো㗠㞾䑿᳾㓪োⱘ㡖⚍Ǆ䞡໡㄀ѠℹⳈࠄ᠔᳝
ⱘ㡖⚍䛑ᅠ៤㓪ো
㡖⚍᳔ᮽᯊ䯈䅵ㅫ㾘߭
㄀ϔℹ˖Ҹ E(0) = 0.
㄀Ѡℹ˖ᇍ j = 1,2,3,Ă,n (n Ў᳔ৢϔϾ㡖⚍)ˈҸ
E(j) = max{ E(i) +Dij }ˈ
ेᇍ᠔᳝ҹ j Ў㒜ℶ㡖⚍ⱘᎹ԰䖯㸠䅵ㅫৢˈপ໻ؐ
㡖⚍᳔䖳ᯊ䯈䅵ㅫ㾘߭
㄀ϔℹ˖Ҹ L(n)ㄝѢ乍Ⳃ㽕∖ⱘᎹᳳ
⊼ᛣ˖L(n)ᖙ乏ㄝѢ៪໻Ѣ E(n)
㄀Ѡℹ˖ᇍ i = n1, n2, Ă, 0,Ҹ
L(i) = min {L(j) Dij }
ेᇍ᠔᳝ҹ i Ўᓔྟ㡖⚍ⱘᎹ԰䖯㸠䅵ㅫৢˈপ᳔ᇣؐ
㡖⚍᳔ᮽᯊ䯈䅵ㅫ㾘߭⫼Ѣ䅵ㅫ㔥㒰೒Ё↣Ͼ㡖⚍џӊথ⫳ⱘ᳔ᮽৃ㛑ᯊ䯈 E(i)Ǆ㡖
⚍᳔ᮽᯊ䯈ㄝѢⳈ᥹Ңࠡᇐџӊᓩߎⱘ᠔᳝Ꮉ԰ⱘ᳔ᮽᓔྟᯊ䯈Ϣ݊ᣕ㓁ᯊ䯈П੠ⱘ᳔໻
ؐǄ৘乍Ꮉ԰(iˈj)ⱘ᳔ᮽᓔྟᯊ䯈ㄝѢ݊䍋ྟ㡖⚍ⱘ᳔ᮽᯊ䯈 E(i)ˈे
ES(i,j)= E(i) (11-2)
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↣ϾᎹ԰(iˈj)ⱘ᳔ᮽ㒧ᴳᯊ䯈ৃҹᣝϟ䴶ⱘ݀ᓣ䅵ㅫ˖
EF(i,j)= E(i)+ Dij (11-3)
೼䖭ϔ䖤ㅫ㾘߭ЁˈᎹ԰ҹᓔྟ㡖⚍ i ੠㒜ℶ㡖⚍ j ⱘ㓪োᷛ䆚ˈᅗা㽕∖Ң乍Ⳃ䍋ྟ
㡖⚍(㡖⚍㓪োЎ 0)ᓔྟձ⃵䅵ㅫ㔥㒰೒ⱘ↣Ͼ㡖⚍ⱘᯊ䯈Ǆ
೼㒭ᅮᅠ៤乍Ⳃ㽕∖ⱘᎹᳳⱘᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈL(n)԰Ў㡖⚍ n ⱘ᳔䖳ᯊ䯈ˈ㡖⚍᳔䖳ᯊ䯈 L(j)
ᰃᣛ㔥㒰೒ЁⱘӏԩϔϾ㡖⚍ߎ⦄ⱘ᳔䖳ৃ㛑ᯊ䯈Ǆ䗮ᐌ㽕∖ᎹᳳㄝѢৃ㛑ⱘ᳔ᮽ㒧ᴳᯊ
䯈ˈ䖭ḋᇍ᳔ৢⱘ㡖⚍ n ᳝ E(n)˙L(n)Ǆ䅵ㅫ㡖⚍᳔䖳ᯊ䯈ⱘ⿟ᑣ䰸њ䳔㽕Ң᳔ৢϔϾ㡖
⚍ᓔྟ䍋ㅫ੠⊓ⴔ乍ⳂᎹ԰Ңৢ䴶৥ࠡ䗚৥䖯㸠П໪ˈ݊Ҫᮍ䴶Ϣ䅵ㅫ᳔ᮽ㡖⚍ᯊ䯈ⱘ⿟
ᑣⳌৠǄ಴ℸˈ㡖⚍᳔ᮽᯊ䯈䅵ㅫ㾘߭䗮ᐌ㹿⿄Ў㔥㒰೒ⱘ乎৥䖛⿟ˈ㗠㡖⚍᳔䖳ᯊ䯈䅵
ㅫ㾘߭߭㹿⿄Ў㔥㒰೒ⱘ䗚৥䖛⿟ǄᎹ԰᳔䖳㒧ᴳᯊ䯈Ϣᅠ៤䆹乍Ⳃⱘ㽕∖Ꮉᳳ L(n)Ⳍᇍ
ᑨˈᇍ↣乍Ꮉ԰(iˈj)㗠㿔ˈ᳔݊䖳㒧ᴳᯊ䯈ህㄝѢ݊㒜ℶ㡖⚍ⱘ᳔䖳ᯊ䯈Ǆ
LF(i,j)=L(j) (11-4)
↣乍Ꮉ԰(iˈj)ⱘ᳔䖳ᓔྟᯊ䯈ৃҹᣝϟ䴶݀ᓣ䅵ㅫ˖
LS(i,j)=L(j) Dij (11-5)
↣Ͼ㡖⚍ⱘ᳔ᮽᯊ䯈੠᳔䖳ᯊ䯈ᰃࠊᅮ乍Ⳃ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦ䖛⿟Ё䴲ᐌ᳝⫼ⱘֵᙃǄ䙷ѯ᳔
ᮽᯊ䯈੠᳔䖳ᯊ䯈Ⳍㄝⱘ㡖⚍ E( i )˙L ( j )໘Ѣ݇䬂䏃㒓ϞǄབᵰϔ乍Ꮉ԰(i,j )⒵䎇ܼ䚼ϟ
߫ᴵӊˈ䙷М䆹Ꮉ԰Ў݇䬂Ꮉ԰Ǆ
E(i)=L(i) (11-6)
E(j)=L(j) (11-7)
E(j)+ Dij = L(j) (11-8)
಴ℸˈা㽕Ꮉ԰ⱘ᳔ᮽᓔྟᯊ䯈ㄝѢ᳔݊䖳ᓔྟᯊ䯈 ES(i,j)=LS(i,j)ˈ೼݇䬂㡖⚍П䯈
ⱘᎹ԰г໘Ѣ݇䬂䏃㒓ϞǄЎ䰆ℶ乍ⳂᎹᳳᢪᓊˈ᠔᳝݇䬂䏃㒓ϞⱘᎹ԰䛑ᖙ乏ሑᮽᓔྟˈ
᠔ҹ↣乍݇䬂Ꮉ԰(i,j)䛑ᑨ䆹ᅝᥦ೼᳔ᮽৃ㛑ᓔྟᯊ䯈ˡ(i)ਃࡼǄ
՟ 11.2 ݇䬂䏃ᕘ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦⱘ䅵ㅫǄ
㗗㰥೒ 11.4 Ё㒭ߎⱘ㔥㒰೒ˈ݊乍Ⳃⱘ䍋ྟ⚍㓪োЎ 0ǄПৢˈଃϔⱘϔϾܼ݊䚼㋻
ࠡ㡖⚍䛑㹿㓪োњⱘ㡖⚍ᰃ A Ꮉ԰ⱘ㒜ℶ㡖⚍ˈ᠔ҹᇚᅗ㓪োЎ 1Ǆ䖭ПৢˈଃϔⱘϔϾ
ܼ݊䚼ࠡᇐ㡖⚍䛑㹿㓪োњⱘ㡖⚍ᰃ B ੠ C ϸ乍Ꮉ԰݅ৠⱘ㒜ℶ㡖⚍ˈ᠔ҹᇚᅗ㓪োЎ 2
োǄ݊Ҫ㡖⚍ⱘ㓪োгᣝৠḋⱘ㾘߭ᕫߎˈᑊᷛ䆚Ѣ೒Ϟˈ೼䖭ᓴㅔऩⱘ㔥㒰೒Ϟˈ㓪ো
䖛⿟ⱘ↣ϔϾ䰊↉䛑া㛑ᡒࠄଃϔⱘϔϾৃ䗝㡖⚍Ǆབᵰ᳝ϡℶϔϾৃ䗝㡖⚍䳔㽕㓪োˈ
䙷Мӏᛣ䗝ᢽાϔϾ䛑ৃҹǄВ՟ᴹ䇈ˈབᵰ೒ 11.4 乍ⳂЁⱘ C Ꮉ԰ϡᄬ೼ˈA Ꮉ԰៪ B
Ꮉ԰ⱘ㒜ℶ㡖⚍䛑ৃҹ㹿㓪Ў 1 োǄ
೒ 11.4 ⬅ 9 乍Ꮉ԰㒘៤ⱘ乍Ⳃ㔥㒰೒
ϔᮺ㡖⚍㓪ো⹂ᅮҹৢˈ䩜ᇍ᠟Ꮉ㒬ࠊ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦⱘϔ乍ᕜདⱘ䕙ࡽ᠟↉ህᰃ೼↣Ͼ㡖
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⚍ᮕ䖍⬏ϞϔϾߚ៤ϸϾḐᄤⱘᇣⶽᔶḚǄᎺ䖍Ḑᄤ䞠ৃҹ฿ܹ㡖⚍џӊথ⫳ⱘ᳔ᮽᯊ䯈ˈ
㗠ে䖍ⱘḐᄤ䞠ৃҹ฿ܹ೼ϡ᥼ᓊᭈϾ乍ⳂᎹᳳⱘᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈ
㡖⚍џӊথ⫳ⱘ᳔䖳ᯊ䯈Ǆ೒ 11.5
ᰃϔϾ‫݌‬ൟⱘⶽᔶḚǄ
೒ 11.5 ঠҷো㔥㒰೒݇䬂䏃ᕘ⊩᠟Ꮉ䅵ㅫ E(i)੠ L(i)೒՟
ḍ᥂೒ 11.4 ᠔⼎㔥㒰೒੠㸼 11-2 ᠔⼎Ꮉ԰ⱘᣕ㓁ᯊ䯈ˈᇚ㡖⚍᳔ᮽᯊ䯈䅵ㅫབϟ˖
㸼 11-2 ⬅ 9 乍Ꮉ԰㒘៤ⱘ乍Ⳃᅲ՟ЁⱘᎹ԰݇㋏ϢᎹ԰ᣕ㓁ᯊ䯈
Ꮉ ԰ ᦣ 䗄 ࠡ ᇐ Ꮉ ԰ ᣕ 㓁 ᯊ 䯈
A ⦄എ⏙⧚ … 4
B ⿏䍄ᷥ᳼ … 3
C എഄᑇᭈ A 8
D ߦߚऎඳവഄ A 7
E ᓔᣪ෎⸔ഄῑ B,C 9
F ⏋‫ޱ‬ೳᬃ῵Ϣ䩶ㄟ B,C 12
G ᅝᥦᥦ∈ㅵ㒓 D,E 2
H ᅝᥦ݊Ҫ䆒໛ D,E 5
I ⌛ㄥ⏋‫ޱ‬ೳ F,G 6
Step 1 E(0) = 0
Step 2
j=1 E(1) = Max{E(0) + D01} = Max{ 0 + 4 } = 4
j=2 E(2) = Max{E(0) + D02; E(1) + D12} = Max{0 + 3; 4 + 8} = 12
j=3 E(3) = Max{E(1) + D13; E(2) + D23} = Max{4 + 7; 12 + 9} = 21
j=4 E(4) = Max{E(2) + D24; E(3) + D34} = Max{12 + 12; 21 + 2} = 24
j=5 E(5) = Max{E(3) + D35; E(4) + D45} = Max{21 + 5; 24 + 6} = 30
᠔ҹˈ಴Ў E(5)=30ˈᅠ៤乍Ⳃ᠔䳔ⱘ᳔ⷁᯊ䯈Ў 30Ǆ೼䖭Ͼ՟ᄤ䞠ˈ↣Ͼ㡖⚍᳔໮
᳝ϸϾࠡᇐ㡖⚍Ǆ
㗠ᇍѢĀ䗚৥䖛⿟āˈ㡖⚍᳔䖳ᯊ䯈䅵ㅫབϟ˖
Step 1 L(5) = E(5) = 30
Step 2
j=4 L(4) = Min {L(5) D45} = Min {30 6} = 24
j=3 L(3) = Min {L(5) D35; L(4) D34} = Min {30 5; 24 2} = 22
j=2 L(2) = Min {L(4) D24; L(3) D23} = Min {24 12; 22 9} = 12
j=1 L(1) = Min {L(3) D13; L(2) D12} = Min {22 7; 12 8} = 4
j=0 L(0) = Min {L(2) D02; L(1) D01} = Min {12 3; 4 4} = 0
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೼䖭Ͼ՟ᄤЁˈE(0) = L(0), E(1) = L(1), E(2) = L(2), E(4) = L(4), E(5) = L(5)Ǆ᠔ҹˈ䰸
њ㡖⚍ 3ˈ᠔᳝ⱘ㡖⚍䛑೼݇䬂䏃㒓ϞǄ݇䬂䏃㒓ϞⱘᎹ԰ࣙᣀ A (0,1)ǃC (1,2)ǃF (2,4)
੠ I (4,5)ˈ㾕㸼 11-3Ǆ
㸼 11-3 ⬅ 9 ϾᎹ԰㒘៤ⱘ乍Ⳃⱘ݇䬂䏃㒓ϞⱘᎹ԰
ᣕ㓁ᯊ䯈 ᳔ᮽᓔྟᯊ䯈 ᳔䖳㒧ᴳᯊ䯈 ᳔䖳ᓔྟᯊ䯈

Ꮉ԰
Dij E(i)=ES(i,j) L(j)=LF(i,j) LS(i,j)
A (0,1) 4 0* 4* 0
B (0,2) 3 0 12 9
C (1,2) 8 4* 12* 4
D (1,3) 7 4 22 15
E (2,3) 9 12 22 13
F (2,4) 12 12* 24* 12
G (3,4) 2 21 24 22
H (3,5) 5 21 30 25
I (4,5) 6 24 30* 24
*೼݇䬂䏃ᕘϞⱘᎹ԰ˈ಴Ў E(i) + Dij = L(j)
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Unit 12 Schedule Control(1)
Project Control Process

The project control process involves regularly gathering data on project performance,
comparing actual performance to planned performance, and taking corrective actions if actual
performance is behind planned performance. This process must occur regularly throughout the
project.
Figure 12.1 illustrates the steps in the project control process. It starts with establishing a
baseline plan that shows how the project scope (tasks) will be accomplished on time (schedule)
and within budget (resources, costs). Once this baseline plan is agreed upon by the customer and
the contractor or project team, the project can start.
Figure 12.1 Project Control Process
A regular reporting period should be established for comparing actual progress with
planned progress. Reporting may be daily, weekly, bi-weekly, or monthly, depending on the
complexity or overall duration of the project. If a project is expected to have an overall duration
of a month, the reporting period might be as short as a day. On the other hand, if a project is
expected to run five years, the reporting period might be a month.
During each reporting period, two kinds of data or information need to be collected.
(1) Data on actual performance. This includes:
z the actual time that activities were started and/or finished.
z the actual costs expended and committed.
(2) Information on any changes to the project scope, schedule, and budget.
These changes could be initiated by the customer or the project team, or they could be the
result of an unanticipated occurrence such as a natural disaster, a labor strike, or the resignation
of a key project team member.
It should be noted that once changes are incorporated into the plan and agreed on by the
customer, a new baseline plan has to be established. The scope, schedule, and budget of the new
baseline plan may be different from those of the original baseline plan.
It is crucial that the data and information discussed above be collected in a timely manner
and used to calculate an updated project schedule and budget. For example, if project reporting is
done monthly, data and information should be obtained as late as possible in that monthly period
so that when an updated schedule and budget are calculated, they are based on the latest possible
information. In other words, a project manager should not gather data at the beginning of the
month and then wait until the end of the month to use it to calculate an updated schedule and
budget, because the data will be outdated and may cause incorrect decisions to be made about the
project status and corrective actions.
Once an updated schedule and budget have been calculated, they need to be compared to the
baseline schedule and budget and analyzed for variances to determine whether a project is ahead
of or behind schedule and under or over budget. If the project status is okay, no corrective actions
are needed; the status will be analyzed again for the next reporting period.
If it is determined that corrective actions are necessary, however, decisions must be made
regarding how to revise the schedule or the budget. These decisions often involve a trade-off of
time, cost, and scope. For example, reducing the duration of an activity may require either
increasing costs to pay for more resources or reducing the scope of the task (and possibly not
meeting the customer’s technical requirements). Similarly, reducing project costs may require
using materials of a lower quality than originally planned. Once a decision is made on which
corrective actions to take, they must be incorporated into the schedule and budget. It is then
necessary to calculate a revised schedule and budget to determine whether the planned corrective
measures result in an acceptable schedule and budget. If not, further revisions will be needed.
The project control process continues throughout the project. In general, the shorter the
reporting period, the better the chances of identifying problems early and taking effective
corrective actions. If a project gets too far out of control, it may be difficult to achieve the project
objective without sacrificing the scope, budget, schedule, or quality. There may be situations in
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Unit 12 Schedule Control(1) g123g
which it is wise to increase the frequency of reporting until the project is back on track. For
example, if a five-year project with monthly reporting is endangered by a slipping schedule or an
increasing budget overrun, it may be prudent to reduce the reporting period to one week in order
to monitor the project and the impact of corrective actions more closely.
The project control process is an important and necessary part of project management. Just
establishing a sound baseline plan is not sufficient, since even the best laid plans don’t always
work out. Project management is a proactive approach to controlling a project, to ensure that the
project objective is achieved even when things don’t go according to plan.
Effects of Actual Schedule Performance
Throughout a project, some activities will be completed on time, some will be finished
ahead of schedule, and others will be finished later than scheduled. Actual progressüwhether
faster or slower than plannedüwill have an effect on the schedule of the remaining, uncompleted
activities of the project. Specifically, the actual finish times (AF) of completed activities will
determine the earliest start and earliest finish times for the remaining activities in the network
diagram, as well as the total slack.
Part (a) of Figure 12.2 is an AIB network diagram for a simple project. It shows that the
earliest the project can finish is day 15 (the sum of the durations of the three activities, 7+5+3).
Since the required completion time is day 20, the project has a total slack of +5 days.
Suppose that activity 1, “Remove Old Wallpaper” is actually finished on day 10, rather than
on day 7 as planned, because it turns out to be more difficult than anticipated [See part (b) of
Figure 12.2]. This means that the earliest start and finish times for activities 2 and 3 will be 3
days later than on the original schedule. Because “Remove Old Wallpaper” is actually finished on
day 10, the ES for “Patch Walls” will be day 10 and its EF will be day 15. Following through
with the forward calculations, we find that “Put Up New Wallpaper” will have an ES of day 15
and an EF of day 18. Comparing this new EF of the last activity to the required completion time
of day 20, we find a difference of 2 days. The total slack got worseüit changed in a negative
direction, from +5 days to +2 days. This example illustrates how the actual finish times of
activities have a ripple effect, altering the remaining activities’ earliest start and finish times and
the total slack.
(a) (b)
Figure 12.2 Effect of Actual Finish Times
It’s helpful to indicate on the network diagram, in some manner, which activities have been
completed. One method is to shade or crosshatch the activity box, as was done in part (b) of
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Figure 12.2.
Incorporating Project Changes into The Schedule
Throughout a project, changes may occur that have an impact on the schedule. As was noted
earlier, these changes might be initiated by the customer or the project team, or they might be the
result of an unanticipated occurrence.
Here are some examples of changes initiated by the customer:
z A home buyer tells the builder that the family room should be larger and the bedroom
windows should be relocated.
z A customer tells the project team developing an information system that the system
must have the capability to produce a previously unmentioned set of reports and
graphics.
These types of changes represent revisions to the original project scope and will have an
impact on the schedule and cost. The degree of impact, however, may depend on when the
changes are requested. If they’re requested early in the project, they may have less impact on cost
and schedule than if they’re requested later in the project. For example, changing the size of the
family room and relocating the bedroom windows would be relatively easy if the house were still
being designed and the drawings being prepared. If the changes were requested after the framing
was put up and the windows were installed, however, the impact on costs and schedule would be
far greater.
When the customer requests a change, the contractor or project team should estimate the
impact on the project budget and schedule and then obtain customer approval before proceeding.
If the customer approves the proposed revisions to the project schedule and budget, any
additional tasks, revised duration estimates, and material and labor costs should be incorporated.
An example of a change initiated by a project team is the decision by a team planning a
town fair to eliminate all amusement rides for adults because of space limitations and insurance
costs. The project plan would then have to be revised to delete or modify all those activities
involving adult rides. Here is an example of a project manager-initiated change. A contractor,
charged with developing an automated invoicing system for a customer, suggests that, rather than
incorporate custom-designed software, the system use standard available software in order to
reduce costs and accelerate the schedule.
Some changes involve the addition of activities that were overlooked when the original plan
was developed. For example, the project team may have forgotten to include activities associated
with developing training materials and conducting training for a new information system. Or the
customer or contractor may have failed to include the installation of gutters and downspouts in
the work scope for the construction of a restaurant.
Other changes become necessary because of unanticipated occurrences, such as a
snowstorm that slows down construction of a building, the failure of a new product to pass
quality tests, or the untimely death or resignation of a key member of a project team. These
events will have an impact on the schedule and/or budget and will require that the project plan be
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modified.
Still other changes can result from adding more detail to the network diagram as the project
moves forward. No matter what level of detail is used in the initial network diagram, there will be
some activities that can be broken down further as the project progresses.
Any type of changeüwhether initiated by the customer, contractor, project manager, a team
member, or an unanticipated eventüwill require a modification to the plan in terms of scope,
budget, and/or schedule. When such changes are agreed upon, a new baseline plan is established
and used as the benchmark against which actual project performance will be compared.
With respect to the project schedule, changes can result in the addition or deletion of
activities, the resequencing of activities, the changing of activities’ duration estimates or a new
required completion time for the project.
Questions
1. What are involved in the project control process?

2. How to establish a regular project reporting period?
3. During each reporting period, which kinds of data or information to be collected?
4. On what condition must a new baseline be established?
5. If a project gets too far out of control, what’s the wise method to solve that problem?
6. What will determine the earliest start and earliest finish times for the remaining
activities in the network diagram, as well as the total slack?
7. What might initiate the changes that have an impact on the schedule?
8. The degree of impact may depend on when the changes are request, why?
9. When the customer request a change, who should estimate the impact on the project
budget and schedule and obtain custom approval before proceeding?
10. With respect to the project schedule, what result can changes bring?
project control process˖乍Ⳃ᥻ࠊ䖛⿟

project scope˖乍Ⳃ㣗ೈ
baseline plan˖෎‫ޚ‬䅵ߦ
project team˖乍Ⳃಶ䯳
reporting period˖᡹ਞᳳ
data on actual performance˖ᅲ䰙ᠻ㸠Ёⱘ᭄᥂
variances˖‫أ‬Ꮒ˗ϡϔ㟈
actual finish times˖ᅲ䰙ᅠ៤ᯊ䯈
total slack˖ᘏᯊᏂ
project changes˖乍Ⳃব᳈
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খ 㗗䆥 ᭛
㄀ 12 ऩ‫ܗ‬ 䖯ᑺ᥻ࠊ(1)
ົંࣅᄥ‫ڶ‬ё
乍Ⳃ᥻ࠊ䖛⿟ࣙᣀᅮᳳᬊ䲚乍Ⳃᅠ៤ᚙ‫ⱘމ‬᭄᥂ˈᑊᇚᅲ䰙ᅠ៤ᚙ‫މ‬᭄᥂Ϣ䅵ߦ䖯⿟
䖯㸠↨䕗ˈϔᮺ乍Ⳃᅲ䰙䖯⿟ᰮѢ䅵ߦ䖯⿟ˈ߭䞛প㑴ℷ᥾ᮑǄ䖭Ͼ䖛⿟೼ᭈϾ乍ⳂᎹᳳ
‫ݙ‬ᖙ乏ᅮᳳ䖯㸠Ǆ
೒ 12.1 䇈ᯢњ乍Ⳃ᥻ࠊ䖛⿟ⱘℹ偸Ǆ䖭Ͼ䖛⿟ҹࠊᅮϔϾ㸼ᯢ乍Ⳃ㣗ೈ(ӏࡵ)བԩ೼
乘ㅫ(䌘⑤ǃ៤ᴀ)‫ݙ‬ᣝᯊᅠ៤ⱘ෎‫ޚ‬䅵ߦᓔྟǄϔᮺᅶ᠋Ϣᡓࣙଚ៪㗙乍Ⳃಶ䯳ህ෎‫ޚ‬䅵
ߦ䖒៤ϔ㟈ˈ乍ⳂህৃҹᓔྟњǄ
೒ 12.1 乍Ⳃ᥻ࠊ䖛⿟
ᑨ䆹⹂ᅮϔϾ೎ᅮⱘ᡹
᡹ਞᳳ(reporting period)ˈᇚᅲ䰙䖯⿟Ϣ䅵ߦ䖯⿟䖯㸠↨䕗Ǆḍ᥂
乍Ⳃⱘ໡ᴖ⿟ᑺ੠ᅠᎹᳳ䰤ˈৃҹᇚ᡹ਞᳳᅮЎ᮹ǃ਼ǃঠ਼៪᳜Ǆབᵰ乍Ⳃ乘䅵೼ϔϾ
᳜‫ݙ‬ᅠ៤ˈ᡹ਞᳳᑨ䆹ⷁ㟇ϔ໽˗঺ϔᮍ䴶ˈབᵰ乍ⳂᳳЎ 5 ᑈˈ߭᡹ਞᳳৃ㛑ᰃϔϾ᳜Ǆ
೼↣Ͼ᡹ਞᳳ‫ˈݙ‬䳔㽕ᬊ䲚ϸ⾡᭄᥂៪ֵᙃǄ
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(1) ᅲ䰙ᠻ㸠Ёⱘ᭄᥂ˈᅗࣙᣀ˖
z ⌏ࡼᓔྟ੠/៪㒧ᴳⱘᅲ䰙ᯊ䯈Ǆ
z Փ⫼៪ᡩܹⱘᅲ䰙៤ᴀǄ
(2) ӏԩ᳝݇乍Ⳃ㣗ೈǃ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦ੠乘ㅫব᳈ⱘֵᙃǄ䖭ѯব᳈ৃ㛑ᰃ⬅ᅶ᠋៪乍Ⳃ
ಶ䯳ᓩ䍋ⱘˈ៪㗙ᰃ⬅ᶤ⾡ϡৃ乘㾕ⱘџᚙⱘথ⫳ᓩ䍋ⱘˈབ㞾✊♒ᆇǃᎹҎ㔶Ꮉ៪݇䬂
乍Ⳃಶ䯳៤ਬⱘ䕲㘠Ǆ
䳔㽕⊼ᛣⱘᰃˈϔᮺব᳈㹿ܹ߫䅵ߦᑊᕫࠄᅶ᠋ৠᛣˈህᖙ乏ᓎゟϔϾᮄⱘ෎‫ޚ‬䅵ߦǄ
䖭Ͼ䅵ߦⱘ㣗ೈǃ䖯ᑺ੠乘ㅫৃ㛑੠᳔߱ⱘ෎‫ޚ‬䅵ߦ᳝᠔ϡৠǄ
᳝ϔ⚍ᕜ䞡㽕ˈϞ䴶䅼䆎ⱘ᭄᥂៪ֵᙃᖙ乏ঞᯊᬊ䲚ˈҹ԰Ў᳈ᮄ乍Ⳃ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦ੠乘
ㅫⱘձ᥂Ǆ՟བˈབᵰ乍Ⳃ᡹ਞᳳᰃϔϾ᳜ˈ᭄᥂੠ֵᙃᑨሑৃ㛑೼䆹᳜ⱘ᳿ᳳᬊ䲚ˈ䖭
ḋᠡ㛑ֱ䆕೼᳈ᮄ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦ੠乘ㅫᯊ᠔ձ᥂ⱘֵᙃᰃ᳔ᮄⱘǄᤶহ䆱䇈ˈ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ϡᑨ೼
᳜߱ᬊ䲚ֵᙃˈ㗠ࠄ᳜᳿ᠡ߽⫼ᅗᴹ᳈ᮄ䖯ᑺ੠乘ㅫˈ಴Ў᳜߱ⱘ䖭ѯ᭄᥂Ꮖ䖛ᯊˈৃ㛑
Ӯᓩ䍋೼乍Ⳃ䖯ሩᚙ‫މ‬੠㑴ℷ᥾ᮑᮍ䴶ⱘ‫އ‬ㄪ༅䇃Ǆ
᳔ᮄⱘ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦ੠乘ㅫϔ㒣ᔶ៤ˈᖙ乏ᇚᅗӀϢ෎‫ޚ‬䖯ᑺ੠乘ㅫ䖯㸠↨䕗ˈߚᵤ৘⾡
‫أ‬Ꮒˈ⹂ᅮ乍Ⳃᇚᦤࠡ䖬ᰃᓊᳳᅠ៤ˈᰃԢѢ䖬ᰃ䍙䖛乘ㅫǄབᵰ乍Ⳃ䖯ሩ乎߽ˈህϡ䳔
㽕䞛প㑴ℷ᥾ᮑˈ㗠೼ϟϔϾ᡹ਞᳳ‫ݡ‬ᇍ䖯ሩᚙ‫މ‬䖯㸠ߚᵤǄ
✊㗠ˈབᵰ䅸Ў䳔㽕䞛প㑴ℷ᥾ᮑˈᖙ乏ህབԩׂ䅶䖯ᑺ䅵ߦ៪乘ㅫ‫އߎخ‬ᅮˈ䖭ѯ
‫އ‬ᅮ㒣ᐌ⍝ঞᯊ䯈ǃ៤ᴀ੠乍Ⳃ㣗ೈⱘᴗ㸵Ǆ՟བˈ㓽‫ⱘࡼ⌏ޣ‬Ꮉᳳৃ㛑䳔㽕๲ࡴ䌘⑤ˈ
Ң㗠๲໻៤ᴀ៪㓽ᇣӏࡵ㣗ೈ(ᑊϨৃ㛑䖒ϡࠄᅶ᠋ⱘᡔᴃ㽕∖)Ǆৠḋˈ䰡Ԣ乍Ⳃ៤ᴀৃ
㛑䳔㽕Փ⫼ԢѢ䅵ߦॳᅮ䋼䞣ⱘᴤ᭭Ǆϔᮺ‫އ‬ᅮ䞛পᶤ⾡㑴ℷ᥾ᮑˈህᖙ乏ᇚܹ݊߫䖯ᑺ
䅵ߦ੠乘ㅫˈ✊ৢ⌟ㅫߎϔϾᮄⱘ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦ੠乘ㅫˈҹ߸ᅮ䅵ߦ䞛পⱘ㑴ℷ᥾ᮑ೼䖯ᑺ੠
乘ㅫϞ㛑৺᥹ফ˗৺߭ˈ䖬䳔䖯ϔℹׂᬍǄ
乍Ⳃ᥻ࠊ䖛⿟䌃こѢᭈϾ乍ⳂǄϔ㠀䇈ᴹˈ᡹ਞᳳ䍞ⷁˈᦤᮽথ⦄䯂乬ᑊ䞛প᳝ᬜ㑴
ℷ᥾ᮑⱘᴎӮህ䍞໮ǄབᵰϔϾ乍Ⳃ䖰䖰‫⾏أ‬њ᥻ࠊˈህᕜ䲒೼ϡ⡎⡆乍Ⳃ㣗ೈǃ乘ㅫǃ
䖯ᑺ៪䋼䞣ⱘᚙ‫މ‬ϟᅲ⦄乍ⳂⳂᷛǄᯢᱎⱘ‫⊩خ‬ᰃ๲ࡴ᡹ਞᳳⱘ乥⥛ˈⳈࠄ乍Ⳃᣝ䖯ᑺ䖯
㸠Ǆ՟བˈབᵰϔϾ᡹ਞᳳЎϔϾ᳜ⱘ 5 ᑈᳳ乍Ⳃ‫⾏أ‬њ䖯ᑺ៪䍙ߎњ乘ㅫˈᯢᱎⱘ‫⊩خ‬
ᰃᇚ᡹ਞᳳ‫ޣ‬㟇ϔ਼ˈҹ֓᳈དഄⲥ᥻乍Ⳃ੠㑴ℷ᥾ᮑⱘᬜᵰǄ
乍Ⳃ᥻ࠊ䖛⿟ᰃ乍Ⳃㅵ⧚Ё䞡㽕㗠ᖙ໛ⱘ䚼ߚˈҙҙᓎゟϔϾܼ䴶ⱘ෎‫ޚ‬䅵ߦᰃϡ໳
ⱘˈ಴ЎेՓᰃ᳔ᅠ୘ⱘ䅵ߦгϡ㛑ֱ䆕ᘏᰃ䖯ሩ乎߽Ǆ乍Ⳃㅵ⧚ᰃ᥻ࠊ乍Ⳃⱘϔ⾡⿃ᵕ
Џࡼⱘᮍ⊩ˈेՓ೼乍Ⳃϡ㛑ᣝ䅵ߦ䖯ሩⱘᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈг㛑⹂ֱ乍ⳂⳂᷛⱘᅲ⦄Ǆ
ಬ‫ࠩޝ‬է෻юெࣣԅ࿵ູ
೼ᭈϾ乍Ⳃ䖯⿟Ёˈϔѯ⌏ࡼӮᣝᯊᅠ៤ˈϔѯ⌏ࡼӮᦤࠡᅠ៤ˈ㗠঺ϔѯ⌏ࡼ߭Ӯ
ᓊᳳᅠ៤Ǆᅲ䰙䖯ሩüü᮴䆎↨䅵ߦᖿ䖬ᰃ᜶üü䛑Ӯᇍ乍Ⳃԭϟ䚼ߚⱘ䖯ᑺѻ⫳ᕅડˈ
⡍߿ᰃᏆᅠ៤⌏ࡼⱘᅲ ᅲ䰙ᅠ៤ᯊ䯈(actual finish timesˈAF)ˈϡҙ‫އ‬ᅮⴔ㔥㒰೒Ё݊Ҫ᳾ᅠ
៤⌏ࡼⱘ᳔ᮽᓔྟϢ㒧ᴳᯊ䯈ˈ㗠Ϩ‫އ‬ᅮⴔᘏᯊᏂǄ
೒ 12.2(a)ᰃϔϾㅔऩⱘ AIB 㔥㒰೒ˈᅗ㸼ᯢ乍Ⳃⱘ᳔ᮽ㒧ᴳᯊ䯈ᰃ㄀ 15 ໽˄ेϝ乍
⌏ࡼⱘᎹᳳП੠ˈ7+5+3˅Ǆ಴Ў㽕∖乍ⳂⱘᅠᎹᯊ䯈ᰃ㄀ 20 ໽ˈ᠔ҹ乍Ⳃ᳝݅ 5 ໽ⱘᘏ
ᯊᏂǄ
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‫؛‬䆒⌏ࡼ 1ˈ
Ā䰸এᮻ๭㒌āˈ⬅Ѣ↨乘䅵ⱘ䲒‫⫼ˈخ‬њ 10 ໽ᠡᅠ៤ˈ㗠ϡᰃ乘䅵ⱘ 7
໽(খⳟ೒ 12.2(b))Ǆ䖭ᛣੇⴔ⌏ࡼ 2 ੠ 3 ⱘ᳔ᮽᓔྟϢ㒧ᴳᯊ䯈↨䅵ߦᰮ 3 ໽Ǆ⬅ѢĀ䰸
এᮻ๭㒌āᅲ䰙Ϟ㢅䌍њ 10 ໽ˈ
Āׂ㸹๭㒌āⱘ᳔ᮽᓔྟᯊ䯈ᇚЎ㄀ 10 ໽ˈ᳔ᮽ㒧ᴳᯊ䯈
ᇚЎ㄀ 15 ໽Ǆҹℸ㉏᥼ˈ
Ā㉬䌈ᮄ๭㒌āⱘ᳔ᮽᓔྟᯊ䯈ᇚЎ㄀ 15 ໽ˈ᳔ᮽ㒧ᴳᯊ䯈ᇚЎ
㄀ 18 ໽Ǆᇚ᳔ৢϔ乍⌏ࡼᮄⱘ᳔ᮽ㒧ᴳᯊ䯈Ϣ乍Ⳃ㽕∖ⱘᅠᎹᯊ䯈Ⳍ↨䕗ৃҹথ⦄ˈ᳝ 2
໽ⱘᯊᏂˈᘏᯊᏂবᇣüü৥ⴔ䋳ᮍ৥䕀বˈҢ+5 ໽‫ޣ‬㟇+2 ໽Ǆ䖭Ͼ՟ᄤ㸼ᯢˈ⌏ࡼⱘᅲ
䰙ᅠ៤ᯊ䯈‫݋‬᳝⊶ᔶডᑨˈᇚӮᬍব᳾ᅠ៤⌏ࡼⱘ᳔ᮽᓔྟ੠㒧ᴳᯊ䯈ঞᘏᯊᏂǄ
ҹᶤ⾡ᮍᓣ೼㔥㒰೒ϞᷛᯢᏆᅠ៤ⱘ⌏ࡼӮᕜ᳝ᐂࡽǄϔ⾡ᮍ⊩ህᰃབ೒ 12.2(b)䙷ḋˈ
೼⌏ࡼഫϞࡴ䰈ᕅ៪㗙⬏ĀhāǄ
೒ 12.2 ᅲ䰙ᅠ៤ᯊ䯈ⱘᕅડ
ߜົંέٗઌదࠩէ
೼ᭈϾ乍Ⳃ䖯⿟Ёˈৃ㛑থ⫳ⱘব᳈Ӯᇍ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦѻ⫳ᕅડǄབࠡ᠔䗄ˈ䖭ѯব᳈ৃ
㛑ᰃ⬅ᅶ᠋៪乍Ⳃಶ䯳থ䍋ⱘˈ៪㗙ᰃ⬅ϡৃ乘㾕ⱘџᚙⱘথ⫳ᓩ䍋ⱘǄ
ϟ䴶ᰃϔѯ⬅ᅶ᠋ᓩ䍋ব᳈ⱘ՟ᄤ˖
z 䌁᠓㗙৥ᓎㄥଚᓎ䆂ˈ᠓䯈ᑨ䆹᳈໻ѯˈऻᅸに᠋ⱘԡ㕂ᑨ䞡ᮄ䆒㕂Ǆ
z ᅶ᠋㽕∖ֵᙃ㋏㒳ᓔথ乍Ⳃಶ䯳๲ࡴֵᙃ㋏㒳ⱘࡳ㛑ˈҹ⫳៤ҹࠡ᳾ᦤࠄ䖛ⱘ᡹
ਞ੠೒㸼Ǆ
䖭㉏ব᳈ᛣੇⴔᇍ᳔߱乍Ⳃ㣗ೈⱘׂᬍᇚӮᇍ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦǃ៤ᴀѻ⫳ᕅડǄ✊㗠ˈᕅડ
⿟ᑺैপ‫އ‬Ѣ‫ߎخ‬ব᳈ⱘᯊ䯈Ǆথ⫳೼乍Ⳃᮽᳳⱘব᳈ᇍ䖯ᑺǃ៤ᴀⱘᕅડ㽕↨থ⫳೼ᰮ
ᳳⱘব᳈ᇣǄ՟བˈ೼᠓ᄤⱘ䆒䅵೒㒌ᇮ᳾ᅠ៤ᯊˈᬍব᠓ᄤⱘ໻ᇣ੠に᠋ⱘԡ㕂Ⳍᇍᴹ
䇈㽕ᆍᯧѯǄ✊㗠ˈབᵰ᠓ᄤⱘḚᶊᏆ㒣ᨁ䍋ˈに᠋Ꮖᅝ㺙དˈ䖭⾡ব᳈ᇍ䖯ᑺǃ៤ᴀⱘ
ᕅડᇚӮ໻ᕫ໮Ǆ
ᔧᅶ᠋ᦤߎব᳈㽕∖ᯊˈᡓࣙଚ៪乍Ⳃಶ䯳ᑨ䆹Ԅ䅵ব᳈ᇍ乍Ⳃ乘ㅫ੠䖯ᑺⱘᕅડǄ
✊ৢˈ೼ᅲᮑПࠡᕕᕫᅶ᠋ⱘৠᛣǄᅶ᠋ৠᛣњᇍ乍Ⳃ䖯ᑺ੠乘ㅫⱘׂᬍᓎ䆂ৢˈӏԩᮄ
๲ⱘӏࡵǃׂᬍৢⱘᎹᳳԄ䅵ǃॳᴤ᭭੠ࢇࡼ࡯៤ᴀഛᑨܹ߫䅵ߦǄ
ϟ䴶ᰃϔϾ⬅乍Ⳃಶ䯳ᓩথব᳈ⱘ՟ᄤǄ೼䆒䅵ϔϾජ䬛ሩ䫔Ӯᯊˈ⬅Ѣぎ䯈ⱘ䰤ࠊ
g128g
੠ֱ䰽䌍⫼ⱘॳ಴ˈ乍Ⳃಶ䯳‫އ‬ᅮপ⍜կ៤ᑈҎစФⱘ健偀䆒ᮑǄ಴ℸˈ乍Ⳃ䅵ߦᖙ乏ᬍ
বˈҹএ䰸៪ׂᬍ䙷ѯ⍝ঞկ៤ᑈҎ健偀䆒ᮑⱘ⌏ࡼǄ䖭䞠䖬᳝ϔϾ⬅乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ᓩথব᳈
ⱘ՟ᄤǄϔԡ䋳䋷Ўᅶ᠋ᓔথ㞾ࡼথ⼼㋏㒳ⱘᡓࣙଚᦤߎˈЎњ‫ޣ‬ᇥ៤ᴀˈࡴᖿ䖯ᑺˈ㞾
ࡼথ⼼㋏㒳ᑨ䆹Փ⫼⦄៤ⱘᷛ‫࣪ޚ‬䕃ӊˈ㗠ϡᰃ‫ݡ‬Ўᅶ᠋ϧ䮼䆒䅵䕃ӊǄ
ϔѯব᳈ᰃ⬅᳔߱ࠊ䅶䅵ߦᯊᗑ⬹њϔѯ⌏ࡼ㗠ᓩ䍋ⱘǄ՟བˈ乍Ⳃಶ䯳ৃ㛑ᖬ䆄ᇚ
Āᓔথ෍䆁ᬭᴤā੠ĀЎᮄ㋏㒳䖯㸠෍䆁āܹ߫䅵ߦˈ៪㗙೼ᓎ䗴佁ᑫᯊˈᅶ᠋៪ᡓࣙଚ
ᖬ䆄ᇚᅝ㺙⌕∈ῑ੠ϟ∈䘧ܹ߫Ꮉ԰㣗ೈ‫ݙ‬њǄ
ϡৃ乘㾕џӊⱘথ⫳Փϔѯব᳈䲒ҹ䙓‫ܡ‬Ǆ↨བ䇈ˈᲈ亢䲾ᓊ㓧њᓎㄥᮑᎹ䖛⿟ˈᮄ
ѻક᳾㛑䗮䖛䋼䞣Ẕ偠ˈ乍Ⳃಶ䯳ⱘ݇䬂៤ਬさ✊⅏ѵ៪䕲㘠Ǆ䖭ѯџӊᇍ乍Ⳃ䖯ᑺ੠/៪
乘ㅫ䛑᳝ᕅડˈ䳔㽕ᇍ乍Ⳃ䅵ߦ䖯㸠ׂᬍǄ
✊㗠ˈ䱣ⴔ乍Ⳃⱘ䖯ሩˈ㔥㒰೒Ϟ᳈໮㒚㡖ⱘ๲ࡴгৃ㛑ᓩ䍋ব᳈Ǆ᮴䆎᳔߱ⱘ㔥㒰
೒䆺㒚ࠄԩ⾡⿟ᑺˈ೼乍Ⳃ䖯ሩ䖛⿟ЁϔᅮгӮߚ㾷ߎϔѯᮄⱘ⌏ࡼǄ
ব᳈᮴䆎ᰃ⬅ᅶ᠋ǃᡓࣙଚǃ乍Ⳃ㒣⧚ǃ乍Ⳃಶ䯳៤ਬ䖬ᰃ⬅ϡৃ乘㾕џӊⱘথ⫳ᓩ
䍋ⱘˈ䛑㽕∖ᇍ䅵ߦҢ㣗ೈǃ乘ㅫ੠/៪䖯ᑺⱘ㾦ᑺ䖯㸠ׂᬍǄϔᮺ䖭ѯব᳈ᕫࠄ৘ᮍৠᛣˈ
ህ㽕⫳៤ϔϾᮄⱘ෎‫ޚ‬䅵ߦˈ԰Ў㸵䞣乍Ⳃ䖯ሩᚙ‫↨ⱘމ‬䕗෎‫ޚ‬Ǆ
ᇍѢ乍Ⳃ䖯ᑺˈব᳈ৃ㛑Ӯᓩ䍋⌏ࡼⱘ๲ࡴ៪ߴ䰸ǃ⌏ࡼⱘ䞡ᮄᥦᑣǃ⌏ࡼᎹᳳԄ䅵
ⱘব᳈៪㗙乍Ⳃ㽕∖ᅠᎹᯊ䯈ⱘ᳈ᮄǄ
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Unit 13 Schedule Control(2)
Updating the Project Schedule
Network-based planning and scheduling allows project schedules to be dynamic. Because

the network plan (diagram) and schedule (tabulation) are separate, they are much easier to update
manually than a traditional Gantt chart. However, various project management software packages
are available to assist with the automated generation of schedules, network diagrams, budgets,
and even network-to-Gantt-chart conversions.
Once data have been collected on the actual finish times of completed activities and the
effects of any project changes, an updated project schedule can be calculated. These calculations
are based on the methodology explained in Unit 10:
z The earliest start and finish times for the remaining, uncompleted activities are
calculated by working forward through the network, but they’re based on the actual
finish times of completed activities and the estimated durations of the uncompleted
activities.
z The latest start and finish times for the uncompleted activities are calculated by
working backward through the network.
Approaches to Schedule Control
Schedule control involves four steps:
(1) Analyzing the schedule to determine which areas may need corrective action.
(2) Deciding what specific corrective actions should be taken.
(3) Revising the plan to incorporate the chosen corrective actions.
(4) Recalculating the schedule to evaluate the effects of the planned corrective actions.
If the planned corrective actions do not result in an acceptable schedule, these steps need to
be repeated.
Throughout a project, each time a schedule is recalculated—whether it’s after actual data or
project changes are incorporated or after corrective actions are planned—it is necessary to
analyze the newly calculated schedule to determine whether it needs further attention. The
schedule analysis should include identifying the critical path and any paths of activities that have
a negative slack, as well as those paths where slippages have occurred (the slack got worse)
compared with the previously calculated schedule.
A concentrated effort to accelerate project progress must be applied to the paths with
negative slack. The amount of slack should determine the priority with which these concentrated
efforts are applied. For example, the path with the most negative slack should be given top
priority.
Corrective actions that will eliminate the negative slack from the project schedule must be
identified. These corrective actions must reduce the duration estimates for activities on the
negative-slack paths. Remember, the slack for a path of activities is shared among all the
activities on that path. Therefore, a change in the estimated duration of any activity on that path
will cause a corresponding change in the slack for that path.
When analyzing a path of activities that has negative slack, you should focus on two kinds
of activities:
(1) Activities that are near term (that is, in progress or to be started in the immediate future).
It’s much wiser to take aggressive corrective action to reduce the durations of activities that will
be done in the near term than to plan to reduce the durations of activities that are scheduled
sometime in the future. If you postpone until the distant future taking corrective action that will
reduce the durations of activities, you may find that the negative slack has deteriorated even
further by that time. As the project progresses, there is always less time remaining in which
corrective action can be taken.
Looking at Table 13-1, we can see that it would be better to try to reduce the durations of the
near-term activities on the critical path, such as “Review Comments & Finalize Questionnaire” or
“Print Questionnaire” than to put off corrective action until the last activity, “Prepare Report”.
Table 13-1 Updated Schedule for Consumer Market Study Project
Dur. Earliest Latest Total Actual

Activity Respon.
Estim Start Finish Start Finish Slack Finish
1 Identify Target Consumers Susan 2
Develop Draft
2 Susan 11
Questionnaire
3 Pilot-Test Questionnaire Susan 30
Review Comments &
4 Susan 15 30 45 25 40 5
Finalize Questionnaire
5 Prepare Mailing Labels Steve 2 45 47 48 50 3
6 Print Questionnaire Steve 10 45 55 40 50 5
Develop Data Analysis
7 Andy 12 45 57 88 100 43
Software
Develop Software Test
8 Susan 2 45 47 98 100 53
Data
Mail Questionnaire & get
9 Steve 55 55 110 50 105 5
Responses
10 Test Software Andy 5 57 62 100 105 43
11 Input Response data Jim 7 110 117 105 112 5
12 Analyze Results Jim 8 117 125 112 120 5
13 Prepare Report Jim 10 125 135 120 130 5
Order New Database for
14 Steve 21 23 44 27 48 4
Labels
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(2) Activities that have long duration estimates. Taking corrective measures that will reduce
a 20-day activity by 20 percentüthat is, by 4 daysühas a larger impact than totally eliminating a
1-day activity. Usually, longer-duration activities present the opportunity for larger reductions.
Look again at Table 13-1: There may be more opportunity to reduce the 55-day duration
estimate for “Mail Questionnaire & Get Responses” by 5 days (9 percent) than to reduce the
shorter duration estimates of other activities on the critical path.
There are various approaches to reducing the duration estimates of activities. One obvious
way is to apply more resources to speed up an activity. This could be done by assigning more
people to work on the activity or asking the people working on the activity to work more hours
per day or more days per week. Additional appropriate resources might be transferred from
concurrent activities that have positive slack. Sometimes, however, adding people to an activity
may in fact result in the activity’s taking longer, because the people already assigned to the
activity are diverted from their work in order to help the new people get up to speed. Another
approach is to assign a person with greater expertise or more experience to perform or help with
the activity, so as to get it done in a shorter time than was possible with the less experienced
people originally assigned to it.
Reducing the scope or requirements for an activity is another way to reduce its duration
estimate. For example, it might be acceptable to put only one coat of paint on a room rather than
two coats, as originally planned. In an extreme case, it may be decided to totally eliminate some
activities, deleting them and their durations from the schedule.
Increasing productivity through improved methods or technology is yet another approach to
reducing activities’ durations. For example, instead of having people keyboard data from a
customer survey into a computer database, optical scanning equipment might be used.
Once specific corrective actions to reduce the negative slack have been decided on, the
duration estimates for the appropriate activities must be revised in the network plan. Then a
revised schedule needs to be calculated to evaluate whether the planned corrective actions reduce
the negative slack as anticipated.
In most cases, eliminating negative slack by reducing durations of activities will involve a
trade-off in the form of an increase in costs or a reduction in scope. For a more thorough
discussion of this topic, see the appendix on time-cost trade-off at the end of this chapter. If the
project is way behind schedule (has substantial negative slack), a substantial increase in costs
and/or reduction in work scope or quality may be required to get it back on schedule. This could
jeopardize elements of the overall project objective: scope, budget, schedule, and/or quality. In
some cases, the customer and contractor or project team may have to acknowledge that one or
more of these elements cannot be achieved. Thus, for example, the customer may have to extend
the required completion time for the entire project, or there may be a dispute over who should
absorb any increased cost to accelerate the scheduleüthe contractor or the customer.
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Some contracts include a bonus provision, whereby the customer will pay the contractor a
bonus if the project is completed ahead of schedule. Conversely, some contracts include a penalty
provision, whereby the customer can reduce the final payment to the contractor if the project is
not completed on time. Some of these penalties can be substantial. In either of these situations,
effective schedule control is crucial.
The key to effective schedule control is to aggressively address any paths with negative or
deteriorating slack values as soon as they are identified, rather than hoping that things will
improve as the project goes on. Addressing schedule problems early will minimize the negative
impact on cost and scope. If a project gets too far behind, getting back on schedule becomes more
difficult, and it doesn’t come free. It requires spending more money or reducing the scope or
quality.
On projects that don’t have negative slack, it’s important not to let the slack deteriorate by
accepting delays and slippages. If a project is ahead of schedule, a concentrated effort should be
made to keep it ahead of schedule.
Schedule Control for Information Systems Development
Controlling the schedule for the development of an information system is a challenge.

Numerous unexpected circumstances arise that can push an IS development project beyond its
originally scheduled due date. However, just as with any other type of project, the key to
effective project control is to measure actual progress and compare it to planned progress on a
timely and regular basis and to take necessary corrective action immediately.
Like other forms of schedule control, schedule control for IS development projects is carried
out according to the steps discussed earlier in this chapter. A project control process such as the
one illustrated in Figure 12.1 should be used for comparing actual performance with the schedule.
Once the customer and the project team agree on changes, these changes should be recorded and
the schedule should be revised.
Among the changes that commonly become necessary during IS development projects are
the following:
z Changes to input screensüsuch as added fields, different icons, different colors,
different menu structures, or completely new input screens.
z Changes to reportsüsuch as added fields, different subtotals and totals, different sorts,
different selection criteria, different order of fields, or completely new reports.
z Changes to on-line queriesüsuch as different ad hoc capabilities, access to different
fields or databases, different query structures, or additional queries.
z Changes to database structuresüsuch as additional fields, different data field names,
different data storage sizes, different relationships among the data, or completely new
databases.
g133g
z Changes to software processing routinesüsuch as different algorithms, different

interfaces with other subroutines, different internal logic, or new procedures.
z Changes to processing speedsüsuch as higher throughput rates or response times.
z Changes to storage capacitiesüsuch as an increase in the maximum number of data
records.
z Changes to business processesüsuch as changes in work or data flow, addition of new
clients that must have access, or completely new processes that must be supported.
z Changes to software resulting from hardware upgrades or, conversely, hardware
upgrades resulting from the availability of more powerful software.
Questions
1. How to calculate an updated project schedule once data have been collected on the
actual finish time of completed activities and the effects of any project changes?
2. Schedule control involves four steps, what are they?
3. What paths must be applied a concentrated effort to accelerate project progress?
4. When analyzing a path of activities that have negative slack, which kinds of activities
should be focused on?
5. What is the obvious way to reducing the duration estimates of activities?
6. What are the other ways to reducing the duration estimates of activities?
7. What is the key to effective schedule control?
8. On projects that don’t have negative slack, what’s important to do?
9. What can push an information system project beyond its originally scheduled?
10. What are the changes that commonly become necessary during information system
development project?
network-based planning˖෎Ѣ㔥㒰ⱘ䅵ߦ
Gantt chart˖⫬⡍೒
software packages˖䕃ӊࣙ
completed activities˖Ꮖᅠ៤⌏ࡼ
database˖᭄᥂ᑧ
supplier˖կᑨଚ
preliminary review˖߱ℹ䆘ᅵ
schedule control˖䖯ᑺ᥻ࠊ
corrective action˖㑴ℷ᥾ᮑ
negative slack˖䋳ᯊᏂ
g134g
positive slack˖ℷᯊᏂ
top priority˖᳔催Ӭ‫ܜ‬㑻
productivity˖⫳ѻ⥛
a bonus provision˖༪ࢅᴵℒ
a penalty provision˖ᚽ㔮ᴵℒ
information system˖ֵᙃ㋏㒳
খ 㗗䆥 ᭛
㄀ 13 ऩ‫ܗ‬ 䖯ᑺ᥻ࠊ(2)
ٗ໭ົંࠩէ
෎Ѣ㔥㒰ⱘ䅵ߦ੠䖯ᑺᅝᥦ‫ܕ‬䆌ᇍ乍Ⳃ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦ䖯㸠ࡼᗕব᳈Ǆ⬅Ѣ㔥㒰ᓣ䅵ߦ(೒㾷)
੠䖯ᑺ䅵ߦ(㸼)ᰃⳌѦ⣀ゟⱘˈᇍᅗӀ䖯㸠ҎᎹ᳈ᮄ↨⫬⡍೒᳈ᆍᯧϔѯǄ✊㗠ˈৃҹՓ
⫼৘ᓣ৘ḋⱘ䕃ӊࣙᴹ㞾ࡼ᳈ᮄ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦǃ㔥㒰೒ǃ乘ㅫҹঞ㔥㒰üü⫬⡍೒䕀ᤶǄ
ϔᮺᬊ䲚ࠄᏆᅠ៤⌏ࡼⱘᅲ䰙㒧ᴳᯊ䯈੠乍Ⳃব᳈᠔ᏺᴹᕅડⱘ᭄᳝݇᥂ˈህৃҹ䅵
ㅫߎ᳔ᮄⱘ乍Ⳃ䖯ᑺǄ䖭ѯ䅵ㅫҹ㄀ 10 ऩ‫ⱘߎᦤܗ‬ᮍ⊩Ўձ᥂˖
z ᳾ᅠ៤⌏ࡼⱘ᳔ᮽᓔྟ੠㒧ᴳᯊ䯈ৃҹ⊓㔥㒰೒ℷ৥᥼ㅫᕫߎˈԚᅗӀᰃҹᏆᅠ
៤⌏ࡼⱘᅲ䰙ᅠ៤ᯊ䯈੠᳾ᅠ៤⌏ࡼⱘᎹᳳԄ䅵Ў෎⸔ⱘǄ
z ᳾ᅠ៤⌏ࡼⱘ᳔䖳ᓔྟ੠㒧ᴳᯊ䯈ৃҹ⊓㔥㒰೒ড৥᥼ㅫᕫߎǄ
ࠩէࣅᄥֺ֥
䖯ᑺ᥻ࠊࣙᣀҹϟ 4 Ͼℹ偸˖
(1) ߚᵤ䖯ᑺˈᡒߎાѯഄᮍ䳔㽕䞛প㑴ℷ᥾ᮑǄ
(2) ⹂ᅮᑨ䞛পા⾡‫݋‬ԧⱘ㑴ℷ᥾ᮑǄ
(3) ׂᬍ䅵ߦˈᇚ㑴ℷ᥾ᮑܹ߫䅵ߦǄ
(4) 䞡ᮄ䅵ㅫ䖯ᑺˈԄ䅵䅵ߦ䞛পⱘ㑴ℷ᥾ᮑⱘᬜᵰǄ
བᵰ䅵ߦ䞛পⱘ㑴ℷ᥾ᮑҡ᮴⊩㦋ᕫ⒵ᛣⱘ䖯ᑺᅝᥦˈ߭ᖙ乏䞡໡ҹϞℹ偸Ǆ
೼ᭈϾ乍Ⳃᅲᮑ䖛⿟Ёˈ↣⃵䞡ᮄ䅵ㅫ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦüü᮴䆎ᰃ೼ᅲ䰙᭄᥂៪乍Ⳃব᳈㹿
ܹ߫䖯ᑺ䅵ߦПৢˈ䖬ᰃ㑴ℷ᥾ᮑ㹿ܹ߫䅵ߦПৢüü䛑᳝ᖙ㽕ߚᵤ䖭ϔᮄⱘ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦˈ
ҹ‫އ‬ᅮᰃ৺䳔㽕䖯㸠䖯ϔℹⱘ݇⊼Ǆ䖯ᑺߚᵤᑨ䆹ࣙᣀ䆚߿݇䬂䏃ᕘ੠ӏԩ᳝䋳ᯊᏂⱘ⌏
ࡼ䏃ᕘˈҹঞ䙷ѯϢ‫ⱘࠡܜ‬䖯ᑺ䅵ߦⳌ↨Ꮖ‫⾏أ‬乘ᅮ䖯ᑺⱘ䏃ᕘ(ᯊᏂবണⱘ䏃ᕘ)Ǆ
ࡴᖿ乍Ⳃ䖯ᑺⱘ䞡⚍ᑨᬒ೼᳝䋳ᯊᏂⱘ䏃ᕘϞˈᯊᏂⱘ᭄ؐ‫އ‬ᅮњࡾ࡯ⱘӬ‫ܜ‬㑻Ǆ՟
བˈ䋳ᯊᏂ᳔໻ⱘ䏃ᕘӬ‫ܜ‬㑻᳔催Ǆ
៥Ӏᖙ乏ᡒߎ㛑໳⍜䰸䋳ᯊᏂⱘ㑴ℷ᥾ᮑˈ䖭ѯ㑴ℷ᥾ᮑᖙ乏‫ޣ‬ᇥ᳝䋳ᯊᏂ䏃ᕘϞⱘ
⌏ࡼⱘᎹᳳԄ䅵Ǆߛ䆄ˈ⌏ࡼ䏃ᕘᯊᏂᰃ⬅䏃ᕘϞⱘܼ䚼⌏ࡼ݅ѿⱘˈ಴ℸˈ䏃ᕘϞӏԩ
⌏ࡼ乘䅵Ꮉᳳⱘব᳈䛑Ӯᓩ䍋䆹䏃ᕘϞᯊᏂⱘⳌᑨব᳈Ǆ
ᔧߚᵤ᳝䋳ᯊᏂⱘ⌏ࡼ䏃ᕘᯊˈᑨᇚ㊒࡯䲚Ё೼ҹϟϸ⾡⌏ࡼϞ˖
(1) 䖥ᳳ‫े(ࡼ⌏ⱘݙ‬ℷ೼䖯㸠៪䱣ৢेᇚᓔྟⱘ⌏ࡼ)Ǆ‫ޣ‬ᇥ⌏ࡼᎹᳳⱘϔ⾡ᯢᱎ‫⊩خ‬
g135g
ᰃˈᇍेᇚࠄᴹᳳ䯈‫ࡼ⌏ⱘݙ‬䞛প⿃ᵕⱘ㑴ℷ᥾ᮑˈ㗠ϡᰃᠧㅫᇍᇚᴹᳳ䯈‫ࡼ⌏ⱘݙ‬䞛প
㑴ℷ᥾ᮑǄབᵰᡞ‫ޣ‬ᇥ⌏ࡼᎹᳳⱘ㑴ℷ᥾ᮑ᥼䖳ࠄ䘹䖰ⱘᇚᴹˈӮথ⦄䋳ᯊᏂ⫮㟇↨থ⦄
ᯊ᳈㊳㊩Ǆ䱣ⴔ乍Ⳃⱘ䖯ሩˈৃҹ⫼ᴹ䞛প㑴ℷ᥾ᮑⱘᯊ䯈ᘏᰃ䍞ᴹ䍞ᇥǄ
ⷨお㸼 13-1 ৃҹথ⦄ˈ‫ޣ‬ᇥ݇䬂䏃ᕘϞ䖥ᳳ⌏ࡼĀ䆘ᅵᓎ䆂ᑊ⹂ᅮ᳔㒜䇗ᶹ㸼ā៪Āᠧ
ॄ䯂ो䇗ᶹ㸼āⱘᎹᳳˈ↨ᇚ㑴ℷ᥾ᮑ᥼䖳ࠄ᳔ৢϔϾ⌏ࡼĀ‫ޚ‬໛᡹ਞā㽕དᕫ໮Ǆ
㸼 13-1 ᳈ᮄৢⱘᏖഎ䇗ⷨ乍Ⳃ䗳ᑺ
Ꮉᳳ ᳔ᮽ ᳔䖳 ᘏᯊ ᅲ䰙ᅠ៤
⌏ ࡼ 䋳䋷Ҏ
Ԅ䅵 ᓔྟ 㒧ᴳ ᓔྟ 㒧ᴳ Ꮒ ᯊ䯈
1 䆚߿Ⳃᷛ⍜䌍㗙 Susan 2
2 䆒䅵߱ྟ䯂ो䇗ᶹ㸼 Susan 11
3 䆩偠ᗻ⌟䆩䯂ो䇗ᶹ㸼 Susan 30
䆘ᅵᓎ䆂 ᑊ⹂ ᅮ᳔㒜䇗
4 Susan 15 30 45 25 40 5
ᶹ㸼
5 ‫ޚ‬໛䚂ᆘᷛㅒ Steve 2 45 47 48 50 3
ᓔྟ 㒧ᴳ ᓔྟ 㒧ᴳ
6 ᠧॄ䯂ो䇗ᶹ㸼 Steve 10 45 55 40 50 5
7 ᓔথ᭄᥂ߚᵤ䕃ӊ Andy 12 45 57 88 100 43
8 䆒䅵‫ܗ‬ӊ⌟䆩᭄᥂ Susan 2 45 47 98 100 53
䚂ᆘ䯂ो 䇗ᶹ 㸼ᑊ㦋ᕫ
9 Steve 55 55 110 50 105 5
ড作
10 ⌟䆩䕃ӊ Andy 5 57 62 100 105 43
11 䕧ܹড作᭄᥂ Jim 7 110 117 105 112 5
12 ߚᵤ㒧ᵰ Jim 8 117 125 112 120 5
13 ‫ޚ‬໛᡹ਞ Jim 10 125 135 120 130 5
14 Ўᷛㅒ䅶䌁ᮄ᭄᥂ᑧ Steve 21 23 44 27 48 4
(2) ᎹᳳԄ䅵䭓ⱘ⌏ࡼǄ‫ޣ‬ᇥϔ乍‫݋‬᳝ 20 ໽Ꮉᳳⱘ⌏ࡼ 20%ⱘᯊ䯈ˈे 4 ໽ⱘ㑴ℷ᥾

ᮑˈӮ↨ᅠܼ䰸এϔ乍া᳝ 1 ໽Ꮉᳳⱘ⌏ࡼⱘ㑴ℷ᥾ᮑ᳝᳈໻ⱘᕅડǄᘏⱘᴹ䇈ˈᎹᳳ䕗
䭓ⱘ⌏ࡼ㓽‫ৃⱘޣ‬㛑䕗໻Ǆ
‫ⳟݡ‬ϔϟ㸼 13-1ˈĀ䚂ᆘ䯂ो䇗ᶹ㸼ᑊ㦋ᕫড作āԄ䅵䳔㽕 55 ໽ᯊ䯈ˈҢЁ‫ޣ‬ᇥ 5 ໽
(9%)ˈᇚ↨Ң݇䬂䏃ᕘϞ݊Ҫ‫݋‬᳝䕗ⷁᎹᳳԄ䅵ⱘ⌏ࡼЁⳕߎᯊ䯈ⱘᴎӮ໮Ǆ
᳝໮⾡ᮍ⊩ৃҹ㓽ⷁ⌏ࡼⱘᎹᳳԄ䅵Ǆϔ⾡ᰒ㗠ᯧ㾕ⱘᮍ⊩ᰃᡩܹ᳈໮ⱘ䌘⑤ҹࡴᖿ
⌏ࡼ䖯⿟Ǆߚ⌒᳈໮ⱘҎ᠟ᴹᅠ៤ϔ乍⌏ࡼˈ៪㗙㽕∖⌏ࡼⱘᎹ԰Ҏਬ๲ࡴ↣໽ⱘᎹ԰ᯊ
䯈៪↣਼ⱘᎹ԰໽᭄ˈഛৃҹࡴᖿ⌏ࡼ䖯⿟Ǆ๲ࡴⱘⳌᑨ䌘⑤ৃҹҢᔧ᳝ࠡℷᯊᏂⱘ⌏ࡼ
Ё䕀⿏䖛ᴹǄ✊㗠ˈ᳝ᯊ‫׭‬೼ϔ乍⌏ࡼЁ๲ࡴҎਬˈᅲ䰙ϞैӮᓊ䭓⌏ࡼⱘᎹᳳˈ䖭ᰃ಴
Ўॳ᳝Ꮉ԰ҎਬЎᐂࡽᮄҎ❳ᙝᎹ԰㗠ߚᬷњ㊒࡯Ǆ঺ϔ⾡ᮍ⊩ᰃᣛ⌒ϔԡ㒣偠᳈Єᆠⱘ
Ҏএᅠ៤៪ᐂࡽᅠ៤䖭乍⌏ࡼˈ䖭ḋˈϢ᳔߱⌒ߎⱘ᮴㒣偠ⱘҎⳌ↨ˈ㛑⫼᳈ⷁⱘᯊ䯈ᅠ
៤ӏࡵǄ
g136g
㓽ᇣ⌏ࡼ㣗ೈ៪䰡Ԣ⌏ࡼ㽕∖ᰃ㓽ⷁ⌏ࡼᎹᳳⱘ঺ϔ⾡ᮍ⊩Ǆ՟བˈ᠓䯈‫ৃݙ‬ҹা⍖
ϔሖ⊍ⓚˈ㗠ϡ‫ڣ‬᳔߱䅵ߦⱘ䙷ḋ⍖ϸሖ⊍ⓚǄ೼⡍⅞ᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈгৃҹᇚϔѯ⌏ࡼ੠ᅗӀ
ⱘᎹᳳҢ䖯ᑺЁ䰸এǄ
䗮䖛ᬍ䖯ᮍ⊩៪ᡔᴃᴹᦤ催⫳ѻ⥛ᰃ㓽ⷁ⌏ࡼᎹᳳⱘ঺ϔ⾡ᮍ⊩Ǆ՟བˈৃҹ䗮䖛‫ܝ‬
ᄺᠿᦣ䆒໛ᇚҢᅶ᠋䇗ᶹЁᕫࠄⱘ᭄᥂䕧ܹ䅵ㅫᴎ᭄᥂ᑧˈ㗠ϡᰃ⫼䬂ⲬҎᎹ䕧ܹǄ
ϔᮺ‫ޣ‬ᇥ䋳ᯊᏂⱘ‫݋‬ԧ㑴ℷ᥾ᮑ㹿⹂ᅮϟᴹˈህᖙ乏ׂℷ㔥㒰䅵ߦЁⳌᑨ⌏ࡼⱘᎹᳳ
Ԅ䅵ˈ✊ৢ䅵ㅫߎϔϾׂᬍ䖛ⱘ䖯ᑺˈҹ䆘Ӌ䅵ߦ䞛পⱘ㑴ℷ᥾ᮑ㛑৺‫ڣ‬乘ᳳⱘ䙷ḋ‫ޣ‬ᇥ
䋳ᯊᏂǄ
೼㒱໻໮᭄ᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈ䗮䖛㓽ⷁ⌏ࡼⱘᎹᳳᴹ⍜䰸䋳ᯊᏂᯊˈ䳔೼៤ᴀ๲ࡴ៪㣗ೈ㓽ᇣ
П䯈䖯㸠ᴗ㸵(Ўњ᳈ܼ䴶ഄ䅼䆎䖭Ͼ䯂乬ˈৃখ✻ᴀゴ䰘ᔩĀᯊ䯈៤ᴀᑇ㸵⊩ā)Ǆབᵰ
乍Ⳃ㨑ৢѢ䖯ᑺ(᳝ᕜ໻ⱘ䋳ᯊᏂ)ˈЎњՓ乍Ⳃᣝ䖯ᑺ䖯㸠ˈᕔᕔ䳔㽕໻ᐙᦤ催乍Ⳃ៤ᴀ
੠/៪㓽ᇣᎹ԰㣗ೈǃ䰡Ԣ䋼䞣ᷛ‫ˈޚ‬䖭ৃ㛑ॅঞᭈϾ乍ⳂⳂᷛⱘ৘Ͼ㽕㋴˖㣗ೈǃ乘ㅫǃ
䖯ᑺ੠/៪䋼䞣Ǆ೼ᶤѯᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈᅶ᠋੠ᡓࣙଚ៪乍Ⳃಶ䯳ৃ㛑ϡᕫϡᡓ䅸䖭ѯ㽕㋴Ёⱘϔ
Ͼ៪໮Ͼϡৃ㛑ᅲ⦄Ǆ䖭ḋˈᅶ᠋ህϡᕫϡᓊ䭓ᭈϾ乍Ⳃⱘ㽕∖ᅠᎹᯊ䯈ˈ৺߭ˈ಴ࡴᖿ
䖯ᑺ㗠๲ࡴⱘ៤ᴀ⬅䇕䋳ᢙˈᰃᅶ᠋䖬ᰃᡓࣙଚ˛䖭ህӮᓩ䍋ѝ䆂Ǆ
ϔѯড়ৠ৿᳝༪ࢅᴵℒˈेབᵰ乍Ⳃᦤࠡᅠ៤ˈᅶ᠋ህ㒭ќᡓࣙଚ༪ࢅǄⳌডⱘˈϔ
ѯড়ৠ৿᳝ᚽ㔮ᴵℒˈेབᵰ乍Ⳃ᳾ᣝ䖯ᑺᅠ៤ˈᅶ᠋ᇚ‫ޣ‬ᇥ㒭ᡓࣙଚⱘ᳔㒜Ҭℒˈ㗠Ϩ
ϔѯᚽ㔮ৃ㛑䖬ⳌᔧϹढ़Ǆ᳝ᬜⱘ䖯ᑺ᥻ࠊ೼Ϟ䗄ϸ⾡ᚙ‫މ‬ϟഛ㟇݇䞡㽕Ǆ
᳝ᬜ䖯ᑺ᥻ࠊⱘ݇䬂ᰃሑৃ㛑ᮽഄǃᵰᮁഄᇚЏ㽕㊒࡯ᬒ೼᳝䋳ᯊᏂ៪ᯊᏂবണⱘ䏃
ᕘϞˈ㗠ϡᑨᆘᏠᳯѢ䱣ⴔ乍Ⳃⱘ䖯ሩᚙ‫މ‬Ӯ㞾ࡼᬍ୘Ǆሑᮽ໘⧚䖯ᑺ䯂乬Ӯ‫ޣ‬ᇥᇍ៤ᴀ
੠㣗ೈⱘ䋳䴶ᕅડǄབᵰ乍Ⳃ䖰䖰㨑ৢѢ䖯ᑺˈ䍊Ϟॳ䖯ᑺӮ᳈ࡴೄ䲒ˈ㗠Ϩ䖭䳔㽕ҷӋˈ
㽕ᡩܹ᳈໮ⱘ䋶࡯ˈ៪㗙㓽ᇣ乍Ⳃ㣗ೈˈ៪㗙䰡Ԣ䋼䞣ᷛ‫ޚ‬Ǆ
ᇍѢ≵᳝䋳ᯊᏂⱘ乍Ⳃˈ䞡㽕ⱘᰃϡ㽕Փᅗߎ⦄㘑᧕៪ᓊ䇃㗠᳔㒜䗴៤ᯊᏂⱘ‫ޣ‬ᇥǄ
བᵰ乍Ⳃⱘᅲ䰙䖯ᑺᖿѢ䅵ߦ䖯ᑺˈ㽕ሑ࡯ֱᣕ䖭⾡⢊‫މ‬Ǆ
໰๯ຂහࢗ֟ົંԅࠩէࣅᄥ
᥻ࠊֵᙃ㋏㒳ᓔথ乍Ⳃⱘ䖯ᑺᰃϔ乍䲒ᑺᕜ໻ⱘᎹ԰Ǆ໻䞣᮴⊩乘⌟ⱘᚙ‫މ‬ӮՓֵᙃ
㋏㒳ᓔথ乍Ⳃ䖰䖰䍙ߎᅗ乘ᅮⱘ䖯ᑺ᮹ᳳǄ✊㗠ˈህ‫ڣ‬ӏԩ݊Ҫ㉏ൟⱘ乍Ⳃϔḋˈ᳝ᬜ乍
Ⳃ䖯ᑺ᥻ࠊⱘ݇䬂ᰃⲥ᥻ᅲ䰙䖯⿟ˈঞᯊǃᅮᳳഄᇚᅗϢ䅵ߦ䖯ᑺ䖯㸠↨䕗ˈᑊゟे䞛প
ᖙ㽕ⱘ㑴ℷ᥾ᮑǄ
㉏ԐѢ݊Ҫ㉏ൟⱘ䖯ᑺ᥻ࠊˈֵᙃ㋏㒳ᓔথ乍Ⳃⱘ䖯ᑺ᥻ࠊᑨᣝ✻ᴀゴࠡ䴶䆎䗄ⱘℹ
偸䖯㸠Ǆབ೒ 12.1 ᠔⼎ˈ乍Ⳃ᥻ࠊ䖛⿟ᑨ䆹ᰃᇚᅲ䰙䖯⿟Ϣ䅵ߦ䖯ᑺ䖯㸠↨䕗ⱘ䖛⿟Ǆϔ
ᮺᅶ᠋Ϣ乍Ⳃಶ䯳ህব᳈䖒៤ϔ㟈ˈህᑨ䆄ᔩϟ䖭ѯব᳈ˈᑊׂᬍ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦǄ
ֵᙃ㋏㒳ᓔথ乍ⳂЁӮߎ⦄བϟϔѯ䲒ҹ䙓‫ⱘܡ‬ব᳈˖
z ⬠䴶ⱘব᳈üüབ๲ࡴⱘᄫ↉ǃϡৠⱘ೒ᷛǃϡৠⱘ买㡆ǃϡৠⱘ㦰ऩ㒧ᵘǃᣝ
䪂ҹঞܼᮄⱘ䕧ܹሣᐩǄ
z ᡹ਞⱘব᳈üüབ๲ࡴⱘᄫ↉ǃϡৠⱘᇣ䅵੠ড়䅵ǃϡৠⱘߚ㉏ǃϡৠⱘ䗝ᢽᷛ
‫ޚ‬ǃϡৠⱘᄫ↉乎ᑣ៪ܼᮄⱘ᡹ਞǄ
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z ೼㒓ᶹ䆶ⱘব᳈üüབ৘⾡䴲乘‫ܜ‬ᅝᥦⱘᶹ䆶㛑࡯ˈᇍϡৠᄫ↉៪᭄᥂ᑧⱘ䆓䯂ˈ
ϡৠⱘᶹ䆶㒧ᵘ៪乱໪ⱘᶹ䆶Ǆ
z ᭄᥂ᑧ㒧ᵘⱘব᳈üüབ๲ࡴⱘᄫ↉ǃϡৠⱘ᭄᥂ᄫ↉ৡǃϡৠⱘ᭄᥂ᄬ‫ټ‬ぎ䯈ǃ
᭄᥂䯈ϡৠⱘ݇㋏៪ܼᮄⱘ᭄᥂ᑧǄ
z 䕃ӊ໘⧚䏃ᕘⱘব᳈üüབϡৠⱘㅫ⊩ǃϢ݊Ҫᄤ䏃ᕘⱘϡৠ㸨᥹ǃϡৠⱘ‫ݙ‬䚼
䘏䕥៪ܼᮄⱘ⿟ᑣǄ
z ໘⧚䗳ᑺⱘব᳈üüབ᳈催ⱘ䕧ߎ䗳⥛੠᳈ⷁⱘডᑨᯊ䯈Ǆ
z ᄬ‫ټ‬㛑࡯ⱘব᳈üüབ᭄᥂䆄ᔩ᳔໻ᆍ䞣ⱘᦤ催Ǆ
z Ϯࡵ໘⧚ⱘব᳈üüབᎹ԰៪᭄᥂⌕ⱘব᳈ǃᮄ๲ᅶ᠋ⱘ䖯ܹ៪ܼᮄ⿟ᑣⱘᬃᣕǄ
z ⹀ӊ᳈ᮄᓩ䍋ⱘ䕃ӊব᳈ˈ៪Ⳍডⱘˈࡳ㛑᳈ᔎ໻ⱘ䕃ӊⱘߎ⦄ᓩ䍋ⱘ⹀ӊ᳈ᮄǄ
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Unit 14 Innovation and Technological &

Economic Feasibility
Innovation and Technological Feasibility
The planning for a construction project begins with the generation of concepts for a facility
which will meet market demands and owner needs. Innovative concepts in design are highly
valued not for their own sake but for their contributions to reducing costs and to the improvement
of aesthetics, comfort or convenience as embodied in a well-designed facility. However, the
constructor as well as the design professionals must have an appreciation and full understanding
of the technological complexities often associated with innovative designs in order to provide a
safe and sound facility. Since these concepts are often preliminary or tentative, screening studies
are carried out to determine the overall technological viability and economic attractiveness
without pursuing these concepts in great detail. Because of the ambiguity of the objectives and
the uncertainty of external events, screening studies call for uninhibited innovation in creating
new concepts and judicious judgment in selecting the appropriate ones for further consideration.
One of the most important aspects of design innovation is the necessity of communication in
the design/construction partnership. In the case of bridge design, it can be illustrated by the
following quotation from Lin and Gerwick concerning bridge construction:
(1) The great pioneering steel bridges of the United States were built by an open or covert
alliance between designers and constructors. The turnkey approach of designer-constructor has
developed and built our chemical plants, refineries, steel plants, and nuclear power plants. It is
time to ask, seriously, whether we may not have adopted a restrictive approach by divorcing
engineering and construction in the field of bridge construction.
(2) If a contractor-engineer, by some stroke of genius, were to present to design engineers
today a wonderful new scheme for long span prestressed concrete bridges that made them far
cheaper, he would have to make these ideas available to all other constructors, even limiting or
watering them down so as to “get a group of truly competitive bidders”. The engineer would have
to make sure that he found other contractors to bid against the ingenious innovator.
(3) If an engineer should, by a similar stroke of genius, hit on such a unique and brilliant
scheme, he would have to worry, wondering if the low bidder would be one who had any concept
of what he was trying to accomplish or was in any way qualified for high class technical work.
Innovative design concepts must be tested for technological feasibility. Three levels of
technology are of special concern: technological requirements for operation or production, design
resources and construction technology. The first refers to the new technologies that may be
introduced in a facility which is used for a certain type of production such as chemical processing
or nuclear power generation. The second refers to the design capabilities that are available to the
designers, such as new computational methods or new materials. The third refers to new
technologies which can be adopted to construct the facility, such as new equipment or new
construction methods.
A new facility may involve complex new technology for operation in hostile environments
such as severe climate or restricted accessibility. Large projects with unprecedented demands for
resources such as labor supply, material and infrastructure may also call for careful technological
feasibility studies. Major elements in a feasibility study on production technology should include,
but are not limited to, the following:
z Project type as characterized by the technology required, such as synthetic fuels,
petrochemicals, nuclear power plants, etc.
z Project size in dollars, design engineer’s hours, construction labor hours, etc.
z Design, including sources of any special technology which require licensing
agreements.
z Project location which may pose problems in environmental protection, labor
productivity and special risks.
An example of innovative design for operation and production is the use of entropy concepts
for the design of integrated chemical processes. Simple calculations can be used to indicate the
minimum energy requirements and the least number of heat exchange units to achieve desired
objectives. The result is a new incentive and criterion for designers to achieve more effective
designs. Numerous applications of the new methodology has shown its efficacy in reducing both
energy costs and construction expenditures.
The choice of construction technology and method involves both strategic and tactical
decisions. For example, the extent to which prefabricated facility components will be used
represents a strategic construction decision. In turn, prefabrication of components might be
accomplished off-site in existing manufacturing facilities or a temporary, on-site fabrication plant
might be used. Another example of a strategic decision is whether to install mechanical
equipment in place early in the construction process or at an intermediate stage. Strategic
decisions of this sort should be integrated with the process of facility design in many cases. At
the tactical level, detailed decisions about how to accomplish particular tasks are required, and
such decisions can often be made in the field.
Construction planning should be a major concern in the development of facility designs, in
the preparation of cost estimates, and in forming bids by contractors. Unfortunately, planning for
the construction of a facility is often treated as an after thought by design professionals. This
contrasts with manufacturing practices in which the assembly of devices is a major concern in
design. Design to insure ease of assembly or construction should be a major concern of engineers
and architects. As the Business Roundtable noted, “All too often chances to cut schedule time and
costs are lost because construction operates as a production process separated by a chasm from
financial planning, scheduling, and engineering or architectural design. Too many engineers,
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Unit 14 Innovation and Technological & Economic Feasibility g141g
separated from field experience, are not up to date about how to build what they design, or how
to design so structures and equipment can be erected most efficiently.”
Example 14.1 Innovative use of structural frames for buildings.
The structural design of skyscrapers offers an example of innovation in overcoming the
barrier of high costs for tall buildings by making use of new design capabilities. A revolutionary
concept in skyscraper design was introduced in the 1960’s by Fazlur Khan who argued that, for a
building of a given height, there is an appropriate structural system which would produce the
most efficient use of the material.
Before 1965, most skyscrapers were steel rigid frames. However, Fazlur Khan believed that
it was uneconomical to construct all office buildings of rigid frames, and proposed an array of
appropriate structural systems for steel buildings of specified heights. By choosing an appropriate
structural system, an engineer can use structural materials more efficiently. For example, the
60-story Chase Manhattan Building in New York used about 60 pounds per square foot of steel in
its rigid frame structure, while the 100-story John Hancock Center in Chicago used only 30
pounds per square foot for a trusted tube system. At the time the Chase Manhattan Building was
constructed, no bracing was used to stiffen the core of a rigid frame building because design
engineers did not have the computing tools to do the complex mathematical analysis associated
with core bracing.
Innovation and Economic Feasibility
Innovation is often regarded as the engine which can introduce construction economies and
advance labor productivity. This is obviously true for certain types of innovations in industrial
production technologies, design capabilities, and construction equipment and methods. However,
there are also limitations due to the economic infeasibility of such innovations, particularly in the
segments of construction industry which are more fragmented and permit ease of entry, as in the
construction of residential housing.
Market demand and firm size play an important role in this regard. If a builder is to
construct a larger number of similar units of buildings, the cost per unit may be reduced.
Nowhere is the effect of market demand and total cost more evident than in residential
housing. The housing segment in the last few decades accepted many innovative technical
improvements in building materials which were promoted by material suppliers. Since material
suppliers provide products to a large number of homebuilders and others, they are in a better
position to exploit production economies of scale and to support new product development.
However, homebuilders themselves have not been as successful in making the most fundamental
form of innovation which encompasses changes in the technological process of homebuilding by
shifting the mixture of labor and material inputs, such as substituting large scale off-site
prefabrication for on-site assembly.
There are several major barriers to innovation in the technological process of homebuilding,
including demand instability, industrial fragmentation, and building codes. Since market demand
for new homes follows demographic trends and other socio-economic conditions, the variation in
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home building has been anything but regular. The profitability of the homebuilding industry has
closely matched aggregate output levels. Since entry and exist from the industry are relatively
easy, it is not uncommon during periods of slack demand to find builders leaving the market or
suspending their operations until better times. The inconsistent levels of retained earnings over a
period of years, even among the more established builders, are likely to discourage support for
research and development efforts which are required to nurture innovation. Furthermore, because
the homebuilding industry is fragmented with a vast majority of homebuilders active only in
local regions, the typical homebuilder finds it excessively expensive to experiment with new
designs. The potential costs of a failure or even a moderately successful innovation would
outweigh the expected benefits of all but the most successful innovations. Variation in local
building codes has also caused inefficiencies although repeated attempts have been made to
standardize building codes.
In addition to the scale economies visible within a sector of the construction market, there
are also possibilities for scale economies in individual facility. For example, the relationship
between the size of a building (expressed in square feet) and the input labor (expressed in
laborhours per square foot) varies for different types and sizes of buildings.
Example 14.2 Use of new materials.
In recent years, an almost entirely new set of materials is emerging for construction, largely
from the aerospace and electronics industries. These materials were developed from new
knowledge about the structure and properties of materials as well as new techniques for altering
existing materials. Additives to traditional materials such as concrete and steel are particularly
prominent. For example, it has been known for some time that polymers would increase concrete
strength, water resistance and ability to insulate when they are added to the cement. However,
their use has been limited by their costs since they have had to replace as much as 10 percent of
the cement to be effective. However, Swedish researchers have helped reduce costs by using
polymer microspheres 8 millionths of an inch across, which occupy less than 1 percent of the
cement. Concretes made with these microspheres meet even the strict standards for offshore
structures in the North Sea. Research on micro-additives will probably produce useful concretes
for repairing road and bridges as well.
Example 14.3 Green Buildings.
The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating
System is intended to promote voluntary improvements in design and construction practices. In
the rating system, buildings receive points for a variety of aspects, including reduced energy use,
greater use of daylight rather than artificial lights, recycling construction waste, rainfall runoff
reduction, availability of public transit access, etc. If a building accumulates a sufficient number
of points, it may be certified by the Green Building Alliance as a “green building”. While some
of these aspects may increase construction costs, many reduce operating costs or make buildings
more attractive. Green building approaches are spreading to industrial plants and other types of
construction.
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Questions
1. What’s one of the most important aspects of design innovation in the

design/construction partnership?
2. Innovation design concepts must be tested for technological feasibility. Three levels of
technology are of special concern. What are they?
3. What should technological feasibility studies include?
4. Is it true that innovation is often regarded as the engine which can introduce
construction economies and advance labor productivity?
5. Who promote the housing segment to accept many innovation technical improvements
in building material in the last few decades?
6. Why do material suppliers support new product development?
7. What are major barriers to innovation in the technological process of homebuilding?
8. Is the variation in home building regular? Why?
9. Why is it common during periods of slack demand to find builders leaving the market
or suspending their operations until better times?
10. How to identity the “green building”?
innovation˖߯ᮄ
technological feasibility˖ᡔᴃৃ㸠ᗻ
technology required˖ᡔᴃ㽕∖
project size˖乍Ⳃ㾘῵
project location˖乍Ⳃ᠔೼ഄ
innovative design˖߯ᮄᗻ䆒䅵
prefabrication˖䜡ӊ乘‫ࠊܜ‬䗴
strategic decisions˖៬⬹‫އ‬ㄪ
tactical decisions˖៬ᴃ‫އ‬ㄪ
field experience˖⦄എ㒣偠
economic feasibility˖㒣⌢ৃ㸠ᗻ
labor productivity˖ࢇࡼ⫳ѻ⥛
residential housing˖ԣᅙᓎㄥ
material suppliers˖ᴤ᭭կᑨଚ
economy of scale˖಴㒣㧹㾘῵ᠽ໻㗠ᕫࠄⱘ㒣⌢㡖㑺˗㾘῵㒣⌢
homebuilder˖ԣᅙᓔথଚ
expected benefits˖ᳳᳯᬊⲞ
laborhour˖Ꮉᯊ
green building˖㓓㡆ᓎㄥ
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খ 㗗䆥 ᭛
㄀ 14 ऩ‫ܗ‬ ߯ᮄ੠ᡔᴃϢ㒣⌢ⱘৃ㸠ᗻ
җ໭ۤ‫ޏ‬೬ࢶ໻໿
ϔϾᓎ䆒Ꮉ⿟乍Ⳃⱘ㾘ߦ䆒䅵ᓔྟѢϔϾ㛑⒵䎇Ꮦഎ੠ϮЏ䳔∖ⱘ䆒ᮑᮍḜⱘѻ⫳Ǆ
䆒䅵Ёⱘ߯ᮄ⧚ᗉᓹ䎇⦡䌉ˈϡҙҙᰃЎњ䆒䅵ᴀ䑿ˈ㗠ᰃ⬅Ѣ߯ᮄᗻⱘ⧚ᗉ㛑䰡Ԣ៤ᴀˈ
Ϩ㛑ᬍ୘䆒ᮑⱘ㕢㾖⿟ᑺǃ㟦䗖ᗻ៪߽֓ᗻǄ✊㗠ˈᮑᎹᮍҹঞ䆒䅵Ҏਬᖙ乏ᇞ䞡Ϩᅠܼ
⧚㾷Ϣ߯ᮄᗻ䆒䅵Ⳍ݇㘨ⱘᡔᴃ໡ᴖᗻˈҹֱ䆕䆒ᮑⱘᅝܼϢ⠶೎Ǆ⬅Ѣ䖭ѯᮍḜ㒣ᐌᰃ
߱ℹⱘ៪ᛣ৥ᗻⱘ䆒䅵ˈ䳔㽕䖯㸠ᮍḜᅵᶹⷨおˈҹ֓೼䱋ܹ䖛໮ⱘ㒚㡖䯂乬Пࠡˈ⹂ᅮ
ᮍḜⱘᡔᴃৃ㸠ᗻ੠㒣⌢ᗻǄ䡈Ѣⷨおᇍ䈵ⱘ῵㊞ঞ໪⬠ᴵӊⱘϡ⹂ᅮᗻˈᮍḜᅵᶹⷨお
㽕∖೼ᵘᗱᮄᮍḜᯊϡফӏԩ⽕䫶ഄ߯ᮄˈ㗠೼ϟϔ䰊↉䗝ᢽᮍᓣᯊ߭㽕᳝ᯢᱎⱘ߸ᮁǄ
䆒䅵߯ᮄⱘϔϾ᳔䞡㽕ⱘᮍ䴶೼Ѣ䆒䅵/ᮑᎹᮍП䯈ᖙ㽕ⱘ≳䗮Ǆ೼ḹṕ䆒䅵Ḝ՟Ёˈ
ϟ߫ᨬ㞾ᵫ੠ៜᇨ㓈‫ⱘܟ‬᳝݇ḹṕ䆒䅵ⱘ䆘䆎ᰒ⼎њ䖭⾡≳䗮ⱘᖙ㽕ᗻ˖
(1) 㕢೑ӳ໻ⱘ‫ܜ‬䫟䩶䪕ḹṕˈᰃ⬅䆒䅵ᮍ੠ᮑᎹᮍП䯈ᓔᬒᓣⱘ៪বⳌⱘড়԰㗠ᓎ
៤ⱘǄ࣪Ꮉॖǃᦤ⚐ॖǃ䩶䪕ॖ੠Ḍ⬉キ䛑ᰃҹ䆒䅵̣ᮑᎹⱘѸ䩹࣭ᮍᓣᓎ៤ⱘǄ⦄೼ᑨ
䆹Ϲ㙗ഄ㞾䯂ˈ៥Ӏᰃ৺೼ḹṕᓎ䆒乚ඳЁ䞛⫼њᇚᎹ⿟䆒䅵੠ᮑᎹߚ⾏ᓔⱘᎹ԰ᮍᓣǄ
(2) ‫؛‬ᅮϔϾ໽ᠡⱘᡓࣙଚ㽕ᦤѸ㒭䆒䅵Ꮉ⿟ᏜϔϾᮄⱘǃ䗴ӋԢᒝⱘ໻䎼ᑺ乘ᑨ࡯
⏋‫ޱ‬ೳḹṕᮑᎹᮍḜˈҪᇚϡᕫϡᇍ᠔᳝݊Ҫᡓࣙଚ㾷䞞݊ᛇ⊩ˈ⫮㟇䰤ࠊ៪‫ޣ‬ᇥ݊Ёⱘ
ᮄ乪П໘ˈҹ֓Āᕫࠄϔ㒘ゲѝᗻᡩᷛ㗙āǄᎹ⿟Ꮬᇚϡᕫϡᇏᡒ݊Ҫⱘᡓࣙଚˈҹᦤߎ䩜
ᇍ߯ᮄ㗙ⱘᷛкǄ
(3) བᵰϔϾৠḋ໽ᠡⱘᎹ⿟ᏜᵘᗱњϔϾ⣀⡍ⱘᮍḜˈҪህϡᕫϡᢙᖗԢӋЁᷛ㗙
ᰃ৺᳝ৠḋⱘᗱ䏃ᴹᅠ៤݊ᮍḜˈ៪ᰃ৺᳝䌘Ḑᡓᢙབℸ催ᡔᴃⱘᎹ԰Ǆ
߯ᮄⱘ䆒䅵ᮍḜᖙ乏㒣䖛ᡔᴃৃ㸠ᗻⱘẔ偠Ǆ᳝ 3 Ͼሖ⃵ⱘᡔᴃ䳔㽕ᕫࠄ݇⊼˖᪡԰
៪⫳ѻⱘᡔᴃ㽕∖ǃ䆒䅵䌘⑤ҹঞᮑᎹᡔᴃǄ㄀ϔϾᣛⱘᰃ೼⫳ѻ䆒ᮑЁᓩ䖯⡍ᅮⱘᮄᡔ
ᴃˈབ࣪Ꮉ⫳ѻ⿟ᑣ៪Ḍ㛑থ⬉˗㄀ѠϾᣛⱘᰃ䆒䅵ᮍ᠔ᢹ᳝ⱘ䆒䅵㛑࡯ˈབᮄⱘ䅵ㅫᮍ
⊩៪ᮄൟᴤ᭭˗㄀ϝϾᣛⱘᰃৃ⫼ᴹᮑᎹⱘᮄᡔᴃˈབᮄⱘ䆒໛៪ᮄⱘᮑᎹᮍ⊩Ǆ
೼ϡ߽⦃๗Ёˈབᙊࡷ⇨‫៪׭‬㗙䗮㸠ೄ䲒ⱘᴵӊϟˈϔϾᮄⱘ䆒ᮑৃ㛑⍝ঞ᪡԰໡ᴖ
ⱘᮄᡔᴃǄᇍᶤѯ䌘⑤བࢇࡼ࡯կᑨǃᴤ᭭੠෎⸔䆒ᮑ᳝ⴔϡৠᇏᐌ㽕∖ⱘ໻ൟ乍Ⳃˈг
ৃ㛑㽕∖㒚㟈ⱘᡔᴃৃ㸠ᗻⷨおǄⷨおᑨࣙᣀབϟЏ㽕಴㋴(Ԛᑊϡҙ䰤Ѣℸ)˖
z ᣝᡔᴃ㽕∖བ⊍᭭ǃ⷇⊍࣪ᎹǃḌ⬉キㄝߚ㉏ⱘ乍Ⳃ㉏ൟǄ
z ᣝᘏᡩ䌘ǃᎹ⿟䆒䅵ҎਬⱘᎹ԰ᯊ䯈ǃᓎ䗴Ꮉᯊㄝ⹂ᅮ乍Ⳃⱘ໻ᇣǄ
z 䆒䅵ˈࣙᣀӏԩ⡍ᅮⱘǃ䳔㽕ᥜᴗ䆌ৃⱘᡔᴃ䌘⑤ㄝǄ
z 䗝ᢽৃ㛑䗴៤䇌བ⦃๗ֱᡸǃ⫳ѻᬜ⥛੠݊Ҫ⡍⅞亢䰽ⱘ乍Ⳃഄ⚍Ǆ
ϔϾ㒣㧹੠⫳ѻ䖛⿟ⱘ߯ᮄᗻ䆒䅵ⱘ՟ᄤᰃ೼࣪ᄺࡴᎹ䖛⿟䆒䅵Ё➉ⱘᑨ⫼Ǆ䗮䖛ᕜ
ㅔऩⱘ䅵ㅫेৃᰒ⼎㽕䖒ࠄᳳᳯⳂᷛ᠔䳔ⱘ᳔Ԣ㛑䞣੠᳔ᇥ᭄䞣ⱘ⛁Ѹᤶऩ‫ܗ‬Ǆ䖭⾡㒧ᵰ
ᇍ䆒䅵Ҏਬᅲ⦄䆒䅵Ⳃᷛ䍋ࠄњᮄⱘ▔ࢅ԰⫼ˈᑊ៤Ўᮄⱘᷛ‫ޚ‬Ǆᮄᮍ⊩೼໮ϾᎹ⿟䆒䅵
g144g
Ёⱘᑨ⫼᳝ᬜഄ䰡Ԣњ㛑䞣៤ᴀ੠Ꮉ⿟ᓎ䆒ᓔᬃǄ
ᮑᎹᡔᴃ੠ᮍ⊩ⱘ䗝ᢽৠᯊ⍝ঞњᡔᴃ੠᳔ՇᮑᎹᮍḜⱘ‫އ‬ᅮǄ՟བˈ೼ԩ⾡⿟ᑺϞ
Փ⫼乘ࠊᵘӊᰃϔϾᮍ䩜ᗻⱘ‫އ‬ᅮǄⳌᇍᑨഄˈᵘӊⱘ乘ࠊৃҹ೼ᎹॖЁᅠ៤ˈгৃҹ೼
⦄എ䖯㸠Ǆ঺໪ϔϾᮍ䩜ᗻ‫އ‬ᅮⱘ՟ᄤᰃ೼ᮑᎹ䰊↉ⱘᮽᳳ៪Ё䯈䰊↉ᅝ㺙ᴎẄ䆒໛Ǆℸ
㉏ᮍ䩜ᗻⱘ‫އ‬ᅮ೼ᕜ໮ᚙ‫މ‬ϟᑨ䆹Ϣ䆒ᮑⱘ䆒䅵䖛⿟㓐ড়㗗㰥Ǆ೼ㄪ⬹ᗻⱘሖ⃵㽕∖‫ߎخ‬
བԩᅠ៤ϔ乍⡍ᅮӏࡵⱘ‫݋‬ԧ‫އ‬ᅮˈℸ㉏‫އ‬ᅮᕔᕔৃҹ೼⦄എ‫ߎخ‬Ǆ
೼䆒ᮑⱘ䆒䅵䖛⿟ǃ䗴ӋԄㅫ䖛⿟੠ᡓࣙଚᡩᷛ䖛⿟ЁˈᮑᎹ䅵ߦᑨ䆹ᰃϔϾЏ㽕‫ݙ‬
ᆍǄ✊㗠ᕜৃᚰˈϔϾ䆒ᮑⱘᮑᎹ䅵ߦᕔᕔ㹿䆒䅵Ҏਬ䅸Ўᑨ䆹ᰃৢᳳ㗗㰥ⱘ䯂乬ǄϢℸ
Ⳍডⱘᰃˈ೼ࠊ䗴ϮЁˈ䆒໛ⱘ㒘㺙ᰃ䆒䅵ЁϔϾ໛ফ݇⊼ⱘ䯂乬Ǆ֓Ѣ㒘㺙੠ᮑᎹⱘ䆒
䅵ᑨ䆹ᰃᎹ⿟Ꮬ੠ᓎㄥᏜ݇⊼ⱘϔϾ䞡⚍ǄབଚϮ೚ḠӮ䆂᠔䆘䆎ⱘ˖ Ā⬅ѢᮑᎹ㹿԰Ўϔ
ϾϢ䋶ࡵ䅵ߦǃ䖯ᑺ䅵ߦঞᎹ⿟੠ᓎㄥ䆒䅵Ⳍߚ⾏ⱘ⫳ѻ䖛⿟ˈᕜ໮㓽ⷁᎹᳳ੠䰡Ԣ៤ᴀ
ⱘᴎӮህ㹿⌾䌍ᥝњǄ㜅⾏њᎹഄ⦄എ㒣偠ˈ໾໮ⱘᎹ⿟Ꮬϡⶹ䘧བԩᓎ䗴ҪӀ᠔䆒䅵ⱘ
ϰ㽓ˈ៪㗙བԩ䆒䅵ᅲ䰙ⱘ㒧ᵘ੠䆒໛Ǆ
՟ 14.1 ໻ὐ㒧ᵘḚᶊⱘ߯ᮄᗻⱘՓ⫼Ǆ
߽⫼ϔ⾡ᮄⱘ䆒䅵ᮍ⊩Ў‫ܟ‬᳡催ሖᓎㄥ䗴Ӌ催ⱘ䯂乬ᦤկϔϾ߯ᮄⱘᅲ՟Ǆ೼ 20 Ϫ㑾
60 ᑈҷˈ⊩‫ࢦݍ‬g∝ҟ㒡њ݊䴽ੑᗻⱘᨽ໽໻ὐⱘ䆒䅵ὖᗉˈҪ䅸ЎᇍѢӏԩϔϾ㒭ᅮ催
ᑺⱘᓎㄥ⠽䛑᳝ϔϾ⡍ᅮⱘ㒧ᵘ῵ᓣ㛑᳔᳝ᬜഄ߽⫼ᓎㄥᴤ᭭Ǆ
೼ 1965 ᑈҹࠡˈ㒱໻໮᭄ⱘᨽ໽໻ὐЎ߮ᗻḚᶊ㒧ᵘǄ✊㗠ˈ⊩‫ࢦݍ‬g∝Ⳍֵ⫼߮ᗻ
Ḛᶊᓎ䗴᠔᳝ⱘࡲ݀໻ὐᰃϡ㒣⌢ⱘˈᦤߎњ⡍ᅮ催ᑺ䩶㒧ᵘ໻ὐⱘ䗖⫼㒧ᵘԧ㋏ᮍḜǄ
䗮䖛䗝ᢽϔϾ䗖⫼㒧ᵘԧ㋏ˈϔϾᎹ⿟Ꮬৃҹ᳈᳝ᬜഄՓ⫼㒧ᵘᴤ᭭Ǆ՟བˈ㒑㑺 60 ሖⱘ
᳐જ乓䫊㸠໻ὐⱘ߮ᗻḚᶊ㒧ᵘˈ݊⫼䩶䞣Ў↣ᑇᮍ㣅ሎ 60 ⺙ˈ㗠㡱ࡴહ 100 ሖⱘ㑺㗄g∝
㗗‫ܟ‬Ёᖗⱘḕᶊㄦԧ㋏ⱘ⫼䩶䞣ҙЎ↣ᑇᮍ㣅ሎ 30 ⺙Ǆ೼ᓎ䗴᳐જ乓໻ὐᯊˈ⬅ѢᎹ⿟䆒
䅵Ҏਬ≵᳝Փ⫼䅵ㅫᎹ‫݋‬䖯㸠໡ᴖⱘḌᖗᬃᩥ᭄ᄺߚᵤ䅵ㅫˈ᠔ҹ໻ὐⱘ߮ᗻḚᶊⱘḌᖗ
≵᳝߽⫼ᬃᩥ䖯㸠ࡴ೎Ǆ
җ໭ူ࠼‫ࢶޖ‬໻໿
߯ᮄ㒣ᐌ㹿䅸Ўᰃᦤ催ᮑᎹⱘ㒣⌢ᗻ੠ࢇࡼ⫳ѻ⥛ⱘࡼ࡯ǄᇍѢ೼ᎹϮ⫳ѻᡔᴃǃ䆒
䅵㛑࡯ǃᮑᎹ䆒໛੠ᮍ⊩ㄝ乚ඳЁᶤѯ㉏ൟⱘ߯ᮄ㗠㿔ˈ䖭ᰒ✊ᰃℷ⹂ⱘǄ✊㗠ˈ⬅Ѣ߯
ᮄ೼㒣⌢Ϟϡৃ㸠ˈгᕔᕔফࠄ໮⾡ᴵӊⱘ䰤ࠊˈ⡍߿ᰃ೼ᓎㄥᎹϮⱘᶤѯ䖯ܹ䮼ᾯ䕗Ԣǃ
⡍߿ᬷхⱘ乚ඳˈབԣᅙᓎㄥ乚ඳˈᇸ݊བℸǄ
೼䖭ᮍ䴶Ꮦഎ䳔∖੠݀ৌⱘ㾘῵ᡂⓨњ䞡㽕ⱘ㾦㡆Ǆབᵰᓎ䗴໻䞣ৠ㉏ൟⱘᓎㄥˈऩ
Ͼᓎㄥⱘ៤ᴀᇚӮ䰡ԢǄ
≵᳝݊Ҫ乚ඳ㛑໳‫ڣ‬ԣᅙᓎㄥϔḋᯢᰒഄফࠄᏖഎ䳔∖੠ᘏ䗴ӋⱘᕅડǄ೼䖛এⱘ޴
कᑈЁˈফࠄᴤ᭭կᑨଚⱘ᥼ࡼˈԣᅙᓎ䆒乚ඳ᥹ফњᕜ໮ᓎㄥᴤ᭭ᮍ䴶ⱘ߯ᮄᗻᡔᴃǄ
಴Ўˈᴤ᭭կᑨଚЎⳌᔧ᭄䞣ⱘԣᅙᓔথଚ੠݊Ҫ݀ৌᦤկѻકˈҪӀ᳈ᆍᯧѿফࠄ㾘῵
ѻક㒣⌢᠔ᏺᴹⱘᬜⲞˈᑊᬃᣕᮄѻકⱘᓔথǄ✊㗠ˈԣᅙᓔথᴀ䑿䖬≵᳝៤ࡳഄᔶ៤ϔ
⾡᳔෎ᴀⱘ߯ᮄ῵ᓣˈ䖭⾡῵ᓣৃҹ䗮䖛䕀⿏ࢇࡼ࡯੠ᬍবᴤ᭭ⱘկᑨᮍᓣˈབ⫼໻㾘῵
ⱘᎹॖ乘ࠊҷ᳓⦄എ㒘㺙ˈҢ㗠Փԣᅙᓎ䗴ⱘᡔᴃ䖛⿟䗖ᑨᅲ䰙ᚙ‫ⱘމ‬ব࣪Ǆ
ԣᅙᓎ䗴ⱘᡔᴃ䖛⿟߯ᮄᰃ᳝䱰⹡ⱘˈབ䳔∖ⱘϡ〇ᅮǃߚᬷˈҹঞϡ៤㾘῵ⱘᎹϮ
g145g
੠ᓎ䆒㾘㣗ㄝǄ⬅ѢᮄԣᅙⱘᏖഎ䳔∖ফࠄҎষ๲䭓㾘ᕟ੠݊Ҫ⼒Ӯ㒣⌢ᴵӊⱘᕅડˈԣ
ᅙᓎ䆒ⱘব࣪ҢᴹϡӮ᳝㾘ᕟৃᕾǄԣᅙᓔথଚⱘⲜ߽ᚙ‫މ‬Ϣ݊㓐ড়ѻߎ䞣ᆚߛⳌ݇Ǆ⬅
Ѣ䖯ܹ੠䗔ߎ䖭ϾᏖഎⳌᔧᆍᯧˈ᠔ҹ㒣ᐌৃҹⳟࠄ೼Ꮦഎ䳔∖ϡ䎇ᯊˈᓔথଚ֓Ӯ⾏ᓔ
Ꮦഎ៪᱖‫ذ‬ҪӀⱘ㒣㧹⌏ࡼˈⳈࠄ㒣㧹ᔶ࢓ད䕀Ǆᇍϔ㠀ⱘᓔথଚˈ⫮㟇ᰃग़৆ᙴЙⱘᓔ
থଚ㗠㿔ˈ೼ϔᅮᯊᳳ‫ݙ‬বᑏϡᅮⱘ㧹Ϯᬊܹ∈ᑇгᕜৃ㛑ᇍ݊䖯㸠ⷨお੠ᓔথⱘࡾ࡯䍋
ࠄ⍜ᵕⱘ԰⫼ˈ㗠䖭ℷᰃ෍㚆߯ᮄᡔᴃⱘᴵӊǄℸ໪ˈ⬅Ѣԣᅙᓎ䆒ᎹϮᰃ⬅㒱໻໮᭄⌏
ࡼ೼ϡৠऎඳⱘǃߚᬷⱘᓔথଚᵘ៤ⱘˈ᱂䗮ⱘᓔথଚথ⦄⫼ᮄᡔᴃ䖯㸠䆩偠ⱘҷӋᵕ݊
ᯖ䌉Ǆ༅䋹ⱘ┰೼៤ᴀ៪ेՓϔϾϔ㠀៤ࡳⱘ߯ᮄ៤ᴀ䛑Ӯ䍙ߎᳳᳯⱘᬊⲞˈ䰸䴲߯ᮄᕫ
ࠄњᵕ໻ⱘ៤ࡳǄेՓ᳝ড໡ϡᮁⱘᇱ䆩ҹՓᓎ䆒㾘㣗ᅲ⦄ᷛ‫ˈ࣪ޚ‬Ԛ৘ഄᓎ䆒㾘㣗ⱘϡ
ৠҡ✊䗴៤њᬜ⥛ԢϟǄ
䰸њ೼ϔϾᓎㄥᏖഎߚᬃ乚ඳ‫݋‬᳝ᰒ㗠ᯧ㾕ⱘ㾘῵㒣⌢ᬜⲞП໪ˈ೼ऩϔ䆒ᮑПЁৠ
ḋ᳝㾘῵㒣⌢ᬜⲞⱘৃ㛑ᗻǄ՟བˈᓎㄥ㾘῵(ҹᑇᮍ㣅ሎ㸼⼎)੠ࢇࡼ࡯կᑨ(ҹ↣ᑇᮍ㣅
ሎⱘᎹᯊ㸼⼎)П䯈ⱘ݇㋏䱣ⴔᓎㄥ㉏ൟⱘ㾘῵ⱘব࣪㗠ব࣪Ǆ
՟ 14.2 ᮄᴤ᭭ⱘՓ⫼Ǆ
䖥ᑈᴹˈᓎㄥϮ⍠⦄ߎњ޴Тᰃᭈ༫ⱘᮄᓎㄥᴤ᭭ˈ䖭ѯᮄᴤ᭭Џ㽕ᴹ㞾㟾໽੠⬉ᄤ
ᎹϮǄҎӀ䳔㽕њ㾷䖭ѯᮄᴤ᭭ⱘ㒧ᵘ੠⡍ᗻˈᑊ䞛⫼ᮄⱘᡔᴃᇚ݊ᓔথ៤ᓎㄥᴤ᭭ǄӴ
㒳ᴤ᭭བ⏋‫ޱ‬ೳ੠䩶ᴤⱘ⏏ࡴࠖህᰃ݊ЁϔϾ‫݌‬ൟⱘ՟ᄤǄ՟བˈҎӀᏆ㒣њ㾷೼∈⊹Ё
ࡴܹ㘮ড়ᴤ᭭ৃҹ๲ᔎ⏋‫ޱ‬ೳⱘᔎᑺǃ䰆∈ᗻ㛑੠㒱㓬ᗻ㛑Ǆ✊㗠ˈ⬅Ѣᖙ乏᳓ᤶ໮䖒 10%
ⱘ∈⊹ҹ䖒ࠄՓ⫼ᬜᵰˈ䖭ѯᴤ᭭ⱘՓ⫼ফࠄњ៤ᴀⱘ䰤ࠊǄϡ䖛ˈ⨲‫ⷨ݌‬おҎਬ䗮䖛Փ
⫼㉦ᕘЎ 1/(8h104)㣅ᇌⱘ㘮ড়ᴤ᭭䰡Ԣњ៤ᴀˈ䖭ѯᴤ᭭ҙ䳔᳓ҷ 1%ⱘ∈⊹Ǆ⫼䖭⾡㉦
ᕘ㘮ড়ᴤ᭭‫خ‬៤ⱘ⏋‫ޱ‬ೳ㛑⒵䎇࣫⍋⍋⋟ᓎㄥᷛ‫ⱘޚ‬㢯ࠏ㽕∖Ǆᖂ㉦⏏ࡴࠖⱘⷨおৃ㛑г
Ӯ᳝ࡽѢ⫳ѻ⫼Ѣׂ㸹䘧䏃੠ḹṕⱘ⏋‫ޱ‬ೳǄ
՟ 14.3 㓓㡆ᓎㄥǄ
㛑⑤੠⦃๗䆒䅵ᓩᇐ㒘㒛(LEED)ⱘ㓓㡆ᓎㄥ䆘ᅮ㋏㒳ᮼ೼֗䖯䆒䅵੠ᮑᎹᅲ䏉ⱘᬍ
䖯Ǆ೼䆘ᅮ㋏㒳Ёˈᇍ໻ὐⱘ৘Ͼᮍ䴶䖯㸠䆘ߚˈབ㛑㗫ⱘ䰡Ԣǃ᳈໮ഄ߽⫼᮹‫ܝ‬㗠䴲Ҏ
Ꮉ✻ᯢǃᓎㄥᑳ⠽ⱘᕾ⦃߽⫼ǃ䰡䲼ᥦ∈ⱘಲᬊǃ݀݅Ѹ䗮ⱘৃ⫼ᗻㄝǄབᵰϔᑻᓎㄥ㌃
䅵њ䎇໳ⱘߚ᭄ˈህӮ㹿㓓㡆ᓎㄥ㘨ⲳ䅸䆕ЎĀ㓓㡆ᓎㄥā Ǆ䖭ѯ㽕∖Ӯ๲ࡴᎹ⿟䗴ӋˈԚ
᳈໮ⱘᰃӮ䰡Ԣ䖤㧹៤ᴀ៪Փ໻ὐ᳈‫݋‬儙࡯Ǆ㓓㡆ᓎㄥⱘᗱᛇℷ೼৥ᎹϮᓎㄥ੠݊Ҫ㉏ൟ
ⱘᎹ⿟ᓎㄥӴ᪁Ǆ
g146g

Unit 15 Claims, Disputes and Arbitration
Contractor’s Claims
If the Contractor considers himself to be entitled to any extension of the Time for
Completion and/or any additional payment, under any Clause of these Conditions or otherwise in
connection with the Contract, the Contractor shall give notice to the Employer, describing the
event or circumstance giving rise to the claim. The notice shall be given as soon as practicable,
and not later than 28 days after the Contractor became aware, or should have become aware, of
the event or circumstance.
If the Contractor fails to give notice of a claim within such period of 28 days, the Time for
Completion shall not be extended, the Contractor shall not be entitled to additional payment, and
the Employer shall be discharged from all liability in connection with the claim. Otherwise, the
following provisions of this Sub-Clause shall apply.
The Contractor shall also submit any other notices which are required by the Contract, and
supporting particulars for the claim, all as relevant to such event or circumstance.
The Contractor shall keep such contemporary records as may be necessary to substantiate
any claim, either on the Site or at another location acceptable to the Employer. Without admitting
liability, the Employer may, after receiving any notice under this Sub-Clause, monitor the
record-keeping and/or instruct the Contractor to keep further contemporary records. The
Contractor shall permit the Employer to inspect all these records, and shall (if instructed) submit
copies to the Employer.
Within 42 days after the Contractor became aware (or should have become aware) of the
event or circumstance giving rise to the claim, or within such other period as may be proposed by
the Contractor and approved by the Employer, the Contractor shall send to the Employer a fully
detailed claim which includes full supporting particulars of the basis of the claim and of the
extension of time and/or additional payment claimed. If the event or circumstance giving rise to
the claim has a continuing effect:
z this fully detailed claim shall be considered as interim.
z the Contractor shall send further interim claims at monthly intervals, giving the
accumulated delay and/or amount claimed, and such further particulars as the
Employer may reasonably require.
z the Contractor shall send a final claim within 28 days after the end of the effects
resulting from the event or circumstance, or within such other period as may be
proposed by the Contractor and approved by the Employer.
Within 42 days after receiving a claim or any further particulars supporting a previous claim,
or within such other period as may be proposed by the Employer and approved by the Contractor,
the Employer shall respond with approval, or with disapproval and detailed comments. He may
also request any necessary further particulars, but shall nevertheless give his response on the
principles of the claim within such time.
Each interim payment shall include such amounts for any claim as have been reasonably
substantiated as due under the relevant provision of the Contract. Unless and until the particulars
supplied are sufficient to substantiate the whole of the claim, the Contractor shall only be entitled
to payment for such part of the claim as he has been able to substantiate.
The Employer shall proceed in accordance with Sub-Clause 3.5 [Determinations ] to agree
or determine the extension (if any ) of the Time for Completion (before or after its expiry) in
accordance with Sub-Clause 8.4[Extension of Time for Completion], and/or the additional
payment (if any) to which the Contractor is entitled under the Contract.
The requirements of this Sub-Clause are in addition to those of any other Sub-Clause which
may apply to a claim. If the Contractor fails to comply with this or another Sub-Clause in relation
to any claim, any extension of time and/or additional payment shall take account of the extent (if
any) to which the failure has prevented or prejudiced proper investigation of the claim, unless the
claim is excluded under the second paragraph of this Sub-Clause.
Appointment of the Dispute Adjudication Board
Disputes shall be adjudicated by a DAB in accordance with Sub-Clause 20.1 [Obtaining

Dispute Adjudication Board’s Decision]. The Parties shall jointly appoint a DAB by the date 28
days after a Party gives notice to the other Party of its intention to refer a dispute to a dispute to a
DAB in accordance with Sub-Clause 20.4.
The DAB shall comprise, as stated in the Particular conditions, either one or three suitably
qualified persons (“the members”). If the number is not so stated and the Parties do not agree
otherwise, the DAB shall comprise three persons.
If the DAB is to comprise three persons, each Party shall nominate one member for the
approval of the other Party. The Parties shall consult both these members and shall agree upon
the third member, who shall be appointed to act as chairman.
However, if a list of potential members is included in the Contract, the members shall be
selected from those on the list, other than anyone who is unable or unwilling to accept
appointment to the DAB.
The agreement between the Parties and either the sole member (“adjudicator”) or each of the
three members shall incorporate by reference the General Conditions of Dispute Adjudication
Agreement contained in the Appendix to these General Conditions, with such amendments as are
agreed between them.
The terms of the remuneration of either the sole member or each of the three members shall
be mutually agreed upon by the Parties when agreeing the terms of appointment. Each Party shall
be responsible for paying one-half of this remuneration.
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Unit 15 Claims, Disputes and Arbitration g149g
If at any time the Parties so agree, they may appoint a suitably qualified person or persons to
replace any one or more members of the DAB. Unless the Parties agree otherwise, the
appointment will come into effect if a member declines to act or is unable to act as a result of
death, disability, resignation or termination of appointment. The replacement shall be appointed
in the same manner as the replaced person was required to have been nominated or agreed upon,
as described in this Sub-Clause.
The appointment of any member may be terminated by mutual agreement of both Parties,
but not by the Employer or the Contractor acting alone. Unless otherwise agreed by both Parties,
the appointment of the DAB (including each member) shall expire when the DAB has given its
decision on the dispute referred to it under Sub-Clause 20.4, unless other disputes have been
referred to the DAB by that time under Sub-Clause 20.4, in which event the relevant date shall be
when the DAB has also given decisions on those disputes.
Failure to Agreement Dispute Adjudication Board
If any of the following conditions apply, namely:

z the Parties fail to agree upon the appointment of the sole member of the DAB by the
date stated in the first paragraph of Sub-Clause 20.2.
z either Party fails to nominate a member (for approval by the other Party) of a DAB of
three persons by such date.
z the Parties fail to agree upon the appointment of the third member (to act as chairman)
of the DAB by such date.
z the Parties fail to agree upon the appointment of a replacement person within 42 days
after the date on which the sole member or one of the three members declines to act or
is unable to act as a result of death, disability, resignation or termination of
appointment.
Then the appointing entity or official named in the Particular Conditions shall, upon the
request of either or both of the Parties and after due consultation with both Parties appoint this
member of the DAB. This appointment shall be final and conclusive. Each Party shall be
responsible for paying one-half of the remuneration of the appointing entity or official.
Obtaining Dispute Adjudication Board’s Decision
If a dispute (of any kind whatsoever) arises between the Parties in connection with, or
arising out of, the Contract or the execution of the Works, including any dispute as to any
certificate, determination, instruction, opinion or valuation of the Employer, then after a DAB has
been appointed pursuant to Sub-Clause 20.2 [Appointment of the DAB] and 20.3[Failure to
Agree DAB], either Party may refer the dispute in writing to the DAB for its decision, with a
copy to the other Party. Such reference shall state that it is given under this Sub-Clause.
For a DAB of three persons, the DAB shall be deemed to have received such reference on
the date when it is received by the chairman of the DAB.
Both Parties shall promptly make available to the DAB all information, access to the Site,
g149g
and appropriate facilities, as the DAB may require for the purposes of making a decision on such
dispute. The DAB shall be deemed to be not acting as arbitrator(s).
Within 84 days after receiving such reference, or the advance payment referred to in Clause
6 of the Appendix-General Conditions of the Dispute Adjudication Agreement, whichever date is
later, or within such other period as may be proposed by the DAB and approved by both Parties,
the DAB shall give its decision, which shall be reasoned and shall state that it is given under this
Sub-Clause. However, if neither of the Parties has paid in full the invoices submitted by each
Member pursuant to Clause 6 of the Appendix, the DAB shall not be obliged to give its decision
until such invoices have been paid in full. The decision shall be binding on both Parties, who
shall promptly give effect to it unless and until it shall be revised in an amicable settlement or an
arbitral award as described below. Unless the Contract has already been abandoned, repudiated or
terminated, the Contractor shall continue to proceed with the Works in accordance with the
Contract.
If either Party is dissatisfied with the DAB’s decision, then either Party may, within 28 days
after receiving the decision, give notice to the other Party of its dissatisfaction. If the DAB fails
to give its decision within the period of 84 days (or as otherwise approved) after receiving such
reference or such payment, then either Party may, within 28 days after this period has expired,
give notice to the other Party of its dissatisfaction.
In either event, this notice of dissatisfaction shall state that it is given under this Sub-Clause,
and shall set out the matter in dispute and the reason(s) for dissatisfaction. Except as stated in
Sub-Clause 20.7[Failure to Comply with Dispute Adjudication Board’s Decision] and Sub-Clause
20.8[Expiry of Dispute Adjudication Board’s Appointment], neither Party shall be entitled to
commence arbitration of a dispute unless a notice of dissatisfaction has been given in accordance
with this Sub-Clause.
If the DAB has given its decision as to a matter in dispute to both Parties, and no notice of
dissatisfaction has been given by either Party within 28 days after it received the DAB’s decision,
then the decision shall become final and binding upon both Parties.
Amicable Settlement
Where notice of dissatisfaction has been given under Sub-Clause 20.4 above, both Parties
shall attempt to settle the dispute amicably before the commencement of arbitration. However,
unless both Parties agree otherwise, arbitration may be commenced on or after the fifty-sixth day
after the on which notice of dissatisfaction was given, even if no attempt at amicable settlement
has been made.
Arbitration
Unless settled amicably, any dispute in respect of which the DAB’s decision (if any) has not
become final and binding shall be finally settled by international arbitration. Unless otherwise
agreed by both Parties:
z the dispute shall be finally settled under the Rules of Arbitration of the International
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Chamber of Commerce.
z the dispute shall be settled by three arbitrators appointed in accordance with these
Rules.
z The arbitration shall be conducted in the language for communications defined in
Sub-Clause 1.4[Law and Language].
z The arbitrator(s) shall have full power to open up, review and revise any certificate,
determination, instruction, opinion or valuation of (or on behalf of ) the Employer, and
any decision of the DAB, relevant to the dispute.
z Neither Party shall be limited in the proceedings before the arbitrator(s) to the evidence
or arguments previously put before the DAB to obtain its decision, or to the reasons for
dissatisfaction given in its notice of dissatisfaction. Any decision of the DAB shall be
admissible in evidence in the arbitration.
z Arbitration may be commenced prior to or after completion of the Works. The
obligations of the Parties and the DAB shall not altered by reason of any arbitration
being conducted during the progress of the Works.
Failure to Comply with Dispute Adjudication Board’s Decision
In the event that:

z neither Party has given notice of dissatisfaction within the period stated in Sub-Clause
20.4[Obtaining Dispute Adjudication Board’s Decision].
z the DAB’s related decision (if any) has become final and binding.
z a Party fails to comply with this decision.
Then the other Party may, without prejudice to any other rights it may have, refer the failure
itself to arbitration under Sub-Clause 20.6 [Arbitration]. Sub-Clause 20.4[Obtaining Dispute
Adjudication Board’s Decision] and Sub-Clause 20.5[Amicable Settlement] shall not apply to
this reference.
Expiry of Dispute Adjudication Board’s Appointment
If a dispute arises between the Parties in connection with, or arising out of, the Contract or
the execution of the Works and there is no DAB in place, whether by reason of the expiry of the
DAB’s appointment or otherwise:
Sub-Clause 20.4 [Obtaining Dispute Adjudication Board’s Decision] and Sub-Clause
20.5[Amicable Settlement] shall not apply, and the dispute may be referred directly to arbitration
under Sub-Clause 20.6[Arbitration].
Questions
1. Shall the employer be discharged from all liability in connection with the claim if the
contractor fails to give notice of a claim within a period of 28 days?
2. Where shall contractor keep contemporary records as may be necessary to substantiate
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any claim?
3. When shall the contractor send to the employer a fully detailed claim?
4. What shall a fully detailed claim include?
5. When shall the employer respond the claim with approval, or with disapproval and
detailed comments?
6. What amounts for any claim shall be included in each interim payment?
7. Who shall be appointed to constitute the dispute adjudication board?
8. If either party is dissatisfied with the DAB’s decision, what may either party do?
9. In what circumstance, the DAB’s decision shall become final and binding upon both
parties?
10. How shall the dispute be settled by international arbitration?
additional payment˖䗑ࡴҬℒ
claim˖㋶䌨
discharge from˖䞞ᬒ˗Փ‫ܡ‬䰸
contemporary record˖ৠᳳ䆄ᔩ
a final claim˖᳔㒜ⱘ㋶䌨᡹ਞ
interim payment˖ᳳЁҬℒ
time for completion˖シᎹᯊ䯈
disputes˖ѝッ
dispute adjudication agreement˖ѝッ㺕‫އ‬ण䆂
dispute adjudication board˖ѝッ㺕‫ྨއ‬ਬӮ
invoice˖থ⼼˗থ䋻ऩ
an amicable settlement˖টད㾷‫އ‬
arbitral award˖ӆ㺕㺕‫݀˗އ‬ᮁк
dissatisfaction˖ϡ⒵˗ϡᑇ
international arbitration˖೑䰙ӆ㺕
Rules of Arbitration of the International Chamber of Commerce˖೑䰙ଚӮӆ㺕㾘߭
খ 㗗䆥 ᭛
㄀ 15 ऩ‫ܗ‬ ㋶䌨ǃѝッ੠ӆ㺕
ѕͧ౥ԅൌଃ
བᵰᡓࣙଚ䅸Ўˈḍ᥂ᴀᴵӊӏԩᴵℒ៪Ϣড়ৠ᳝݇ⱘ݊Ҫ᭛ӊˈҪ᳝ᴗᕫࠄシᎹᯊ
䯈ⱘӏԩᓊ䭓ᳳ੠(៪)ӏԩ䗑ࡴҬℒˈᡓࣙଚᑨ৥䲛Џথߎ䗮ⶹˈ䇈ᯢᓩ䍋㋶䌨ⱘџӊ៪
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ᚙ‫މ‬Ǆ䆹䗮ⶹᑨሑᖿ೼ᡓࣙଚ㾝ᆳ៪ᑨᏆ㾝ᆳ䆹џӊ៪ᚙ‫ ৢމ‬28 ໽‫ݙ‬থߎǄ

བᵰᡓࣙଚ᳾㛑೼Ϟ䗄 28 ໽ᳳ䰤‫ݙ‬থߎ㋶䌨䗮ⶹˈ߭シᎹᯊ䯈ϡᕫᓊ䭓ˈᡓࣙଚᑨ᮴
ᴗ㦋ᕫ䗑ࡴҬℒˈ㗠䲛Џᑨ‫ܡ‬䰸᳝݇䆹㋶䌨ⱘܼ䚼䋷ӏǄབᵰᡓࣙଚঞᯊথߎ㋶䌨䗮ⶹˈ
ᑨ䗖⫼ᴀℒҹϟ㾘ᅮǄ
ᡓࣙଚ䖬ᑨᦤѸ᠔᳝᳝݇䆹џӊ៪ᚙ‫ⱘމ‬ǃড়ৠ㽕∖ⱘӏԩ݊Ҫ䗮ⶹˈҹঞᬃᣕ㋶䌨
ⱘ䆺㒚䌘᭭Ǆ
ᡓࣙଚᑨ೼⦄എ៪䲛Џ䅸ৃⱘ঺໪ഄ⚍ֱᣕ⫼ҹ䆕ᯢӏԩ㋶䌨ৃ㛑䳔㽕ⱘℸ㉏ৠᳳ䆄
ᔩǄ䲛Џᬊࠄḍ᥂ᴀℒথߎⱘӏԩ䗮ⶹৢˈ೼᳾ᡓ䅸䋷ӏࠡˈৃẔᶹ䆄ᔩֱᣕᚙ‫ˈމ‬ᑊϨ
ৃҹᣛ⼎ᡓࣙଚֱᣕ䖯ϔℹⱘৠᳳ䆄ᔩǄᡓࣙଚᑨ‫ܕ‬䆌䲛ЏẔᶹ᠔᳝䖭ѯ䆄ᔩˈᑊ৥䲛Џ
(㢹᳝ᣛ⼎㽕∖)ᦤկ໡ॄӊǄ
೼ᡓࣙଚ㾝ᆳ(៪ᑨᏆ㾝ᆳ)ᓩ䍋㋶䌨ⱘџӊ៪ᚙ‫ ৢމ‬42 ໽‫៪ˈݙ‬೼ᡓࣙଚৃ㛑ᓎ䆂ᑊ
㒣䲛Џ䅸ৃⱘ݊Ҫᳳ䰤‫ˈݙ‬ᡓࣙଚᑨ৥䲛Џ䗦Ѹϔӑ‫ߚܙ‬䆺㒚ⱘ㋶䌨᡹ਞˈࣙᣀ㋶䌨ⱘձ
᥂ǃ㽕∖ᓊ䭓ⱘᯊ䯈੠(៪)䗑ࡴҬℒⱘܼ䚼䆺㒚䌘᭭Ǆབᵰᓩ䍋㋶䌨ⱘџӊ៪ᚙ‫݋މ‬᳝䖲
㓁ᕅડˈ߭˖
z Ϟ䗄‫ߚܙ‬䆺㒚ⱘ㋶䌨᡹ਞᑨ㹿㾚ЎЁ䯈ⱘǄ
z ᡓࣙଚᑨᣝ᳜৥䲛Џ䗦Ѹ䖯ϔℹⱘЁ䯈㋶䌨᡹ਞˈ䇈ᯢ㌃䅵㋶䌨ⱘᓊ䇃ᯊ䯈੠(៪)
䞥乱ˈҹঞ䲛Џৃ㛑ড়⧚㽕∖ⱘ᳈䆺㒚ⱘ䌘᭭Ǆ
z ᡓࣙଚᑨ೼ᓩ䍋㋶䌨ⱘџӊ៪ᚙ‫މ‬ѻ⫳ⱘᕅડ㒧ᴳৢ 28 ໽‫៪ˈݙ‬೼ᡓࣙଚৃ㛑ᓎ
䆂ᑊ㒣䲛Џ䅸ৃⱘ݊Ҫᳳ䰤‫ˈݙ‬䗦Ѹϔӑ᳔㒜㋶䌨᡹ਞǄ
䲛Џ೼ᬊࠄ㋶䌨᡹ਞ៪ᇍ䖛এ㋶䌨ⱘӏԩ䖯ϔℹ䆕ᯢ䌘᭭ৢ 42 ໽‫៪ˈݙ‬೼䲛Џৃ㛑ᓎ
䆂ᑊ㒣ᡓࣙଚ䅸ৃⱘ݊Ҫᳳ䰤‫ߎخݙ‬ಲᑨˈ㸼⼎ᡍ‫៪ޚ‬ϡᡍ‫ޚ‬ᑊ䰘‫݋‬ԧᛣ㾕ǄҪ䖬ৃҹ㽕
∖ӏԩᖙ䳔ⱘ䖯ϔℹⱘ䌘᭭ˈԚҪҡ㽕೼Ϟ䗄ᯊ䯈‫ݙ‬ᇍ㋶䌨ⱘॳ߭‫ߎخ‬ಲᑨǄ
↣⃵ᳳЁҬℒᑨࣙᣀᏆḍ᥂ড়ৠ᳝݇㾘ᅮ䆕ᯢ᳝ձ᥂ⱘǃᇍӏԩ㋶䌨ⱘᑨҬℒ乱Ǆ䰸
䴲ᑊⳈࠄᦤկⱘ䆺㒚䌘᭭䎇ҹ䆕ᯢ㋶䌨ⱘܼ䚼㽕∖ᰃ᳝ձ᥂ⱘҹࠡˈᡓࣙଚা᳝ᴗᕫࠄ㋶
䌨ЁҪᏆ㛑䆕ᯢᰃ᳝ձ᥂ⱘ䚼ߚǄ
䲛Џᑨᣝ✻㄀ 3.5 ℒ˷⹂ᅮ˹ⱘ㽕∖ˈህҹϟџ乍䖯㸠ଚᅮ៪⹂ᅮ˖ḍ᥂㄀ 8.4 ℒ˷シ
Ꮉᯊ䯈ⱘᓊ䭓˹ⱘ㾘ᅮˈᑨ㒭ќⱘシᎹᯊ䯈(݊ᳳ⒵ࠡ៪ৢ)ⱘᓊ䭓ᳳ(བᵰ᳝)˗੠(៪)ḍ᥂
ড়ৠˈᡓࣙଚ᳝ᴗᕫࠄⱘ䗑ࡴҬℒ(བᵰ᳝)Ǆ
ᴀℒ৘乍㽕∖ᰃᇍ䗖⫼Ѣ㋶䌨ⱘӏԩ݊Ҫᴵℒⱘ䗑ࡴ㽕∖Ǆབᵰᡓࣙଚ᳾㛑䖒ࠄᴀℒ
៪᳝݇ӏԩ㋶䌨ⱘ݊Ҫᴵℒⱘ㽕∖ˈ䰸䴲䆹㋶䌨ḍ᥂ᴀℒ㄀Ѡ↉ⱘ㾘ᅮ㹿ᢦ㒱ˈᇍ㒭ќӏ
ԩᓊ䭓ᳳ੠(៪)䗑ࡴҬℒˈᑨ㗗㰥ᡓࣙଚℸ乍᳾䖒ࠄ㽕∖ᇍ㋶䌨ⱘᕏᑩ䇗ᶹ䗴៤䰏⹡៪ᕅ
ડ(བᵰ᳝)ⱘ⿟ᑺǄ
ჺժϪࢅพၔ‫ݖ‬ԅఉ੡
ѝッᑨᣝ✻㄀ 20.1 ℒ[পᕫѝッྨਬӮⱘ‫އ‬ᅮ]ⱘ㾘ᅮˈ⬅ѝッ㺕‫ྨއ‬ਬӮ(ㅔ⿄ DAB)

㺕‫އ‬Ǆঠᮍᑨ೼ϔᮍ৥঺ϔᮍথߎ䗮ⶹˈᦤߎᣝ㄀ 20.4 ℒᇚѝッᦤѸ DAB ⱘᛣ৥ৢ 28 ໽
‫ˈݙ‬㘨ড়ӏੑϔϾ DABǄ
DAB ᑨᣝϧ⫼ᴵӊЁⱘ㾘ᅮˈ⬅‫݋‬᳝䗖ᔧ䌘Ḑⱘ 1 ৡ៪ 3 ৡҎਬ(Ā៤ਬā)㒘៤Ǆབ
ᵰᇍྨਬӮҎ᭄≵᳝㾘ᅮˈϨঠᮍ≵᳝঺໪ण䆂ˈDAB ᑨ⬅ 3 Ҏ㒘៤Ǆ
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བᵰ DAB ⬅ 3 Ҏ㒘៤ˈ৘ᮍഛᑨ᥼㤤ϔҎˈ᡹Ҫᮍ䅸ৃˈঠᮍᑨৠ䖭ѯ៤ਬणଚˈᑊ
ଚᅮ㄀ϝৡ៤ਬˈℸҎᑨӏੑЎЏᐁǄ
Ԛབᵰড়ৠЁࣙᣀ᳝໛䗝៤ਬৡऩˈ䰸᳝ϡ㛑៪ϡᜓ᥹ফ DAB ⱘӏੑ໪ˈ៤ਬᑨҢৡ
ऩϞⱘҎਬ䗝ᢽǄ
ঠᮍϢ䆹ଃϔ៤ਬ(㺕‫އ‬Ҏ)៪䆹 3 Ҏ៤ਬⱘ↣ϾҎ䯈ⱘण䆂кᑨখ㗗ᴀ䗮⫼ᴵӊ䰘ᔩ
ⱘѝッ㺕‫އ‬ण䆂кⱘϔ㠀ᴵӊˈ㒧ড়ҪӀ䯈ଚᅮⱘℸ㉏ׂ䅶ᛣ㾕ᢳ䅶Ǆ
䆹ଃϔ៤ਬ៪ 3 Ҏ៤ਬЁⱘ↣ϾҎⱘ᡹䝀ᴵӊˈᑨ⬅ঠᮍ೼णଚӏੑᴵӊᯊ݅ৠଚᅮǄ
↣ᮍᑨ䋳ᢙϞ䗄᡹䝀ⱘϔञǄ
བᵰ㒣ঠᮍৠᛣˈҪӀৃҹ೼ӏԩᯊ‫׭‬ӏੑϔԡ៪޴ԡ᳝䗖ᔧ䌘ḐⱘҎਬˈ᳓ҷ DAB
ⱘӏԩϔԡ៪޴ԡ៤ਬǄ䰸䴲ঠᮍ঺᳝ण䆂ˈ೼ᶤϔ៤ਬᢦ㒱ሹ㸠㘠䋷ˈ៪಴݊⅏ѵǃ᮴
㸠Ў㛑࡯ǃ䕲㘠៪ӏੑᳳ⒵㗠ϡ㛑ሹ㸠㘠䋷ᯊˈϞ䗄᳓ҷӏੑेਞ⫳ᬜǄ᳓ҷӏੑᑨᣝ✻
ᴀᴵℒ᠔䗄ᇍ㹿᳓ҷҎ೼ᦤৡ៪ଚᅮᯊ᠔䳔ⱘৠḋᮍᓣ䖯㸠Ǆ
ᇍӏԩ៤ਬⱘӏੑˈৃҹ㒣䖛ঠᮍⳌѦण䆂㒜ℶˈԚ䲛Џ៪ᡓࣙଚ䛑ϡ㛑ऩ⣀䞛প㸠
ࡼǄ䰸䴲ঠᮍ঺᳝ण䆂ˈᇍ DAB(ࣙᣀ↣ԡ៤ਬ)ⱘӏੑᑨ೼ DAB Ꮖህḍ᥂㄀ 20.4 ℒᦤѸ
㒭ᅗⱘѝッ‫އߎخ‬ᅮᯊᳳ⒵ˈ䰸䴲䖭ᯊজ᳝݊Ҫѝッḍ᥂㄀ 20.4 ℒᦤѸ㒭 DABˈ೼ℸᚙ‫މ‬
ϟˈⳌᑨⱘᳳ⒵᮹ᳳᑨᰃ DAB гᇍ䖭ѯѝッ‫އߎخ‬ᅮᯊǄ
ճჺժϪࢅพၔ‫ݖ‬รટ௜Ԅྡྷᄡನ
བᵰϟ߫ӏϔᚙ‫މ‬䗖⫼ˈे˖
z ࠄ㄀ 20.2 ℒ㄀ϔ↉㾘ᅮⱘ᮹ᳳˈঠᮍ᳾㛑ህ DAB ଃϔ៤ਬⱘӏੑ䖒៤ϔ㟈ᛣ㾕Ǆ
z ࠄ䆹᮹ᳳˈӏϔᮍ᳾㛑ᦤৡ DAB ϝҎ៤ਬЁⱘϔҎ(կϔᮍ䅸ৃ)Ǆ
z ࠄ䆹᮹ᳳˈঠᮍ᳾㛑ህ DAB ㄀ 3 ԡ៤ਬ(ᇚᢙӏЏᐁ)ⱘӏੑ䖒៤ϔ㟈ᛣ㾕Ǆ
z ೼ଃϔ៤ਬ៪ 3 Ҏ៤ਬЁⱘϔҎᢦ㒱ሹ㸠㘠䋷ˈ៪಴݊⅏ѵǃ᮴㸠Ў㛑࡯ǃ䕲㘠ǃ
៪ӏੑᳳ⒵㗠ϡ㛑ሹ㸠㘠䋷ৢ 42 ໽‫ˈݙ‬ঠᮍ᳾㛑ህӏੑϔৡ᳓ҷҎਬ䖒៤ϔ㟈
ᛣ㾕Ǆ
䖭ᯊˈ೼ϧ⫼ᴵӊЁᣛᅮⱘӏੑᅲԧ៪㘠ਬˈᑨ೼ӏϔᮍ៪ঠᮍ䇋∖ϟˈᑊ㒣䖛ঠᮍ
䖯㸠ᑨ᳝ⱘणଚৢˈӏੑ DAB 䆹៤ਬǄℸ乍ӏੑᑨᰃ᳔㒜ⱘǃ‫އ‬ᅮᗻⱘǄ↣ᮍᑨ䋳䋷ᬃҬ
㒭䆹ᣛᅮᅲԧ៪ᅬਬ᡹䝀ⱘϔञǄ
௜ԄჺժϪࢅพၔ‫ݖ‬ԅࢅՇ
བᵰঠᮍ䯈থ⫳њ᳝݇៪䍋಴Ѣড়ৠ៪Ꮉ⿟ᅲᮑⱘѝッ(ϡ䆎ӏԩ⾡㉏)ˈࣙᣀᇍ䲛Џ
ⱘӏԩ䆕ᯢǃ‫އ‬ᅮǃᣛ⼎ǃᛣ㾕៪ԄӋⱘӏԩѝッˈ೼Ꮖձ✻㄀ 20.2 ℒ[ѝッ㺕‫ྨއ‬ਬӮⱘ
ӏੑ]੠㄀ 20.3 ℒ[ᇍѝッ㺕‫ྨއ‬ਬӮ᳾㛑পᕫϔ㟈]ⱘ㾘ᅮӏੑ DAB ৢˈӏϔᮍৃҹᇚ䆹
ѝッџ乍ҹк䴶ᔶᓣᦤѸ㒭 DABˈᑊᇚࡃᴀথ䗕㒭঺ϔᮍˈྨᠬ DAB ‫ߎخ‬㺕ᅮǄℸ乍ྨ
ᠬᑨ䇈ᯢᰃḍ᥂ᴀℒ㾘ᅮ‫ⱘߎخ‬Ǆ
ᇍѢ 3 Ҏ DABˈ䆹 DAB ᑨ㹿䅸Ў೼݊Џᐁᬊࠄྨᠬⱘ᮹ᳳᏆᬊࠄ䆹乍ྨᠬǄ
ঠᮍᑨゟे৥ DAB ᦤկˈDAB Ўᇍ䆹ѝッ‫އߎخ‬ᅮৃ㛑䳔㽕ⱘ᠔᳝䌘᭭ǃ⦄എ䖯ܹ
ᴗঞⳌᑨ䆒ᮑǄDAB ᑨ㹿䅸Ўϡᰃ೼䖯㸠ӆ㺕ҎⱘᎹ԰Ǆ
DAB ᑨ೼ᬊࠄℸ乍ྨᠬ៪䰘ᔩüüѝッ㺕‫އ‬ण䆂кϔ㠀ᴵӊ㄀ 6 ᴵЁᦤࠄⱘ乘Ҭℒ乱
ϸ㗙Ё䕗ᰮⱘ᮹ᳳৢ 84 ໽‫៪ˈݙ‬೼ৃ㛑⬅ DAB ᓎ䆂ᑊ㒣ঠᮍ䅸ৃⱘℸ㉏݊Ҫᳳ䰤‫ᦤˈݙ‬
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ߎᅗⱘ‫އ‬ᅮˈ‫އ‬ᅮᑨᰃ᳝⧚⬅ⱘˈᑊ䇈ᯢᰃḍ᥂ᴀℒ㾘ᅮᦤߎⱘǄԚᰃˈབᵰӏϔᮍ᳾㛑
ᇍ↣ԡ៤ਬᣝ✻䰘ᔩ㄀ 6 ᴵⱘ㾘ᅮᦤѸⱘথ⼼ܼ䚼Ҭ⏙ˈ೼Ⳉࠄ䆹থ⼼ܼ䚼㹿Ҭ⏙ࠡˈDAB
ᑨ᳝ᴗϡᦤѸᅗⱘ‫އ‬ᅮǄ‫އ‬ᅮᑨᇍঠᮍ‫݋‬᳝㑺ᴳ࡯ˈঠᮍ䛑ᑨゟे䙉✻ᠻ㸠ˈ䰸䴲ᑊⳈࠄ
བϟ᭛᠔䗄ˈ‫އ‬ᅮ೼টད㾷‫៪އ‬ӆ㺕㺕‫އ‬Ёᑨ‫ׂخ‬ᬍǄ䰸䴲ড়ৠᏆ㹿ᬒᓗǃᢦ㒱៪㒜ℶˈ
ᡓࣙଚᑨ㒻㓁ᣝ✻ড়ৠᅠ៤Ꮉ⿟Ǆ
བᵰӏϔᮍᇍ DAB ⱘ‫އ‬ᅮϡ⒵ᛣˈৃҹ೼ᬊࠄ䆹‫އ‬ᅮ䗮ⶹৢ 28 ໽‫ˈݙ‬ᇚ݊ϡ⒵৥঺
ϔᮍথߎ䗮ⶹǄབᵰ DAB ᳾㛑೼ᬊࠄℸ乍ྨᠬ៪ℸ乍Ҭℒৢ 84 ໽(៪㒣䅸ৃⱘ݊Ҫ)ᳳ䰤
‫އ݊ߎᦤݙ‬ᅮˈ߭ӏϔᮍৃҹ೼䆹ᳳ䰤ᳳ⒵ৢ 28 ໽‫ݙ‬৥঺ϔᮍথߎϡ⒵ⱘ䗮ⶹǄ
೼Ϟ䗄ӏϔᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈ㸼⼎ϡ⒵ⱘ䗮ⶹᑨ䇈ᯢᰃḍ᥂ᴀℒ㾘ᅮথߎⱘˈᑊᑨ䇈ᯢѝッⱘ
џ乍੠ϡ⒵ⱘ⧚⬅Ǆ䰸㄀ 20.7 ℒ[᳾㛑䙉ᅜѝッ㺕‫ྨއ‬ਬӮⱘ‫އ‬ᅮ]੠㄀ 20.8 ℒ[ѝッ㺕‫ྨއ‬
ਬӮӏੑᳳ⒵]᠔䗄ᚙ‫މ‬໪ˈ䰸䴲Ꮖᣝᴀℒ㾘ᅮথߎ㸼⼎ϡ⒵ⱘ䗮ⶹˈӏϔᮍ䛑᮴ᴗⴔ᠟ѝ
ッⱘӆ㺕Ǆ
བᵰ DAB Ꮖህѝッџ乍৥ঠᮍᦤѸњᅗⱘ‫އ‬ᅮˈ㗠ӏϔᮍ೼ᬊࠄ DAB ‫އ‬ᅮৢ 28 ໽
‫ݙ‬ഛ᳾থߎ㸼⼎ϡ⒵ⱘ䗮ⶹˈ߭䆹‫އ‬ᅮᑨᰃ᳔㒜ⱘˈᇍঠᮍഛ᳝㑺ᴳ࡯Ǆ
ဖۚࠓࢅ
བᵰᏆᣝ✻Ϟ䗄㄀ 20.4 ℒথߎњ㸼⼎ϡ⒵ⱘ䗮ⶹˈঠᮍᑨ೼ⴔ᠟ӆ㺕ࠡˈࡾ࡯ҹটད

ᮍᓣᴹ㾷‫އ‬ѝッǄԚᰃˈ䰸䴲ঠᮍ঺᳝ण䆂ˈӆ㺕ৃҹ೼㸼⼎ϡ⒵ⱘ䗮ⶹথߎৢ㄀ 56 ໽៪
݊ৢⴔ᠟䖯㸠ˈेՓ᳾᳒‫خ‬䖛টད㾷‫࡯ࡾⱘއ‬Ǆ
ᄸϪ
ᇍѢ㒣 DAB ‫އⱘߎخ‬ᅮ(བᵰ᳝)᳾㛑៤Ў᳔㒜ⱘ੠᳝㑺ᴳ࡯ⱘӏԩѝッˈ䰸䴲Ꮖ㦋ᕫ

টད㾷‫ˈއ‬ᑨ䗮䖛೑䰙ӆ㺕ᇍ݊‫ߎخ‬᳔㒜㺕‫އ‬Ǆ䰸䴲ঠᮍ঺᳝ण䆂˖
z ѝッᑨḍ᥂೑䰙ଚӮӆ㺕㾘᳔߭㒜㾷‫އ‬Ǆ
z ѝッᑨ⬅ᣝ✻Ϟ䗄㾘߭ӏੑⱘ 3 ԡӆ㺕Ҏ䋳䋷㾷‫އ‬Ǆ
ӆ㺕ᑨҹ㄀ 1.4 ℒ[⊩ᕟ੠䇁㿔]㾘ᅮⱘѸ⌕䇁㿔䖯㸠Ǆ
ӆ㺕Ҏᑨ᳝ᴗ݀ᓔǃᅵᶹ੠ׂᬍϢ䆹ѝッ᳝݇ⱘ䲛Џ(៪݊ҷ㸼)থߎⱘӏԩ䆕кǃ⹂
ᅮǃᣛ⼎ǃᛣ㾕៪ԄӋˈҹঞ DAB ⱘӏԩ‫އ‬ᅮǄ
ӏϔᮍ೼ӆ㺕Ҏⱘ䆝䆐ЁˈᑨϡফҹࠡЎ㦋ᕫ DAB ⱘ‫އ‬ᅮ㗠৥݊ᦤկⱘ䆕᥂៪䆎᥂ˈ
៪೼݊㸼⼎ϡ⒵ⱘ䗮ⶹЁᦤߎⱘϡ⒵ᛣ⧚⬅ⱘ䰤ࠊǄDAB ⱘӏԩ‫އ‬ᅮ䛑ᑨ䆹ৃҹ԰Ўӆ㺕
Ёⱘ䆕᥂Ǆ
ӆ㺕೼Ꮉ⿟シᎹࠡ៪シᎹৢ䛑ৃҹⴔ᠟䖯㸠ǄঠᮍϢ DAB ⱘНࡵϡᕫ಴Ў೼Ꮉ⿟䖯㸠
䖛⿟Ёℷ೼䖯㸠ӏԩӆ㺕㗠ᬍবǄ
รટᆮ೏ჺժϪࢅพၔ‫ݖ‬ԅࢅՇ
೼ҹϟᚙ‫މ‬ϟ˖
z ӏϔᮍ೼㄀ 20.4 ℒ[পᕫѝッ㺕‫ྨއ‬ਬӮⱘ‫އ‬ᅮ]Ё㾘ᅮⱘᳳ䰤‫ݙ‬ഛ᳾থߎ㸼⼎ϡ
⒵ⱘ䗮ⶹǄ
z DAB ⱘ᳝݇‫އ‬ᅮ(བᵰ᳝)Ꮖ៤Ў᳔㒜ⱘǃ᳝㑺ᴳ࡯ⱘǄ
z ᳝ϔᮍ᳾䙉ᅜϞ䗄‫އ‬ᅮǄ
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䖭ᯊˈ঺ϔᮍৃҹ೼ϡᤳᆇ݊ৃ㛑ᢹ᳝ⱘ݊Ҫᴗ߽ⱘᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈḍ᥂㄀ 20.6 ℒ[ӆ㺕]ⱘ

㾘ᅮˈᇚϞ䗄᳾䙉ᅜ‫އ‬ᅮⱘџ乍ᦤѸ䖯㸠ӆ㺕Ǆ೼ℸᚙ‫މ‬ϟˈ㄀ 20.4 ℒ[পᕫѝッ㺕‫ྨއ‬ਬ
Ӯⱘ‫އ‬ᅮ]੠㄀ 20.5 ℒ[টད㾷‫ⱘ]އ‬㾘ᅮᑨϡ䗖⫼Ǆ
ჺժϪࢅพၔ‫ݖ‬ఉ੡୙ਁ
བᵰঠᮍ䯈಴Ϣড়ৠ៪Ꮉ⿟ᅲᮑⳌ݇៪⬅݊ᓩ䍋ⱘ䯂乬ѻ⫳ѝッˈ៪㗙಴ DAB ӏੑᳳ

⒵៪݊Ҫॳ಴ˈ≵᳝ DAB 䖯㸠Ꮉ԰ˈ߭˖㄀ 20.4 ℒ[পᕫѝッ㺕‫ྨއ‬ਬӮⱘ‫އ‬ᅮ]੠㄀ 20.5
ℒ[টད㾷‫ⱘ]އ‬㾘ᅮᑨϡ䗖⫼˗ℸ乍ѝッৃҹḍ᥂㄀ 20.6 ℒ[ӆ㺕]ⱘ㾘ᅮˈⳈ᥹ᦤѸ䖯㸠
ӆ㺕Ǆ
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Unit 16 Sample Forms of Securities
Form of Bid Security (Bank Guarantee)
WHEREAS, [Name of Bidder] (hereinafter called “the Bidder”) has submitted

his bid dated [Date] for the construction of [Name of contract]
(hereinafter called “the Bid”).
KNOW ALL MEN by these presents that We [Name of
Bank]of [Name of Country]having our registered office at ( hereinafter called “ the Bank ”) are
bound unto [Name of Employer ](hereinafter called“the Employer”)in the sum
of for which payment well and truly to be made to the said Employer the Bank binds
himself, his successors and assigns by these presents.
SEALED with the Common Seal of the said Bank this day of .
The conditions of this obligation are:
(1) If the Bidder withdraws his Bid during the period of bid validity specified in the Form of
Bid.
(2) If the Bidder having been notified of the acceptance of his Bid by the Employer during
the period of bid validity.
ķ fails or refuses to execute the Form of Agreement in accordance with the Instructions to
Bidders if required.
ĸ fails or refuses to furnish the Performance Security, in accordance with the Instruction to
Bidders.
We undertake to pay to the Employer up to the above amount upon receipt of his first
written demand, without the Employer having to substantiate his demand, provided that in his
demand the Employer will note that the amount claimed by him is due to him owing to the
occurrence of one or both of the two conditions, specifying the occurred condition or conditions.
This Guarantee will remain in force up to and including the date days after the
deadline for submission of bids as such deadline is stated in the Instructions to Bidders or as it
may be extended by the Employer, notice of which extension(s) to the Bank is hereby waived.
Any demand in respect of this Guarantee should reach the Bank not later than the above date.
DATE SIGNATURE OF THE BANK
WITNESS SEAL
(Signature, Name, and Address)
Form of Bid Security(BOND)
BOND NO. DATE BOND EXECUTED
By this Bond We [Name of Bidder] (hereinafter called “the Principal”)as
Principal and [Name of Surety]of the country of [Name of
Country of Surety], authorized to transact business in the country of [Name

of Country of Employer] (hereinafter called “the Surety”)are held and firmly bound unto [Name
of Employer] (hereinafter called “the Employer”)as Obligee, in the sum of for the
payment of which sum, well and truly to be made, we, the said Principal and Surety bind
ourselves, our successors and assigns, jointly and severally, firmly by these presents.
SEALED with our seals and dated this day of .
WHEREAS, the Principal has submitted a written Bid to the Employer dated the day of
, for the construction of (hereinafter called the “Bid”).
NOW, THEREFORE the conditions of this obligation are:
(1) If the Principal withdraws his Bid during the period of bid validity specified in the Form
of Bid.
(2) If the Principal having been notified of the acceptance of his Bid by the Employer during
the period of bid validity:
ķ fails or refuses to execute the Form of Agreement in accordance with the Instructions to
Bidders, if required.
ĸ fails or refuses to furnish the Performance Security in accordance with the Instructions
to Bidders.
Then this obligation shall remain in full force and effect, otherwise it shall be null and void.
PROVIDED HOWEVER, that the Surety shall not be:
ķ liable for a greater sum than the specified penalty of this bond.
ĸ liable for a greater sum than the difference between the amount of the said Principal’s
Bid and the amount of the Bid that is accepted by the Employer.
The Surety executing this instrument hereby agrees that its obligation will remain in force
up to and including the date days after the deadline for submission of Bids as such
deadline is stated in the Instructions to Bidders or as it may be extended by the Employer, notice
of which extension(s) to the Surety is hereby waived.
PRINCIPAL SURETY
SIGNATURE (S) SIGNATURE (S)
NAME (S) AND TITLE (S) NAME (S)
SEAL
Performance Bank Guarantee (Conditional)
THIS AGREEMENT is made on the day of between

[name of bank] of [ address of bank] (hereinafter called “the Guarantor”) of the one
part and [name of Employer] of [address of Employer] (hereinafter called
“the Employer”) of the other part.
WHEREAS
(1) This Agreement is supplemental to a contract (hereinafter called the Contract) made
between [name of contractor]of [address of Contractor] (hereinafter called
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Unit 16 Sample Forms of Securities g159g
the Contractor) of the one part and the Employer of the other part whereby the Contractor agreed
and undertook to execute the Works of [name of Contract and brief description of the
Works] for the sum of [amount in Contract currency] being the Contract Price.
(2) The Guarantor has agreed to guarantee the due performance of the Contract in the
manner hereinafter appearing.
NOW THEREFORE the Guarantor hereby agrees with the Employer as follows:
ķ If the Contractor (unless relieved from the performance by any clause of the Contract or
by statute or by the decision of a tribunal of competent jurisdiction) shall in any respect fail to
execute the Contract or commit any breach of his obligations thereunder then the Guarantor will
indemnify and pay the Employer the sum of [amount of Guarantee] [in
words ], such sum being payable in the types and proportions of currencies in which the Contract
Price is payable, provided that the Employer or his authorized representative has notified the
Guarantor to that effect and has made a claim against the Guarantor not later than the date of
issue of the Defects Liability Certificate.
ĸ The Guarantor shall not be discharged or released from his guarantee by an arrangement
between the Contractor and the Employer, with or without the consent of the Guarantor, or by
any alteration in the obligations undertaken by the Contractor, or by any forbearance on the part
of the Contractor, whether as to the payment, time, performance of otherwise, and any notice to
the Guarantor of any such arrangement, alteration or forbearance is hereby expressly waived.
Given under our hand on the date first mentioned above.
SIGNED BY . SIGNED BY .
For and behalf of the guarantor For and behalf of the guarantor
in the presence of . in the presence of .
Performance Bank Guarantee (Unconditional)
To: [name and address of Employer]

WHEREAS ______ [name and address of Contractor] (hereinafter called Āthe Contractorā)
has undertaken, in pursuance of Contract No. ______ dated ______ to execute [name of Contract
and brief description of Works] (hereinafter called Āthe Contract.ā);
AND WHEREAS it has been stipulated by you in the said Contract that the Contractor shall
furnish you with a Bank Guarantee by a recognized bank for the sum specified therein as security
for compliance with his obligations in accordance with the Contract;
AND WHEREAS we have agreed to give the Contractor such a Bank Guarantee;
NOW THEREFORE we hereby affirm that we are the Guarantor and responsible to you, on
behalf of the Contractor, up to a total of ______ [amount of Guarantee], ______ [amount in
words], such sum being payable in the types and proportions of currencies in which the Contract
Price is payable, and we undertake to pay you, upon your first written demand and without cavil
or argument, any sum or sums within the limits of ______ [amount of Guarantee] as aforesaid
without your needing to prove or to show grounds or reasons for your demand for the sum
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specified therein.
We hereby waive the necessity of your demanding the said debt from the Contractor before
presenting us with the demand.
We further agree that no change or addition to or other modification of the terms of the
Contract or of the Works to be performed thereunder or of any of the Contract documents that
may be made between you and the Contractor shall in any way release us from any liability under
this guarantee, and we hereby waive notice of any such change, addition, or modification.
This guarantee shall be valid until the issue of defect liability certificate.
SIGNATURE AND SEAL OF THE GUARANTOR
Name of Bank:
Address:
Date:
Performance Bond
By this Bond [name and address of Contractor] as Principal ( hereinafter called
“ the Contractor ”) and [name, legal title and address of surety, bonding company or
insurance company] as Surety (hereinafter called “the Surety”), are held and firmly bound unto
[name and address of Employer] as Obligee (hereinafter called “the Employer”) in the
amount of [amount of Bond] [in words], for the payment of which sum
well and truly to be made in the types and proportions of currencies in which the Contract Price
is payable, the Contractor and the Surety bind themselves, their heirs , executors , administrators,
successors and assigns, jointly and severally, firmly by these presents.
WHEREAS the Contractor has entered into a written Agreement with the Employer dated
the day of for [name of Contract] in accordance with the
documents, plans, specifications and amendments thereto, which to the extent herein provided for,
are by reference made part hereof and are hereinafter referred to as the Contract.
NOW, THEREFORE the Condition of this Obligation is such that, if the Contractor shall
promptly and faithfully perform the said Contract ( including any amendments thereto) then this
obligation shall be null and void; otherwise it shall remain in full force and effect. Whenever the
Contractor shall be, and declared by the Employer to be, in default under the Contract, the
Employer having performed the Employer’s obligations thereunder, the Surety may promptly
remedy the default, or shall promptly:
(1) complete the Contract in accordance with its terms and conditions.
(2) obtain a bid or bids from qualified Bidders for submission to the Employer for
completing the Contract in accordance with its terms and conditions, and upon determination by
the Employer and the Surety of the lowest responsive Bidder, arrange for a Contract between
such Bidder and Employer and make available as work progresses (even though there should be a
default or a succession of defaults under the Contract or Contracts of completion arranged under
this paragraph) sufficient funds to pay the cost of completion less the Balance of the Contract
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Price; but not exceeding, including other costs and damages for which the Surety may be liable
hereunder, the amount set forth in the first paragraph hereof. The term “Balance of the Contract
Price”, as used in this paragraph, shall mean the total amount payable by Employer to Contractor
under the Contract, less the amount properly paid by Employer to Contractor.
(3) pay the Employer the amount required by Employer to complete the Contract in
accordance with its terms and conditions up to a total not exceeding the amount of this Bond.
The Surety shall not be liable for a greater sum than the specified penalty of this Bond.
Any suit under this Bond must be instituted before the expiration of one year from the date
of the issuing of the Defects Liability Certificate.
No right of action shall accrue on this Bond to or for the use of any person or corporation
other than the Employer named herein or the heirs, executors, administrators, successors and
assigns of the Employer.
In testimony whereof, the Contractor has hereunto set his hand and affixed his seal, and the
Surety has caused these presents to be sealed with his corporate seal duly attested by the
signature of his legal representative, this day of .
SIGNED ON SIGNED ON
On behalf of On behalf of
BY BY
In the capacity of In the capacity of
In the presence of In the presence of
Bank Guarantee for Advance Payment

To: [name of Employer ] [address of Employer ] [name
of Contract]
Gentlemen:
In accordance with the provisions of the Conditions of Contract, ( “Advance Payment”) of
the above-mentioned Contract, [name and Address of Contractor] (hereinafter called
“the Contractor”) shall deposit with [name of Employer] a bank guarantee to
guarantee his proper and faithful performance under the said Clause of the Contract in
[amount of Guarantee] [in words].
We, the [bank or financial institution], as instructed by the Contractor, agree
unconditionally and irrevocably to guarantee as primary obligator and not as Surety merely, the
payment to [name of Employer] on his first demand without whatsoever right of
objection on our part and without his first claim to the Contractor, in the amount not exceeding
[amount of Guarantee] [in words].
We further agree that no change or addition to or other modification of the terms of the
Contractor or of Works to be performed or of any of the Contract documents which may be made
between [name of Employer] and the Contractor, shall in any way release us from
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any liability under this guarantee, and we hereby waive notice of any such change, addition or
modification.
This guarantee shall remain valid and in full effect from the date of the advance payment
under the Contract until [name of Employer] receives full repayments of the same
amount from the Contractor.
Yours truly,
SIGNATURE AND SEAL:
Name of Bank/Financial Institution:
Address:
Date:
Questions
1. If the bidder withdraws his bid during the period of bid validity specified in the form of
bid, what should the bank do in accordance with the bank guarantee for bid?
2. If the successful bidder fail or refuse to furnish the performance security, what should
the bank do in accordance with the bank guarantee for bid?
3. What are the conditions of the bank’s obligations in accordance with the bank
guarantee for bid?
4. What are the conditions of the surety’s obligations in accordance with the bid security?
5. If the principal withdraws his bid during the period validity specified in the form of bid,
what should the surety do in accordance with the bid security?
6. Shall the surety be liable for a greater sum than the specified penalty of the bond in
accordance with the bid security?
7. Shall the surety be liable for a greater sum than the difference between the amount of
the principle’s bid and the amount of the bid that is accepted by the employer in
accordance with the bid security?
8. What are the bank’s obligations in accordance with the conditional performance bank
guarantee?
9. What are the obligations of the surety in accordance with the performance bond?
10. What are the conditions of the surety’s obligations in accordance with the performance
bond?
bidder˖ᡩᷛ㗙
registered office˖⊼‫ࡲݠ‬џ໘˗ᘏ݀ৌ
successor˖㒻ᡓҎ
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assignee˖ফ䅽Ҏ
by these presents˖[ᕟ]ḍ᥂ᴀ᭛ӊ
the period of bid validity˖ᡩ᳝ᷛᬜᳳ
written demand˖к䴶㽕∖
guarantee˖ֱ䆕˗ֱ䆕к˗ᢙֱ˗ᢉᢐક
remain in force˖೼᳝ᬜᳳЁˈҡ✊᳝ᬜ
witness˖䆕Ҏ˗԰䆕
principal˖ྨᠬҎ˗ᔧџҎ
surety˖ֱ䆕Ҏ˗ᢙֱҎ
obligee˖؎ᴗҎ˗ᴗⲞҎ
amount of guarantee˖ᢙֱ䞥乱
legal title˖ᴗ߽䆕к˗⊩ᅮᴗ߽
bonding company˖ᢙֱ݀ৌ
insurance company˖ֱ䰽݀ৌ
heir˖㒻ᡓ㗙˗ᡓ㺁㗙
executor˖ᠻ㸠㗙˗㹿ᣛᅮ䘫అᠻ㸠㗙
administrator˖ㅵ⧚Ҏਬ
successor˖᥹ӏ㗙
obligation˖Нࡵ˗؎ࡵ
balance of the contract price˖ড়ৠӋḐԭ乱
penalty˖໘㔮˗㔮ℒ
legal representative˖⊩ᅮҷ㸼
financial institution˖䞥㵡ᴎᵘ
খ 㗗䆥 ᭛
㄀ 16 ऩ‫ܗ‬ ৘㉏ֱ䆕㣗՟Ḑᓣ
෇γͬᄃٌ಴(࿟໻ͬ‫)ۆ‬
䡈Ѣ [ᡩᷛ㗙ৡ⿄](ҹϟ⿄Āᡩᷛ㗙ā)ᏆѢ [᮹ᳳ]Ўᅲ
ᮑ [ড়ৠৡ⿄]䗦Ѹњ݊ᡩᷛк(ҹϟ⿄Āᡩᷛкā)Ǆ
‫ݍ‬ҹᴀ᭛ӊ䆕ᯢ៥Ӏˈ [೑ᆊৡ⿄]೼ [ഄ⚍]䆒᳝⊼‫ࡲݠ‬џ
໘ⱘ [䫊㸠ৡ⿄](ҹϟ⿄Ā䫊㸠ā)ҹϔヨ䞥乱Ў ⱘℒ乍
৥ [䲛Џৡ⿄](ҹϟ⿄Ā䲛Џā)ᢙֱ˗䫊㸠ᇚձ✻ᴀֱߑˈ㑺ᴳ㞾䑿ǃ݊
㒻ᡓҎ੠ফ䅽Ҏˈᅠܼ‫⹂ޚ‬ഄ৥䲛ЏᬃҬϞ䗄ℒ乱Ǆ
䫊㸠Ѣ Ⲫゴᡓ䅸Ǆ
ሹ㸠䖭ϔНࡵⱘᴵӊབϟ˖
g163g
(1) བᵰᡩᷛ㗙೼ᡩᷛкḐᓣЁ㾘ᅮⱘᡩ᳝ᷛᬜᳳ‫ݙ‬᩸ಲ݊ᡩᷛкǄ
(2) ೼ᡩ᳝ᷛᬜᳳ‫ݙ‬Ꮖ᥹ࠄ䲛ЏЁᷛߑⱘᡩᷛ㗙ˈབᵰ˖
ķ ೼㹿㽕∖ᯊˈ᳾㛑៪ᢦ㒱ᣝᡩᷛ㗙乏ⶹㅒ㕆ण䆂к˗
ĸ ᳾㛑៪ᢦ㒱ᣝᡩᷛ㗙乏ⶹ䗦Ѹሹ㑺ֱ䆕Ǆ
ϔᮺ᥹ࠄ䲛Џⱘ㄀ϔ⃵к䴶㽕∖Ϩ݊Ё⊼ᯢ˖⬅Ѣথ⫳њϞ䗄ϔ⾡៪ϸ⾡ᚙ‫݊ˈމ‬㽕
∖ⱘ䌨ٓ乱ᰃᑨҬⱘˈᑊᇍᚙ‫ߎخމ‬њ䇈ᯢˈ៥Ӏे৥䲛ЏᬃҬϞ䗄ᢙֱℒ乱ˈ㗠᮴䳔䲛
ЏЎ݊㽕∖ߎ‫݋‬ӏԩ䆕᥂Ǆ
ᴀֱߑ᳝ᬜᳳЎ䗦Ѹᡩᷛк៾ℶ᮹ᳳৢ ໽(৿ ໽)ˈ䆹៾ℶ᮹ᳳ೼ᡩᷛ
䙔䇋кЁࡴҹ䇈ᯢˈৃ⬅䲛Џࡴҹᓊ䭓ˈϞ䗄ᓊᳳ᮴䳔䗮ⶹ䫊㸠Ǆ᳝݇ᴀֱߑⱘӏԩ㽕∖
ᑨ೼ϡ䖳ѢϞ䗄᮹ᳳࠡ䗮ⶹ䫊㸠Ǆ
᮹ᳳ䫊㸠ㅒᄫ
䆕Ҏㅒゴ
(ㅒৡˈྦྷৡˈഄഔ)
෇γͬᄃٌ಴(Ӥͬ)
ᢙֱк㄀ ো ᢙֱ⫳ᬜ᮹ᳳ
ḍ᥂ℸᢙֱˈ៥Ӏ [ᡩᷛҎৡ⿄](ҹϟ⿄ĀྨᠬҎā)԰ЎྨᠬҎৠ㦋‫ޚ‬
೼ [䲛Џ೑ᆊⱘৡ⿄]ҢџϮࡵⱘ [ᢙֱҎ೑ᆊⱘৡ⿄]ⱘ [ᢙֱҎৡ
⿄](ҹϟ⿄ĀᢙֱҎā)ˈമᅮϨⳳ䆮ഄ䋳䋷৥ᴗⲞҎ [䲛Џৡ⿄](ҹϟ⿄Ā䲛Џā)ᢙ
ֱˈᢙֱᘏ乱Ў Ǆ៥ӀྨᠬҎ੠ᢙֱҎ݅ৠഄϨ৘㞾ഄϹḐ䙉ᅜᴀ᭛ӊⱘ㾘ᅮˈ㑺ᴳ
㞾Ꮕঞ৘㞾ⱘ㒻ᡓҎ੠ফ䅽Ҏᅠܼ‫⹂ޚ‬ഄᬃҬϞ䗄ℒ乱Ǆ
ঠᮍᏆѢㅒゴЎ᥂Ǆ
䡈ѢྨᠬҎᏆѢ ᮹৥䲛Џ䗦Ѹњ ⱘᎹ⿟ⱘк䴶ᡩᷛк(ҹϟ
⿄Āᡩᷛкā)Ǆ
Ўℸˈሹ㸠ᴀНࡵⱘᴵӊབϟ˖
(1) བᵰྨᠬҎ೼ᡩᷛк䇈ᯢⱘᡩ᳝ᷛᬜᳳ‫ݙ‬᩸ಲ݊ᡩᷛкǄ
(2) ೼ᡩ᳝ᷛᬜᳳ‫ݙ‬Ꮖ᥹ࠄ䲛ЏЁᷛߑⱘྨᠬҎˈབᵰ˖
ķ ೼㹿㽕∖ᯊˈ᳾㛑៪ᢦ㒱ᣝᡩᷛ㗙乏ⶹㅒ㕆ण䆂˗
ĸ ᳾㛑៪ᢦ㒱ᣝᡩᷛ㗙乏ⶹ䗦Ѹሹ㑺ֱ䆕Ǆ
߭ᴀᢙֱНࡵֱᣕᅠܼ᳝ᬜǄ৺߭ˈᴀᢙֱНࡵᇚ㒜ℶᑊ᮴ᬜǄ
ԚᢙֱҎᇚϡ䋳䋷ᬃҬ˖
ķ 䍙䖛ᴀᢙֱк᠔߫ⱘ䌨ٓ䞥乱ⱘℒ乱˗
ĸ 䍙䖛Ϟ䗄ྨᠬҎⱘᡩᷛкⱘ䞥乱Ϣ䲛Џ᠔᥹ফⱘᡩᷛк䞥乱ПᏂ乱ⱘℒ乱Ǆ
ㅒ㕆ᴀ᭛ӊⱘᢙֱҎৠᛣᴀ᭛ӊⱘ᳝ᬜᳳЎ䗦Ѹᡩᷛк៾ℶ᮹ᳳৢ ໽(৿ ໽)ˈ
䆹៾ℶ᮹ᳳ೼ᡩᷛ䙔䇋кЁࡴҹ䇈ᯢˈৃ⬅䲛Џࡴҹᓊ䭓ˈϞ䗄ᓊᳳ᮴䳔䗮ⶹᢙֱҎǄ
ྨᠬҎ ᢙֱҎ
ㅒ ৡ ㅒ ৡ
ྦྷৡঞഄഔ ྦྷ ৡ
Ⲫ ゴ
g164g
࿟໻োၟͬ‫(ۆ‬ပඨߑԅ)
ᴀֱ䆕кҹഄഔЎ [䫊㸠ഄഔ]ⱘ [䫊㸠ৡ⿄] (ҹϟ⿄Āֱ䆕Ҏā)Ў

ϔᮍˈҹഄഔЎ [䲛Џഄഔ]ⱘ [䲛Џৡ⿄](ҹϟ⿄Ā䲛Џā)Ў঺ϔ
ᮍˈѢ 䅶ゟǄ
䡈Ѣ˖
(1) ᴀֱ䆕кЎҹഄഔЎ [ᡓࣙଚഄഔ]ⱘ [ᡓࣙଚৡ⿄] (ҹϟ⿄Āᡓࣙ
ଚā)Ўϔᮍˈҹ䲛ЏЎ঺ϔᮍ㗠䅶ゟⱘড়ৠӋḐЎ [ᣝড়ৠӋḐ㽕∖ⱘ䋻Ꮥⱘ᭄
乱]ⱘড়ৠ(ҹϟ⿄Āড়ৠā)ⱘ㸹‫ˈܙ‬ḍ᥂䆹ড়ৠᡓࣙଚᏆৠᛣᡓᢙᑊᅲᮑ [Ꮉ⿟ঞড়
ৠৡ⿄]Ꮉ⿟Ǆ
(2) ֱ䆕Ҏৠᛣֱ䆕ҹϟ᭛᠔䗄ᮍᓣℷ⹂ሹ㸠ড়ৠǄ
೼ℸˈֱ䆕Ҏ৥䲛Џᡓ䇎˖
ķ བᵰᡓࣙଚ೼ӏԩᮍ䴶᳾㛑ሹ㸠ড়ৠ៪ড়ৠ㾘ᅮⱘНࡵ(䰸䴲ড়ৠᴵℒǃ⊩㾘៪᳝
Џㅵᴗ䰤ⱘ⊩ᒁ‫އ‬ᅮ‫ܡ‬䰸݊Нࡵ)ˈֱ䆕ҎᇚٓҬ䲛Џᘏ乱Ў [ᢙֱ䞥
乱] [᭛ᄫ᭄Ⳃ]ⱘℒ乱ˈԚᴵӊᰃ䲛Џ៪݊ᥜᴗⱘҷ㸼乏Ўℸ䗮ⶹֱ䆕ҎϨ೼ϡ䖳
Ѣㅒথ㔎䱋䋷ӏ䆕кП᮹ࠡᦤߎ㽕∖Ǆ
ĸ ᡓࣙଚϢ䲛ЏП䯈㒣䖛៪᳾㒣ֱ䆕Ҏৠᛣⱘण䆂ˈ៪ᡓࣙଚᡓᢙⱘНࡵⱘӏԩব
᳈ˈ៪ᡓࣙଚᮍ䴶ⱘӏԩᆑ䰤ˈ᮴䆎ᰃ৺⍝ঞҬℒǃᯊ䯈៪ሹ㑺ˈഛϡ㾷䰸ֱ䆕Ҏ᠔ᡓᢙ
ⱘֱ䆕НࡵǄℸ㉏ण䆂ǃব᳈៪ᆑ䰤᮴䳔䗮ⶹֱ䆕ҎǄ
‫ݍ‬Ѣᴀֱߑᓔ‫݋‬᮹ᳳঠᮍㅒᄫЎ᥂Ǆ
⬅ ⬅
ҷ㸼ֱ䆕Ҏ ҷ㸼䲛Џ
೼ (䆕ᯢҎ)ⱘ䆕ᯢϟ ೼ (䆕ᯢҎ)ⱘ䆕ᯢϟ
ㅒৡ ㅒৡ
࿟໻োၟͬ‫ํ(ۆ‬ඨߑԅ)
㟈˖ [䲛Џৡ⿄]
>䲛Џഄഔ@
䡈Ѣ˖ [ᡓࣙଚৡ⿄ঞഄഔ](ҹϟ⿄Āᡓࣙଚā)ḍ᥂ [᮹ᳳ]ㅒᄫⱘ㓪
োЎ ⱘড়ৠˈᏆᡓᢙᅲᮑ [Ꮉ⿟ঞড়ৠৡ⿄](ҹϟ⿄Āড়ৠā)˗
䡈Ѣ˖Դᮍ೼Ϟ䗄ড়ৠЁ㾘ᅮˈᡓࣙଚᑨ৥Դᮍ䗦Ѹϔᇕ⬅Դᮍ䅸ৃⱘ䫊㸠ᓔ‫ⱘ݋‬䫊
㸠ֱߑˈҹ݊Ё㾘ᅮⱘ䞥乱԰Ўᡓࣙଚሹ㸠݊ড়ৠЁ㾘ᅮⱘНࡵⱘֱ䆕Ǆ
䡈Ѣ˖៥ӀᏆৠᛣЎ䆹ᡓࣙଚᦤկℸ乍䫊㸠ֱߑǄ
೼ℸˈ៥Ӏ⹂䅸˖԰Ўֱ䆕Ҏˈ៥Ӏҷ㸼ᡓࣙଚ৥Դᮍ䋳䋷ˈᇚҹᬃҬড়ৠӋḐⱘ䋻
Ꮥ⾡㉏੠↨՟৥ԴᮍᬃҬᢙֱᘏ乱Ў [ֱ䆕䞥᭄乱] [᭛ᄫ᭄Ⳃ]ⱘℒ乱Ǆϔᮺ᥹
ࠄԴӀⱘ㄀ϔ⃵к䴶㽕∖ˈ៥Ӏे᮴ᴵӊ᮴ѝ䆂ഄ৥ԴᮍᬃҬϞ䗄ᢙֱ䞥乱 [ֱ䆕
䞥᭄乱]‫ⱘݙ‬ϔヨ៪᭄ヨℒ乱ǄᬃҬϞ䗄ℒ乱ᯊˈϡ䳔㽕ԴᮍЎ㋶পϞ䗄ℒ乱ߎ⼎䆕ᯢ៪ᦤ
ߎ⧚⬅Ǆ
៥Ӏ䅸Ўˈ೼Դᮍ৥៥Ӏᦤߎ㽕∖ПࠡˈԴᮍ᮴䳔৥ᡓࣙଚᦤߎ㋶পϞ䗄؎ℒⱘ㽕∖Ǆ
៥Ӏ䖯ϔℹৠᛣˈড়ৠᴵℒǃձ᥂ড়ৠᴵℒᢳᅲᮑⱘᎹ⿟៪ԴᮍϢᡓࣙଚৃ㛑ㅒ䅶ⱘ
ӏԩড়ৠ᭛ӊㄝᮍ䴶ⱘӏԩ᳈ᬍǃ๲ࡴ៪ׂℷˈഛϡ㾷䰸ᴀֱߑЁ៥Ӏⱘӏԩ䋷ӏˈᑊϨ
g165g
៥Ӏ೼ℸϡ㽕∖Դᮍ৥៥Ӏথ䗕᳝݇Ϟ䗄᳈ᬍǃ๲ࡴ៪ׂℷⱘ䗮ⶹǄ
ᴀֱߑ᳝ᬜᳳ៾ℶࠄㅒথ㔎䱋䋷ӏ䆕кП᮹Ǆ
ֱ䆕Ҏㅒᄫ੠Ⲫゴ
䫊㸠ৡ⿄
ഄ ഔ
᮹ ᳳ
োၟӤͬ
ḍ᥂ℸሹ㑺ᢙֱˈ [ᡓࣙଚৡ⿄ঞഄഔ]԰ЎྨᠬҎ(ҹϟ⿄Āᡓࣙଚā)
ৠ (ᢙֱҎǃᢙֱ݀ৌ៪ֱ䰽݀ৌৡ⿄ǃ⊩ᅮ䌘Ḑঞഄഔ)԰ЎᢙֱҎ(ҹϟ
⿄ĀᢙֱҎā)ˈമᅮ㗠ⳳ䆮ഄЎ԰ЎᴗⲞҎⱘ [䲛Џৡ⿄ঞഄഔ](ҹϟ⿄Ā䲛Џā)
ᢙֱˈᢙֱ䞥乱Ў [ᢙֱ䞥乱] [᭛ᄫ᭄Ⳃ]Ǆᡓࣙଚ੠ᢙֱҎ݅ৠഄϨ৘㞾
ഄϹḐḍ᥂ᴀ᭛ӊ㾘ᅮˈ㑺ᴳ㞾Ꮕঞ৘㞾ⱘ㒻ᡓҎǃ䘫అᠻ㸠Ҏǃ䘫ѻㅵ⧚Ҏǃ㒻ӏҎ੠
ফ䅽Ҏˈᅠܼ‫⹂ޚ‬ഄҹᬃҬড়ৠӋḐⱘ䋻Ꮥ⾡㉏੠ᣝ↨՟ᬃҬϞ䗄ℒ乱Ǆ
䡈ѢᡓࣙଚϢ䲛Џḍ᥂ড়ৠ᭛ӊǃ䅵ߦǃ㾘㣗ঞׂ݊ℷ‫ݙ‬ᆍЎ [ড়ৠৡ⿄]
Ѣ ㅒ㕆њण䆂кǄᣝℸ໘߫ᯢⱘ‫ݙ‬ᆍˈϞ䗄᭛ӊҹখ✻ᔶᓣᵘ៤䆹ण䆂кⱘ㒘៤䚼
ߚˈҹϟ㒳⿄ЎĀড়ৠā Ǆ
Ўℸˈ⡍ゟ㑺བϟ˖བᵰᡓࣙଚ㛑䖙䗳ᖴᅲഄሹ㸠Ϟ䗄ড়ৠ(ࣙᣀᇍ݊ӏԩׂℷⱘ‫ݙ‬
ᆍ)ˈ߭ᴀᢙֱНࡵᇚ㒜ℶᑊ᮴ᬜˈ৺߭ᴀᢙֱНࡵᇚֱᣕᅠܼ᳝ᬜǄ᮴䆎ԩᯊˈབᵰᡓࣙ
ଚ䖱㚠ড়ৠϨ䲛Џໄᯢᡓࣙଚ䖱㑺ˈ㗠䲛ЏᏆሹ㸠њ݊೼ড়ৠЁ㾘ᅮⱘНࡵˈ߭ᢙֱҎᑨ
䖙䗳ഄЎ䖱㑺䖯㸠㸹ٓˈ៪ᑨゟे˖
(1) ḍ᥂ড়ৠᴵℒ੠ᴵӊᅠ៤ড়ৠǄ
(2) Ўᣝ✻ড়ৠᴵℒ੠ᴵӊᅠ៤ᴀড়ৠˈҢড়ḐⱘᡩᷛҎ໘䗝পϔӑ៪᭄ӑᡩᷛкˈ
ᦤѸ䲛Џ˗೼䲛Џ੠ᢙֱҎ݅ৠ⹂ᅮᷛӋ᳔ԢϨヺড়㽕∖ⱘᡩᷛҎПৢˈᅝᥦ䆹ᡩᷛҎϢ
䲛Џㅒ㕆ড়ৠǄ䖬ᑨḍ᥂Ꮉ⿟䖯ᑺᅝᥦ‫ܙ‬䎇ⱘ䌘䞥ˈ⫼ѢᬃҬᠷ䰸ড়ৠӋḐԭ乱П໪ⱘシ
Ꮉ䌍⫼(ेՓ೼བℸᅝᥦⱘϔ乍៪໮乍ড়ৠⱘᠻ㸠Ё䖬Ӯߎ⦄䖱㑺៪໮⃵䖱㑺)ˈԚࣙᣀᢙ
ֱҎৃ㛑ᑨᬃҬⱘ݊Ҫ䌍⫼੠ᤳ༅ˈᘏ䞥乱ϡᕫ䍙䖛Ϟ䗄㄀ϔ↉᠔߫ⱘᢙֱ䞥乱Ǆᴀ↉Ё
ⱘĀড়ৠӋḐԭ乱āᰃᣛˈᣝড়ৠ䲛ЏᑨҬ㒭ᡓࣙଚⱘܼ䚼䞥乱‫ޣ‬এ䲛ЏᏆড়⧚Ҭ㒭ᡓࣙ
ଚⱘ䞥乱ৢԭϟⱘℒ乱᭄䞣Ǆ
(3) ᣝ䲛Џⱘ㽕∖ᬃҬ㒭䲛Џℒ乱ˈҹ⫼Ѣḍ᥂ড়ৠᴵℒ੠ᴵӊᅠ៤ড়ৠˈԚᘏ乱ϡ
ᕫ䍙䖛ᴀᢙֱк᠔ᢙֱⱘ䞥乱Ǆ
ᢙֱҎϡ䋳䋷ᬃҬ໻Ѣᴀᢙֱк᠔㾘ᅮⱘ䌨ٓ䞥乱ⱘℒ乱Ǆ
ḍ᥂ᴀᢙֱкⱘ䆝䆐ᖙ乏೼Ңㅒথ㔎䱋䋷ӏ䆕к᮹ᳳㅫ䍋ⱘϔᑈᳳ⒵ПࠡᦤߎǄ
䰸ᴀᢙֱкᣛᅮⱘ䲛Џ៪䲛Џⱘ㒻ᡓҎǃ䘫అᠻ㸠Ҏǃ䘫ѻㅵ⧚Ҏǃ㒻ᡓҎ੠ফ䅽Ҏ
໪ˈӏԩϾҎ៪㒘㒛ഛ᮴ᴗᇍᴀᢙֱᦤߎ䆝䆐ˈгϡᕫ㸠Փ䖭⾡ᴗ࡯Ǆ
ᡓࣙଚᏆㅒᄫⲪゴˈᢙֱҎᏆ⬅݊⊩ᅮҷ㸼ㅒᄫᑊࡴⲪ݀ゴˈ⡍ℸЎ䆕Ǆㅒ㕆᮹
ᳳ Ǆ
Ѣ [᮹ᳳ] Ѣ [᮹ᳳ]
⬅ ⬅
ҹ ⱘ䌘Ḑ ҹ ⱘ䌘Ḑ
g166g
ҷ㸼 ҷ㸼
೼ 䆕ᯢϟ ೼ 䆕ᯢϟ
ㅒᄫ ㅒᄫ
࿟໻၇ؑࣛͬ‫ۆ‬
㟈˖ [䲛Џৡ⿄] [䲛Џഄഔ] [ড়ৠৡ⿄]
‫⫳ܜ‬Ӏ˖ḍ᥂Ϟ䗄ড়ৠЁড়ৠᴵӊ㄀ 60.1 ℒ˄ Ā乘Ҭℒā˅ⱘ㾘ᅮˈ [ᡓࣙଚৡ
⿄ঞഄഔ]˄ҹϟ⿄Āᡓࣙଚā˅ᑨ৥ [䲛Џৡ⿄]ᦤѸϔӑ䫊㸠ֱߑˈҹֱ䆕݊ℷ⹂
ᖴᅲഄሹ㸠Ϟ䗄ড়ৠᴵℒ᠔㾘ᅮⱘНࡵˈֱ䆕䞥乱Ў [ֱ䆕䞥乱] [᭛ᄫ
᭄Ⳃ]Ǆ
៥Ӏ [䫊㸠៪䞥㵡ᴎᵘ]ˈᣝ✻ᡓࣙଚⱘᣛ⼎ˈ᮴ᴵӊഄϨϡৃ᩸ಲഄৠᛣ԰
ЎЏ㽕؎ࡵҎ㗠ϡҙҙᰃᢙֱҎˈ৥䲛Џֱ䆕ˈ೼䲛Џ㄀ϔ⃵ᦤߎ㽕∖ᯊˈ៥Ӏे↿᮴ᓖ
䆂ഄ৥䲛ЏҬℒˈԚ䞥乱ϡᕫ䍙ߎ [ֱ䆕䞥乱] [᭛ᄫ᭄Ⳃ]ˈϨԴᮍ᮴䳔
‫ܜ‬৥ᡓࣙଚᦤߎϞ䗄㽕∖Ǆ
៥Ӏ䖬ৠᛣˈড়ৠᴵℒǃ᥂ℸড়ৠᢳᅲᮑⱘᎹ⿟៪ [䲛Џৡ⿄]Ϣᡓࣙଚৃ
㛑ㅒ䅶ⱘӏԩড়ৠ᭛ӊㄝᮍ䴶ⱘ᳈ᬍǃ๲ࡴ៪ׂℷˈഛϡ㾷䰸ᴀֱߑЁ៥Ӏⱘӏԩ䋷ӏǄ
ᑊϨˈ៥Ӏ೼ℸϡ㽕∖Դᮍ৥៥Ӏথ䗕᳝݇Ϟ䗄᳈ᬍǃ๲ࡴ៪ׂℷⱘ䗮ⶹǄ
ᴀֱߑⱘ᳝ᬜᳳЎ˖㞾ড়ৠ㾘ᅮⱘ乘ҬℒᬃҬП᮹䍋ࠄ [䲛Џৡ⿄]Ңᡓࣙଚᬊ
ಲܼ䚼ٓ䖬ⱘ乘ҬℒЎℶǄ
Դⱘᖴᅲⱘˈ
ㅒৡⲪゴ
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খ 㗗 ᭛ ⤂
[1] Chris Hendrickson. Project Management for Construction [M]. Second Edition prepared for world
wide web publication, 2008.
[2] [㕢]‫ܟ‬䞠ᮃgTg㗄㾝‫ܟ‬Ể. ᓎ䆒乍Ⳃㅵ⧚[M]. ᕤ࢛ៜˈ᳍ঢ়号ˈㄝ䆥. ࣫Ҁ˖催ㄝᬭ㚆ߎ⠜⼒ˈ
2005.
[3] FIDIC. Guide to the Use of FIDIC ˉ Conditions of Contract for Works of Civil Engineering
Construction [M]. Fourth Edition. Lausanne, 1989.
[4] ਼ৃ㤷. ೑䰙Ꮉ⿟ㅵ⧚ϧϮ㣅䇁䯙䇏䗝㓪[M]. ࣫Ҁ˖Ё೑ᓎㄥᎹϮߎ⠜⼒ˈ2005.
[5] Jack Gido, James P. Clements. Successful Project Management [M]. South-Western College Publishing,
1999.
[6] [㕢]ঢ়໮ˈ‫ܟ‬㦅䮼ᮃ. ៤ࡳⱘ乍Ⳃㅵ⧚[M]. ᓴ䞥៤ˈ䆥. ࣫Ҁ˖ᴎẄᎹϮߎ⠜⼒ˈ2004.
[7] FIDIC. FIDIC Conditions of Contract For EPC/Turnkey Projects -The Silver Book [M]. Lausanne,
1989.
[8] ᓴ∈⊶. FIDIC 䆒䅵üüᓎ䗴ϢѸ䩹࣭Ꮉ⿟ড়ৠᴵӊᑨ⫼ᣛफ[M]. ࣫Ҁ˖Ё೑ᓎㄥᎹϮߎ⠜⼒,
1999.
[9] Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge [M]. Newtown
Square, Pennsylvania, 2000.
[10] Barrie, Donald S., Boyd C. Paulson. Professional Construction Management [M]. McGraw-Hill,
1984.
[11] Ahuja, H. N., W. J. Campbell. Estimating: From Concept to Completion [M]. Prentice Hall, 1987.
[12] Clark, J. E. Structural Concrete Cost Estimating [M]. McGraw-Hill, 1983.
[13] Moder, J.C. Phillips, E. Davis. Project Management with CPM, PERT and Precedence
Diagramming [M]. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1983.
[14] Baker, K. An Introduction to Sequencing and Scheduling [M]. John Wiley, 1974.
[15] Willis, E. M. Scheduling Construction Projects [M]. John Wiley, 1986.

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21 Ϫ㑾ܼ೑ᑨ⫼ൟᴀ⾥ೳ᳼ᓎㄥ㋏߫ᅲ⫼㾘ߦᬭᴤ

೒к೼⠜㓪Ⳃ &,3 ᭄᥂

Unit 2 The Employer .................................................................................................................................. 14

Unit 3 Cost Estimation .............................................................................................................................. 21

Unit 4 The Project Budget(1).................................................................................................................. 32

Unit 5 The Project Budget(2)——Forecasting for Activity Cost Control ............................... 42

Unit 6 The Contractor ................................................................................................................................ 52

Unit 7 Types of Construction Contracts ............................................................................................. 68

Unit 8 Tendering Procedure(1) .............................................................................................................. 76

Unit 9 Tendering Procedure(2) .............................................................................................................. 84

Unit 10 Project Finance ............................................................................................................................ 91

Unit 11 The Critical Path Method ....................................................................................................... 106

Unit 12 Schedule Control(1) ................................................................................................................. 121

Unit 13 Schedule Control(2) ................................................................................................................. 130

Unit 14 Innovation and Technological & Economic Feasibility............................................... 139

Unit 15 Claims, Disputes and Arbitration ........................................................................................ 147

Unit 16 Sample Forms of Securities.................................................................................................. 157

খ㗗᭛⤂ ........................................................................................................................................................... 168

Unit 1 Organizing for Project Management

Organization of Project Participants

Figure 1.1 A Matrix Organization

Figure 1.2 A Project-Oriented Organization

Traditional Designer-Constructor Sequence

Professional Construction Management

the organization of the mega-project.

Figure 1.3 Organization of a District of Corps of Engineers

consultants in a turnkey project arrangement. A contractor agrees to provide the completed

Leadership and Motivation for the Project Team

Vocabulary, Phrases and Expressions

Unit 2 The Employer

Right of Access to the Site

Vocabulary, Phrases and Expressions

the employer’s requirements˖䲛Џ㽕∖

↣ᔧᴀᴵӊ㾘ᅮ䲛Џᑨᣝ✻㄀ 3.5 ℒᇍӏԩџ乍䖯㸠ଚᅮ៪⹂ᅮᯊˈ䲛ЏᑨϢᡓࣙଚ

Unit 3 Cost Estimation

Costs Associated with Constructed Facilities

reflect the information available at the time of estimation.

Vocabulary, Phrases and Expressions

Unit 4 The Project Budget(1)

Table 4-1 Illustrative Set of Project Cost Accounts

201 Clearing and Preparing Site

203 Outside Utilities (water, gas, sewer, etc.)

205 Paving, Curbs, Walks

In developing or implementing a system of cost accounts, an appropriate numbering or

Table 4-2 Example of a Small Project Budget for a Design Firm

Personnel Budget Summary/dollar

Example 4.2 Project Budget for a Constructor.

Table 4-3 An Example of a Project Budget for a Wharf Project

Material Cost/$ Subcontract Temporary Machinery Total Cost/$

1. How is the original detailed cost estimate converted to a project budget?

Vocabulary, Phrases and Expressions

ㅵ⧚䌍 175 869.60

ᴤ᭭䌍$ ড়ৠߚࣙ䌍$ ᱖ᅮᎹ԰䌍$ ᴎẄ䌍$ ऩ乍∛ᘏ$

Unit 5 The Project Budget(2)üü

Table 5-1 Illustration of a Job Status Report

Budgeted Estimated Cost Cost Cost To Over or

z Estimated total cost.

amount of piping to estimate the percentage of piping work completed.

Figure 5.1 Illustration of Proportion Completion versus Expenditure for an Activity

1. What’s the disadvantage of traditional financial accounting schemes?

Vocabulary, Phrases and Expressions

乘ㅫ 乘䅵 ᡓ䇎 䰘ࡴ ᅠᎹ 䍙ᬃ៪

݊ЁˈCt ЎᶤᎹ԰೼ t ᯊࠏ᠔থ⫳ⱘ៤ᴀˈPt Ў t ᯊࠏᶤᎹ԰ᅠᎹⱘⱒߚ↨Ǆ՟བˈᶤ

‫ܗ‬+45h800 㕢‫=ܗ‬76 000 㕢‫ܗ‬Ǆ⊼ᛣˈ䖭䞠䴶ߚ߿⫼ࠄњᏆᅠᎹ 800 Ͼࢇࡼऩ‫ⱘܗ‬ᅲ䰙ᑇ

೒к೼⠜㓪Ⳃ&,3᭄᥂

ᴤ᭭䌍$ ড়ৠߚࣙ䌍$ ᱖ᅮᎹ԰䌍$ ᴎẄ䌍$ ऩ乍∛ᘏ$

乘ㅫ 乘䅵 ᡓ䇎䰘ࡴ ᅠᎹ 䍙ᬃ៪