Commonly Utilized Feed Ingredients For C PDF

ISBN: 978-9970-452-01-9
Fisheries & Aquaculture
Proceedings of the Cluster Workshop
Editors: R. Mdegela
J. Rutaisire
J. Obua
S. Okoth
Inter-University Council for East Africa

Lake Victoria Research Initiative
Fisheries & Aquaculture
Cluster Proceeding
Proceedings of the Cluster Workshop
12th - 14th December 2010

Mwanza, Tanzania
Editors: R. Mdegela
J. Rutaisire
J. Obua
S. Okoth
Inter-University Council for East Africa

Lake Victoria Research Initiative
Copyright © 2010 IUCEA
Fisheries & Aquaculture Cluster Proceedings
Table of Contents
1. Improving Livelihoods of Fishing Communities in the Lake Victoria Basin: An
Overview of Selected Landing Sites in Uganda. Akumu, J., Bwanuka, G., Makombe, I,
and Chamwali, A. .......................................................................................................... 7
2. Technology for Small-Scale Drying of Fish and its By-products. Elisante, E., Chove, B.
and Muchunguzi, C. .......................................................................................................21
3. Riparian Vegetation Propagation for Improved Fisheries Productivity in Lake Victoria

Region. Gichira, R ........................................................................................................34
4. Business Planning, Development and Management for Aquaculture. Kamundia P.W.,

Mbuthia P.G., Waruiru R. M., Njagi L. W., Nyaga P. N., Mdegela, R.H., Byarugaba, D.
K. and Otieno R.O ..................................................................................................... 42
5. Participation of Women in Fish Trade: A Case Study of Tanzania. Kituu, G.M.,

Shitanda, D., Silayo, V., Odote, P., Bongyereire, J....................................................... 50
6. Current State of Handling, Processing and Quality of Omena Rastrionebola argentea

in Mfangano and Rusinga Islands, Kenya. Jumbe, J., Kibas, P., Kakongoro, D., &
Tumwebaze, R. ........................................................................................................... 69
7. Convergence of Scientific Experiments and Local Knowledge in Aquaculture:

Approaches, Possibilities and Challenges. Kakembo, F., Radull, J., Isyagi, N., Kishe, M.
......................................................................................................................................80
8. Occurrence of Trypanosoma in Nile tilapia in Lake Victoria, Kenya. Kamundia P.W.,

Mbuthia P.G., Waruiru R. M., Njagi L. W., Nyaga P. N., Mdegela, R.H., Byarugaba, D.
K. and Otieno R.O ...................................................................................................... 83
9. Effect of brining on the drying rate of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in a solar tunnel
dryer. Kituu, G.M., Shitanda, D., Silayo, V., Odote, P., Bongyereire, J .................... 99
10. Distribution, Abundance, Diversity and Utilization of Fresh-Water Mollusc Shells for
Improved Community Livelihoods around Lake Victoria. Kokwaro, E., Mwebaza-
Ndawula, L., Aseka, E and Nguma, F........................................................................ 112
11. Assessment of Possible Sources of Endocrine Disruptors and Microbial Pathogens and
their Impacts in the Lake Victoria Basin in the East African Region. Mdegela, R.H.,
Mbuthia, P.G., Byarugaba, D.K.,Mtenga,K. and Kamundia, P.W............................... 124
12. Commonly utilized feed ingredients for culture of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus
L.) and African catfish (Clarias gariepinus Burchell) in Kenya, Tanzania and Rwanda.
5
Munguti, J., Charo-Karisa, H., Opiyo, M.A. Marijani, E. and Nzayisenga, L. .......... 144
13. Fish Species Composition and Feeding Habits in Rivers Kisian and Awach, Kenya.
Mwangi, B.M., Gatheri, B.W., Ntambi, B., Shilla, D, Ombogo, M.A. and Mugalu. D. ....
......................................................................................................................................153
14. Improving Farm yields, Income and Environmental Sustainability through Integrated
Aquaculture-Agriculture in the Lake Victoria Basin. Mwayuli, G. A., Getabu, A.,
Shoko, A. and Kabonesa, C. ...................................................................................... 165
15. I Role of Pond Fish Farming on Socio-Economic Development of Rwanda. Nzayisenga,

L., Harrison Charo, H., Nzayisenga, L. Marijani, E.,
Munguti, J. ................................................................................................................. 174
16. Developing Decentralised Rice Seed and Fish Fingerling Production Strategies in
Farmers’ Ricefields in the Lake Victoria Basin. Rasowo, J., Auma, E.O., Ssanyu, G. and
Ndunguru, M.J. ......................................................................................................... 186
17. Epidemiological Factors Affecting Survival of African Catfish Clarias Gariepinus

Larvae, Fry and Fingerlings in Hatcheries in Uganda. Rutaisire, J., Okechi, J., Boera, P.
and Ssekaayi, J. ......................................................................................................... 195
18. Heat Induced Sex Reversal in Oreochromis niloticus in Lake Victoria basin. Waindi,
E.N., Owori-Wadunde, A. and Nkwabi, N................................................................ 158
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Fisheries & Aquaculture Cluster Proceedings ISBN: 978-9970-452-01-9
pp. 7 - 20 Printed in Uganda. All rights reserved
Improving Livelihoods of Fishing Communities in the Lake Victoria

Basin: An Overview of Selected Landing Sites in Uganda
*1Akumu, J., 2Bwanuka, G., 3Makombe, I, and 2Chamwali, A
1
NaFFIRI, 2Makerere University, 3Mzumbe University & 4Mzumbe University
*Correspondent Author
Abstract
The study was conducted in eight fish landing sites in the Lake Victoria basin from January
to September 2009. The objective was to examine the livelihood strategies by the households
in the landing sites. Thirty households were selected randomly from the following landing
sites: Kikondo, Katosi, Kasenyi and Kigungu in Uganda, and Daladala, Nkome Mchangani,
Kijiweni and Mkomani in Tanzania. Multi-dimensional Poverty Analysis using fuzzy sets
was used to identify non-monetary variables for which the households are deprived most. The
poverty indicators analyzed included access to housing and quality of the house; ownership
of fishing gear, phone, household furniture, radio and of a vehicle; fishing, farming, keeping
livestock and doing business as sources of income; cleanness of the source of drinking water
and access to MCH services; and availability of credit, savings, income and expenditure.
Variables that contribute most to deprivation in Uganda are access to credit, owning of a vehi-
cle and doing business. Livelihood strategies pursued most are fishing, farming, and keeping
livestock. Crises faced by most of the households during the past twelve months are diseases
and famine. Seventy five per cent of the households indicated that malaria is the major cause
of death followed by HIV/AIDS. To resist vulnerability, most households diversified their
livelihood strategies including exploitation of fishery resources, and resorted to intensifica-
tion and expansion of agricultural and livestock rearing activities. While there are numerous
different types of assets on Lake Victoria, the households exploited only a few of them. It is
recommended that the households and policy makers consider exploiting the underutilized
resources in the lake and basin.
Key words: Landing sites; Fishing communities; Livelihoods;
Introduction
Lake Victoria has a surface area of 68,800 km2 and a catchment area of 284,000 km2. It is the
world’s second largest freshwater body (second to Lake Superior of North America in size),
and is shared between Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. Average gross economic product in the
lake basin is between US$ 3-4 billion annually, and supports an estimated population of 30
million people with incomes in the range of US$ 90-270 per capita per annum. The shoreline
is approximately 3,450 km. The catchment provides for the livelihood of about one third of
the combined human populations of the three countries, and about the same proportion of
the combined gross domestic product. The present value of annual export earnings from
fishery is about US$ 600 million, which represents revenue to the lake community of US$
240-480 million per annum. Therefore, the lake has direct and indirect impact on poverty
7
reduction efforts in riparian communities. The direct benefits arise from direct dependence
on the fisheries, especially for the lake communities. Indirect benefits arise from secondary
employment through support services. Despite this large potential, Lake Victoria basin is one
of the poorest regions in East Africa. Lake Victoria continues to experience serious soil and
waste pollution, myriad of challenges such as over-fishing, decline in biodiversity, receding
water levels, noxious weed invasion, infectious diseases and a growing decline in the health
of the ecosystems. The fisher folk are generally poor and suffer from social insecurity, disease,
lack of health and social facilities, poor sanitation, illiteracy, and poor housing conditions.
The situation is currently made worse by an increasing threat to the fishery due to reduced fish
catches that caused by illegal fishing methods.
The revenue generated from the sector is invested to improve basic infrastructure needed to
support fishing activities such as electricity, potable water, access roads, landing and cooling
facilities and health facilities. Social facilities which would improve the quality of lives of the
fisher communities such as health and sanitary facilities, markets, and schools are inadequate
resulting into high prevalence of water borne diseases. Diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria
and water borne diseases are a threat to the fishing communities.
The management of the lake’s ecosystem also hinges greatly on the people’s poverty levels.
There are many policies geared towards the protection and management, but if the people
are still poor, they will unsustainably exploit and exhaust the Lake’s resources. In order to
improve the livelihoods of the fishing communities, a project was designed to scrutinize
existing livelihood and survival strategies among selected fishing communities in Uganda,
and the drivers that defy positive livelihoods in order to contribute to the advancement of
these communities. A Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) that draws on the main factors
that affect poor people’s livelihoods and the typical relationships between these factors was
adopted to assess the contribution that existing activities had made to sustaining livelihoods
and projection of new intervention activities.
8
Vic
tor
W E
ia N
ile
S
# Landing site Kikondo #

Water body
Katosi
#
Kasenyi
#
#
Kigungu
Lake Victoria
Scale 1 : 490,000
50 0 50 Kilometers
Figure 1. Location of landing sites in Uganda selected for the study.
Methodology
The study was conducted in Mukono and Wakiso districts of Uganda. In each district two
fish landing sites (Kikondo, Katosi and Kasenyi, Kigungu) were selected randomly for data
collection. The Sustainable Fisheries Livelihoods Approach was used. One hundred and
twenty households were selected randomly and interviewed using questionnaire. Community/
key Informant questionnaires and focus group discussions were also used to collect data. The
distribution and multidimensionality of poverty was analyzed using the fuzzy sets approach.
Various aspects of community and household life were measured through indicators. Key
factors, which are critical for addressing poverty in the communities, were identified. Social
indicators of poverty (education, health, sources of drinking water, type of toilet, assets owned,
quality of the house, and type of fuel used for cooking) were analyzed. The fish market forces
(supply and demand) and its role in enhancing or hindering livelihood improvements were
analyzed.
9
Results
Profiles of the two districts and the four fish landing sites
Table 1. Profiles of the four districts

Variable Value of the variable Total
Mukono Wakiso
Area (km2.) 11,764 2,705 31,111
Estimated population 1,070,400 1,200,000 3,885,000
(2009)
Number of landing sites 198 114 413
Number of Households 191,100 220,000 604,833
Source: 2002 Population and Housing census of Tanzania and Uganda and LVFO (2008).
Kikondo
Katosi
Numbers of fishers
350
300 Kasenyi
250
Kigungu
200
150
100
50
0
Fishermen (full
Fishermen (part
Fish processors
Boat owners
Factory agents
Fish traders
makers/repairers
Fish transporters
Boat builders
Money lenders
time)
time)
Net
Types of fishers
Figure 2. Types of fisher folks operating at the landing sites.
There are many people operating at these fish landing sites. Women participate in fish
processing, owning boats, fish trading and transporting. Table 2 presents the major facilities
at the landing sites.
10
Table 2. Number of social service facilities at the landing sites

Facility/institution Number of facilities
Kikondo Katosi Kasenyi Kigungu N
Dispensaries 0 0 1 2 3
Day care centers 2 1 0 2 5
Primary schools 2 2 1 3 8
Secondary schools 0 0 1 1 2
Public water wells 1 2 0 1 4
Fisher co-operatives 1 0 0 1 2
SACOSs 2 2 3 4 11
Grocery stores/shops 9 4 19 25 57
Bars/guests 3 3 4 9 19
Bars selling local brew 6 9 7 15 37
Transport operators 5 7 15 13 40
Bicycle/motor cycle
11 14 45 35 105
transporters
Artisans 6 5 12 18 41
BMUs 1 1 2 2 6
Telephone network 0 0 0 0 0
Insulated ice boxes 0 11 9 10 30
Churches/mosques 5 2 2 3 12
Total 382
The landing sites are highly marginalized and lack social services facilities. Health facilities
in Mukono district were inadequate. Wakiso district landing sites had some facilities and
beach management units (BMUs).
Table 3. Distribution of households by size
Number of residents Kikondo Katosi Kasenyi Kigungu Total %

0-3 2 4 5 11 22 18
4-7 7 10 4 11 32 27
8-11 7 6 14 4 31 26
12-15 7 7 4 4 22 18
15+ 7 3 3 0 13 11
Mean 8 6 8 5 120 100
The average household size was seven persons, which is much higher than the national
average. A large family size is one of the drivers of poverty. Forty per cent of the houses
had more than seven persons. Households were mainly headed by males (88.8%) of which
81.7% were married and 15.8% were single. The community was composed of semi-illiterate
people as only 0.4% had tertiary education and 78.7% had primary or no education at all.
11
Distribution of household heads by occupation indicates that 60% of the household heads
were fishermen. About seven per cent were boat owners, 6% were fish traders and 3 % were
government employees.
Multidimensional poverty analysis of fishing communities using fuzzy sets

Measurement of multidimensional poverty involved analyzing information on several
variables into a composite poverty index. This involved estimation of composite indices as
definition weighting scheme for each indicator, aggregation of the variables and, identification
of thresholds which separate the poor, partially poor and the non-poor individuals/households.
Seventeen indicators of poverty were analyzed (Table 4).
Table 4. The selected factors and their indicators
Factor Indicator
Housing • Means of access to housing (own/rent/other)
conditions • Perceived quality of house (good/average/poor)
Access to assets • Ownership of fishing gear, phone, furniture, radio or TV,
and vehicle (bike or motor-vehicle).
Income generating • Fishing, agriculture, livestock, and business
activities
Credit and savings • Access to credit,
• Having savings
Health • Source of drinking water
• Availability of MCH services
Income • Monthly household income
Expenditure • Monthly household expenditure
Most of these indicators were used by Pitaluga (2006) in his study of fishing communities on
lake Selingue in Mali.
12
Table 5. Value of the indicators for Uganda

P o v e r t y Value of the indicators All landing sites
indicator Absolute R e l a t i v e
Kikondo Katosi Kasenyi Kigungu MF
contribution contribution
Housing 0.5000 0.3500 0.5167 0.4833 0.4625 0.0299 6.8447
Quality of house 0.7500 0.5833 0.6667 0.5500 0.6375 0.0241 5.5083
Fishing gear 0.5000 0.6667 0.6667 0.6000 0.6083 0.0253 5.8034
Phone 0.2000 0.2000 0.3333 0.3333 0.2667 0.0295 6.7649
Furniture 0.4667 0.1333 0.4667 0.3000 0.3417 0.0308 7.0422
Radio or TV 0.2667 0.1333 0.3000 0.2333 0.2333 0.0285 6.5168
Vehicle 0.8000 0.6333 0.9000 0.8667 0.8000 0.0150 3.4261
Fishing 0.1667 0.5000 0.3667 0.3333 0.3417 0.0308 7.0422
Farming 0.4333 0.4667 0.8333 0.8333 0.6417 0.0239 5.4637
Livestock 0.5667 0.5000 0.8000 0.6333 0.6250 0.0246 5.6378
Business 0.9000 0.6000 0.7333 0.7000 0.7333 0.0191 4.3657
Credit 0.7000 0.8333 0.9667 0.7000 0.8000 0.0150 3.4261
Savings 0.6333 0.5333 0.7333 0.9667 0.7167 0.0200 4.5818
Source of water 0.5667 0.5500 0.4828 0.1000 0.4244 0.0305 6.9811
MCH services 0.6333 0.4667 0.3667 0.5000 0.4917 0.0293 6.6991
M o n t h l y
0.5926 0.5963 0.3778 0.0.285 0.4630 0.0299 6.8425
Income
M o n t h l y
0.5778 0.5667 0.2833 0.1222 0.3875 0.0308 7.0506
expenditure
MPI 0.4213 0.3754 0.4396 0.3231 0.4367* 1.0000 100
* Composite Poverty index = 0.4367; MF = Membership function; MPI = Multidimensional Poverty Index
The main concern has been whether or not a particular household is deprived fully, partially
or not deprived at all of the attributes under consideration. It is clear that if all the households
are not deprived of a particular attribute, the value of xij=0, and MF=0. On the other hand,
if all the households are deprived of a particular attribute, the value of xij=1 and MF=1. MF
indicates the proportion of households deprived of a particular attribute. A high value of MF
indicates that a relatively high proportion of the households are deprived of that particular
attribute; and vice versa. Table 4 indicates that 79% of Ugandan households have access
to clean drinking water (tap, protected springs, well) compared to 32% of the Tanzanian
households. Consequently, the value of MF corresponding to the source of drinking water
attribute for Uganda in Table 3 (i.e. MF =0.4244), is less than that for Tanzania (MF=0.7042).
When weighted average of the MFs were calculated to obtain the Composite Indices
m
∑M
F
j =1
j .w j
(MPIs) using the formula MPI = m
∑w
j =1
j
The value of the composite indices was 0.4367 for Ugandan landing sites and 0.3790 for
Tanzania. Hence 43.67% of the study households in Uganda and 37.9% in Tanzania are
structurally poor. These findings are similar to those found in previous poverty studies (Sida,
2004). Considering the selected indicators individually, those which contribute greatly to
household deprivation in Uganda, are availability of credit, ownership of a vehicle (including
a bicycle), doing business and keeping savings. In Tanzania, the most deprived indicators
are possession of household furniture, quality of houses, keeping savings and clean source
of drinking water. Considering the indictors collectively, those that contribute greatly to the
value of the composite deprivation index of 43.67% in Uganda are possession of household
13
furniture, fishing as a source of income, monthly expenditure, and sources of drinking water.
In Tanzania, the indicators are credit, fishing, owning a vehicle, and possessing a phone. The
most deprived landing sites are Kasenyi in Uganda and Kijiweni in Tanzania In Kasenyi the
indicators that contribute most to deprivation are credit, owning a vehicle and farming. Out
of the 30 households, only one indicated to have obtained credit during the past 12 months,
five were engaged in farming and three owned a vehicle (including a bicycle). In Kijiweni,
the indicators deprived most by the households are the quality of the housing, doing business
and having savings. Out of the 30 households, only one considered the housing as good, eight
were engaged in business and 10 had some savings.
Household income and expenditure
The minimum monthly incomes were UShs 60,000, the average incomes were UShs 186,000
and maximum incomes were UShs 3,600,000. Table 6a presents the distribution of households
by monthly income. Table 5 shows the average incomes of the major occupation groups.
We found that fishermen had the highest incomes, followed by the boat owners a reason
that could be advanced for daily fishing for the fishermen and also sale of fish some times
in unregistered places other than the landing sites. In Uganda an average fisher household
earns more than an average household in the fishing communities. It may be appropriate to
encourage the communities do more fishing in the study areas.
Table 6 a. The distribution of households by monthly income

Monthly income Landing site
(UShs) Kikondo Katosi Kasenyi Kigungu
30,000-50,000 0 0 0 0
50,001-100,000 25 26 13 0
100,001-500,000 5 3 13 13
500,001-1,000,000 0 1 3 11
1,000,001-1,500,000 0 0 1 2
1,500,001-2,000,000 0 0 0 4
Mean 108,000 126,500 308,000 205,500
Table 6b. Mean household incomes for broad occupational groups (UShs)
Occupation group N Mean UShs

Fisherman 72 206,250
Boat Owner 0 0
Fish trader 11 122,727
Govt. Employee 0 0
Other 37 165,405
All 120 186,000
The minimum monthly expenditures were UShs 45,000 and TShs 15,000, the average
expenditure were UShs 124,875 and TShs 80,262.50, and the maximum expenditures were
UShs 900,000 and TShs 450,000. In addition to these financial expenditures, the households
consumed the food they grew, the livestock they kept and the fish they caught.
14
Table 6c. The distribution of households by monthly expenditure in various landing sites
Monthly expenditure Landing site
(UShs) Kikondo Katosi Kasenyi Kigungu
15,000-50000 0 0 1 0
50,001-100,000 27 16 14 11
100,001-500,000 3 13 14 19
500,001-1,000,000 0 1 1 0
Mean 78,000 97,000 167,500 157,000
In Uganda, Kikondo landing site households had minimum expenditures on the average and
Kigungu had the highest expenditures. Kikondo, though more remote than other landing sites,
seems to have 40% of the respondents that earned from UShs 500,000-1,000,000. This can
be explained by the high catches of “mukene “ (Rastreneobola argentea) in this landing. The
expenditure was higher than income. While there were no families earning above 2 million
shillings in a month, they were actually spending more than that (13%) of the population were
spending more than UShs 2,000,000.
Social indicators of poverty

Access to proper source of drinking water was determined by proximity to town centers. For
landings within Wakiso district they were blessed with taps within the house or in nearby
vicinity unlike in Mukono districts were they depended mainly on wells/boreholes and
protected springs
18
16 Kikondo
number of households
14 Katosi
12 Kasenyi
Kigungu
10
8
6
4
2
0
house/compound
Neighboring tap
Mobile water
Springs
Well/borehole
River/lake
sellers
Tap in
Water source
Figure 3. Distribution of households by main water source.
15
Thirty per cent of the households have access to drinking water from a well or borehole and
27% have access to drinking water from the river or the lake, and 15% get drinking water
from the mobile water sellers. Ninety one per cent of the households own and use pit latrines
while the rest do not.
Strategies pursued by the fishing communities
Seventy four per cent of the respondents indicated that there were livelihood strategies
employed by the fishing communities in the study landing sites. Table 7 summarizes the
multiple responses of the residents of the 120 studied households. Fishing is a major livelihood
strategy for most of the residents, followed by farming, keeping livestock and fish processing.
Diversification of economic activities is both a coping strategy for the poor households, and
an accumulation strategy for the wealthy ones. Seventy four per cent of the households
diversified their livelihood strategies while 59.2% used only one and utmost three strategies.
Table 18 shows that 113 responses (or 13%) used diversification as a coping strategy.
16
Table 7. Livelihood strategies used by the households in the landing sites
Landing sites
Livelihood strategy Kikondo Katosi Kasenyi Kigungu
Fishing 11 7 11 13
Farming 17 16 5 5
Keeping livestock 14 16 6 12
Fish processing 8 0 2 3
Raising aquaculture and
1 1 0 1
animals
Selling fish 8 6 7 2
Hawker 0 2 0 2
Collecting mollusk/lilies/
0 0 0 0
firewood
Others 2 4 8 1
Boat driver 4 4 0 0
Doctor 0 0 1 0
Village/BMU official 0 0 0 0
Labourer 4 2 0 6
House girl 6 5 0 0
Teaching 0 0 0 0
Midwife 0 0 0 0
Kiosk/shopkeeper 0 0 0 1
Tailoring 0 0 0 0
Retiree 0 0 0 0
Carpentry 0 0 0 1
Dentist 0 0 0 0
Charging batteries 0 0 0 0
Lending money 0 0 0 0
Hair dressing 0 0 0 0
Traditional medicine 0 0 0 0
Weighing fish at factory 0 2 1 0
Vulnerability/Resilience
Vulnerability is a process in which individuals, households or communities are impoverished

and eventually become poor or poorer. The process of vulnerability involves three main
situations: Exposure to risk – households may be susceptible to natural, social-economic,
political and environmental risks. Response actions to risks, shocks and adverse outcomes
generated. These may be ex ante actions taken before the risk is realized or ex post actions
taken after the risk is realized. Outcome of a risky event – realized risk together with
household responses lead to an outcome measured in welfare change, poverty being one of the
outcomes of the process of vulnerability. According to Vulnerability Assessment &Review
Initiatives (2002), the main causes of vulnerability in Uganda are alcoholism, polygamy,
large families/many dependants, insecurity /displacement, illness, landlessness, failure to
pay loans, old age, payment of dowry and loss of property like land/livestock. Two major
17
problems facing 48% of the fishing communities’ households are diseases and famine. The
major diseases are malaria, HIV/AIDS, Bilharzia, Cholera, Typhoid fever and other common
water-born diseases. In Uganda HIV/AIDS is believed to be a major cause of death among
the fisher communities. A wide variety of social, cultural and economic features of lake basin
communities have contributed to the spread of HIV/AIDS.
A combination of extremely poor sanitation and heavy exposure to lake water, both through
fishing and for drinking water, gives rise to a very high incidence of bilharzias, intestinal
worms and diarrheal diseases. Education among the fisher communities is also a major
problem as a significant percentage of fishers in the lake are young people who have dropped
out of school after primary education (LVFO, 2005). 50% of the households believe that
malaria is a number one killer followed by HIV/AIDS (25%) and cholera. The study also
indicated that the frequency of meals within the community was inadequate, 35% of the
households take only one or two meals a day.
Resilience
Resilience is “the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing
change so as to still retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks”
(Walker et al., 2004). This definition focuses on persistence, adaptability, variability and
unpredictability. The most pursued ex-ante coping strategies are diversification of resources
including the fishery resources, developing patron-client relationships, extensification and
intensification of agriculture. The most used ex-post coping strategies are seeking credit/
loans, looking for mutual support from community and kin, and getting employment off-
water.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Conclusions
i. The composite poverty indices are 0.4367 in Uganda and 0.3790 in Tanzania implying
that 43.67% and 37.9% of the households in Uganda and Tanzania respectively
suffered deprivation in the selected poverty indicators. Variables that contribute most
deprivation in Uganda are lack of credit, ownership of a vehicle (including a bicycle)
and not doing much business.
ii. Multidimensional approach to poverty analysis indicated that, livelihood strategies
pursued most by the households were fishing, farming, keeping livestock, fish
processing, raising aquaculture and selling fish.
iii. In times of scarcity 74% of the households diversified their livelihood strategies
mainly as a survival strategy. It is obvious from these strategies that the fishers exploit
only a few of the aquatic resources to live.
iv. Coping strategies used by the households are diversification of resources, seeking
for loans/credit, extensification and intensification of fishery and farming activities,
being employed off-water, selling assets, and mutual support through community and
kin.
v. The crises faced over the last twelve months were illness (especially malaria,
bilharzia, TB, HIV/AIDS and water-born diseases), famine, droughts, water crisis,
and lack of capita.
18
vi. HIV/AIDS was believed to be the major cause of death among the fisher communities
of Uganda followed by malaria.
vii. Education among the fishing communities is another major problem. 79% of the
household heads have primary or no education at all.
Recommendations
i. Increase awareness on the value of the fisheries resource in the country, region and
globally and the problem of illegal fishing that impacts sustainability on the fishery
through comprehensible approaches like mobile public documentaries
ii. Package and propagate policies that directly impact fishing communities in a more
friendly and convenient style e.g. translate policies into local languages, dramatize
policy issues through creation of drama groups, song composition on a competitive
basis with a motivating Award at the pinnacle
iii. Promote diverse socio-economic activities of the fishing communities (Aquaculture
- encourage local fishermen to adopt a new system of developing artificial water
bodies for fishing, as a way to diversify traditional fishing, drama groups, sports –
Fishers’ Soccer/netball Tournament)
iv. Add value to fisheries products in order to increase commodity value by creating
Post harvest value addition projects
v. Empower women by building a women caucus that regularly gets knowledge
upgrade opportunities on issues that directly impact women for instance family
planning, infant mortality and health care, HIV-AIDS, defilement and rape, family
responsiveness .
vi. Ensure proper health of the fisher communities especially through preventive
measures and proper nutrition. HIV/AIDS Malaria, Tuberculosis and bilharzias are
prevalent in fishing communities and that the poverty reduction efforts.
19
References
LVFO, (2005), Implementation of a fisheries management plan for Lake Victoria.

LVFO (2005), Regional report on Lake Victoria Frame surveys for 2000, 2002 and 2004.
Jinja, Uganda.
LVFO Guidelines-1 for BMUs on Lake Victoria, Jinja, 2007.
LVFO, People in Lake Victoria Fisheries, Livelihoods, Empowerment and Participation,
Information Sheet No. 1, Jinja, Uganda, E-mail lvfo-sec@lvfo.org. www.lvfo.org.
LVFO (2008), LVFO HIV/AIDS Newsletter Issue 1.
Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, Poverty Eradication Action Plan
2004/5/-2007/08/(PEAP) December 2004.
Pitaluga, F., Salvati, N., and Seghieri, C. 2006. Livelihood Systems’ Profiling: Mixed Methods
for the Analysis of Poverty and Vulnerability.
SIDA, (2004), Strategy for Swedish Support to the Lake Victoria Basin
Vulnerability Assessment and Review Initiatives. 2002. Social Protection in Uganda, Phase
I report.
Walker, B., Holling, C., Carpenter, S. and Kinzig, A. 2004. Resilience, adaptability and
transformability in social-ecological systems Ecology and Society 9(2):5
20
Technology for Small-Scale Drying of Fish and its By-products

Elisante, E., 2Chove, B. and 3Muchunguzi, C
1
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Dar es Salaam

1
2
Department of Food Science and Technology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro,
Tanzania
3
Department of Development Studies, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Mbarara,
Uganda
Abstract
A technology for small-scale drying of fish has been developed, tested and demonstrated
to a group of artisanal fish processors at the Dar es Salaam Ferry fish market. A matrix of
factors for choice of technology was developed and used to determine the most suitable
technology between saw-dust drying, solar driers, and oil burner. The technology
for heavy fuel oil burner with air-flue gas heat exchanger was selected which can be
converted to use waste oil 130,000 Btu/gal as energy source. The fish were put on wire
mesh trays and stacked in shelves installed inside a tray drier chamber measuring 6 m
L x 3 m W x 2.7 m H. Different types of fish like Anchovy (Stolephorus baganensis),
Ponyfish (Secutor insidiator) and Herring (Spratelloides delicatulus) were dried. The
potential drier capacity is 1.0 ton/day accommodating 250 kg of fish per batch, taking 2
hours of drying and one hour for loading and unloading. A desired drying temperature of
70 oC could not be uniformly attained throughout the chamber due to lack of mechanism
to distribute the hot air. The dried fish samples showed a water activity of 0.6 and 90%
acceptance in favor compared to similar products in the market for aspects like taste,
appearance, and softness after cooking. Before dissemination of the technology, there is a
need to optimize (i) hot air distribution inside the chamber (ii) suitable purging schedules
to remove moisture load during operation (iii) installation of a parallel chamber so that
the oven is not switched off during unloading and loading and (iv) to carry out a cost-
benefit analysis once sufficient data have been gathered.
Key words: Fish processing; Tray drier; Technology development
Introduction
Fish gives a good balance of protein, vitamins and minerals thus constituting more than
60% of total protein intake in adults in rural fishing areas (Bukola et al., 2008). It is a widely
accepted delicacy that cuts across socio-economic, age, religious and educational barriers
(Adeleye, 1992). The processing and preservation of fresh fish and its by-products is of utmost
importance because they are highly susceptible to deterioration immediately after harvesting.
If fish is not sold fresh then proper preservation measures must be taken to prevent losses and
extend its shelf-life (Davies et al., 2009; Okonta and Ekelemu, 2005). Large amount of fish
waste and deteriorated whole fish are discarded daily in the fish canning industry (Faid et al.,
1997) due to microbial activity.
21
In many developing countries, the processing of fish and its by-products is carried out by
subsistence fishermen or artisanal processors using traditional technologies like drying,
smoking and salting. The processing is usually undertaken on lake shores under temporary
shades using tools like wire-mesh, wood spikes and ropes for hanging fish. Since mid 1990s
about ten large-scale Nile perch fillet packaging industries have been installed in East Africa
in Jinja, Kisumu and Mwanza (Elisante et al., 2006). Most of the fillet is exported and by-
products like skin, skeletons and heads are sold to artisanal processors, who employ various
techniques (Figure 1-4) like (i) de-fating the skin using boiling water (ii) sun-drying the fish
skeletons on wooden rafts (iii) preserving skeletons with salt (iv) heat drying of heads over
wire mesh using burning saw-dust and (v) deep frying the fish heads in cooking oil. The dried
skeletons are used by the local milling industry as a source of calcium in animal feeds and the
fried fish heads are sold as protein for human consumption.
Plate 1. De-fating fish skins by boiling in Plate 2. Sun-drying of Nile perch heads and
Buhongwa, Mwanza- Tanzania. Old tyres are skeletons at Mwaloni Market in Mwanza,
used as fuel. Tanzania
Plate 3. Drying fish skeletons at Obunga in Plate 4. Drying fish heads by saw dust in
Kisumu,.Kenya Kanyama, Mwanza (Tanzania).
The de-fated skin is dyed and pressed for making leather products like belts and shoes.
22
Despite these advantages, the processing of by-products using the above techniques has
several environmental and technical drawbacks, which include:
1. Discomfort to the general public due to foul smell and smoke pollution;
2. Energy inefficient and unhygienic processing (Plates 3, 4) which result into poor
product quality, sub-optimal utilization of resource, and environmental degradation;
3. Poor safety of operators characterized by hazardous working conditions; and
4. Lack of control in drying temperature, moisture content, and throughput.
Health and safety problems have been cited in areas where fish drying using firewood is
practiced especially lung related ailments caused by smoke inhalation (Peters et al., 1999).
Furthermore, lack of proper premises result in wastage and difficulties in processing during
cloudy or rainy days in the case of sun-drying. The objective of the study was to develop a
technology for processing fish and or its by-products while addressing the above mentioned
shortfalls.
Methodology
The choice and development of technology for large-scale industry is relatively easy
compared to small and medium enterprises (SMEs) which are constrained by many factors
like affordability, attitudes, social acceptance, entrepreneurial and technical skills. In a survey
conducted in 2006 (Elisante et al., 2006) it was found that the fish processors in Mwanza,
Jinja and Kisumu use four types of technology to process fish and its by-products, namely,
(i) sun- or saw-dust drying (ii) de-fating and sun drying of skins; (iii) deep frying of heads
and skeletons; and (iv) salting. Out of these techniques, only drying was practiced in all the
three areas because the dried fish or by-products had multiple uses as animal feed and human
consumption.
Since it was not possible to develop a technology that caters for different processing needs,
it was decided to focus on drying technology only because it was practiced in all areas
surveyed. The main challenge was to keep an energy source that is accessible and familiar
with the local processors while taking into account factors like affordability, reliability and
the environment. The following energy sources were proposed (i) solar drying; (ii) firewood/
saw-dust drying and (iii) waste oil burner technology. Table 1 gives criteria used to choose a
technology that would suit the processing needs while considering factors like productivity,
income generation, and availability of fish or its by-products in the surveyed areas.
23
Table 1. Matrix used for choosing a drying technology based on energy source
Attribute Energy Source
Score (S/10)
Score (S/10)
Weigh(w)
Score (S
Solar tunnel Waste oil cabinet
/10)
Saw-dust drying
driers driers
Economic 0.3 About US$ 6 Requires open 9 Equipment cost 7

Capital costs 2,000 for a drying racks, wire roughly US$
(Land building, five stage mesh, and tools 9,000. Requires
machines and visquen covered costing roughly built-up space.
utilities). cabinets. US$ 500.
Operating 0.15 Labour 7 Labour intensive 8 Labour only 6

costs (labour, intensive to attending firing, for loading
fuel, raw- load, unload cost of firewood. and unloading.
materials) and turn. Utilities- fuel,
water, and
electricity
Cost-benefit: 0.15 Regarded as 6 Low product 5 High quality 9
value addition post-harvest cost sold to low due to automatic
(price, quality, facility. Product income bracket. temperature
appearance, has moderate Short pay-back control. Product
shelf life, price. on investment. has long shelf life
consumer hence expensive.
taste).
Social 0.1 Low 6 Subsistence 4 High 8
Employment productivity occupation productivity.
generation, ~160 kg/day practiced mostly Gender skewed
productivity, per person. by women. towards men
and gender Equitable as machine
distribution. gender mix. operators..
Technical 0.2 Medium 5 Low throughput. 6 High throughput. 7

Spare parts, throughput. No special skills Operable 24 hrs
skills, Used during required. Can a day. Machine
maintenance, day-time only. be done under a may break down.
availability and Unavailable in shade. Prone to power
reliability. rainy or cloudy outages.
days. Requires skilled
Low manpower to do
maintenance maintenance.
cost.
Low skills
required.
Environmental 0.1 Risk of 4 Unhygienic 5 Operated 6
Pollution, exposure to handling. Cause under sanitary
sanitation, dust, insects and deforestation. conditions-
degradation, harmful micro- Exposure to protected drying
sustainability. organisms and smoke and dust. cabinets. But
maggots. cause CO2
emissions from
flue gases.
Total 1.0 5.75 6.6 7.15
24
In Table 1 the main attributes were assigned weights commensurate to their importance then
an ‘expert opinion’ was sought to provide score points between 0 and 10 for each attribute
based on the indicated criteria. The attribute score is obtained by multiplying the weight by
scored points and the total is obtained by adding all scores for a particular energy source. As
shown in Table 1, the waste oil-cabinet drier had the highest aggregate score of 7.15 and was
selected for development accordingly.
Technology development
Burner design: After choosing the waste oil burner technology, it was found convenient
to first design a simple inexpensive low-pressure burner powered by a single phase 1.5 Hp
electric motor. Flame ignition is done manually by the operator who also controls fuel inlet
through a valve positioned on the fuel line. An assembly drawing of the burner unit and detail
of the firing nozzle are shown in Figure 1 that imparts a swirling motion to atomize the fuel as
it comes out at the center of the nozzle. An adjustable air door (3) is provided to help maintain
the required air-fuel ratio. The estimated power of the unit was 100 kW when burning 2.4 L/
hour of heavy furnace oil of viscosity 125 cSt and energy content of 130,000 Btu per gallon.
1-Motor; 2- Fuel inlet; 3- Adjustable air inlet; 4- Nozzle; 5- Fuel adjusting valve;
6-Blower
Figure 1: Details of Burner and Fuel Nozzle Design
Heat exchanger design: Based on the field survey (Elisante et al., 2006), the daily total
average of fish waste in Mwanza, Kisumu and Jinja was 10 tons so the drier capacity was
set at 3 tons per day assuming that not all waste is dried, and multiple driers can be used per
site. In order to obtain continuously high productivity, a batch size of 500 kg per 2 hours of
drying was proposed but as shown later, the load was reduced to cut down batch time. The
25
desired heat transfer area A was obtained from energy balance in the burner chamber and the
fish drying chamber using a coupled lumped parameter model:
dT b 1
m b C ps = Fa ñ(ë in - ë out ) + Q − UA(Tb − Tf )
dt
dT f 2
m f C pf = UA(Tb − Tf ) - Q w
dt
Where: Tb , Tf = temperatures of the burner and fish drying chambers respectively, m f =
mass of fish load batch; m b = mass of steel for burner and heat exchanger; Fa = volumetric
flow rate of air through the burner; Q = power dissipated by burner; ë = enthalpy of inlet air
i
and flue gases; C ps , C pf = heat capacity of steel and fish respectively; and U = overall heat
transfer coefficient for flue gases inside tubes forced air outside (Coulson and Richardson,
1999). Equations 1 and 2 were simulated using the MATLAB software and gave a heat
transfer area of 6.2 m2, which was provided by a cylindrical steel chamber Ø600 x 1500 mm
and twenty nine steel tubes Ø2 inch x 1500 mm arranged in a triangular pitch as shown in
Figure 2. The burner at position (2) fires hot flames into the hollow cylinder (4), the flue gases
reverse direction and pass through the tube bank (3) before exiting through the chimney. A
photo of the fabricated heat exchanger is shown in Plate 5.
1-Chimney, 2- Burner position, 3- Tubes, 4-

Flame chamber
Figure 2. Heat exchanger tube arrangement. Plate 5. Fabricated heat exchanger.
Experimental Layout: A schematic layout showing the process and instrumentation (P&I)
diagram is shown in Plates 6 and 7 illustrating experimental drying chamber measuring 6 m
L x 3 m W x 2.7 m H that was constructed at the Dar es Salaam Ferry fish market. The burner
E4 represented in the mid-section is supplied with furnace oil fuel 125 cSt from tank E2.
The flue gases exchange heat with process air before exiting from the chimney (1). During
operation, a 5 Hp centrifugal fan blows the process air at a rate 3 m3/min on the outside
surface of the heat exchanger tubes into the drying chamber. The hot process air circulates
through the materials to be dried, which are loaded in coffee mesh trays 18” x 36” and stacked
in shelves as shown in Plate 7. As the air cools down, naturally it sinks to the bottom, where it
is drawn once again by forced draught into the heat exchanger and re-heated. Thermocouple
sensors type K are positioned at various locations as shown in Figure 4 to read temperature
via a ten channel Comark programmable microprocessor thermometer Model ZC6600
26
TIC
E-2
E-4 TI- 8 TI-1 TI- 2
FI
TR
TR
TI-10
W=3m
TI- 7
HE
M
E-5
TI- 3
TI- 6
TR TR
CH
TI- 9 TI- 5 L=6m TI- 4
E2- Fuel tank, E4- Oil burner, HE- Heat exchanger, FI-Flue gases, M- Blower; CH- Chimney, TR- Trays, TIC- Temperature controller,
TI- Temperature Sensor
.
Figure 4. Schematic process and instrumentation diagram.
Plate 6. Drying chamber at ferry fish market. Plate 7. A tray with fish.
The burner and blower are isolated from the hot drying chamber using fiber glass insulation
while the walls and roof are insulated by an air pocket created by two inch soft wood planks
placed between walls and 18 gage aluminum sheets. The drying chamber is sealed everywhere
except the front door which is used for loading and unloading.
Results and Discussion
The equipment was tested for drying fish obtained from local fishermen fishing overnight
using small boats in the Indian Ocean. As part of technology dissemination, the tests were
27
done in conjunction to a group of 73 fish mongers called Umoja wa Waanika Dagaa na Uuzaji
wa Samaki Wakavu (UWADUSWA) at the ferry fish market in Dar es Salaam. The fish to be
dried was thoroughly washed in perforated plastic baskets then spread evenly about 1.5 kg
per tray before inserting them in drying shelves. In total the drier shelves can accommodate
up to 180 trays hence about 270 kg can be dried per batch. The different fish species used for
testing are shown in Figure 7 and their Swahili names as identified by local fishermen are
given in Table 2.
Table 2. Local and foreign names of the tested Fish
Swahili Name English Name Species Name

Dagaa Mchele Anchovy Stolephorus baganensis
Dagaa Papa White sardinella Sardinellar albella
Dalidali Delicate herring Spratelloides delicatulus
Kibua Mackerel Rastrelliger Kanagurta
Kolekole Kingfish Carangoides fulvoguttatus
Palawe Pugnose ponyfish secutor insidiator
Saladini Blue stripe herring Herklotsichthys quadirmaculatus
1- Herring; 2- Ponyfish; 3- Anchovy; 4- Sardinella
Plate 8. Different species and sizes used for test drying.
Figure 5 shows no-load open-loop temperature transients for simulated and measured values
of the burner flue gases, cold air inlet to the heat exchanger, and hot air exit from the heat
exchanger to the drying chamber. It shows that the measured flue gas temperature reaches
a steady-state value of 576oC within 15 minutes while the heat exchanger outlet and inlet
temperature reach 200οC and 145oC respectively. The simulated temperature values for burner
28
chamber matches the measured values beyond 25 minutes but for the heat exchanger outlet,
the simulated temperatures do not match with the measured values. This could be attributed
to either: poor choice of model parameters; excessive heat absorbed by the brick walls and
timber shelves; or heat lost through the roof due to poor insulation.
Figure 5. Open-loop temperature response under no-load conditions.
Figure 6 shows temperature response at different sensor locations (see also Figure 2) when the
drying chamber was loaded with 90 kg of Anchovy fish (Stolephorus baganensis). The test
was done under closed-loop feedback condition with a desired drying temperature of 70oC
at sensor TI-2. Compared to the empty chamber, the laden chamber temperature response
is sluggish taking 30 to 60 minutes to achieve steady-state temperature at various sensor
locations. Furthermore, due to load, the steady-state temperature at the chamber inlet TI-7 and
outlet TI-6 dropped from 200oC and 145oC respectively to 127oC and 64oC. Due to uneven air
mixing, the desired steady-state drying temperature of 70oC could not be achieved uniformly
inside the chamber. The average obtained was 87.5oC with the lowest of 42oC at sensor TI-4
and the highest of 109oC at TI-3 near the door, directly facing the hot gas pipe from the heat
exchanger. The non-uniform temperature distribution caused the following drawbacks:
1. Delayed drying for fish placed in the low temperature zones and fast drying rates at
high temperature zones. This necessitated interchanging of trays from time-to-time
so as to compensate the difference; and
2. Sensor location problems whereby positioning a feedback sensor at a low temperature
zone cause the thermostat to maintain burner firing when the high zone has already
exceeded the desired temperature.
29
Figure 6. Temperature Response at Different Sensor Location
In order to ensure uniformity it will be necessary to install a distribution mechanism like a

fan near the hot air inlet pipe. Figure 7 shows results of moisture content determination where
10 g fresh fish samples were dried in a laboratory oven until a constant weight was attained.
Except for Anchovy the average water content of the species was about 70% however in
order to prevent microbial activity the recommended moisture content for dried fish must
be below 15% (w/w) and water activity (aw) of below 0.85 (Eriahu et al., 2006; Eboh, et al.,
2006).
Figure 7. Moisture content determination for various fish species.
Figure 8 shows results of drying different species whereby to reach the acceptable moisture
content the original fish weight had to be reduced by two-thirds. From cold start the oven
took 2 to 3 hours to dry the fish, after which it must be switched off and cooled for 15 minutes
30
before unloading. Since the batch size is 270 kg, it means that a total of 1.08 tons/day of
fish can be dried in 4 batches- allowing 2 hours for drying and one hour for loading and
unloading. Due to their size and weight, Anchovy fish with average weight of 10 g per piece
and measuring 5 cm L x 1.5 cm W dried faster compared to Herring and Mackerel weighing
40 g measuring 12 cm L x 4 cm. When a bigger fish were sliced open to expose its inner
flesh, the drying rate was similar to small size fish as shown for a 700 g Red sniper fish in
Figure 8. This is consistent with drying theory (Coulson and Richardson, 1999) that rate is
dependent on area exposed rather than weight of material being dried. Hence the drier can be
used for drying different products like fruits, herbs, or fish skeleton as long as sufficient area
is exposed and appropriate drying duration is prescribed.
Figure 8. Drying different species and sizes under similar conditions.
The dried product was packed in laminated polypropylene bags 50 μm thick each pack
weighing 250 g measuring 10 x 25 cm as shown in Plate 9. The packed products were
subjected to water activity test which averaged 0.6 even when left for six weeks without any
signs of mould formation. The product was also subjected to culinary tests by the researchers,
UWADUSWA members, and by a group 10 volunteers picked randomly. They reported 90%
favorable acceptance compared to similar products on the market for aspects like taste,
appearance, and softness after cooking.
31
Plate 9. Sample of dried anchovy packed in a 250 g polyethlyene bag.
Conclusions and Recommendations
A tray drier technology for small-scale drying of fish up to one ton per day has been locally
developed, tested and demonstrated to artisanal fish processors. Compared to existing
technologies like solar drying and sun-drying, the technology is more efficient in terms of
productivity and hygiene due to short drying duration and minimal handling. For example, the
drier takes only 2 hours to dry 250 kg of fish compared to 5 days for medium solar tunnel drier
or 2-3 days for sun-drying depending on cloud conditions. A group of processors involved in
testing noted remarkable improvement in terms both quality and quantity obtained using the
technology compared to sun-drying. Due to value addition they decided to sell the product
only for human consumption at higher price instead of animal feed as was the case earlier.
A desired optimum temperature of 70oC was not uniformly achieved throughout the drying
chamber due to lack of mechanism to distribute the hot air. It is recommended that this
bottleneck should be addressed with others which constrain optimal operation. The options
suggested include:
1. Establishing suitable purging intervals using psychometric charts so as to enhance
removal of moisture loaded in the hot air circulating between the heat exchanger and
the drying chamber.
2. Improving the layout to create a parallel drying chamber that allows drying to take
place in one chamber while unloading and loading occurs in the alternate chamber so
the oven is not switched off.
At a cost of US$ 9,000 for equipment, the proposed technology is considerably expensive
compared to existing technologies which range from US$ 500 for sun-drying to US$ 2,000
for a five-stage tunnel solar drier. However, as seen in the choice of technology matrix, a
32
careful cost-benefit analysis should include socio-economic and environmental parameters.

More field tests need to be carried out before widespread dissemination of the technology.
However, judging from preliminary results, the technology offers higher productivity
compared to subsistent methods used in East African riparian towns and the coastal belt.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the Lake Victoria Research Initiative
(Vic-Res) of the Inter-University Council of East Africa (IUCEA) and the close cooperation
from the Ilala Municipal Council of Dar es Salaam City for allowing installation and testing
the drying facility at the Ferry Fish Market premises.
References
Adeleye, O. A. 1992. Conservation needs of fisheries resources and reorientation for

sustainable captive and culture practices. Proceedings of the 10th Annual Conference of the
Fisheries Society of Nigeria, pp 230-234.
Bukola, C. A., Abiodun, A. O. and Ukpe, G. P. 2008. Mycofloral of Smoke-Dried Fishes
Sold in Uyo, Eastern Nigeria, World Journal of Agricultural Science 4(3): 346-350.
Coulson, J. M. and Richardson J. F. 1999. Chemical Engineering, Vol. 2, Fourth Edition,
Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers, Oxford.
Davies R. M., Davies, O. A. and Abowei, J. F. 2009. The Status of Fish Storage Technologies
in Niger Delta, Nigeria, American Journal of Scientific Research 1: 55-63.
Eboh, L., Mepba, D. H. and Ekpo, B. M. 2006. Heavy metal contaminants and processing
effects on the composition, storage stability and fatty acid profiles of five common
commercially available fish species in Oron Local Government, Nigeria, Food Chemistry
97: 490-497.
Elisante, E., Chove, B. and Mchunguzi, C. 2006. Research Report submitted to Lake
Victoria Research Initiative (VicRes) No. 1 2006.
Eriahu, C. C., Kaze, S. A. and Achem, C. D. 2006. Moisture sorption characteristics of
tropical fresh water crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). Journal of Food Engineering 75(3):
355-363
Faid, M., Zouiten, A., Elmarrakchi, A. and Achkari-Begdouri, A. 1997. Biotransformation
of fish waste into a stable feed ingredient, Food Chemistry 60(1): 13-18.
Okonta, A. A. and Ekelemu, J. K. 2005. A preliminary study of micro-organisms associated

with fish spoilage in Asaba, Southern Nigeria, Proceedings of the 20th Annual Conference
of the Fisheries Society of Nigeria (FISON), Port Harcourt, 14th -18th November 2005, pp
257-260.
Perry, R. H, 1985. Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 6th Edition, Mc Graw-Hill,
New York, p 812.
Peters E. J., Esin, R. A., Immananagha, K. K., Siziya, S. and Osim, E. E. 1999. Lung
function status of some Nigerian men and women chronically exposed to fish drying using
burning firewood. Central Africa Journal of Medicine 45(5): 119-124.
33
Riparian Vegetation Propagation for Improved Fisheries

Productivity in Lake Victoria Region
1
Gatheri G.W., 1Mwangi, B.M., 2Shila, A.D., 3Ntambi B. and 4Mugalu, D
1
Kenyatta University, Kenya
2
University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
3
National Fisheries Resources Research Institute, Uganda
4
Makerere University Business School, Uganda
Abstract
Vegetation along a river is part of an ecosystem comprising plants, animals, microorganisms

and the non-living things. Mankind derives benefits from the ecosystem for survival, such
as water, food raw materials. Riparian vegetation controls pollution and sediment input in
rivers thereby improving water quality. It stabilizes river banks, by controlling river erosion
that damages fish spawning areas. A study was undertaken in Kisumu, western Kenya along
Rivers Awach and Kisian to assess the possibility of enriching riparian vegetation through
propagation. A baseline survey documented plant species composition and their uses in the
upstream, midstream and downstream of the rivers. Vegetation was found to occur as thin
strips along the rivers. Sand harvesting and cattle watering sites were eroded. Construction of
houses close to the rivers left little room for growth and rejuvenation of riparian vegetation.
Five out of the nine species preferred by farmers were raised in the nursery and planted
midstream while grasses naturally rejuvenated. Enriched riparian vegetation can be managed
and used sustainably to improve river fisheries and riverine ecosystem productivity.
Keywords: Riparian vegetation; Ecosystem; Fisheries; Propagation
Introduction
Riparian vegetation plays important functions in river ecosystems. It stabilizes river banks
and improves water quality by trapping sediments and pollutants (Ombalski, 2007). It slows
flood waters that damage fish spawning areas and aquatic insect habitats. Riparian vegetation
increases particulate organic matter inputs and woody debri which fall into the river. Coarse
particulate organic matter constitutes the primary food source for macro invertebrates which
are the main food source for fish (Lawrence et al., 1984). Many fish species rely on woody
debri for refuge and laying eggs (Middleton and Smith, 2002). Riparian vegetation protects
rivers from extreme temperatures that are stressful or vital to fish and other aquatic animals.
It is an important source of fodder, fruits, fuel wood and timber which can generate income
to the local communities (Negassi et al., 2002) and mitigates the effects of climate change by
sequestering carbon.
34
Materials and Methods
Description of the study site

This study was undertaken along Kisian and Awach rivers in Kisumu District, western Kenya.
The area is characterized by semi-evergreen natural vegetation (Trapnell and Brunt, 1987).
The crops grown are maize, beans, green grams, cow peas, finger millet, sorghum, sweet
potatoes, cassava, cabbages and bananas. The fruit trees include pawpaw, lemon, mango,
avocado, and guava. The livestock reared include cattle, goats, sheep and chicken. Some
farmers had planted a few trees in their farms for firewood, building poles, fencing posts, tool
handles, walking sticks, banana props, shade, ornamental, timber, furniture, bee forage and
medicine. Farmers tend to cultivate up to the riverbanks or leave a narrow strip of vegetation
to conserve the river bank soils. In the rainy season, floods damage adjacent low-lying lands
and deposit alluvial soils. Most parts of the river banks with little vegetation cover have been
degraded and damaged (Plate 1). In some cases houses are constructed very close to the river
leaving very narrow strips of vegetation that are easily denuded.
Plate 1. A livestock watering site showing damage to the banks.
Survey of plant species
Three sites along Rivers Kisian and Awach were selected on the basis of accessibility and
for comparison purposes. They were located at river crossings where a bridge was taken
as the central point. The site was marked using the geographical positioning system (GPS).
A stretch of 100 meters on either side of the bridge was delineated using a GPS as a
study site. Vegetation was sampled in the 200 meter strip on both sides of the rivers and
information collected on plant species composition, diversity and categorized as tree, shrub,
herb or climber. The multipurpose species preferred by the local community for river bank
enrichment and enhancement of fisheries productivity were recorded. Botanical names used
are those in current usage (Beentje, 1994; Agnew and Agnew, 1994). Specimens which could
not be identified in the field were collected, labelled, preserved and later identified at the East
35
African Herbarium of the National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi. The presence and extent of
vegetation cover on the river banks were recorded.
Collection of seeds and greenhouse germination experiments
Seeds of five selected trees/shrub species were obtained from the field with the help of farmers.
The seeds were dried before germination experiments were carried out in a greenhouse. Each
species was given two plating mediua treatments; one lot was planted in a tray of wet soil and
the other in a tray of wet sand. The trays were covered in clear polythene papers to prevent
moisture loss and to maintain warmth until the seeds germinated. Seed germination rates
were recorded.
Nursery establishment
A nursery was constructed in the homestead of one of the farmers near Awach River for
security reasons. The seeds were planted in basins and after germination, were transplanted
into black plastic bags filled with soil and sand mixed in the ratio of 1:2 respectively. The
transplants were watered in the morning and evening.
Field planting
Seedlings were planted along river banks in the midstream of Awach and Kisian rivers.
Multipurpose grass, shrubs and trees were planted on both sides of each river to enrich
the vegetation following the procedure by Chilufya and Tengnas (1996). On the banks of
Kisian river, Phragmites mauritianus was planted followed by Sesbania sesban (Plate 2) and
Markamia lutea, Ficus sp., Syzygium cuminii and Acacia polyacantha subsp. campylacantha
at the periphery.
In Awach a total of 72 plants were planted including Phragmites mauritianus and Sesbania
sesban planted about two meters from the river at a spacing of two meters apart followed
by 38 seedlings of Markhamia lutea at a spacing of two meters apart; 23 Ficus sp. seedlings
and 27 Syzygium cumini seedlings were planted at a spacing of three meters next to the
agricultural crops. Few seedlings of Acacia polyacantha subsp polyacantha were planted.
In Kisian most farmers had cultivated agricultural crops up to the river bank and construction
of houses left only thin strips of river banks that could be planted with seedlings. Farmers
refused to plant Ficus sp for fear of its high water use.
36
Plate 2. Planting Sesbania sesban seedling.
Phragmites mauritianus was planted on one side of the river as it was well established on the
other side. Thirty seven seedlings of Sesbania sesban were planted at a spacing of two meters
followed by 37 seedlings of Markhamia lutea planted at the same spacing. Syzygium cumini
seedlings were planted at a spacing of three meters.
Results
Riparian riverine vegetation was scanty along the two rivers due to poor agricultural practices,
sand harvesting and construction of residential houses near the rivers. A total of 102 species in
86 genera representing 39 plant families were recorded in the three sites along Kisian River.
Along River Awach, 87 species in 73 genera representing 41 plant families were recorded.
The five most dominant species were: Phragmites mauritianus, Mimosa pigra, Tithonia
diversifolia, Lantana camara and Harrisonia abyssinica.
Common trees planted by farmers near the riverbanks were Psidium guajava, Senna siamea,
Senna spectabilis, Markhamia lutea, Eucalyptus spp., Melia azedarach, Grevillea robusta,
Bambusa vulgaris and Syzygium cumini. Species preferred by the local communities for
planting along Kisian and Awach riverbanks were Sesbania sesban, Markhamia lutea,
Syzygium cumini, Senna siamea, Acacia polyacantha, Bambusa vulgaris, Ficus spp. Psidium
guajava and Phragmites mauritianus. These trees were popular with farmers and well
adapted to the area. In addition they were multi-purpose and highly valued. The eight species
preferred by the farmers are described as follows:
Sesbania sesban L. Merr.Papilionaceae

This is by far the most preferred plant species for fish according to the informants. It is a
deciduous, highly branched, short-lived shrub/tree that grows up to 8 m tall. It is one of
the leguminous species that survives water logging and fixes nitrogen. It is well adapted to
riparian vegetation and was recorded along both Kisian and Awach rivers. In addition to its
potential for soil improvement, it provides firewood, poles and fodder.
Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K. Schum. Bignoniaceae

It is popular and highly valued by farmers. It was found growing in most farms in all the
37
sites. The tree is evergreen and grows up to 10 m high and coppices extremely well. Local
uses include building poles, tool handles, firewood, timber, banana props, shade, bee forage,
ornamental and windbreak.
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae

This is an exotic, fast growing evergreen tree that is native to Asia. It is very common
around Kisumu and coppices extremely well after lopping. It is a source of edible sweet
fruits, firewood, building poles, tool handles, timber, boat building wood, bee forage, shade,
ornamental and dyes.
Senna siamea (Lam.) Irwin & Barneby Caesalpiniaceae

It is an exotic evergreen tree that grows up to 15 m tall. It is very popular in the project
area and most homesteads visited had plated it. It is a legume, prolific seeder and coppices
quite well after lopping. Local uses include firewood, timber, furniture, building poles, bee
forage, shade, ornamental and windbreak. It is not browsed by livestock and therefore easy
to establish.
Acacia polyacantha subsp. campylacantha (A.Rich.) Brenan Mimosaceae

It is a large, spreading, much-branched tree that rows up to 18 m tall. It has been overexploited
for charcoal in most areas. It occurred in patches along the two rivers. It is a legume thus
useful in nitrogen-fixing and soil conservation. Local uses include charcoal, firewood, timber,
tool handles, edible gum, fodder and bee forage. It is propagated by seeds.
Bambusa vulgaris Schrader ex Wendl. Gramineae
This is bamboo with yellow stems and green stripes found at Kisian up-stream, Ulalo area.
It holds soil together and stabilizes soil on riverbanks. It is used for making fences, poles,
furniture and basketry. It is vegetatively propagated through culms.
Phragmites mauritianus Kunth Gramineae

near water in marshes and river banks and occurs as patches along the two rivers. It is a good
riverbank stabilizer, source of fodder thatching materials.
Ficus spp. Moraceae

Ficus spp. Are semi-deciduous trees that are well adapted to riverine vegetation in the study
area. They are extremely useful for riverbank stabilization. Ficus sycomorus and F. vallis-
choudae were common along the two rivers. Local uses include firewood, furniture, beehives,
canoes, edible fruits, soil conservation and medicines.
Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae

They are naturalized and grow wild in all humid parts of western Kenya and the lake region.
Within the project area, guavas are very common even along the riverbanks and roadsides
particularly in areas that are rocky and degraded. They regenerate readily from the underground
suckers. Local uses include edible fruits, medicine, fodder, bee forage, ornamental, shade and
soil stabilization.
38
Green-house and nursery experiments
Sesbania sesban seeds were collected and 90% germination was obtained in five days. It
was found that soil was not as good a media for germination as sand. This applied to all the
species. This species showed the fastest growth compared to the other species. The seedlings
were attacked by worms which destroyed most of the leaves. They were sprayed with an
insecticide (thunder) and they completely recovered.

Ficus sp. produced several small seeds in the syconium and germinate well. It showed the
slowest growth rate and requires a lot of moisture. Acacia polyacantha subsp campylacantha
(Ogongo); A few seeds were available, some of which were not very mature. Germination
was good and the subspecies showed moderate growth.
Markhamia lutea produced a lot of seed but did not do well under polythene cover. Excellent
germination was obtained when the seeds were scattered on the surface of moist sand and
covered with leaf litter.
Syzygium cumini seeds did not germinate under polythene cover as they tended to rot. Ninety
per cent germination was obtained when the fruits were covered with leaf litter and kept
moist. The seedlings showed moderate growth.
There were no seeds available for Senna siamea. Psidium guajava was very common and
propagated well in the experimental area and was not given priority for planting.
The results in the greenhouse were used to develop suitable methods for seed propagation in
the nursery. The fastest growth rate was shown by Sesbania sesban (90 cm after 3 months)
and Acasia sp (41 cm after 3 months). Others showed slow growth rate, being 12 cm for
Markhamia lutea and Syzygium cumini and 8 cm for Ficus sp, all recoded at three months.
Discussion
Riparian vegetation is part of an ecosystem involving interaction of plants, animals, micro-

organisms and the non-living environment. Human beings derive benefits from the ecosystem
for survival such as food including fish, fodder and other raw products. Riparian vegetation
protects river banks, supports food chain, provides wildlife and fish habitats, improves water
quality and mitigates the effects of climate change. Therefore, it is important to manage and
sustain riparian vegetation in order to realize the benefits for improvement of community
livelihoods and the environment.
The local community in the study area depends almost entirely on ecosystem raw products.
We found that riparian vegetation in the area lacks or occupies a narrow strip due to crop
cultivation, livestock damage, sand harvesting and house construction. This has led to river
banks being eroded and degraded. In Kisian which is close to the town center, farmers have
small pieces of land and houses are constructed very close to the river such that vegetation
propagation can be done for only a few meters. There is also the belief that planting of
trees like Ficus which has edible fruits would attract wild animals near the houses. Since
the farmers needed to own the plants they propagated, their wishes were considered in the
implementation.
39
There is a general lack of knowledge by the community on the benefits of conserving the
riparian ecosystem to enhance productivity and improve the environment. The Kenya
Government policy of conserving 30 meters of river bank is not followed or enforced. The local
community believes that the land up to the river banks belongs to them and any interference
including planting of trees is considered loss of agricultural land and should be compensated.
There is a need for capacity building especially of the local leaders and members of Water
Resource User Association (an NGO which regulates river usage) to educate the community
on the benefits of natural resources conservation and the need to protect it. Government
policy on riparian conservation should be enforced if riparian vegetation is to be protected. It
was observed that, there was pollution of rivers as some of the local people use the rivers for
bathing. The community should be educated to limit the use of rivers as bathing sites in order
to improve water quality.
It was observed that the preferred species did not have seeds at the same time and some of
the species could not be obtained in seed such as Acacia polyacantha and Senna siamea.
Sesbania sesban which is one of the most preferred species by the community is a good
fodder for livestock hence these plants were prone to destruction except in crop farms where
there is protection. Efforts have been made to sensitize the farmers to keep the livestock away
from the plants. The propagated plants will impact positively on ecosystem productivity and
protection of the river bank. Further riparian vegetation enrichment can be extended to other
areas. The vegetation needs to be managed, protected and used sustainably. Farmers should be
encouraged by compensating for their efforts through cash payments and supplying seedlings.
In Malawi a carbon project is paying farmers cash for growing trees (Spore no 148).
Conclusion
Riparian vegetation along the two rivers is insufficient for the many benefits to be realized.
Enrichment of the vegetation with grasses, shrubs and trees would increase the benefits
to the local community and the environment. The main challenges to riparian vegetation
enhancement are human activities like livestock feeding, cultivation and ignorance of the
farmers to the benefits of riparian vegetation. It is important for farmers to be encouraged
to enrich riparian vegetation and manage it in a sustainable way. There is need to create
incentives to motivate farmers like giving them cash payment as compensation for caring
and enriching the vegetation. Seedlings could also be supplied to them for planting. Riparian
vegetation will impact positively on fish production, water quality, river bank stabilization,
reduced siltation, and increased retention of moisture. It can also mitigate the effects of
climate change and reduce flooding.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by Lake Victoria Research

Initiative (VicRes). We thank Mr Norman Gachathi and Lewis Mbugua for their technical
support in the field. E are grateful to those who accompanied us in the field and the many
informants who gave us the local names and uses of the plants. We appreciate the help of
Samuel Ouko who allowed us to build a nursery in his homestead and for taking care of the
plants in the nursery.
40
References
Agnew, A.D.Q. and Agnew, S.A. 1994. Upland Kenya Wild Flowers 2nd ed. East African
Natural History Society, Nairobi, Kenya.
Beentje, H.J. 1994. Kenya Trees, Shrubs and Lianas. National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi,
Kenya.
Chilufya, H. and Tengnas, B. 1996.Agroforestry Extension Manual for Northern Zambia.

Forestry Department, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Regional Soil
Conservation Unit, RSCU, Nairobi.
Lawrence, R., Todd, R. and Asmussen, L. 1984. Nutrient Cycling in an agricultural watershed:
II. Stream flow and artificial drainage. Journal of Environmental Quality 13: 27-32.
Middleton, C. and Smith, J. 2002. Managing and rehabilitating riparian vegetation. Land for
Wildlife note no. 17. Queensland.
Negassi, A., E., Ghebru, K. and Tengnas, B. 2002. Soil and Water Conservation Manual for
Eriteria. AG Printing and Publishing Ltd, Dubai.
Ombalski, A. (2007). Riparian Conservation Program. Clear Water Conservancy.
www.clearwaterconservancy.org
Trapnell, C.G. and Brunt, M.A., 1987. Vegetation and Climate Maps of South Western Kenya.
Land Resource Development Centre, Overseas Development Administration, London.
41
Business Planning, Development and Management for Aquaculture

Gichira, R.
Consultant, Nairobi, Kenya
Abstract
Aquaculture is the science and technology of fish rearing and production on farm. In recent
years, aquaculture has become one of the major farm activities and business attracting much
interest and investment because of its economic potential. This paper was presented at the
Fisheries and Aquaculture cluster seminar to introduce the business aspects fish production
and sale. Financial and production feasibility of aquaculture as well as marketing of fish have
been discussed
Key words: Aquaculture; Fish production; Marketing; Financial feasibility
Introduction
Inadequate preparation of a business plan for aquaculture has two fundamental problems;
first aquaculture without a good business plan will result in mistakes which could have been
anticipated and solved early enough. A written business plan exposes thoughts, assumptions
and research findings to reason. Second, without a business plan finance sources will be
limited to those few who have unquestioning faith in you. Investors, public or private, will
insist on seeing exactly why they should support you. Despite arguments about the economic
potential of aquaculture, you must show in detail how invested money will be used and
return a satisfactory profit. You will be competing with many other projects and aquaculture
is not familiar to many investors. A demonstration that your enterprise is founded on solid
reasoning is an important advantage.
Basic structure
Farmers need basic knowledge and skills for aquaculture as well as ability to repair
equipment, process and market products, keep books, hire and fire, arrange financing, and
watch over stocks of fish or shellfish. All of these responsibilities are overshadowed by three
basic questions:
1. Who will buy the product?
2. How will you produce the product?
3. Will revenues adequately exceed costs?
Source of information
One of the best sources of information is extension professionals. They are trained to
disseminate aquaculture information effectively and have close contacts with industry,
university/researchers and government regulatory agencies. A few states also maintain
government offices to assist aquaculture development. National, regional and state aquaculture
associations exist. Farmers need to consider becoming an active member to one or more.
42
Farmers should visit several aquaculture operations that are similar to the venture you are
contemplating to engage in and get a feel of the day-to-day operations. It is important to stay
abreast of the industry by subscribing to aquaculture magazines or newsletters. Professional
associations and firms affiliated with aquaculture, such as equipment suppliers and restaurant
owners can be excellent sources of information on business trends, current costs and market
data. Finally, farmers need to visit local chambers of commerce, economic development
offices, planning boards, and banks for information on economic development programmes
and zoning.
Expectations
Every business owner wants success, but everyone has a unique definition of success
resulting from individual experiences, prospects, and goals. Only you can decide what is to
be achieved by aquaculture venture. It is useful to establish expectations before developing
a business plan. This helps to avoid the natural tendency to forge ahead even though major
undesirable compromises will result.
A clear understanding of your enterprise goals will guide decisions throughout the planning
process. For example, an aquaculture business meant to generate an annual income of
$40,000 will be different from one expected to yield $140,000 per year. Besides ensuring that
expectations accurately reflect needs, be forthright in assessing how long you are able to wait
for rewards. Aquaculture production cycles are longer than in other types of businesses, it
will take months, and in most cases several years, before revenues are generated.
Marketing
All investments made in the aquaculture enterprise — money, time, and personal energy
will go down the drain if you cannot find and keep customers. Finding customers requires
analyzing potential markets to determine who is willing and able to pay for the product(s).
Market Analysis
Determine Market Area
A practical way to analyze potential markets is to define a serviceable geographic area.

Whether you are delivering a product or expect to attract customers, as in a fee fishing
operation, travel distance and time are major considerations. A one-person operation, for
example, might be hard pressed to allocate even a couple of hours per day for deliveries. An
enterprise with a partner or employee responsible for deliveries could market to a wider area.
A rule of thumb derived from farm markets is that the majority of customers for on-site sales
will come from a ten-mile radius of your location.
Identify Market Segments
Within a market area there will be different types of customers. You must determine if there
are enough potential buyers of your product to support your business. The principal customer
types (“market segments”) for aquaculture products are: wholesalers, restaurants, seafood
43
stores, supermarkets and consumers buying directly. Other customer types might include
sports fishermen at fee fishing operations institutional buyers, pet stores for ornamental fish
and bait dealers. You must determine which segment(s) you are going to serve.
Research on Buyers’ Needs
Fish and shellfish markets are dynamic seasonal variability and industry trends are important
considerations that affect buyer’s needs and expectations. Each market segment has its own
buying patterns, based on quantities purchased product forms price, and delivery. Talk to
as many different buyers as possible to obtain a representative picture of their needs. Some
aquaculture products have well-established markets while others face uncertain markets. A
visit to a seafood wholesaler will yield more useful information on oysters than on tilapia. If
the required information is not available from your market area two alternative approaches
can be helpful. First, talk to fish farmers and buyers in regions where the product is being
sold. Second, identify a substitute product which is sold locally and inquire about its market.
For example, if you want to market tilapia a substitute fish for calculations might be flounder
because both are mild-flavored, white-fleshed, and relatively expensive.
Estimate Area Market Potential
After obtaining a picture of buyer’s needs, market potential can be estimated by extrapolating
information to the number of buyers within your area. Chambers of commerce, yellow pages
of the phone directory, or local economic development offices can be useful sources of
business and consumer census data that can help to identify and describe a market. Market
analysis may show that your plan has promise there are enough potential customers or that
the plan will not work. Perhaps you intended to sell whole fish to restaurants and seafood
retailers, but found that they want headed and gutted fish. This means more labour and waste
disposal, but, possibly, a higher price per unit. You can adjust the plan or scrap it, either way
you have avoided an expensive mistake.
Production feasibility
After determining the practical and market feasibility of your operation, you should examine
its production feasibility. The critical question is: “can I efficiently and economically produce
my proposed aquaculture product?” Many approaches are used to select a culture species.
A species maybe chosen because it is in short supply, a lucrative market exists or it is easily
cultured. Successful production requires as much knowledge as possible about its biological
and production requirements.
After considering the culture species and systems, you may determine that permitting,
construction, seed and feeding costs at your site will exceed the potential production income.
This information will save you money, time, and frustration. This section and accompanying
worksheet will help identify problems that limit operational success.
44
Getting Started
The first step in developing a successful aquaculture production facility is to obtain and
critically evaluate the scientific information on the chosen species. Information sources
have been discussed in the introduction to this publication. A personal assessment of your
contributions to the project is the basis for identifying needs. What land, facilities equipment
training, etc. do you possess? The more tools and experience you bring to the project the
greater the chance of success.
Each species has a unique set of biological factors that influence its culture potential. Water
quality, predation, and disease problems should be anticipated but growth variations, food
conversion rates and other factors can make or break an operation. Considerable technical
information is available from extension specialists and published materials. Carefully consider
site selection. Site selection can be a major determinant of culture success and production
rests. Preparing or modifying a site to meet your needs can be a costly undertaking. Federal
and State regulations, and local regulations or customs may also be limiting factors at a
proposed location.
Fixed and Variable Costs
Business managers often distinguish between fixed costs and variable costs of production.
Fixed costs are associated with those inputs which do not change over the short run such
as salaries, overhead, insurance and depreciation (capital expenses). Variable costs are
dependent on level of production and will change as you increase or decrease your stock.
They include juveniles, feed, chemicals, labor, electricity, etc. Operational expenses and
potential profitability for alternative culture systems and scales of operation can be calculated
by examining these two kinds of costs.
Inputs
Stock (seed fingerlings, etc.), feed, and labor costs are the most expensive variable costs of a
culture operation. It is important to analyze these costs carefully to ensure they are accurate
and manageable. Production is limited by the number of organisms stocked. Stocking rates
unit costs growth and potential mortality of culture organisms should be available in the
resource materials. These values can be evaluated to determine profitability if higher than
expected seed prices or mortalities are encountered.
Fish feeds
Most fish production systems require supplemental feeding. Because of the volume and
price of feeds, the equipment needed and the labor require and feeds and feeding are costly,
up to 40-50 percent of total variable costs. Thus, profitability is often determined by the
feeding efficiency. Amount of feed required is determined by feed conversion rates and can
be estimated from tables provided by feed manufacturers. If food information is not available
for your species or geographic area formulate estimates from similar species and areas.
Consideration should be given to projections of changing feed costs. How have nutrition,
45
price of ingredients and feed costs changed in recent years? Are bulk purchase and storage
available? This information will help you estimate actual feed costs.
Management
Management of an aquaculture facility often requires more time and expertise than traditional
farming activities. Ability to make quick management decisions and take prompt action is
crucial, particularly when stocking, feeding and harvesting fish. Estimate your needs based on
experience, from discussions with other growers, or from technical studies. Determine if you
have the necessary knowledge, skills, time and labor. If periods of critical decision making
conflict with other activities can you hire the necessary assistance? Include realistic estimates
of your availability and costs, including resources or the cost to obtain them. Experience
is the best teacher. Successful culturists minimize operational costs by carefully observing
changes in feeding habits, water quality, disease and predation. They anticipate and correct
problems before losses occur. Learn as much as possible from these growers and incorporate
their experiences into your planning.
Be flexible in your estimates; market demands, biological problems, and culture conditions
will alter planned production. It is useful to develop three sets of projections based on high,
intermediate, and low potential production. As you gain experience in aquaculture you will
be able to anticipate trends or problems and adapt more effectively. In the beginning it is best
to recognize the inherent unpredictability of aquaculture and understand how to modify your
plans as needed.
Financial Feasibility
In this final section the overall picture of your business will emerge by constructing a cash
flow statement.
Importance of Cash Flow Statement
The cash flow statement is the most important of several financial documents included in a
formal business plan. It is a tool for forecasting profits and ensuring that money is available
when needed. A business can fail even if it is profitable. If profit comes in after creditors have
closed your door, it will be too late.
The cash flow statement shows how much money you need, and when you need it; how much
money you are bringing in and when it is available. This is essential information because
aquaculture production is often discontinuous. Fish and shellfish take months to grow to
market size, and during this time expenses will be incurred. Knowing in advance that a cash
gap will occur allows you to budget for it. Cash flow projections also include timing of capital
investments, putting idle cash to work and lessening dependence on debt. Interest payments
maybe minimized by borrowing as needed rather than annually or sporadically.
46
Basic Structure
Cash flow projections should extend three years or to a point where the operation is consistently
in the black whichever is longer. In hard clam culture, for example, revenues do not arrive
until year two or three and profitability may not be achieved for another year or two. In this
case, financial plans should be projected to at least year five. The cash flow statement begins
with the cash on hand the day you start business. Do not begin when your operation is stocked
as you will be spending money long before this time. To the initial balance, receipts are added
and disbursements are subtracted for a prescribed time period. The end balance then becomes
the start balance for the next time period.
Some Missing Pieces
In planning the operation start-up, you will not know the beginning balance. This must be
determined based on your anticipated financial needs. Therefore, the first step in completing
the worksheet is to calculate net and cumulative cash flows for each time period within one
year. Net cash flow is the difference between cash receipts and cash disbursements for the
period. Cumulative cash flow is the sum of net cash flows from the starting period to the
current period.
One essential item not initially available is any loan repayment expense because you will
not know how much must be borrowed. An adjustment for this will be made after all
other financial needs have been estimated. By adding the time period interest charges and
the repayment amount for each time period the amount needed to start up and operate an
enterprise until revenues arrive can be estimated. Your bank can provide tables of interest
charges and repayment schedules for varying loan amounts and rates.
As you work through the projections, keep in mind that only actual cash flows are recorded.
Sales on credit made in one period but collected later are not entered until the cash materializes.
Any prepayment of expenses such as insurance is recorded in full when the payment occurs.
Depreciation is a non-cash expense and does not enter the computations of cash flow (except
for tax implications at the end of the year).
Monthly time periods are used for the first year cash flow statement. In subsequent yearn,
quarterly projections may be sufficient. You must decide the appropriate level of detail. In
some operation cash expenses and receipts occur in spurts, a flurry of activity associated with
stocking, another intense period at harvest, and a lull in between. Shellfish aquaculture might
fit this model. For such cases you might choose six month intervals for the inactive periods
and monthly estimates for busy times.
Most information needed to complete the cash flow statement can be found in the previous
worksheets. The expense categories listed are common to most aquaculture, but be sure that
items peculiar to your operation are included. Some estimates will require making reasonable
assumptions and minor calculations.
Two items in the financial projections require careful thought. The first is estimating revenues;
seasonal variability in price and quantities harvested can complicate this calculation. Second
47
feed expenses will vary with changes in diet as fish grow, feed conversion rates, biomass
(number times average weight), and feed price.
Consult financial advisors to estimate expenses for legal, accounting, insurance, and payroll
taxes and benefits. To estimate equipment repair and advertising costs, speak to knowledgeable
industry sources such as equipment suppliers and other aquaculturists. Access to a computer
spreadsheet program will aid in development of a cash flow statement because corrections
and changes in assumptions are much easier to make than with pencil and paper.
Conclusions
If the accompanying worksheets have convinced you that an aquaculture venture can meet
your personal and financial goals, it is time to set out an action plan. This plan should use the
accumulated information. In most cases, the first step will be to arrange for financing.
Outside financing may be available as a loan (debt) or in return for giving up some ownership
of the business (equity). Either type of funding or a combination of both should be carefully
decided after consulting a trusted accountant and lawyer. Major factors which will affect your
options include how much money is required your credit history, the lending “climate” and
your legal responsibilities.
Compared to many businesses, aquaculture is viewed as a risky enterprise by financiers. Do

not become disheartened. It is much more common to find financing after being turned down
by several investors than to be successful on the first attempt.
After gauging personal financial and other contributions to the venture, most entrepreneurs
turn to people they know for a loan. Such arrangements are easier to arrange and terms
can be better than commercial interest rates. Be aware, however, that tensions can affect the
relationship especially if the business falls on hard times. It is important for tax and other
legal reasons that all agreements are written down in detail and signed by all parties.
Additional sources of financing include private investors, banks, and government funding
programs, and each has different perspectives, requirements and expectations. Looking at
your venture from the viewpoint of potential financiers will help prioritize the search for
funds and identify the most likely sources.
If you approach private investors or financial institutions, it will be necessary to prepare a
formal business plan. There are a number of excellent published guides to the proper format
and content of such a financial proposal. Several are listed at the end of this publication.
Once your aquaculture operation is established, make planning a high priority. There will be
new markets to develop, improved culture methods to assess and use, and the need to manage
business growth. Your plan should evolve with changing conditions, but always ensure that
the core goals remain as the primary measure for your efforts.
48
Bibliography
Allen, P.G., Botsford, L.W., Schur, A.M. and Johnston W.E. 1984. Bioeconomics of
Aquaculture. Elsevier, New York NY.
Bangs, D. 1989. Business Planning Guide: Creating a Plan for Success in Your Own
Business. Upstart Publishing, Dover.
Cato, J.C. 1991. Investing in Commercial Hard Clam Culture: A Comprehensive Guide to
the South Atlantic States. Florida Sea Grant Program, Report Number 104 (SGR-
104).
Chaston, I. 1983. Marketing in Fisheries and Aquaculture. Osprey Books, New York.
Chaston, I. 1984. Business Management in Fisheries and Aquaculture. Osprey Books, New
York.
Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture and National Agricultural library. 1992. Aquaculture: A
Guide to Federal Government Programs. National Agricultural Library, Beltsville,
MD.
Kevgor Aquasystem 1989. Starting an Aquaculture Business. Vancouver, Canada.
Lipton D. and Harrell, R. 1990. Figuring Production Costs in Finfish Aquaculture.
University of Maryland Cooperative Extension Service. .
Meade, J. 1989. Aquaculture Management. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
49
Participation of Women in Fish Trade: A Case Study of Tanzania

Iembo, B., 2Kinyanjui, M., 3Mbambo, A., 4Bateganya, F.
*1
1Mzumbe University 2University of Nairobi, 3Mzumbe University), Mr. 4Makerere

University
*Corresponding Author
Abstract
The study examined the participation of women in the fish trade at Mwaloni International Fish
Market and Igombe landing sites. Trade along fish value chain (actual fishing, processing,
trading and transportation) was investigated including how and to what extent gender
and cultural values constrain their participation. Data were obtained from six case studies
and through interview of 100 women fish traders. Results indicate that women need to be
encouraged, financially empowered and given opportunities to participate in fish trade to
improve their livelihoods.
Key words: Women; Fish trade; Value chain; Tanzania
Introduction
Entrepreneurship is one of the many strategies for uplifting men and women out of economic
hardships and poverty. By investing in business, men and women are able to create
employment and generate income thereby alleviating poverty. Entrepreneurship is not about
economics only but also involves change in the way of doing business and has an impact
on personal identity of the individuals. Women play a crucial role in small- scale fisheries
by managing the post- harvest aspect of the sub-sector. Many of them are fully engaged in
fish handling, processing and distribution. In so doing they tend to influence the growth of
the fishing industry, which is important in terms of food security and poverty alleviation in
developing countries including Tanzania (Bagachwa, 1994).
With the increasing demand for fish and fish products the world over, there are great efforts
geared towards promotion of aquaculture. Women have a role to play in fish farming and
trade (World Fish Centre, 2008). However, the success of women in small-scale fish trade
has been varied. Resource base could be one of the reasons behind this disparity. Therefore, it
seems that the set-back is more than resource-base as even in Lake Victoria fisheries women
entrepreneurs are not as successful as their counterparts in other places in the region.
Women entrepreneurs experience gender and cultural conflicts as they move from the
private domain where their gender identity is clearly defined to the public domain where
entrepreneurial attributes of aggression, risk taking and manipulation dominate. This paper
presents part of the results obtained from baseline study which explored how gender and
culture influence the participation and performance of women in the fish value chain among
the Lake Victoria fish traders. The paper also show whether women benefit or lose by
participating in the fish trade activities.
50
Methodology
One hundred women fish traders were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. For the
case studies, interview guide was prepared and administered. Case studies were analyzed
qualitatively while survey data were analyzed quantitatively.
Although fish sector is dominated by men, all the respondents in the survey were female.1
Fishing activities around Lake Victoria are characterized by a high participation of married
(40%), widowed (27%), divorced (28%) and single (5%) (Table1). Marital status has
implication on the choice of enterprise and extent of participation in entrepreneurship. There
is a wide spread belief that women who are divorced, widowed or single dominate fish trade.
This is informed by the perception that they have limited options to support their livelihoods
and their relative independence compared to women who are married. Contrary to the above
perception, this study has found that married women dominate the fish trade. The most notable
feature in the findings is that no woman among those interviewed participated in the actual
fishing, but were involved in other fish trade activities such as processing, marketing and fish
trade support activities. Supporting activities included catering food services for fishermen
and traders, boat building and net cleaning.
Education contributes to development of entrepreneurial human capital, which is the ability

to discover and exploit market opportunities through taking the appropriate risky decisions
(Ngigi, 2008). This ability is influenced by innate and acquired skills. The innate skills
include creativity, alertness and imagination. Other skills are acquired through formal
education, access to social capital and general experiences (Kirzner, 2002 cited in Ngigi,
2008). The function of entrepreneurial human capital is to generate cognitive abilities that
are prerequisite to unraveling the uncertainty surrounding the discovery and exploitation of
market opportunities. Majority of the respondents has some primary education (96%). Further
probing indicates that of this number, most of them had not completed primary education.
Only 4% had no formal education, no woman fish trader has above Primary education.
Education level of entrepreneurs is an important aspect to study as it has inclination to the
skills that women have which has implication on occupations women take and the node of
operation in the value chains. With regard to age, the study revealed majority that fish traders
are between 21 and 50 years (90%). Only 2 respondents were in the 10- 20 age group. Those
within ages 21- 30 years accounted for 13% and there were 8 women fish traders who were
above 50 years. 39% were within the age group of 31- 40 years (Table 1).
1 The fishing sector encompasses activities such as fish harvesting, drying and
processing, marketing and transporting.
51
Table 1. Background information on women fish traders
Variable/Category %
Age (years) Mean age = 39
Variance= 63.637
10- 20 2
21- 30 13
31- 40 39
41- 50 38
> 50 8
Marital Status Single 5
Married 40
Divorced 28
Widowed 27
Experience in business (Years) <5 21
5- 10 47
11- 16 28
17- 22 2
> 22 2
Education No formal 4
Primary 96
Secondary -
Diploma and above -
Business ownership
The status of the business ownership is a key factor in determining activities that one is
involved in within the value chain. First, it affects the flexibility of the owner in the case sole
proprietorship. Secondly, it may affect the amount of resources available to the business.
Eventually, this may have an implication on the performance of the business. Figure 1 shows
that business status is mainly of sole proprietorship. Ninety two per cent of the women
traders’ businesses are of sole proprietorship. Businesses owned by family rank the second
and constitute 5%. Other form of ownership reported included partnership, cooperative and
limited company which altogether constitute 3%.
52
Figure 1. Business ownership status.
Source of start-up capital
Mgawe (2008) examined different approaches to securing greater post – harvest benefits for
small scale fishing communities and reported that women constitute a high percentage of
those active in the post- harvest sector. Thus, empowering them and increasing their income
is a recognized best practice to even address poverty within households. For a business to be
established, availability of initial start up capital is critical. Majority of the women indicated
to have obtained start up capital from SACCOS (30%), own savings (20%) and from income
generating activities (20%). Few of them obtained from spouses and relatives (Table 2).
This study has revealed that it is difficult to obtain start up capital from banks and other micro
finance institutions due to the restrictions. Most of the traders reported that they do not own
collaterals such as land and other fixed assets which banks required for guaranteeing loans.
This problem was severe to because even the land that they own as families are registered in
the name of men. Therefore in order to access loans, women had to seek guarantee from their
spouses.
In some financial institutions women are required to form groups of 10 to 20 where the
responsibility of paying back the loan rests with the group rather than individuals. This
requires prior character assessment of members of the group. In case one member fails to
contribute to the installment to be paid, then the group takes up the responsibility which
makes other members suffer unfairly. On the other hand interests charged are so high that they
discourage borrowing.
53
Table 2. Source of start-up capital
Source of start-up capital %

• Own Savings 20
• Income generating activities 20
• Help from spouse 14
• Help from relative 16
• SACCOS 30
Total 100
Spending of income from business
Culturally, husbands have strong influence on business income and expenditure of their wives.
Very few married women involve their husbands in making decision over their business
expenditure. The main reasons for their readiness include considering their husbands to be
their chief advisors and thus no decision can be made without their permission; other men are
guarantors to their wives when they borrow from financial institutions, so a wife is obliged to
bow down before her husband in order to smoothly proceed in trading, since in case of non
repayment, a husband takes the responsibility to pay back the loan.
There were married women who feared that their marriages would break if their husbands
were not involved in making decisions about their involvement in fish trade. There were
were also other women who could use income obtained from the trade without consulting
their husbands. Such women owned the businesses and mobilized start-up capital. They also
feared to involve their husbands due to lack of trust.
Cultural beliefs and practices that hinder women’s participation in fish trade
All patriarchal societies have an elaborate division of labour where sex is usually the basis
for this allocation. For example, no woman was supposed to indulge in actual fishing because
of many taboos and beliefs associated with womanhood and holiness. Due to menstruation
women were and are still forbidden from fish harvesting since “they are deemed not to be
clean when they are in the periods”. Thus, in order to avoid annoying the water gods all
women were prohibited from fish harvesting.
Several cultural beliefs were used in the past to keep women away from the fish trade (Geheb,
1997). Such cultural beliefs, that informed regulatory mechanisms for determining the use
of the lake, were harsh to women. Such cultural values like the one prohibiting menstruating
women anywhere near the Lake as they would contaminate the lake and affect its productivity
has become bottleneck to the participation of women in fish trade. This study has revealed that
culture was not destructive; there were no major cultural hindrances to women’s participation
and performance in the fish value chain. Women are permitted by their spouses to engage in
fish trade. There are women who may stay at the landing sites for more than a month waiting
for fish to be transported while their spouses patiently waited at home.
54
Gender as a constraint to fish trade
The values, beliefs, myths and a variety of other factors shape the attitudes of society towards
the role and status of women. Gender roles were the major constraint to women’s participation
in the fish value chain. Gender, which is the socially and culturally constructed differences
between women and men, impacted on the kind of activities and amount of time a woman
invested in business. Many women respondents reported that in addition to their business
they had to attend to the domestic chores of caring and looking after children.
Women’s participation in fish value chain
Gender division of roles generally characterizes fish trade. Though this is slowly ebbing
away, it can still be seen to be governing fish trade especially in fishing and collection nodes.
Fishing is a preserve of men while women dominate handling, processing and marketing
nodes of the chain. The value chain activities considered in this study are actual fishing, fish
processing and fish marketing and transportation. No woman engaged in the actual fishing.
This is because, traditionally actual fishing is considered as men’s job as most of the women
suggested on the ground and actual fishing requires time, be outside the home environment
and in most cases the fishing is taking place in the night, circumstances which favors men
than their women counterpart. To women, marketing and trading is easy and suitable, other
activities that women are engaged in include the fish processing, like sun drying, smoking
and frying, the activity seem to them as not profitable, so you find many are engaged in
trading and marketing as shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Women Involvement in the Fish Value Chain Activities
Value chain activity %
*Fish catching 2
Fish processing 8
Trading and Marketing 90
Total 100
Source: Survey data, 2008 (* the figures are for men only)
Conclusions
1. Entrepreneurship involves change in the way of doing things and has an impact on
personal identity of an individual. Women are participating in fish trade in spite of the
constraints and challenges faced.
2. Fishing is dominated by men although women are involved in trading, marketing,

transporting and fish processing. This is because of the cultural values in some places
that prevent them from carrying out fishing.
55
3. Despite of gender and cultural conflicts that women fish traders are subjected in, they
need to be encouraged, empowered with capital investments and allowed opportunities
to trade and participate fully in all the fish trade activities along the chain including actual
fishing, processing (smoking, frying, sun drying etc). When given opportunities, women
can be good entrepreneurs in fish trade.
References
Bagachwa D.S.M 1994. Fisheries Development in Tanzania, Published by The

Macmillan, London.
Geheb, K. 1997. The Regulators and Regulated: Fisheries Management Options
and Dynamics in Kenya’s Lake Victoria Fishery. PhD Thesis, University of Sussex,
School of African and Asian Studies.
Mgawe, Y.I 2008. Post-harvest fish loss assessment on Lake Victoria sardine
(Ratreneobola argentea) fishery in Tanzania. In FAO’s Report and papers presented
at the second workshop on Fish Technology, Utilization and Quality Assurance in
Africa. Agadir, Morocco, 24-28 November 2008. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture
Report No. 904. ISBN 978-92-5-006294-5. ROME:FAO
Ngigi, S 2008. Socio- Cultural Factors Underlying the Location of Women
Entrepreneurs in a Fish value Chain: The case of Lake Victoria Tilapia Trade, O g a l
Beach, Kenya. Unpublished MA Dissertation. Nairobi. IDS, University of Nairobi.
World Fish Centre 2008.The World Fish Centre Publication on The Millennium
Development Goals: Fishing for Future. Bangkok: WFC.
56
Current State of Handling, Processing and Quality of Omena

(Rastrionebola argentea) in Mfangano and Rusinga Islands, Kenya
*1
Jumbe, J., 2
Kibas, P., 3Kakongoro, D., & 4Tumwebaze, R.
1
Kenyatta University, 2Kabarak University, 3Nkumba University, 4NaFIRRI
Abstract
The livelihood of many Small Scale Fishers in Lake Victoria is based on the Omena
Rastrionebola argentea fishery. The processing and trading in Omena in Kenya is dominated
by women (80%) who derive their livelihood from the sale of the fish species. Their
operations and practice in handling, processing and packaging of the fish is characterized
by poor methods and low quality of the fish product due to current wide, traditional practice
of drying the fish on the ground or on old fishing nets. This drying method results in fish
products which are contaminated by microorganisms and debris. As a result Omena products
on the market are of low quality, value and demand. The objective of this research was to
determine the current status and practice in the handling, processing and quality of Omena
in Suba District and appropriate technological interventions needed to improve the quality
and add value to Omena products for a better sale price and to reduce post harvest losses
especially during the rainy season. The second objective was to determine gender disparities
among the small scale processors and the effects on fish quality and practice. Results indicate
that there is no difference in the fish handling and processing practice among the genders. The
quality of the Small Scale Fish processors’ fish products was low as fish samples tested were
contaminated with debris and had a high bacterial load which included faecal coliforms. The
experimental solar tent and rack dried fish samples were of high quality such as low bacterial
count and free from faecal coliforms. Solar tent and rack drying technology if adopted by
the Small Scale Fish processors can improve the Omena quality, raise the market value and
increase income for poverty alleviation.
Introduction
According to the 2006 Lake Victoria fish catch statistics, Omena Rastrionebola argentea
contributed 54% to the total commercial catch. In both Kenya and Uganda, Mukene/Omena
contributed 41% to the total commercial catch. The estimated total catch in the whole of
Lake Victoria in 2006 was 1,061,107.6 m. tons and Omena contributed the higher percentage
(54%) than Nile perch (24%), Tilapia (7%), Haplochromines (13%) and other species (<
1%) (National Frame Survey Reports 1 & 2). In both Kenya and Uganda, Mukene/Omena
contributed 41% to the total commercial catch (Table 1).
57
Table 1: Lake Victoria fish catches 2006

Uganda** Kenya*
Species Weight (m. tons) % age Weight (m. tons) % age
Nile perch 80,977 46.8 55,224 38.4
Tilapia 19,557 11.3 18,429 12.8
Mukene/Omena 70,001 40.5 57,929 40.2
Others 2,489 1.4 12,326 8.6
Total 173,024 100 46,996 100
Source: * National report on the Lake Victoria (Kenya) fisheries frame survey of 2006 ** National
report on the Lake Victoria (Uganda) fisheries frame survey of 2006.
Suba district, located on the Southern part of Nyanza Province, is made up of 16 islands and
Rusinga and Mfangano islands are the largest. The district which is the most productive in
Lake Victoria landed 57,483 metric tons of various fish species with an ex-vessel value of
Kshs 2,805,042,000 in 2006. The main species composed of Rastrineobola argentea (45.0%),
Lates niloticus (33.5%), Oreochromis niloticus (11.6%), Haplochromis (4.8%) and Clarias
(3.2). A total of 225,841 m. tons of Omena valued at 841,383,442 K. Shs was landed. This
was over 45% of the total catch in the district (Fisheries Annual Statistical Bulletin, 2006).
All the fish landed is processed by small scale processors who comprise mostly womenfolk
(80%), who derive their livelihood of the sale of the fish species. Their operations and practice
in handling, processing and packaging of the fish is characterized by poor methods leading
to low quality fish product. The current wide spread practice of drying the fish directly on the
ground or on old fishing nets results in fish products which are contaminated by microorganisms
and debris. As a result Omena products on market are of low quality, low market value and
acceptability. The main research objectives were therefore to assess the current practice and
gender disparities of the small scale processors, to determine technological interventions to
improve the quality of Omena products for a better sale price, to reduce post harvest losses
especially during the rainy season and to promote production of value added products for
better income for poverty alleviation.
Methodology
The study was conducted on Rusinga and Mfangano Islands, Suba district, which have
recorded the highest catches of Omena. Two landing sites were identified for each of the
islands. Yokia and Masisi were selected on Mfangano; and Luanda-Rombo and Litare on
Rusinga islands. The four landing beaches had many fishing boats targeting Omena fisheries
and a large number of small scale fish processors compared to the other sites.
Data collection and analysis

Data were collected on the current practices in fish handling and processing by holding focus
group discussions and using structured questionnaires. Respondents also gave information on
the current practices on fish handling practices, processing, storage, packaging marketing and
challenges they meet on day to day basis. The bio data, aspirations and assistance received or
sought by SSF operators was also collected. Direct observations were made and recorded as
the SSF conducted their daily businesses in order to identify shortfalls in the current practices.
Fish samples (100 – 250g) processed by the Small Scale women fish processors for both
58
human consumption and animal feed production were collected and taken to the laboratories
for analysis. The samples were delivered to the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS), National
Health Laboratories in Nairobi and Government Chemist in Kisumu in plastic bags. The fish
samples were analyzed for The Standard Plate Count at 30oC, for the presence of fecal Colliforms
at 37oC, Escherichia coli at 44oC, Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella sp. and Salmonella sp.
using both aerobic surface and enriched cultures. The following physical and chemical test
moisture, dry matter ash, proteins and fat content were done on the fish samples.
Experimental drying trials were conducted at Mbita point, Suba district, Kenya using a
natural convection solar tent and a photo voltaic fan driven forced convection tent and open
racks. The fish was washed using tap water and sorted to remove the bycatch (Haplochromis
sp and Caridina sp). The fish was then soaked in 10% brine salt solution for 15 minutes. Ten
kilograms of fish was weighed and spread on six trays and left to drip for 30 minutes. Three
trays were then placed on a raised rack in the open while the other three were placed inside
the solar tent and the exhaust fan switched on. The weight of the fish was recorded at two
hour interval and the physical parameters including humidity, temperature and weight loss
were recorded at hourly intervals.
The Focus group discussion and questionnaires data were coded and analyzed using SSPS
statistical package and presented as descriptive statistics percentages, means and graphs.
Data from fish samples were analyzed in Excel to generate graphs and tables.
Results and discussion

Characteristics, status and gender disparity of small-scale fish processors
The majority of the small scale fish processors (80%) were married women with children.
Majority (75%) were residents on the islands where they moved to do business. The majority
of the processors have been in the business for over five years. Most of fish processors (60%)
lived with their spouses and children on the islands. The majority of the women processors
(63.6%) indicated that they are assisted by their spouses and children during the processing of
the fish. The only method used to process Omena is sundrying. The majority of fish processors
(58.5%) dried the fish on fishing nets spread on the ground while the others (41.5%) dried
the fish directly on the ground. They reported that the drying process took 8-10 hours during
the dry season. During the rainy season, however, drying could take up to two days leading
to post harvest losses and low quality products. Most of the processors (95.1%) stored the
dried fish product on the floor inside their residential houses. The storage period ranged from
one day to two weeks but the disposal time depended on the demand. Most of the women
processors sold their fish to the traders or their agents on the same day. The bulk (97.5%) of
the fish was processed for human consumption.
The majority of the fish processors lacked sufficient capital and had no access to credit
facilities such as loans to expand their businesses. Banking facilities were also lacking at the
landing beaches. The lack of improved fish processing facilities left fish processors to dry the
fish on the ground or fishing nets with exception of a few locations where raised racks have
been provided the Government and donor agencies. Fish were washed directly in the lake
water which is contaminated due poor sanitation. The majority of the fish processors reported
low profit of less than 10%. Women revealed the prevalence of the practice of sex for fish
“Jaboya System” which compromised their dignity and sexuality and limited their capacity
59
to engage fully in the fish processing business. The credit advance system commonly used
by the fish traders/agents resulted in conflicts between buyers and sellers when payments are
not remitted on time and loans or cash advances are not serviced in good time. Details of the
small scale fish processors are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Characteristics and gender disparities among the small scale fish (Omena) Processors
Characteristic Men Women

Residence on the islands 43% 50%
Membership of an
30% 60%
organized group
Below 20 years 10% Below 20 years 20%
Age of respondents/ 21– 30 33% 21 – 30 50%
processors 31– 40 40% 31 – 40 10%
41–50 4% 41 – 50 20%
Primary 60% Primary 80%
Highest education level
Secondary 40% Secondary 20%
Married 56% Married 40%
Single 1% Single 30%
Marital status
Separated 23% Separated 30%
Widowed 16% Widowed
Fish processor 53% Fish processor 40%
Main activity of the Fish trader 32% Fish trader 10%
respondent Boat owner/ processor 5% Boat owner/ processor 10%
Trader/processor 10% Trader/processor 10%
Less 2,000 23% Less 2,000 50%
Weekly income (K Shs) 2001 – 3,000 52% 2001 – 3,000 40%
over 4,000 25% over 4,000 10%
1 – 5 years 32% 1 – 5 years 60%
Number of years in the
5 – 10 years 36% 5 – 10 years 20%
Omena industry
over 10 32% over 10 20%
Fish processing Fish processing
Marketing Marketing
Training received
Mentoring Mentoring
Book keeping Book keeping
On a net on the ground 75% On a net on the ground 70%
Current fish drying method Directly on the ground 24% Directly on the ground 20%
On raised racks 1% On raised racks 10%
1 – 8 hours 58% 1 – 8 hours 72%
Drying process duration 1 day 24% 1 day 28%
2 days 7% 2 days -
Current storage method On the floor 90% On the floor 88%
after drying the fish In sacks 10% In sacks 12%
60
1 day 26% 1 day 30%

Storage period before sale 1 week 53% 1 week 50%
2 weeks 11% 2 weeks 20%
For human consumption
For human consumption 80%
Utility of the dried Omena 66%
For animal feeds 20%
For animal feeds 33%
Local areas/market 70% Local areas/markets 50%
Targeted market
Distant markets 30% Distant markets 50%
10 33% 10 42%
20 33% 20 15%
Profit margin (%)
50 33% 50 15%
100 - 100 28%
Sold to a trader 84% Sold to a trader 66%
Mode of marketing
Sold to an agent 16% Sold to an agent 33%
Sandy 33% Sandy 25%
Bitterness 36% Bitterness 14%
Consumers complaints
Dirty 10% Dirty 25%
about fish quality
Not properly dried 23% Not properly dried 25%
Discolored 1% Discolored 10%
Challenges Fish price fluctuations Low fish price
Low price Fish drying during rainy
Closed season season
Low profit Lack of capital
Poor transport Poor market system
Storage space Access to banking facilities
Delays in payments and loans
Poor marketing system
Access to banking facilities and
loans
Lack of capital
High competition for fish when
catches are low
Improvements requested Storage facilities Storage facilities

Drying racks Modern processing methods
Improved marketing and pricing Access to Loans
system New markets
Formation of processors groups Fish drying racks
Access to banking facilities and Clean water
loans
Training in fish processing
Better transport system
New markets
61
Other issues raised Animal feed products are adulterated Access to banking facilities
with sand Need for better marketing
Omena for human consumption system
should be dried on racks Formation of marketing and
Exchange visits to processors in processing groups
other regions Better fishing vessels
Fish Handling and Marketing
The common practice of fish handling involved piling the catch in the middle compartment
of the fishing boat (Plate 1). At the landing beach, the fish was offloaded using basins washed
and carried on the head to the drying ground. The carrying of the fish is done mostly by
women with little participation of men. The fish is washed in the lake water using plastic
baskets and trays before being carried to the drying ground where it is placed directly on
the ground or on old fishing nets (Plate 2). The fish was turned over frequently using local
brooms to ensure even drying.
About 75% of the fish processors targeted the local consumers. The majority of the fish
processors (94.6%) are satisfied with the quality of their product. However, they mentioned
that some buyers complained of debris, sand and gravel in the fish, discoloration and bitterness.
The price of dried Omena product is influenced by supply and demand which is related to the
lunar cycle. The dried fish product price is highest during periods of the full moonlight, a time
when the fish catches are low. The sale price of one Kg dried fish product ranges between
US $ 1-1.5. The majority of fish processors (55.6%) reported getting a low profit of less than
10%. The volume of fresh fish handled by the processors in a day ranged between 15 – 75 kg.
Plate 1: Fish handling on the fishing boat
62
Plate 2: Fish washing using trays in Kenya
Plate 3: Fish washing and drying at Yokia Beach, Mfangano Island
Challenges in fish processing and handling

The fish processors mentioned a number challenges they face in processing and handling fish
such as weather conditions, pricing of fish, and low profit. Poor weather conditions made
it difficult to catch fish and prolonged the drying time thus resulting in poor quality fish.
During the rainy season, fish took two days to dry resulting in brown and bitter tasting fish
that fetched low prices in the market. The current processing methods result into poor quality
products as a result contamination from the surrounding environment, domestic animals and
birds. In Kenya most processors washed the fish directly in and contaminated the lake water.
The price offered to fish processors was low due to the poor marketing system. The processors
also complained of getting very low profit as the sale price is dictated by the buyers.
Improvements to fish handling and processing

The respondents identified the following measures which could be used to improve the
quality of fish:
i. Introduction of improved fish drying and alternative processing methods such as
deep frying, smoking especially during the rainy season
ii. Training of the fish processors
iii. Provision of credit facilities
iv. Provision of raised drying racks
v. Provision of storage facilities
vi. Provision of clean water
vii. Improvement of sanitation at the landing beaches
viii. Sensitization of the processors and consumers on quality issues
63
All the fish processors were willing to participate in improved drying methods for higher
quality and better price. The small scale Omena fish processors in Kenya have received
some assistance to improve their operations in the following areas: business mentoring and
counseling, credit and financial aid, marketing avenues and improve the fish drying techniques.
This assistance was provided to the fish processors by fish traders, KIPPI, BMU, Adoktimo &
Finance Trust Banks and the Fisheries Department. Fish processors requested for additional
assistance to improve their businesses. Areas requested for included: business mentoring and
counseling, more credit and financial aid, packaging and sealing materials and raised drying
racks. There were however not willing to take loans from the lending institutions. They were
dissatisfied with the current marketing system and were eager to find new markets outlets.
Experimental fish drying trials

Experimental drying trials were conducted Mbita point, Suba district, Kenya using a natural
convection solar tent and a photo voltaic fan driven forced convection tent and open racks
(Plates 4(a) & (b)). The fish was washed using tap water and sorted to remove the bycatch
(Haplochromis sp). The fish was then soaked in 10% brine salt solution for 15 minutes. 10 kg
of fish was weighed and spread on six trays and left to drip for 30 minutes. Three trays were
then placed on a raised rack in the open while the other three were placed inside the solar tent
and the exhaust fan switched on. The weight of the fish was recorded at 2 hour interval and
the physical parameters including humidity, temperature and weight loss were recorded at
hourly intervals. The temperature inside the solar tent and outside followed the same trend
although the temperature inside was sometimes higher. The humidity inside the solar tent
and outside also followed the same trend with the humidity inside the solar tent being higher
most of the time. The weight loss inside the solar tent and outside was about the same rate
(Figures 1, 2 & 3).
Plate 4 (a): Convention Proto-type Solar driers
64
Plate 4 (b): Forced convection proto-type solar tent dryer trials at Mbita Kenya
Figure 1. Fish weight loss inside and outside the solar tent.
Figure 2. Air tempereture inside and outside the solar tent.
65
Figure 3. Relative humidity inside and outside the solar tent.
Fish quality
Eight samples were analyzed; 100 – 250 gm of dried Omena samples were collected from
the processors and prototype solar dryers and placed in a sealable plastic bag. Samples were
collected from five landing beaches namely; Yokia, Mrongo, Luanda Rombo, Litare and
Masisi. The fish sample included products processed for both human consumption and animal
feed manufacture. The samples were delivered to the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS),
National Health Laboratories in Nairobi and Government Chemist in Kisumu.
The fish samples were analyzed for The Standard Plate Count at 30oC, for the presence of
fecal coliforms at 37oC, Escherichia coli at 44oC, Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella sp. and
Salmonella sp. using both aerobic surface and enriched cultures. The following physical and
chemical test moisture, dry matter ash, proteins and fat content were done on the fish samples.
Results of the tests are presented in Tables 3. The standard plate counts ranged from 3.0 x
102 - 3.4 x 103 (Table 4). Salmonella sp Vibrio cholera and Clostridium welchii were absent
in all the samples tested. Feacal colliforms and Staphylococcus aureus were detected in all
the samples dried on the ground due to contamination from the ground. Escherichia coli was
detected in two of the samples dried on the ground sample.
Foreign matter and ash content were highest in the sample from the ground probably from the
presence of sand, soil, and vegetation. Moisture was lowest in the sample dried on the net on
the ground possibly due to repeated drying during storage crude protein content was slightly
higher in the solar tent/rack dried sample. Fat content was higher in the ground dried sample
when compared with solar tent and rack samples where there was more dripping. The ash
content of ground dried samples was higher due to sand and debris.
66
Table 3: Physical and chemical test results

Test Solar tent/ Ground dried Ground dried
Rack dried For human consumption For animal feed
Foreign matter % 0.13 1.5 21.5
Moisture % m/m 12.5 11.7 -
Protein % m/m 63.21 62.9 -
Fat % m/m 12.3 15.1 -
Ash % m/m 0.13 0.2 -
The results were indicative of the poor handling, hygiene and sanitation at the landing beaches
where the fish is processed. All the small scale processors fish samples with exception of one
which was washed in salt and dried on the rack at Lwanda Rombo, Rusinga Island, had a high
bacterial load. Fecal colliforms and E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus were isolated from
samples dried on the ground at Yokia landing beach, Mfangano Island.
The results did not reveal differences among the landing beaches as the processing and
handling methods and practices are similar but Yokia beach samples dried on the ground were
the most contaminated. There was no difference in bacterial contamination between fish dried
directly on the ground and those dried on a net spread on the ground. Fish processor who
process fish intended for animal feed production dried their fish directly on the ground and
deliberately adulterated the fish with sand to increase the weight and the product is marketed
by weight. The results did not have any gender implications but are in agreement with an
observation made by women processors who recommended that all fish processed for human
consumption should be dried on raised racks to avoid contamination.
Both men and women processors acknowledged receiving adverse reports from the consumers
regarding the quality of their products (Table 4). The fish samples from the experimental
prototype solar dryer and rack dryer were free of contamination and had low bacterial count.
The solar tent dryer and rack technology together with the availability of treated water can
alleviate the high contamination observed in the small scale processors samples. The simple
practice of washing fish in 10% common salt solution prior to drying drastically reduces the
level of bacterial count and improves the quality of the small scale processors products. If the
small scale processors look forwards to seeking new markets then there is need to reduce the
levels of contamination, adhere to recommended handling practices and improve sanitation at
the landing beaches in order to achieve the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) specifications
for dried Omena. Since women are the majority in the Omena processing sector they will
need assistance to achieve the targeted goals.
67
References
National Report of the Frame Survey 2008 Ugandan part of Lake Victoria
National Report on the Lake Victoria (Kenya) Fisheries Frame Survey 2006.
68
Convergence of Scientific Experiments and Local Knowledge in

Aquaculture: Approaches, Possibilities and Challenges
*1
Kakembo, F., 2Radull, J., 3Isyagi, N., 4Kishe, M.
Uganda Christian University, Mukono, Uganda, 2Maseno, 3ARDC, 4TAFIRI.

1
Abstract
Aquaculture development calls for innovative practices to address the shortages in fish supplies
and to increase food security in the Lake Victoria basin. This paper analyses the approaches,
possibilities and challenges in involving local farmers in aquaculture experimentation in
Bugiri in Uganda, Kisumu in Kenya and Mwanza in Tanzania. The productivity of integrated
rice-catfish culture systems and the effects of the integration on wetland communities in
the Lake Victoria region were examined. A situational analysis was carried out in order to
get baseline information on the communities and to determine the strength and shortfalls
in their production techniques. It was hypothesized that rice and fish outputs could be
boosted through nutrient cycling and optimum time and space utilization. The success of the
innovation depends on participation of local communities for purposes of knowledge sharing
and sustainability as the innovations entailed changing their rhythm of work. The results of a
baseline study and the benefits to the project, as well as farmers’ innovative contributions of
the farmers are discussed.
Key words: Integrated catfish-rice culture; Local knowledge, Lake Victoria basin
Introduction
Integrated aquaculture is a diversified and coordinated way of farming fish along with other
products like livestock and agriculture (Ayinla, 2003). It is an innovative technology aimed
at enhancing synergy between the different components of the wetlands farming system. The
rationale behind the integration is to increase the farmers output through nutrient cycling
and optimum time and space utilization. The fish feeds on insects (pests and mosquito larva
in particular) and weed in the rice-fish fields. Excreta from the fish serve as manure which
fertilizes the pond or directly feeds fish (AIFP, 2005). The costs of inputs such as fertilizer
and feeds could be significantly reduced in such a case (Ansa and Jiya 2002). One of the
major advantages of integration over the unitary system of farming lies in the spread of
financial risk for its varied and diversified nature in rearing of fish, and crops. Aquaculture
experimentation and innovations are necessitated by the growing challenges that surround
food security in the Lake Victoria basin. These issues and challenges are discussed in this
paper.
Meeting the growing human needs in a sustainable way calls for innovative management
of the diverse wetlands ecological resources (Gichuki et al., 2001; Kipkemboi et al., 2006).
69
Given that sustainable agriculture depends upon eco-friendly culture systems for its survival
(Dhawen and Kaur, 2002), integrated aquaculture systems has great potential for enhancing
food security (Bailey et al., 2005; Denny et al., 2006) and household incomes for the riparian
communities. At the moment, the high demand for fish and the minimal supply present a
potential business opportunity. Current projections of supply and demand to the year
2020 indicate that the gap between fish supply and demand will continue to grow unless
an alternative source such as fish farming is found (Dugan, 2004; Jamu and Ayinla, 2003).
Integration of aquaculture with rice cultivation is one of the options. It involves introducing
fish species of commercial value that integrate well in rice farming. The African catfish
(Clarias gariepinus) shows all the requisite characteristics including fast growth and tolerance
to adverse environmental conditions (De Graaf and Janssen, 1996). The big challenge in the
way of sustainable use of wetlands for aquaculture is to change the mind-sets of the local
communities and to enlist their participation in the innovations. A study was carried out on
how innovations in the fish farming systems could be introduced and the extent to which local
communities would embrace innovations that changed their rhythm of work.
Fisheries issues within Lake Victoria basin
While one of the most reliable sources of protein and income in many wetland
communities in the Lake Victoria basin is fish, there is a critical shortage of fish (World
Fish Center, 2003). A report by FAO (1999) indicates that at present only 25 to 46% of the
fish requirements for wetland communities are actually met in a region that traditionally
depends on fish for its protein requirements. The Lake Victoria region has a relatively
high human population growth rate and a low GDP i.e. less than 2% (UNEP 2002) that
make economic goods and services relatively inaccessible to many households. The
reclamation of vast wetlands in the region for settlements and large-scale agricultural
activities, notably rice cultivation, has alienated many wetland communities from their
natural resources base and, thereby, compromising their living standards. Furthermore,
the export-oriented nature of the fish trade has resulted in a reduction in the supply of
fish to local communities. Whereas many wetland communities depend directly on the
immediate environment for their livelihoods, the immoderate use of wetlands is likely to
create pressure on the ecosystems and pose a challenge to environmental management.
For instance, wetland biomass harvesting is a major source of livelihood and income for
the local communities living near the wetland systems. Large-scale wetlands degradation
is caused by inconsiderate pursuit of wealth and economic development (Gray and
Moseley, 2005). The consequent stress on both the natural and agro ecosystems increases
the vulnerability of the communities to food insecurity and poverty (Misselhorn, 2005;
Barbier, 2000). Hunger and malnutrition remain among the most devastating problems
facing the world’s poor and needy (FAO, 2002).
Over the years, there has been a decline in Lake Victoria’s fisheries because of over-fishing
and pollution of the water (Odada et al. 2004). The introduction of alien species, such as the
Nile perch, has impacted on the lake’s fisheries (Goudswaard et al., 2002; Balirwa et al.,
2003). The most decimated of these species is the endemic fish population, which constituted
the main shoreline fishery for the communities. Increased demands from the international
70
fish trade has further reduced the supply of fish and made prices very prohibitive for most
people (Abila, 2003). In the light of the above, innovative patterns of land use has become
increasingly more important. By virtue of their potential productivity and high soil moisture,
even during dry seasons, many wetlands ecosystems can still be vital in providing food
(Silvius et al., 2000) and household income. Innovative practices are needed to redress the
imbalance between commercialization of fishing and the needs of wetland communities.
Methodology
Generally, participatory approaches helped to tap deep reserves of indigenous knowledge

of local fish farming and rice growing. This collaborative learning approach suited the
interests of the local communities because it differed from the previous pedagogical models
of knowledge dissemination and training. Participants were selected within a 2 km radius of
the study site and comprised farmers and people directly involved with wetlands activities.
Focus group discussions involving local government administrators, opinion leaders and
key informants were held before carrying out the main study. Survey data were used as a
benchmark for evaluating the contribution of the project on wetland communities in the study
areas.
A situational analysis generated some of the baseline information from the farmers living
around and depending on the study wetlands in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. Respondents
included local community leaders and civic groups. Socio-economic surveys were carried
out to collect information on fish supply and demand and the status of rice and fish farming
in the Lake basin region. The income per capita for communities that depend on wetlands
for survival was determined. Challenges in the fishing industry and fish farming, and costs of
alternatives such as meat and vegetables were documented. The data were used to determine
opportunity costs and carry out cost-benefit analysis of the innovation. The needs of the
communities and shortfalls in their production techniques were determined. Social science
techniques used to collect the baseline information included:
Community inventories: These were used to examine the existing knowledge and ideas on
fish farming and rice growing and analyze the cultural dimensions related to the practices.
We also undertook to examine the existing practices, issues and challenges in fish farming
and rice growing.
The survival survey tool: We undertook to examine community experiences in regard to fish
and rice disease, growth and mortality. We were also interested in determining what the local
communities took to be the early warning indicators for the disease incidence and what they
considered to be the chief barriers in the farming of rice and growing of fish
Seasonal and Historical Diagramming: These were used to explore physiological and socio-
economic changes that have a bearing on fish/rice production and market.
Ranking, rating, and sorting tools: These tools were used to identify needs and priorities
of fish farmers and rice growers, reasons for preferences/choices, to compare preferences
and priorities between individuals and groups and to explain the differences in preferences,
approaches and methodology.
71
The community environmental assessment tool: This tool was used to study the perceptions of
participants on the impacts of their activities on the environment. The tool was administered
mainly to the literate farmers, extension workers, local government and departmental staff.
It was also meant to predict the positive and negative impacts that the proposed integration
would have on the environment so that trade-offs could be made.
The focus group discussions: The focus groups discussions involved 30 participants including
rice growers, fish farmers, local government leaders and line-department staff in the respective
study areas. The purpose was to generate ideas, needs, opinions and experiences from the
participants. After the introductory remarks, the participants divided into 4 groups of 6-8
each. The discussions were free, allowing participants to make useful contributions. Guiding
questions were prepared to generate information with the facilitation of the lead researchers.
After group discussions participants converged in the plenary where records of the proceedings
were taken. The focus groups enabled researchers to examine existing knowledge and ideas
on rice and fish farming among the participants. It also helped in analyzing the historical
dimensions and the traditions of fish farming and rice growing cultures.
Results
Local knowledge and practices before the introduction of rice-catfish integration

Farmers used to have rice growing and fish farming done separately. However, there were
indications in isolated locations that the two cultures were mutually supportive. In such
cases, rice brand was used as part of the fish feeds. Rice fields also acted as water filters for
the fish ponds. The other relationship that farmers identified between rice growing and fish
farming was that when bush was cleared for rice farming, the fishponds were protected from
animal predators. They also indicated that fishponds served as water reservoirs for the rice
paddies.
The findings indicated that the favorite types of rice that the farmers preferred included
Nabwana, Super, K5, K23, K25, K28, Kaiso and upland rice. The farmers had a long
experience handling these types and they were familiar with them. The favorite fish species
include catfish and tilapia. The reason given by the farmers for preference of catfish is that
it grew very fast and it was marketable. The other reason was that the extension farmers had
recommended it to control the population of tilapia. In addition, the farmers reasoned that the
farmed tilapia reproduced faster. On the other hand, most of the farmers complained about
the stunted growth.
Assets, strength, and potentials within the community that could support integration:
farmers indicated that the project was easy to adopt in their farming systems. They identified
a number of factors that could facilitate the success of rice-catfish integration. These included
abundance of water bodies, such as the swamps in the various wetlands. They also identified
the presence of fertile soils in the district. The fact that rice grows during two seasons a
year was also mentioned as an exceptional opportunity. Rice matures within a period of 3-4
months. Given that the farmers are within the proximity of big plantation rice-projects in
the area, they were assured of the abundance of skilled manpower in rice farming. This was
72
coupled with a long tradition of fishing activities due to proximity to Lake Victoria. Another
opportunity identified by the farmers was that the landscape gently slopes in many parts,
allowing smooth flow of water through the rice paddies/fishponds. The weather conditions
were also favorable to rice-fish farming. The high demand for fish and rice in the area and at
the national level were additional factors that were pointed out.
Liabilities, weaknesses, and limitations that was likely to curtail the integration.
Much as the farmers were very optimistic, they identified factors that needed close attention.
Using their experiences, they observed that pond construction was a determining factor in
the success of fish farming. With regard to integrated fish-rice farming, it was recommended
that poor construction of trenches and dikes could equally lead to poor yields. Technical and
technological factors were pointed to as potential hindrances to the project. Among others
factors was the lack of regular sensitization on modern methods of rice/fish production.
Also mentioned were poor management skills, poor technology and poor methods of work.
Illiteracy and ignorance among many farmers and community members was considered to be
an additional obstacle.
The inadequate research on fish farming and rice growing was highlighted as an obstacle to
the project. Along with this, there were occasional problems with water conditions in terms of
excessive alkalinity or/and acidity. They also noted that there was dumping of toxic materials
and other wastes in water bodies and arable areas.
With regard to the socioeconomic dimensions of the project, many of the farmers cited poor
selection of rice seeds and fish fries. It was indicated that the size of grains and fish remain
uneconomically small and therefore not economically viable. To make matters worse, there
was inadequate control of pests and diseases, coupled with poor harvesting skills and lack
of adequate storage facilities. Other limitations that were identified included the insufficient
capital, absence of credit facilities; insufficient and inadequate fish nets. Other social
obstacles cited included the traditional cultures and beliefs against consumption of some fish
species. There was mention of natural factors that were known to affect rice and fish farming.
These included flooding and hailstorms in many areas. Besides those natural factors, there are
attacks on fish from pests, diseases and predators.
Some suggestions were made to mitigate the liabilities, weaknesses and limitations. These
included training and sensitization of stakeholders, regular and timely provision of new
skills and technologies and effective controls over rice pests and fish predators. Other
suggestions put forward included provision of good quality seeds and fish fries, accessibility
to credit facilities by the farmers and organizing of study tours to help farmers improve farm
management and production systems. To address the technological factors, it was suggested
that reliable harvesting technology be introduced and that routine monitoring and supervision
of the farmers by extension workers be done. To overcome environmental degradation, it
was suggested that byelaws should be introduced by local governments to stop dumping/
discharge of toxic materials.
The gender dimension in the project: During the pre-experimental phase of the study, women
were occasionally allowed to have separate discussion groups to brainstorm on gender issues.
It emerged from their interactions that the dictates of cultural dynamics and social harmony
73
in rural areas entailed them to continue working under men. Nevertheless, they perceived the
project as one that was likely to guarantee regular supply of food (rice) and source (fish) in
the homesteads. Fish is known to be one of the sources of proteins in the area. It was felt that
the new knowledge, skills and technology would involve women in generation of incomes.
Women were optimistic that the extra income promised by the integration was likely to enable
them take care of their children and the entire household more effectively. They observed that
the integration was likely to boost their domestic activities. Already, they were putting the
rice husks to good use such as using it for local chicken hatching, mulching of backyard
gardens and covering of the bricks made for commercial purposes.
In the extreme cases where cultural beliefs and practices bar women from eating catfish, it was
considered that the income generated from the innovation could afford them buy nutritious
substitutes. Women observed that most of the actual farming activities in the villages were
done by women. Men usually engage in light activities. If properly mobilized and motivated,
women were likely to lead to the project success. It was also noted that the experiment would
benefit from the natural volunteering spirit of women which lack in men. Men were believed
to be interested and focused on quick benefits. The other assets that were attributed to women
in relation to the project were the good inter-personal communication skills. It was indicated
that the skills were vital in mobilizing community members and in disseminating innovations.
It was also noted that women were more available than men for such a project that calls for
concentration, patience and attention.
Anticipated benefits of the innovation to the farmers: When asked to discuss the potential
benefits that the project could have on the farmers, it was observed that the dual harvest would
double their gains. Rice and fish could be reaped within the same season using the same piece
of land. It was also anticipated that the same labor may be used for the two crops, thereby
providing savings. Rice farmers would have additional protein nutrients from fish. Some
of the contributions that the project would make were on the ecosystem and environment.
By keeping catfish in rice paddies, the species would be preserved from extinction through
over fishing. It was also noted that farmers could be called upon to supply fish fingerings
to the government and other organizations that may need restocking in natural water bodies.
Participants were also informed of the possibility of catfish controlling the spread of malaria
by feeding on the mosquito larva. The participants in the study were to benefit from being
pioneers in the innovation and would be the consultants to others. Other benefits to the entire
community would be the increased fish production in the areas and consequent reduction of
pressure on the natural fish resources
Perceived expectations, duties, and roles of the farmer’s: With regard to the farmer’s
expectations, they mentioned the possibility that they would get new knowledge and modern
production skills for better yields. They looked forward to assurance of more routine
supervision by extension workers. They also looked forward to formation of networks that
would lead to cooperatives and joint partnerships. The Farmer’s duties would be to allow
experiments on their farms and to be able to bear potential risks and losses on their fields. They
were expected to monitor the experiments regularly. They were also expected to disseminate
the findings to the rest of the community.
74
Farmers’ participation in the aquaculture experimentation

Recognizing that local people have deep reserves of indigenous knowledge in natural sciences,
we embarked on a participatory experimental study with fish farmers and rice growers. This
approach was a departure from models of knowledge dissemination and training that depend
on pedagogical philosophies. The model enabled farmers and scientists to share ideas and to
gain insights from the experimental study. At the end of the study many of the participants
could demonstrate the innovations to fellow farmers.
In the research we set out to:

1. Study the effect of integrated rice-catfish culture on the growth of catfish,
Clarias gariepinus,
2. Investigate the effect of rice cultivation procedures on the growth and disease
resistance/prevalence in the fish,
3. Study the effect of the integration on rice production and the paddy field
ecosystem and,
4. To carry out a cost-benefit analysis of rice-catfish culture, while assessing the
social implications of integrated rice-fish farming.
The activities that were jointly undertaken by farmers and researchers included regular
observation of selected indicators to monitor fish and rice growth; regular group meetings to
reflect on the field observations; sharing of results and lessons learned; and making necessary
adjustments. Other activities included taking regular measurements to assess the progress of
the experiment so as to make necessary decisions
The study models: Participatory experiments were based on semi intensive and extensive
models. Experimental fields were selected at random to cover the whole study area. A specified
number of experimental fields were selected for purposes of demonstrating the feasibility of
the innovations to the community. Once selected, the fields were divided into blocks (about
1 km apart), each containing fields representing replicates. An experimental treatment was
allocated at random to any field within the block, so that each block contained all treatments,
completing a random block design. The parameters of fish and rice growth were monitored at
designated intervals for a period of 6 months or until the fish grow.
The study was based on 2 models. The first was the extensive rice-fish farming model in
which fish culture was integrated with rice cultivation in fields that are used by small-scale
rice farmers. In this model, the selection of experimental farms and participants was based on
outcomes of the preliminary socio-economic survey. During the experimentation existing rice
paddies were modified to allow the inclusion of fish. This was done by digging fish refugia
(trenches) on two sides of the fields. The experiments on the farms were jointly operated by
the researchers, extension workers, and the local farmers.
The second model was based on the semi-intensive experimental model. This comprised
series of 8 hectare plots subdivided into nine replicate farms, each measuring 20 m x 20
m. Various stocking combinations, including rice-alone, fish alone, rice-catfish, and rice-
tilapia-catfish were tested. The parameters under investigation included; rice growth, water
quality, fish growth (length and weight) and parasite infestation rates. This study was based
on plantation rice-growing done in collaboration with large-scale farmers.
75
Data Collection and Analysis: Data collection was done jointly between the participants and
the researchers. The main purpose of getting the community on board was to orient them into
the project mainstream so that they could own and sustain the innovations. The participants
were expected to focus on the proposed activities and to propose necessary contributions.
It involved identifying and selecting participants, leaders and stakeholders. Data collection
involved determining the growth studies of both fish and rice. We took length-weight
measurements on the 1st Monday of each month. Specific numbers of catfish and tilapia were
sampled in each refugium. We set out to determine the effect of rice cultivation procedures
on fish growth. The prevalence of fish disease and incidence harmful chemicals (used in rice
cultivation) were also assessed. The other parameters for study included assessment of the
general water environment and the production of the plankton and benthos communities.
The parameters were tested by analyzing the following; dissolved oxygen, nitrite, ammonia,
nitrate phosphorus and pH. Plankton counts were carried out to assess the productivity of the
aquatic environment. Soil samples were also collected from the bottom of the ponds at the
beginning and the end of the experiments. In addition to the length-weight measurements,
gills, skin and fins of the fish samples were checked to assess the incidences of disease during
the course of the experiment and at the end of the experiment.
Cost-benefit analysis: To determine the socioeconomic feasibility of the project, we also

conducted cost-benefit analysis. All inputs, including feeds, biological/chemical pest
management inputs and manpower costs were recorded to for purposes of undertaking the
cost-benefit analysis. A cost-benefit analysis was conducted to study the financial viability of
the integrations. To facilitate the analysis, all inputs for the production of fish and other farm
products was quantified and recorded. This was done concurrently with the activities above.
The cost of running the integrated system was derived from the direct, feeds, fingerlings and
fertilization, as well as indirect, social, operating costs whereas the benefits was derived from
actual returns from sales of rice and fish, as well as other accrued benefits that may be directly
or indirectly quantifiable. The difference between costs and benefits determined the viability
of rice-catfish culture systems.
Statistical analyses: The socio-economic data were analyzed using conventional

computer packages for the analysis of social science data, such as SPSS. The cost-benefit
analysis models will calculate among others, yield per hectare and per production cycle,
quantity of fertilizers required per ha and per production cycle, benefits , such as sale
of table size fish, including home consumption, investment costs, such as construction,
operating costs, marketing and transportation, and net profit. The projected Financial
Internal Rate of Return (FIRR) was determined for each model. Various statistical
methods were used to analyze the growth and production data. Differences between
fields, or treatments, were tested using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) techniques. Data
was tested for normality and homogeneity using the Shapiro-Wilks and the Levene’s
tests. Various pre-test transformations were used to normalize the data where necessary.
Statistically different treatments were distinguished by relevant post-hoc tests. Optimal
stocking levels and supplementary feed quality were assessed. The project also included
on-site training and participation by farmers.
76
Results
Mrs. Abuya in Bugiri, Uganda, compared the yield of rice on two different settings: one
where rice was grown alone and one where rice was integrated with fish farming. She also
compared her yields with other farmers who didn’t have fish. She observed that the yield in
the rice-fish paddies was far bigger than the paddies without fish. She attributed this to two
possibilities: one possibility is that fish excreta fertilized the paddies. The second possibility
was that within the integrated setting, water was constantly available in the fish refugia. She
reasoned that the constant presence of water overcame the effects of the drought.
The husband, Mr. Abuya compared the two settings and noted that in the integrated farms
there was almost no weeding. In the rice alone paddies, they had to weed the farms regularly.
His interpretation was that the movement of fish within the paddies suppressed the weeds and
that the fish fed on the weeds.
Mzee Kange also in Bugiri, about 4 km away from Abuya, came up with the similar findings
and interpretations. However, he had additional explanations to give. He explained that the
integrated rice-fish paddies are submerged with water for longer periods than those without
fish. The water suppresses the growth of the weeds. By the time the water dries up, rice
is grown to a size that does not allow the growth of the weeds. Interestingly, this was a
spontaneous but important observation which was not part of the parameters originally set up
for observation and analysis.
Kange also made interesting observations on the rice yields. He explained that the rice yields
on small integrated fish-rice paddies were bigger than that on the bigger rice-alone paddies.
The explanation he gave was almost the same as Mrs. Abuya. Kange and many of the other
farmers noted that rice grains in the rice-fish paddies were bigger and heavier than the ones
in the normal paddies. This partly explains the bigger tonnage at harvest from the integrated
rice-fish paddies.
A number of farmers noted that catfish reproduces in rice-catfish paddies but not in fish
alone ponds. The explanation that they gave was that rice paddies looked more of a natural
environment to the fish than the ponds. This observation rhymes with the scientific facts that
catfish rarely reproduces in an environment of captivity.
Design Modifications Proposed by the Farmers: Being a participatory study based on

collaborative learning, the farmers were encouraged to propose modifications in the design
of the experimental study. The ideas proposed were based on their experiences and the
knowledge of local conditions. The proposed modifications included the following:
Farmers on one of the experimental sites proposed that dykes on the fish refugia be raised
to stop the flooding of the rice-fish paddies during the heavy torrential rains. The idea was
welcomed by the scientists as viable. However, scientists noted that there were challenges in
constructing higher dykes. One of the challenges was that the high dykes make it difficult for
the farmers to supervise the paddies and that they increase risks of accidents.
77
The other idea proposed by farmers was to construct hedges around the fish-rice paddies
to stop predators. Each of the areas had distinct fish predators ranging from reptiles, birds,
animals and human poachers. As for the bird predators, the farmers were already used to
the practice of keeping physical presence and using scarecrows to keep birds from the rice
paddies.
The farmers also proposed that the ground between the trenches and the rice fields should
not be softened by tilting. They explained that constant tilling of the land, which acted as
a wall, may lead to the loose soils to fill up the trenches which were the fish refugia. They
also suggested that there is need for the farmers to access affordable supplementary feeds.
They pointed out that local farmers had capacity, if given assistance, to develop means of
producing the feeds locally.
General Views and Perceptions: The participants were of the view that project was feasible.
Their observation was that most of what was needed to make the project successful was
abundantly available. In view of the increasing shortages of fish and increasing economic
hardships, it was felt that the innovation was timely. The representatives of the district
departments and local government promised to give support within their powers to the project.
Constraints and Challenges of involving farmers in aquaculture experimentation

There were a number of challenges that were met by the researchers in trying to localize
scientific experimentation for the farmers. A major challenge was posed by the level of
education and, hence, enlightenment of these communities. Being rural communities
with limited understanding of research issues, it was not easy to recruit and integrate the
communities into the experimental project.
The farmers expected to receive donations like they usually do from ‘donors’ or Non
Governmental Organisation (NGOs), and any mention of the word ‘project’ magnified
expectations. The farmers responded to the overtures of the project team in a typical NGO
fashion. This was evident in what emerged as some of their most immediate concerns
during the pre-project workshops. These included having elected leaders, welfare officers
and mobilize, acquiring credit facilities to start projects, getting supervision in the form of
extension workers, provision of water pumps, lunch and transport, among others. The main
objective of the project, which was to develop a model integrated agriculture-aquaculture
system using the participatory experimental approach, took time to capture their imagination.
Acquiring suitable experimental plots was not easy. The willing participants who ‘volunteered’
did so with expectations of equivalent rewards. Although such incentives had been foreseen
and included in the project budget, the magnitude of the expectations was quite big.
The experimental design that was undertaken entailed altering the rhythm of work to which
the farmers were accustomed, for example; they normally planted rice using the broadcasting
method, sprinkling the seeds at random. The experiment required them to plant rice in lines
so that fish can easily swim through the rice paddy. This also entailed the extensive use of
nurseries.
78
At first, it was not easy to convince the farmers that it was not wasteful to dig trenches for
fish refugia and construct dikes in the rice paddies. The trenches and dikes consumed space,
in which rice would have grown. However, we made it clear to them that the high yield of
rice because of the integration and the fish sales would more than make up for the sacrificed
areas, solved the problem. Another incentive that we showed to them was that the yields
from the farms would entirely be for the farmers. The costs involved, such as labor and the
purchase of the necessary equipments was to be met by the project team. We decided to put
the experimental plots at the sites of farmers who were very enthusiastic and would take care
to implement all the experimental rigors that were involved. Naturally, financial and time
constraints could not allow us to spread the experiments.
Another issue to note relates to individual vs. communal farming. It was observed that the
farms that were operated by individuals did very well when compared to the communal
farms. It appears there was a higher level of commitment and focus on the individual farms.
In our experimental setting, it was one of the unwritten objectives to have the two structures
and analyze the differences between the two settings.
Discussion
Localizing aquaculture innovations can be made possible through participatory

experimentation and collaborative Learning. Both farmers and scientists gain insights from
the experimental study and from each other. The approach entails recognizing and valuing
existing knowledge and using appropriate communication strategies. Meeting the growing
human needs in a sustainable way calls for innovative management of the diverse ecological
resources (Gichuki et al., 2001). Given that sustainable agriculture depends upon eco-friendly
culture systems for its survival (Dhawen and Kaur, 2002), the integrated aquaculture systems
have great potential for enhancing food security (Bailey et al., 2005, Denny et al., 2006)
and household incomes for the riparian communities. At the moment, the high demand for
fish and the minimal supply present a potential business opportunity. Current projections of
supply and demand to the year 2020 indicate that the gap between fish supply and demand
will continue to grow unless an alternative source, such as fish farming is found (Jamu and
Ayinla 2003, Anonymous, 2004).
By virtue of the potential land productivity, given that the land has not been tilled for a
long time and potential profitability, integrated systems of food production will be vital in
providing fish, food and household incomes. This project is based on the assumption that
profitability and productivity of farming can be enhanced through integrated and coordinated
farming of fish along with other agriculture products. This innovative technology is aimed at
enhancing synergy between the different components of the wetlands farming system.
The rationale behind it is to increase the farmers output through nutrient cycling. Another
assumption made is that communities will not engage in activities that are environmentally
unsustainable if economically viable fish-crop integration options are demonstrated. The high
demand for the products and the minimal supply presents a business opportunity not only to
the existing farming communities, but also to other entrepreneurs. The viability of the venture
is highlighted by the possibility that market of the products is abundant and it is likely to
provide employment to many individuals.
79
Conclusion
It is realized that this collaborative learning approach suits the needs of rice growers and
fish farmers. It is based on using non-formal, participatory methods that focus on local
needs and builds on indigenous knowledge and experiences. Users are empowered to
analyze their present practices and test possible solutions with a prospect of improving
the practices. Regardless of the education levels, integrating local farmers into scientific
experimentations is a reality. It all depends on the approaches used by those in charge of
the innovations. Innovations must start with the community; treat them as a viable source,
not merely recipients of knowledge and information. Local knowledge is a viable resource
that entails recognizing and valuing existing skills, technologies and the common channels
of communication. Planning successful projects begin with conducting participatory needs
analysis. It is followed by developing culturally appropriate communication strategies. The
projects must involve local farmers in all the stages; from the concept formulation, through
plan development implementation, evaluation and dissemination of findings. Communication
and dissemination ought to be done in forms that are comprehensible even to the illiterate
members of the community. All innovations should be adapted to the levels of understanding
and perception of local communities. While scientists must desist from the superiority
complex, local communities should be encouraged to be confident and share knowledge
and ideas with the scientists. Being involved in many aspects of rural life, their traditional
knowledge systems are complex and holistic.
Notes
1
Holder of PhD in Adult & Community Education & Training at the University of Pretoria
(South Africa), currently working at the Uganda Christian University. P.O.Box 4 Mukono,
Uganda, fax: 256-41-4290800, fredkakembo@yahoo.co.uk.
Acknowledgments
2
The study was conducted with the following people who handled the technical aspects
of the research; Dr John Radull, Principal Investigator, Maseno University (MSU) Kenya
john_radull@yahoo.co.uk John walakira, Kajjansi Aquaculture Research & Development
Centre, Uganda johnwalakira2003@yahoo.co.uk }Mary Kishe mkishe@yahoo.com and
Margaret Musiba musibam@yahoo.com, Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute (TAFIRI)
80
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ecosystem: A case study of Lake Kanyaboli, Kenya.
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project of the National special Programme for food security in Nigeria. FAO Office Abuja,
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under integrated fish cum-pig faming system. J. Aqua. sci. 17: 85-87.
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eradication in the Niger Delta Region. Pages 40-41In A.A Eyo and J.O Atanda, editors.
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Bailey, R., Kaggwa, R., Kipkemboi, J. & Lamtane, H. 2005. Fingerponds: an agrofish
polyculture experiment in East Africa. Aquaculture News 32, 9–10. Stirling, Institute of
Aquaculture.
Balirwa, J.S., C.A. Chapman, L.J. Chapman, I.G. Cowx, K. Geheb, L. Kaufman, R.H.
Lowe-McConnell, O. Seehausen, J.H. Wanink, R.L. Welcomme and F. Witte. 2003.
Biodiversity and Fishery Sustainability in the Lake Victoria Basin: An Unexpected
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systems to increase food production from wetlands in Africa. Int J Ecol Environ Sci
32:41–47
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Goudswaard, K., F. Witte, and L.J. Chapman. 2002. Decline of the African lungfish
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February 2, 2006. Wageningen, Wetlands International
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82
Occurrence of Trypanosoma in Nile tilapia in Lake Victoria, Kenya

1
Kamundia P.W.*, 1Mbuthia P.G., 1Waruiru R. M., 1Njagi L. W., 1Nyaga P. N.,
2
Mdegela, R.H., 3Byarugaba, D. K. and 1Otieno R.O
• University of Nairobi, Department of Pathology, Parasitology and Microbiology Faculty of
1
Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 29053 – 00625, Nairobi, Kenya

2
Sokoine University of Agriculture, Department of Veterinary Medicine and Public Health,
P. O. Box 3021, Morogoro, Tanzania
3
Makerere University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
* Corresponding author
Abstract
Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) and Lates niloticus (Nile perch) are the most abundant
species and economically important fish in Lake Victoria. The former are omnivores and
the latter are carnivorous. The carrier status of haemoparasites in fish was investigated in
22 randomly selected fish specimens, 12 Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) and 10 Lates
niloticus (Nile perch). Live fish were bought from Homabay on the shores of Lake Victoria in
Kenya. All the fish were bled by cardiac puncture using a 22 gauge needle. Thin blood smears
were made, stained with Giemsa and observed under a light microscope. About 42% of Nile
tilapia and 0% Nile perch were found to be infected with Trypanosoma spp. Oreochromis
niloticus seems to be more susceptible to Trypanosoma spp. infection than the L. niloticus.
Key words: Nile tilapia; Nile perch; Trypanosoma; Lake Victoria, Kenya
Introduction
Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) and Lates niloticus (Nile perch) are the most abundant
and economically important fish in Lake Victoria. Oreochromis niloticus are omnivores
while Lates niloticus are carnivorous, respectively. The haemoparasite belonging to the
genus Trypanosoma species have been reported to occur in Lake Victoria by Paperna (1996)
in Oreochromis variabilis (54%), O. esculenta (50%), Clarias gariepinus and Bagrus spp
(Paperna, 1996). Oreochromis niloticus infection has been reported in Lake George in
Uganda but not Lake Victoria (Baker, 1961; Paperna, 1996). The parasite has a cosmopolitan
distribution and it is found in both freshwater and marine fish (Hassan et al., 2007; Smit et al.,
2000). The carrier status of haemoparasites in fish was investigated in 22 randomly selected
fish specimens, 12 Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) and 10 Lates niloticus (Nile perch).
Materials and methods
The study study was undertaken in Homa Bay town (0° 31′ 0″ S, 34° 27′ 0″ E) on the shores
of Lake Victoria in Kenya. The fish were bought from fishermen and obtained alive at the
landing site on October 2009. The blood was collected by cardiac puncture using a 22 gauge
needle. Thin smears were made from the blood samples, air dried and fixed in absolute
83
methanol for five minutes. The smears were then stained with phosphate buffered Geimsa in
the laboratory and examined under ´100 objectives under oil immersion microscope (Leitz
Orthoplan, Germany). The images were captured by a digital camera (Sony DSC-W190). The
parasites were identified based on their morphology (Paperna, 1996; Smit et al., 2000). The
Trypanosoma were characterized by tapering anterior and posterior ends and faintly stained
flagella (Figure 1).
Data were entered in MS Excel and later exported to Instat® (Instat+ for windows, 2004)
for descriptive statistics. The prevalence of the hemoparasite was defined as the total number
of fish infected with the parasite divided by the number of fish examined (Margolis et al.,
1982). A critical probability of 0.05 was adopted throughout as a cut-off point for statistical
significance between groups compared. The parasite distributions were described using
prevalence and intensity (Ford, 1988). Prevalence was calculated using the formulae:
Infection intensity was calculated using the formula:
The Lates niloticus has a mean total body weight of 875 ± 307 grams, mean total length of
43.7 ± 4.0 cm while Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) had a mean total weight of ±56 grams
and mean total length of 32.42 ± 7.3 cm. The haemoparasites were found in O. niloticus and
none in L. niloticus. Oreochromis niloticus had a prevalence of 50% and an intensity rate of
140% (Table1).
Table 1. Number of trypanosome infected fish and prevalence rates in O. niloticus and L.
niloticus
Number of Number of
Parasites Prevalence
Fish species fish sampled fish infected Intensity
observed x/n (%)
(n) (x)
Oreochromis
10 5 7 50 140
niloticus
Lates niloticus 12 0 0 0 0
84
Red
Redblood
bloodcells
cells
Figure 1. Trypanosoma with a pale staining eosinophilic flagellum, pointed anterior and a
blunt posterior [black and white arrow, magnification x 100 (A) and x400 (B)] in Giemsa-
stained blood smears from Oreochromis niloticus.
There are 184 species of Trypanosomatids assigned to fish in the genus Trypanosoma.
Trypanosoma have a single flagellum and a single disc shaped kinetoplast. Infections in
most species of fish are transmitted by leeches (Paperna, 1996). Even though the sample
size was small, the prevalence rate of O. niloticus obtained in this study mirrors the 54% of
Oreochromis variabilis and 50% of O. esculenta in Lake Victoria. Oreochromis niloticus in
Lake George had a 20% infection rate (Baker, 1960 and 1961). There was a 50% prevalence
rate of infection in the O. niloticus and 0% prevalence in L. niloticus. No infection has ever
been reported in the L. niloticus by any researcher. The L. niloticus tend to be found deeper
in the lake (Munyaho, 2004) and hence the hypothesis that the L. niloticus are shielded from
excessive pollution by dilution effect than O. niloticus which are found in the shallower
waters. Stress and presence of leeches close to the shore could cause the O. niloticus to be
more susceptible to Trypanosoma infection compared to L. niloticus. The differences in diet,
feeding sites and genetic make-up of the two species (possibly making L .niloticus have inate
immunity) can also contribute to the different degrees of infectivity.
85
There is a need to study the effect of the Trypanosomes in fish as they have been reported to
cause various degrees of damage in fish. Some of the physiological effects seen are loss of
enzymatic activity of serum alkaline phosphatase levels in fresh water species of Cirrhina
mrigala and the shark Wallago attu (Tandon and Chandra, 2004). In sculpins infected with T.
murmanensis showed decreased haemotocrit, haemoglobin and proteins levels (Khan et al.,
1980). Islam and Woo (1991) reported anaemia in fish as a result of erythrocyte haemolysis
and blood haemodilution. According to Lom and Dykova (1979), an experimental infection
with Typanosoma danilewskyi caused extensive damage to haemopoietic tissue in goldfish
(Carassius auratus). Infected fish are listless, emaciated and have sunken eyes (Bunkley-
Williams and Williams, 1994). The O. niloticus were found to have more histopathological
lesions than L. niloticus (Kamundia et al., 2010).
Conclusions and recommendations
There is a possibility that O. niloticus could be more susceptible to Trypanosoma infection

than the apparently resistant L. niloticus due to many factors including environmental
influences. One of the environmental influences could be pollution which was apparent in
Homa Bay along the lake shore. Detailed studies are needed to compare the haemoparasite
infection between the species, between polluted and clean sites and the various age groups of
fish on a larger sample size and also study the effect of the parasites on fish.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the financial support from Lake Victoria Research Initiative
(VicRes) for this project. We thank University of Nairobi management for the research
facilities that made it possible to undertake the study.
86
References
Baker, J. R. 1961. Trypanosomes of African freshwater fish: an addendum. Parasitology 51:

263.
Bunkley-Williams, L. and Williams E. H. 1994. Parasites of Puerto Rican Freshwater fishes.
Antillean College Press, Mayaguez.
Ford, S. E. 1988. Host parasite interactions in eastern oysters selected for resistance to
Haplosporidium nelson (MSX) disease: survival mechanisms against a natural
pathogen. Disease processes in Marine bivalves mollusks. W. S. Fisher (ed). American
Fish Society Special Publication 18: 206-224
Hassan A. A., Akinssanya, B. and Adegbabu, W.A. 2007. Haemoparasites of Clarias
gariepinus and Synodontis clarias from Lekki Lagoon, Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of
American Science 3: 61-67
Islam, N.K. and Woo, P.T.K. 1991. Anorexia in goldfish Carassius auratus infected with
Trypanosoma danilewskyi. Disease of Aquatic Organisms 11: 45–48.
Khan, R.A, Barrett, M. and Campbell, J. 1980. Trypanosoma murmanensis (a marine
trypanosome): its effects on the longhorn sculpin (Myxocephalus octodecampinosus).
Journal of Wildlife Diseases 6: 359-361
Lom, J. and Dykova, I. 1979. Histopathological changes in Trypanosoma danilewskyi Laveran
and Mesnil, 1904 and Trypanosoma borelli Laveran and Mesnil, 1902 infections in
goldfish (Carassius auratus L.). Journal of Fish Diseases 2: 281-390
Margolis, L., Esch, G.W., Holmer, J.C., Kuris, A.M. and Schad, G.A. 1982. The use of
ecological terms in parasitology. Report of an ad hoc committee of the American
society of parasitologists. Journal of Parasitology 68: 131-133.
Munyaho T. A. 2004. Assessment of the status of the stock and fishery of Nile perch in Lake
Victoria, Uganda (Final project). The United States University, Fisheries Training
Institute, Ireland.
Paperna, I. 1996. Parasites, infections and diseases of fishes of Africa. CIFA Technical Paper
31
Smit, N.J., Davies, A.J. and Van As, J.G. 2000. A Trypanosome from the Silver Catfish
(Schilbe intermedius) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Bulleting of European
Association of Fish Pathologists 20: 116-119.
Tandon R.S. and Chandra S. 1977. Physiology of host parasite relationship: Effects on
serum alkaline phosphatase levels of fish hosts parasitized by Trypanosomes.
Parasitenkunde 52: 195-198
87
Effect of brining on the drying rate of tilapia (Oreochromis

niloticus) in a solar tunnel dryer
1
Kituu, G.M., 1Shitanda, D., 2Silayo, V., 3Odote, P., 4Bongyereire, J.
1
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya
2
Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania
3
Kenya Fisheries Marine Institute, Kenya
4
Africa 2000, Uganda
Abstract
This study determined effect of on the drying rate of tilapia in a solar tunnel dryer. Tilapia
fish was split into pieces of 4cm by 3cm by 9mm and soaked into four brine concentrations
varying between 0-15%. Moisture content was evaluated by oven drying method, while air
temperatures were with an automated data logger. The moisture content of fish reduced as
brine concentration increased. The effective diffusion coefficient varied between 5.061 *10-11
and 3.323*10-11 m2/s as brine concentration increased, and it decreased with increase in brine
concentration.
Key Words: Solar, tunnel dryer, brining, diffusivity, moisture content.
Introduction
In Kenya, fish is an important source of local and foreign currency earnings, in addition to
being a source of proteins. Over 350,000 metric tonnes of fish produced annually earn the
country about US$ 105 million, and contributes about 5% of the country’s GDP (Abila,
2003). Out of the total production, 30% is exported mainly to the European Union (EU),
the United States (US) and the Middle East countries, and earning Kenya US$58 million
(Gitonga et al., 2003). Of the total annual fish harvest in Kenya, 50% is wasted due to poor
processing and preservation (Orengoh and Kisumo, 2007).
The amount of fish harvested in Kenya fluctuates seasonally, with periods of high supply and
low supply. During the periods of high supply a lot of fish is spoilt and wasted due to the poor
preservation methods at artisanal fishermen level, while acute shortage and increased costs
of fish are experienced in periods of low harvest. In addition the landing sites are usually
located far from the main markets and consumption points and this leads to large amounts of
fish being spoilt and wasted. Similarly, the livelihood of about half a million people in Kenya
depends on fish as a source of proteins and for employment, hence measures must be taken to
ensure the fish industry is protected and wastage minimised (MOLF, 2006). In order to reduce
the wastage and spoilage of fish during periods of oversupply, and to enhance long storage,
it is necessary to adopt appropriate and affordable processing and preservation techniques for
fish at the artisanal landing sites.
The most common methods of fish processing and preservation at the village or artisanal level
in Kenya are dry salting, deep frying, sun drying and smoking. Frying and smoking require
high quantities of cooking oil, charcoal and wood, which result in the reduction of organic
ground cover. Although smoking imparts desirable colour and taste attributes, it introduces
cancer causing carcinogenic substances in fish (Delgado et al., 2006). Therefore, alternative
affordable, hygienic and environmentally friendly methods should be developed and adopted
for drying of fish.
88
Drying of fish by open sun-drying or by solar would offer alternative methods to smoking
and deep frying dryers. Drying reduces or completely eliminates physiological, microbial
and enzymatic degradation of biological materials such as fish (Shitanda and Wanjala, 2003).
About 50% of the fish consumed in Kenya is dried by open sun-drying (Abila, 2003). The
disadvantages of open sun-drying of fish include destruction by birds, animals and man,
contamination by excreta from birds and animals, soiling, fungal growth and mycotoxins,
loss of both nutrients and quality, intensive labour and a large area is required. On the other
hand, drying in solar dryers offers advantages such as shielding of fish from agents of the
contamination and destruction stated above, accelerated rate of drying due to concentration
of heat in the drying chamber, and conservation of light-sensitive fish nutrients by indirect
solar drying.
Common solar dryers existing in Kenya are the black-box solar and tent dryers. Other solar
dryers found mainly in Asian countries include the cabinet dryers, the batch dryers, and green
house dryers. Although these dryers have been successfully utilised in the drying of fruits and
vegetables their disadvantages in fish, fruits and vegetables processing, include exposure of
products to direct sun-light which results in the destruction of light-sensitive nutrients, and
the lack of temperature regulation mechanisms, leading to high drying chamber temperatures.
With unregulated temperature, over-drying is possible, leading to poor quality of dry fish.
Thus the dryers are unsuitable for the drying of fish, and there is need to try the tunnel dryer
as an alternative to the existing dryers. However, none of the above dryers including the
tunnel solar dryer has been tested in the drying of tilapia fish.
Sodium chloride has traditionally been used in curing and preservation of meat and fish due to
its capacity to preserve and modify water holding capacity of proteins. While Kiaye, (2004)
stated that brining reduces the micro-organisms count on dry fish, studies by (Oliviera et al.,
2006, Graivier et al., 2006, FSA, 2007) indicated that concentrations of salt used in osmotic
dehydration in excess of 5% are beyond the permissible levels for human consumption.
Therefore, limiting the amount of salt used in brining, and subsequently dehydrating fish
with a solar tunnel dryer would probably achieve a more stable and suitable dried fish product
than osmotic dehydration or solar drying process separately. The objective of this study is
to determine the influence of brining on the drying rate constant, and the effective diffusion
coefficient for Tilapia fish (Oreochromis niloticus) when dried in a solar tunnel dryer.

Description of the solar tunnel dryer system
The solar tunnel dryer system used in this study (Figure 1) consisted of two main components:
the tunnel and the chimney chambers. The tunnel is used for heating the drying air before it
enters the chimney. Both the tunnel and chimney drying chambers are completely sealed from
light in order to preserve light sensitive nutrients in drying material. Drying can take place
in either chamber. Since the tunnel section is a solar energy collector, drying in this section
would not take full advantage of the energy collection process. In addition, the drying of fish
in the tunnel section contributes moisture to the fish undergoing drying in the chimney section
when both sections are used. In this study, the drying was carried out in the chimney section
of the dryer. The study was conducted at the Biomechanical and Environmental Engineering
Department, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, in Kenya.
The tunnel section measured 2.24m long, 1.2m wide and 0.54m high. The section had a
rectangular galvanised iron (GI) collector plate painted black for enhanced absorption
and emission of solar energy, and an acrylic cover located above the collector plate. The
89
acrylic cover acted as a green house to absorbed energy which resulted in increased energy
concentration in the chamber. Plate 1 shows a plate for the developed tunnel solar drier.
The bottom plate of the tunnel section was made of aluminium painted GI sheet to reflect
energy incident on the surface. The rear side wall of the tunnel chamber was made of
aluminium coated GI sheet. The front wall of the tunnel chamber had two sets of overlapping
doors through which fish was placed in the chamber, and through which thermocouples
from various data logger channels were inserted. The inner walls of the doors were made of
aluminium coated GI sheets. The bottom and the side walls of the sheets were insulated with
fibre glass which was sandwiched between the inner and outer GI sheets to minimise energy
losses.
The chimney drying chamber measured 1.2m by 0.9m by 0.7m for the rectangular cross-
section, and 1.2m x 0.7m at the bottom and 0.2m by 0.2m at the narrow end. It was made
of GI sheets, with the inner walls coated with aluminium while the outer walls were painted
black. An exhaust system secured above the chimney drying chamber was lined with acrylic
glass to enable solar heating of the exhaust air, for increased natural convection. At the base
of the exhaust pipe was a solar-driven suction fan that induced forced convection in the dryer.
Dryer exhaust
Acrylic Exhaust lining
Air
Fish
Solar
Insolation
Acrylic Cover glass
Collector Plate
Air
Data logging point
Air inlet
Tray
Data Logger Tunnel Chamber W
Chimney Chamber
Figure 1a: A schematic of a tunnel-cum-chimney solar dryer.
90
Plate 1: Developed tunnel solar drier
The brining process of fish

Tilapia fish was procured from the fish landing sites along Tana River at Sagana, Kenya. It
was eviscerated, de-scaled and thoroughly washed, after which the heads were removed. It
was then split open longitudinally and cut into about 163 small pieces of approximately 4cm
by 3cm by 1cm. Three pieces of fish were used to evaluate the initial moisture content of the
fish by the oven dry method. The remaining pieces were divided into four sets of samples,
each containing 40 pieces. The fish samples were soaked in brine with concentrations between
0 and 15%, in steps of 5%. For each treatment, the fish samples were soaked for in brine 12
hours and kept in a cooler at a temperature between 9 and 11oC. Single pieces of brined fish
from each treatment were used to determine the moisture content of the fish before solar
drying, using the oven dry method.
In order to determine the moisture content, a fish sample was weighed in a drying dish of
known weight using the Shimadzu electronic balance, and its wet weight recorded as Wt. The
sample was placed in a constant-temperature oven set at a temperature of 105oC for 12 hours.
The dry fish was removed from the oven and its dry weight, Wd, recorded. The percent dry
basis moisture content Mdb was evaluated from the expression (Bala, 1997):
Wt − Wd
M db = * 100 (1)
Wd
The Fish Drying Process
After brining and initial fish moisture content determination, the remaining samples were
place in the solar tunnel dryer to dry. All the samples were placed on the same tray in the
chimney section of the tunnel dryer, in order to maintain the same drying conditions, with
clear separation for samples under different brine concentrations. The dryer was in an open
space exposed to the sun and the prevailing atmospheric conditions. The quantity of water
removed during drying was determined by periodic weighing of the samples using an
electronic balance. The data acquired included the initial moisture content, which was taken
from weights taken before the samples were brined, post-brining initial moisture content
91
ction
solaroftunnel
the tunnel
dryer dryer,
to dry.inAll order
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samples weretheplaced
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tion for samples under different brine concentrations. The
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tion sun andunderthe prevailing atmospheric
different brine conditions.
concentrations. The Thedryerquantity
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alance. The data acquired included the initial moisture
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ts takenThetaken
beforeafter brining, just before the post-brining
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the initial moisture content, moisture
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brining, process
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before 40 drying
hours. and drying period moisture content. The drying
ts taken before the samples were brined, post-brining initial moisture content
40 hours.
brining, Drying
just temperatures
before the dryingwere andtaken
drying using thermocouples
period which relayed
moisture content. The dryingdata to an ETO Denki
peratures
40 hours.Ewere taken using
Thermodac thermocouples
electronic data logger.which relayed data
In addition, to an ETO
the relative Denkiwas
humidity E recorded using a
peratures were taken using thermocouples which relayed data to an ETO Denki Ea a 21X8B EMPEX
electronic data
digital logger.
thermo-hygroIn addition,
humidity the relative
sensor, humidity
while air flowwaswasrecorded
measured using
using
mo-hygro
electronic humidity
air sensor,
flowlogger.
data meter. In while air flow
addition, was measured
the relative humidity using
wasarecorded
21X8B EMPEX
using a
er.
mo-hygro humidity sensor, while air flow was measured using a 21X8B EMPEX
er. Data analysis
is The moisture data collected was used to plot graphs of moisture content against drying time,
eisdata collected was used
and to evaluate to plot 2,
equation graphs
whichofismoisture
based oncontent
the theoryagainst drying
of thin layertime,
drying (Kingsly et al.,
ate equation 2, which
2007, Uluko
e data collected is based plot graphs of moisture content against drying ettime,
on
et al.,to2006):
was used the theory of thin layer drying (Kingsly al.,
et al., 2006):
ate equation 2, which is based on the theory of thin layer drying (Kingsly et al.,
et al., 2006):
M
MR   e kt (2)
M
M (2)
MR  o  e kt (2)
Where; M o
= Moisture ratio
MR (dimensionless),
= Moisture ratio (dimensionless),
= Moisture content
= Moisture ratio at=time t hours,
M (dimensionless),
Moisture (% dry
content at basis)
time t hours, (% dry basis)
= Initial moisture
= Moisture content content
Mo at=time (% dry basis)
t hours,
Initial (% dry
moisture basis)
content (% dry basis)
= Initial
= Constant (dimensionless)
moisture
A content (% dry(dimensionless)
= Constant basis)
= Constant
= Drying ratek constant (per hour)
(dimensionless)
= Drying rate constant (per hour)
= Drying rate constant (per hour)
e diffusivity was evaluated based on the fact that the fish drying took place in
The effective diffusivity was evaluated based on the fact that the fish drying took place in
eindiffusivity
diffusion analysis
trays,was
which
are considered
evaluated based
in diffusion onslabs as
theare
analysis factopposed
that thetofish
considered
cylindrical took
slabsdrying
and spherical
as opposed place in
to cylindrical and spherical
or fish drying
in diffusion in slabs,
analysis arethe relationship
considered between
slabs asthe the
opposed moisture ratio
to cylindrical and
and effective
spherical
geometry. For fish drying in slabs, relationship between the moisture ratio and effective
orgiven
fish as (Hassini,
drying in 2006):
slabs, the relationship between
diffusivity is given as (Hassini, 2006): the moisture ratio and effective
given as (Hassini, 2006):
M 8  π 2 Dt 
MR= = 2 exp  - 2 2  (3)
M
Mo π8  πLDt 
MR= = exp  - 2  (3)
Mo π2  L  (3)
Where;
= Half of the thickness of the drying sample (m),
2
=
= Effective
Half of thediffusivity
thickness (m /s). drying sample (m),
of the
L = Half
2
of the thickness of the drying sample (m),
= Effective diffusivity
D = (m /s). diffusivity (m2/s).
Effective
discussions
rediscussions
content for the fish samples after the brining treatments for 12 hours are
Results and discussions
reFigure 2,
content whichthe
shows
Theformoisture
asamples
decreaseafter
fishcontent in osmotic
for the the
dehydration as brine
fish brining
samplestreatments for concentration
12 treatments
after the brining hours are for 12 hours are
Figure 2, which shows a decrease in osmotic dehydration as brine concentration
presented in Figure 2, which shows a decrease in osmotic dehydration as brine concentration
increased. This is consistent with the observations by (Sereno et al., 2001, Mujaffar and
Sankat, 2006). By brining,73 fish proteins are denatured, the water holding capacity of fish
improved, and the rate of 73fish drying reduced. In osmotic dehydration, the salt enters the
fish voids and displaces some of the water in the voids, while making proteins to coagulate
and tissue cells to shrink due to loss of large proportion of cell moisture (Graivier et al.,
2006). However, brining processes provide dried products that are too salty and unacceptable
to most consumers (Jittinandana et al., 2002), and would require desalination. Desalination
involves rehydration process which results in further leaching of nutrients from the fish. To
92
avoid the effects of over-salting fish, it is necessary to combine brining and air drying to
reduce moisture content to safe storage moisture content.
500
Moisture content (%, db)
460
420
380
340
300
0 4 8 12 16
Brine concentration( %)
Figure 2: Variation in moisture content as brine concentration increased under osmotic

dehydration.
Figure 3 presents the best curves of fit for the drying process of fish at different brine
treatments. The figure shows that the moisture content for the four levels of treatment reduced
steadily to equilibrium moisture content in about 40 hours for the un-brined sample and 35
hours for the brined samples.
500%
0% Brine Conce 5% Brine conc 10% Brine conc 15% Brine Conc
Expon. (5% Brine conc) Expon. (10% Brine conc) Expon. (0% Brine Conce) Expon. (15% Brine Conc)
400%
Moisture content (db)
300%
200%
100%
0%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Drying time (hrs)
Figure 3: Drying curves for tilapia at different concentrations of brine.
The equilibrium moisture content obtained was 10% (db), which was much lower than the
moisture content realised by (Bala and Mondol 2001) of 50.84% (db) over a longer drying
period of 5 days (about 50 hours). According to (Braguy et al., 2003) the safe storage moisture
content for dried fish at 0 and 15% brine concentration was 15 and 35% (db), respectively. At
the start of the drying process as observed from Figure 3, the un-brined sample had the highest
moisture content values, which reduced as the brine content increased. As drying continued,
this trend was reversed, with the un-brined sample loosing moisture rapidly while the sample
with high brine concentration lost the least amount of moisture. This shows that the rate of
93
drying reduced with increased brine concentration. The observation is partly explained by
the hygroscopic nature of sodium chloride, which gives salted samples the ability to bind
water molecules and reduce their availability for microbial activity (Graivier et al., 2006),
and partly by denaturing of proteins. One of the functions of salt concentration in meat is
the extraction of myofibrillar proteins, which contributes to binding of meat molecules, fat
emulsification and increased the water-holding capacity, resulting in improved quality and
texture of fish (Graivier et al., 2006). Due to the improved water holding capacity, the brined
samples reached their equilibrium moisture content after about 35 hours, where as the un-
brined samples continued losing moisture up to about 40 hours.
The best curves of fit for moisture ratio are presented in Figure 4, from which the drying
equations similar to equation (2) were developed. The equations gave the values of the drying
rate constant k and the corresponding coefficient of determination R2 values for varying brine
concentrations Br as tabulated in Table 1.
The values of k in Table 1 decrease as the brine concentration increases. An increase in k
implies a reduction in the moisture ratio and subsequently an increase in the drying rate.
Therefore, the observed reduction in k with increasing brine concentration shows a reduction
in drying rate as the brine concentration increased.
Table 1: Drying models for varying brine concentration.

Br(%) K(/hr) R2 D*10-11
0 0.0888 0.7529 5.061
5 0.0724 0.8299 4.126
10 0.0701 0.8007 3.995
15 0.0583 0.9323 3.323
This agrees well with the earlier observation that drying rate decreased with increase in brine
concentration.
0% Brine conc 5% Brine conc 10% brine Comc

15% brine conc Expon. (15% brine conc) Expon. (10% brine Comc)
Expon. (0% Brine conc) Expon. (5% Brine conc) Expon. (5% Brine conc)
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Moisture ratio
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Drying time (hrs)
Figure 4: Moisture ratio curves for tilapia drying under different brine treatments
94
Using equation 3 and the k values in Table 1, the values of the effective diffusivity in Table
1 were evaluated. The values of effective diffusivity coefficients for the brine concentrations
ranged between 3.323*10-11 and 5.061*10-11 m2/s, and they reduced with increase in brine
concentration. These values were slightly lower than the values obtained by (Park, 1998).
The figures of diffusivity were consistent with diffusivity values obtained by (Graivier et al.,
2006, Josep, 2001). Thus although brining achieves osmotic dehydration, it reduces the rate
of drying of tilapia. It can thus be concluded that brining achieves significant reduction in
the moisture content of fish dried in a solar tunnel dryer. However, this study was not able to
establish the optimum concentration at which fish should be brined to achieve stable moisture
content with or without air drying.
While the changes in temperatures around the dryer are important, of necessity in drying is
the drying air temperature, and subsequently the plenum chamber temperature which is the
temperature of the air just before drying. The profile of the drying air temperature is presented
in Figure 5. The profile was developed from data collected from air inlet, the centre of the
tunnel chamber (TC), the tunnel exit (TE), the plenum chamber (PC) and above the drying
tray (ADT).
The figure shows that the temperature of the drying air increased steadily from 370C at inlet
to about 39.50C at the plenum chamber, and then reduced to about 38.5oC as it entered the
exhaust of the dryer. The gain in air temperature indicated gain in drying air energy in the
tunnel chamber, while the reduction in air temperature showed the loss of latent heat in
evaporating water from the fish.
40
39
Temperature (oC)
38
37
Inlet
TC
TE
PC
ADT
Point of temperature measurement
Figure 5: Variation of temperature across the dryer during drying.
Under the air temperatures of about 39oC, the fish dried within 40 hours, and its moisture
content was reduced from 484% (db) (moisture content before brining) to about 10% (db)
for the plain dried samples and 15% dry basis for the brined salted samples. Subject to the
analysis of the optimal drying rate based on the energy harnessing characteristics, and the
quality characteristics of the dried fish, the solar tunnel dryer used in this study is a viable
95
option to open sun drying of tilapia

Conclusions
Treating fish with brine achieves osmotic dehydration of up to 36% for a brine concentration
range of 0-15%. Brining reduces the drying rate. Brined fish takes about 36 hours for the
moisture content of brined fish to reduce from 484 to 15% (db) when the fish is dried in
a solar tunnel dryer at mean inlet and plenum temperatures of 37 and 39oC, respectively.
However, it takes about 40 hours for un-brined fish to dry to 10% moisture content, under
the same drying conditions. The drying rate constant and the diffusivity values reduced with
increase in brine concentration. The values of k varied between 5.83*10-2 and 8.88*10-2/hr,
while the effective diffusion coefficient values varied between 3.323*10-11 and 5.061*10-11
m2/s for brine concentrations ranging from 0-15%.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support offered by VicRes Research, a Lake
Victoria SAREC Funded Project. Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture support in
facilities for the research is acknowledged.
96
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Bala, B.K. and Mondol, M.R.A. 2001. Experimental investigation on solar drying of fish
using solar tunnel dryer: Drying Technology, 19(2), 427 – 436, Taylor and Francis
Group.
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and drying air temperature on drying behaviour of peach slices: International Journal
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98
pp. 99 -111 Printed in Uganda. All rights reserved
Distribution, Abundance, Diversity and Utilization of Fresh-Water

Mollusc Shells for Improved Community Livelihoods around Lake
Victoria
Kokwaro, E., 2Mwebaza-Ndawula, L., 1Aseka, E and 3Nguma, F.
1
1
Department of Zoological Sciences, Kenyatta University P. O. Box 43844-00100, Nairobi,
Kenya
2
National Fisheries Resources Research Institute (NaFIRRI) P.O. Box 343, Jinja Uganda
1
Department of History and Political Science, Kenyatta University P. O. Box 43844-00100,
Nairobi, Kenya
3
Tropical Pesticides Research Institute, P. O. Box 3024 Arusha, Tanzania
Abstract
Over 80% of the Lake Victoria riparian communities depend on agriculture and fishing for
their livelihoods. The fast growing human population in the lake basin coupled with rampant
poverty has in recent years led to over-exploitation of the fisheries resources and diminishing
economic returns. The aim of the study was to add value to mollusc shells as an alternative
income source for the riparian communities and reduce pressure on the fisheries resources.
Socio-cultural and quantitative surveys undertaken in Kenya and Uganda found two categories
of mollusc shells, Bivalvia and Gastropoda that commonly occur along the lake shores.
Systematic analysis of the shells revealed the gastropod species, Bellamya unicolor as the
most widely distributed and abundant species. Community training followed by processing
of the shells by selected groups in Kenya and Uganda produced a range of marketable value-
added products including necklaces, key holders, ear rings, bracelets, hair clips among others
using hard-shelled bivalve species such as Etheria, Caelatura and Sphaerium. Income from
such products is expected to improve the livelihoods of the riparian community and reduce
fishing pressure on the lake’s fisheries. Continuous removal and use of the shells is envisaged
to contribute to the lake’s environmental health and aesthetic value.
Limited chemical analysis of shells revealed presence of macro-elements such as calcium
carbonate, magnesium and potassium that could serve as sources of nutrients for plants.
Geographical location and quantitative estimates of the abundant and fragile gastropod shells
provide useful leads to collectors who sell them to animal food industries. The chemical
analysis further revealed levels of trace elements such as Lead, Cadmium, Copper and Zinc
that are indicative of pollution.
Shoreline sites where Biomphalaria chaonomphae shells occurred in abundance appear to
be potential bilharzia hotspots. Prevalence of Biomphalaria chaonomphae, Bulinus globosus
and Lymnaea natalensis shells in areas where solid wastes, sewage and human activities
predominate is a significant indicator of pollution.
Key words: mollusc shells, communities, value-addition, livelihoods
99
Introduction
The major economic activities of the people living in the Lake Victoria basin, i.e. agriculture
and fishing, are threatened by over-fertilisation of the lake (eutrophication), pollution, over-
exploitation of the fisheries, introduction of exotic fish species and invasion by aquatic
weeds among others (Kayombo and Jorgensen, 2006). With poverty endemic to the
area, the riparian communities face various developmental challenges. Therefore, there is a
need to identify other bio-resources from Lake Victoria that could be exploited for wealth
creation and improvement of livelihoods.
Mollusc shells are among the potential resources that are untapped along the shores of
Lake Victoria. The limited utilization of mollusc shells by the riparian community has
been attributed to lack of knowledge on their diversity, distribution, abundance, chemical
composition and socio-cultural inhibitions. Even though Kohl (2005) pointed out the potential
of using freshwater mussels and snails as foodstuffs, trade and manufacture of buttons among
some cultures in North America, there is insufficient information in this regard in East Africa.
However, the natural habitats accommodating these species continue to experience increasing
anthropogenic disturbances (Bugenyi & Balirwa 1989, Scheren et al., 2000; Ntiba et al.,
2001) and may result in seasonal variation in densities (King, 1999; Dillon, 2000) and loss of
species that could constitute an important source of income.
This study was undertaken to determine the diversity, abundance and distribution of mollusc
shells species along Lake Victoria shores prospectively for value addition by the riparian
community. The potential of shells discharged along the lake shoreline in the sustenance of
livelihoods requires investigation using chemical analysis. This may provide vital leads on
bio-molecules needed in animal nutrition and also useful natural products that may serve as
source of nutrients, disease preventive health medicines besides being sources of ornamental
products used as jewellery. Empowerment of the riparian community through training and
practical experience to transform shells into more profitable products has enhanced the local
communities’ capacity to diversify and improve their livelihoods and mitigate endemic and
vicious circle of poverty.
2. Materials and methods
2.1 Abundance, distribution and diversity of mollusc shells

Field surveys to collect quantitative information on the abundance, distribution and diversity
of mollusc shells were conducted along the shores of Lake Victoria in Kenya and Uganda.
100
Figure 1. Fresh-water mollusc shells sampling sites along Lake Victoria shoreline.
Sampling of mollusc shells along the shores of Lake Victoria was undertaken at sites located
at 20 ± 0.5 km intervals (Figure 1). The sites were guided by GPS navigation process along
the shores. Within the 0.5 km radius of the first site, an area was selected on the basis of
accessibility to the shore. At each sampling site, a transect perpendicular to the shoreline
was set up. From this point, 1-metre square quadrats were linearly cast along the transect.
The quadrat was placed touching on the uppermost wave line. A 30 metre long string with
knots at 5 metre intervals was stretched out along the transect and the midpoint of each
quadrat marked the first sampling point. This resulted in six sampling points per site with 5
metre distances from each other. Each such sampling site was geo-referenced using Gamin®
GPS 12XL handset set in UTM mode. All surface shell specimens were aggregated for each
transect and collected in labelled basins and polythene bags. Details of physical locations and
geo-referenced information, the relief and vegetation cover of each site were described for
each site. Where the shortest distance (20 ± 0.5 km) was inaccessible, the nearest accessible
point was sampled without interfering with the subsequent 20 km interval point. Outermost
shell line was sampled in sites where there were multiple lines of mollusc shell deposits along
the shoreline. A proportionate quantity by weight was taken in localities with abundant shells
while noting the possible factors responsible for the abundance.
Shell samples were taken to National Fisheries Resources Research Institute (NaFIRRI)
invertebrates laboratory in Jinja, and Kenyatta University Department of Zoological Sciences
laboratory where they were processed and taxonomically identified to species level using
morphological features and taxonomic keys by Brown and Kristensen (1958); Brown (1994),
101
Mandhal- Barth (1952) and counted to determine abundance and distribution patterns.
Measures of diversity, notably species richness (the total number of species recorded at each
selected habitat and locality over the entire study) and mean number of species per site were
used in data analysis. Shell abundance was calculated as the total shell count. Mollusc shell
abundance was used to establish the dominant and rare species.
2.2 Chemical analysis for nutrients
Identified bivalve and gastropod shells were crushed and ground for analysis of antibacterial
activity. About 0.2 g of finely ground sample of the respective shell species was weighed using
an analytical balance. Each sample was then transferred into 50 ml test tube and to which 1
ml of de-ionized water was added to wet the sample, followed by 3 ml of 1:1 hydrochloric
acid. The test tubes were left under the hood until all the effervescence had subdued. The
sample was digested in a water bath thermostatically controlled at 95oC for 2 hours. After the
digestion was complete, all samples were allowed to cool, diluted to 20 ml using de-ionized
water. After cooling, shaking and filtration, the samples were analysed using flame-atomic
absorption spectrometry (AAS) to determine macro- and micro-elements in order to establish
the potential for the utilization of the identified substances.
2.3 Processing of mollusc shells ornamentals
Two local community groups were identified at Mbita Point, Suba District, Kenya and
Majanji in Uganda. Group members were selected based on their interest to explore
alternative sources of income to supplement their fishing enterprises. In order to develop
alternative and complementary income generating activities for the riparian communities,
suitable genera that elicit variations in morphology among bivalves and gastropods were
identified. The shells were cut and shaped into various sizes using hacksaw blades, pliers and
grinders. The shells were smoothened on the surfaces and edges using sand paper and a file to
make pendants for necklaces and key holders. A hand drill fitted with sharp pointed drill bits,
was used to perforate holes. Nylon fishing thread was passed through the holes using pliers
and forceps to combine different types of beads and seeds to make a variety of necklaces
and other ornaments. Pendants generated from mollusc shells were combined with metallic
chains and rings to make a variety of key holders. Additionally, multimedia artwork using fine
artistic techniques of gluing shell species together with wood glue, painting and varnishing,
was employed to make composite products from shells. Based on these procedures, local
community representatives at Mbita point in Kenya and Majanji in Uganda were trained, to
make unique adornments of commercial value and involved them in field surveys to identify
areas endowed with mollusc shells.
3. Results
3.1 Abundance and diversity of mollusc shell species
The molluscs’ community was composed of mainly two sub-classes: Bivalvia and Gastropoda.
The community was dominated by gastropods which exhibited high relative abundance
(80-90%) both in terms of numbers and biomass (Kokwaro et al., 2007). This trend was
comparable at all field sites in both Uganda and Kenya. Relative abundance, distribution and
102
species diversity of mollusc shells discharged at different sites of Lake Victoria in Kenya
and Uganda comprised Bivalvia and Gastropoda as ubiquitous taxonomic classes. Species
diversity, abundance and distribution generally varied among the sampled sites. High species
richness and abundance were observed in open sites experiencing frequent wave action.
Bellamya unicolor was the most frequent and widespread gastropod shell species (75-100%
frequency) across sampled sites in Kenya and Uganda (Figure 2). The same gastropod species
registered highest numerical abundance in most sampled sites (Figure 3).
Anisus
100%
Lentorbis sp.
Segmentorbis sp.
Percentage (numerical)
80% Bysanodonta parasitica

Sphaerium spp.
60% Caelatura hauttecoeuri
Lymnaea natalensis
40% Gabbia humerosa
Bulinus spp.
20% Biomphalaria chaonomphala
Bellamya unicolour
0% Corbicula africana
Bwerenga Bukakata Musooli- Katebo Melanoides tuberculata

Entebbe Pila ovata
Study sites
Figure 2: Percent contribution and abundance of different mollusc taxa at study sites along the
shoreline of Lake Victoria in Uganda.
At Bukakata in Uganda, another gastropod species, Lymnea natalensis was dominant
with 50.6% of the total mollusc shells collected. Other mollusc shells with relatively high
proportions in the samples were Melanoides tuberculata and Biomphalaria chaonomphae
recorded at Entebbe-Musooli site. Based on a total of 8,552 mollusc shell specimens collected
during the survey in Uganda, the only numerically abundant bivalve genus was Sphaerium. A
comparable trend was found along the Kenyan shoreline. Rarely encountered taxa in Uganda
(25% frequency) were two bivalve genera Lentorbis and Anisus. Lentorbis found only at
Katebo while Anisus occurred at Bukakata field site.
103
4944
2000
1800
Pila ovata
Abundance (No.m -2)
1600
1400 Melanoides
1200 tuberculata
Corbicula africana
1000
800 Bellamya unicolor
600 Biomphalaria
400 chaonomphala
Bulinus spp.
200
0 Gabbia humerosa
Musooli-
Bukakata
Entebbe
Katebo
Lymnaea natalensis
Bwerenga
Caelatura
hauttecoeuri
Sphaerium spp.
Study sites Bysanodonta
parasitica
Segmentorbis sp.
Figure 3: Mollusc species abundance at different sites in Uganda shorelineLentorbis

May sp. 2007.
Anisus
3.2 Potential mollusc species for development of ornamentation
Three bivalve genera: Etheria, Caelatura, Sphaerium, and one gastropod Pila ovata, that elicit
variations in morphology, with hard multi-layered walls were used (Plate 1) for processing an
assortment of ornamentations.
a
b
c d
Plate 1. Different species of shells belonging to the mollusc classes Bivalvia and Gastropoda
used in ornamentation a) Etheria b) Caelatura c) Sphaerium d) Pila.
104
Figure 11: An assortment of valuable shell products.
Plate 2: An assortment of mollusc shell products made by community members at Mbita

point, Kenya.
These shell species were processed into composite murals, pendants for necklaces and
key holders. Improved value-added products were generated through the incorporation of
multimedia artwork. This culminated to the production of quality natural hand-made mollusc
shell products. Following successful training, knowledge and skills transfer, the local
communities at Mbita Point, Kenya and Majanji, Uganda adopted the technologies leading to
the production of a variety of quality ornaments (Plate 2).
3.3 Occurrence of mollusc shells of medical importance

Mollusc shell species B. chaonomphae and B. globosus were found to commonly occur along
the shoreline with higher human activities such as fishing, washing of domestic utensils,
domestic animal water points among others. Other high accumulations of these shells occurred
at sewage polluted habitats. Analysis of secondary data obtained from medical records at
Mbita health facility revealed cases of schistosomiasis in patients treated at the health facility
(Figure 4). Of the 209 human stool samples found to be positive for Schistosoma species,
63.2% were males and 36.8% were females. It is notable that cases of schistosomiasis for
2005 and 2007 were comparable.
105
Figure 4: Cases of schistosomiasis recorded at health facility at Mbita Point, Suba District,
Kenya.
3.4 Evidence of anti-bacterial activity among mollusc shells

Antibacterial activity was found in some mollusc shell preparations. A combination of
the two bivalve mollusc shell samples mixed with salt (sodium chloride) exhibited some
inhibitory effect on the growth of Bacillus subtilis (Gram positive rod) with a mean zone
inhibition of 8.75 mm and Salmonella typhi (Gram negative rod) with a mean zone inhibition
of 9.28 mm (Plate 3). All the five mollusc (Etheria, Caelatura, Sphaerium, Melanoides, Pila)
powder shell samples mixed with salt, had no effect on most of the bacteria strains, namely
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, except Salmonella typhi
in which a zone of inhibition measuring 8.0 mm was recorded.
Plate 3: Zones of antibacterial inhibition on a culture plate.
106
3.5 Chemical composition of mollusc shells

Preliminary data on chemical composition of mollusc shells revealed various macro-elements
in gastropod species Bellamya unicolor, Melanoides tuberculata and Pila ovata with the
elements calcium carbonate, magnesium and potassium eliciting highest concentrations
(Table 1).
Table1. Chemical composition of Lake Victoria mollusc shells

CaCO 3 M g M nZ n
Mollusc species K (ppm) P (ppm) Cu (ppm) Cd (ppm) Pb (ppm)
(%) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
Melanoides
91.77 296.02 497.62 1119.9 51.51 3.62 8.09 1.36 81.39
tuberculata
L y m n a e a
77.55 238.53 597.41 <0.01 164.56 5.11 6.37 1.58 33.54
natalensis
Biomphalaria
66.52 561.9 1935.9 <0.01 502.89 9.92 30.82 <0.01 96.09
choanomphae
C a e l a t u r a
69.36 228.7 446.48 <0.01 535.7 11.8 9.07 2.77 65.57
hauttecoeuri
B e l l a m y a
90.61 342.55 615.39 1261.5 66.79 13.59 14.96 1.99 89.09
unicolor
Pila ovata 95.26 355.35 840.16 <0.01 274.88 11.69 14.76 2.04 72.67
Etheria elliptica 73.34 134.89 328.49 <0.01 588.1 1.56 123.9 2.04 50.32
Sphaerium spp 74.49 155.84 381.93 <0.01 18.53 0.09 7.18 1.44 29.13
M u t e l a
71.76 503.57 905.38 <0.01 388.11 8.79 7.82 1.28 20.09
bourgnignati
Biomphalaria
72.25 116.16 378.93 <0.01 339.65 9.45 22.59 2.48 267.73
sudanica
4. Discussion
Two broad taxonomic groups Bivalvia and Gastropoda constitute the mollusc shell
classes in both Kenya and Uganda. Gastropod species are ubiquitous. The observed high
gastropod abundance is in agreement with earlier works on Lake Victoria by Mbahinzireki
(1994), Okedi (1990), Mwebaza-Ndawula et al. (2000) and Sekiranda (2006). Among the
Gastropoda, Bellamya unicolor was the more distinctive species than others encountered
in high abundance at nearly all sites. This observation is in agreement with that made by
Sekiranda (2006) for three bays (Murchison, Fielding and Hanington bays) in the northern
part of the lake. Okedi (1990), Mbahinzireki (1994) and Witte et al. (1992) reported the
preponderance and ubiquitous distribution of Melanoides and Bellamya in the northern and
southern parts of Lake Victoria. Witte et al. (1992) and Mwebaza-Ndawula et al. (2000) have
suggested that the prevalence of these gastropod groups may be related to the reduction in
intensity of the grazing food chain following the decimation of haplochromine fish species
concomitant with the establishment of the exotic Nile perch in the lake.
107
The thin shelled gastropods in addition to their high abundance make them suitable target for
crushing to make animal feeds. The present study has revealed accumulation of this group
along exposed and moderately exposed shores of the lake that may be easily accessed by
riparian community members to gather and process them into valuable products.
The multimedia artwork used in the present study shaped an array of valuable products
surpassing those reported in North America by Kohl (2005) who pointed out the potential
of using freshwater molluscs for manufacture of buttons. The multimedia value-addition
techniques can be imparted to the riparian communities to utilize fresh water mollusc shells
in sustainable community livelihoods around Lake Victoria. The ornaments produced so far
have been subjected to market tests locally and the results have been encouraging. Therefore,
it can be assumed that the research has to a reasonable extent achieved one of the objectives.
The identified bivalves of great value in ornamentation work include Etheria elliptica and
Caelatura alluaudi. Their heavy shells are often endowed with beautiful shiny lustre and
are suited for ornamentation work. However, the present data indicate infrequent occurrence
of especially the hard and heavy E. elliptica in the mollusc community of the lake. This
observation may partly be explained by the fact that this species is attached to objects, such as
rocks and remain submerged in water. The relative rarity of E. elliptica bivalve shells which
are suited for processing into adornments implies that the riparian communities engaged in
the value-addition enterprise would probably spend more time to collect sufficient quantities
for their ornamental enterprise. It is to be noted that, the large size and multi-layered structure
of E. elliptica that easily separates during processing would provide adequate resilient raw
materials for utilization in sustainable value-addition activities.
The identified gastropod of great value in ornamentation is Pila ovata (Olivier). Its
conspicuously large size and curvature are morphological features to exploit so as to generate
unique products from it, such as table organizer. This was the rarest gastropod species. Lower
species richness and the occurrence of P. ovata in areas with algal blooms indicate pollution
of the ecosystem.
Studies of mollusc shells can contribute in predicting factors likely to cause changes in
species diversity, abundance and distribution status and their associated utility. In view of
this, the observed low diversity of bivalve shells in open, disturbed sites of L.Victoria is
further evidence that anthropogenic interference and recession of water levels may be causing
a decline, which is in line with reports by Kennedy (1997) and Thomas (1998).
Chemical composition data revealed various macro-elements in gastropod shells of the
species B. unicolor, M .tuberculata and P. ovata with calcium carbonate, magnesium and
potassium as predominant elements. These components could be valuable ingredients in soils
and animal feeds. Consequently, these findings indicate that economic value of the Lake
Victoria mollusc shells is much greater than hitherto realized. The availability of calcium in
bivalve shells has been reported to be good in poultry diet in Nigeria (Ajakaiye et. al., 1997,
2003). Based on this finding, an investigation into the potential utilities of the mollusc shells
as nutrients for plants merits further research. Indicators of environmental pollution were
demonstrated by detection of trace elements of Lead, zinc and cadmium. There are reports
that some gastropod species are sensitive to various disturbances of freshwater habitats and
could thus be used as indicators of the quality of the freshwater ecosystems (Chirombe et al.,
1998; Thomas, 1999, Sekiranda, 2006).
108
Shells of gastropod species Biomphalaria chaonomphae and Bulinus globosus were

identified in the collections. The snails of these two species are well known intermediate
vectors of schistosomiasis (bilharzias). The high frequency of occurrence of Biomphalaria
chaonomphae shells is notable and although occurring in relatively small proportions, they
could be significant in epidemiological studies of schistosomiasis (bilharzias) along the lake
shores. This species together with Bulinus globosus occurred in quite notable numbers at
Musoli site in Uganda and in Kenya where human activities were observed. Sekiranda (2006)
reported occurrence of this disease vector shells in low mean densities in all three bays of
study in northern Lake Victoria.
5. Conclusions
The mollusc shells in the areas of the Lake Victoria shoreline sampled consist of two classes:
Bivalvia and Gastropoda. Gastropods are by far the commonest and most abundant group of
which the most frequent species was Bellamya unicolor. This observation is consistent with
earlier reports. Bivalves are generally not as common and the species Sphaerium nyanzae
attained the greatest numerical abundance at Majanji site although even then the density
estimate was much lower than those of gastropods. Earlier records however, indicate that
Corbicula africana was the most abundant species of the bivalves especially in the northern
parts of the lake. The apparent spatial-temporal differences may be associated to both
environmental changes over time when the L.Victoria ecosystem has undergone radial fishery
and water quality alterations (Witte et al. 1992). Exposed shorelines with strong wind action
exhibit higher shell deposits unlike lakeshores associated with rocky formations. The most
widely distributed gastropods, characterized by thin shells are the natural target for collection,
milling to produce animal feeds. The mostly thicker-shelled bivalves are more suited for
making different types of ornamentations. Spatial-temporal variability in concentrations
of mollusc shells is probably associated with varying environmental conditions lake wide.
This aspect merits further investigation. Based on the chemical composition of the species
B. unicolor, M.tuberculata and P. ovata, these constituents may be incorporated in soils as
source of nutrients and substitutes in animal feeds.
Acknowledgements
The project was funded by Lake Victoria Research Initiative (VicRes). We are extremely
grateful to VicRes for financial support that made this work possible. We also extend our
gratitude to Kenyatta University, National Fisheries Resources Research Institute (NaFIRRI),
Jinja, Tropical Pesticides Research Institute, Arusha, Tanzania for granting time and the
support they gave to the team. The communities living around L. Victoria and the local
administration are acknowledged for working with the researchers. The authors are highly
thankful to the Research Assistants and several participating KenyattaUniversity students for
their invaluable assistance in field sampling, laboratory studies, sample and data analysis. Dr.
R. Mdegela of University of Dar es salaam is acknowledged for facilitating chemical analysis
work at SIEAMIC Institute
109
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Assessment of Possible Sources of Endocrine Disruptors and

Microbial Pathogens and their Impacts in the Lake Victoria Basin
in the East African Region
Mdegela, R.H., 2Mbuthia, P.G., 3Byarugaba, D.K.,1Mtenga,K. and 2Kamundia, P.W.

1
Sokoine University of Agriculture, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, P. O. Box 3021,

1
Morogoro, Tanzania.
2
University of Nairobi, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 29053 – 00625, Nairobi,
Kenya.
3
Makerere University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, P. O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
Abstract
This study was conducted from August 2008 to May 2009 in Mwanza (Tanzania), Jinja
(Uganda) and Kisumu, Homabay and Suba (Kenya) to establish the sources of pollutants
in particular endocrine disruptors and microbial pathogens in water and fish. A sociological
study was undertaken using qualitative and quantitative methods. Microbial contamination of
water and fish in the lake was assessed in 14 water and 60 fish samples in Mwanza. In Jinja,
assessment of microbial contamination was carried out in 100 water and 26 fish samples. A
total of 80 Nile tilapia were collected from Kisumu, Homabay and Suba and examined for
gross pathological lesions using standard necropsy techniques. Findings from the sociological
studies indicated that, the knowledge and awareness on endocrine disruptors in the region is
low. Pollutants that find access into the lake and have potential for disrupting the endocrine
systems exist in all cities and originate from point and non-point sources. Human, industrial,
agricultural, hospital and domestic wastes are the main sources of pollutants likely to contain
endocrine disruptors. These pollutants are handled poorly and most of them are disposed off
into the lake without treatment. In Mwanza, contamination of water with faecal material at
various landing sites was observed in 85.7%, 78.6% and 35.7% of the samples determined
using Total Viable Counts, Total Coliform Counts and Total Faecal Coliform Count. All
water samples were negative for Salmonella spp, Vibrio spp, Cryptosporidia spp and Giardia
spp. In Jinja, microbial contamination was observed in all sampling sites as determined by
aerobic plate count (APC), Total Coliform Count (TCC) and Escherichia coli count. There
was no significant difference in microbial load between sampling sites (P > 0.05). The gross
pathological lesions were generalized hyperemia, liver changes (paleness, grey spots and
hemorrhages), cystic urinary bladder, atrophied testis and kidneys, eye opacity, degenerated
ovaries, grey patches on the stomach, clear cysts in the testis, deformed dorsal fin and ulcers
on the lateral side of the body. Further studies are underway to confirm the likely causes of the
observed lesions and the impact of the observed pollutants and microbial pathogens.
Key words: Pollution; Endocrine disrupters; Faecal materials; Pathological lesions
Introduction
Lake Victoria is the second largest freshwater lake in the world, which is central to economic
development in the East African region (Anon, 1998). The lake region and its catchment are
112
vital to the livelihood of over 160 million people living in various counties within the Nile Basin
(Odada et al., 2004). Economic development of this region is primarily based on agriculture,
agriculture-based industries, fisheries, mining and tourism. Despite its potential contribution
to the economic development, Lake Victoria is under considerable pressure from a variety of
interlinked human activities. It has undergone enormous environmental degradation within
the last 40 years. Overfishing, siltation from the erosion of deforested watersheds, introduction
of exotic species of fish and plants, industrial pollution, eutrophication and climate change
contribute to rapid evolving changes in the lake that seriously threatens the functions of
ecosystems and overall biodiversity (Odada et al., 2004; TED 2007). These and other related
environmental and social factors have seriously impacted Lake Victoria’s fish population as
well as the livelihood of inhabitants in the lake region.
The rapid growth of human population in the lake region has increased pollution levels which
is known to interfere with optimal productivity of fish (Odada et al., 2004). On the other
hand, environmental pollution particularly microbiological, eutrophication, heavy metals,
pesticides, as well as industrial and domestic effluents have been identified as important
causes of loss of biodiversity and reduced productivity in fish in the lake (Leaños-Castañeda
et al., 2002; Odada et al., 2004; Henry and Kishimba, 2006; Ikingura et al., 2006). Urban
areas around the lake are also sources of untreated sewage as well as industrial and domestic
effluents that contain mixed chemicals and microbial pathogens (Odada et al., 2004). These
pathogens and chemicals have the potential to cause diseases and mortalities in fish as well
as contamination of fish products leading to their reduced quality and commercial value.
Although several studies have been carried out to assess the extent of water pollution and
contamination of fish in the lake, limited studies have investigated the presence of pollutants
likely to contain endocrine disruptors and their impact on productivity of fish. The aim of
this study therefore was to establish the sources of pollutants and determine if they contain
endocrine disruptors as well as their effects on sustainable productivity of fish in the Lake
Victoria. In addition, the extent of contamination of water and fish with bacterial pathogens
in an attempt to improve their management, safety and market value was assessed.
Study areas
The study was carried out in Mwanza (Tanzania), Jinja (Uganda) and Homabay and Suba
(Kenya) from August 2008 to June 2009. Whereas the sociological studies were carried out
in all the adjacent urban centres, microbial contamination of water and fish was assessed in
Mwanza and Jinja, while pathological changes were investigated in fish from Homabay and
Suba only.
Study design
Cross sectional sociological studies were carried out in all cities using both qualitative and
quantitative data collection methods. Qualitative data collection involved reconnaissance
surveys, participant observations, case stories, in-depth interviews with key informants as
well as focused group discussions. Quantitative data were collected using questionnaire
surveys. These methods were used to gather information on sources of pollutants in particular
those likely to contain endocrine disruptors and causes of decline in fish productivity and
quality of fish and fish products. Assessment of microbial contamination of water and fish
113
was carried out in Mwanza (Tanzania) and Jinja (Uganda) using standard protocols (Quinn
et al., 1998). Pathological examination was carried out in fish samples that were collected in
Kisumu, Suba and Homabay, Kenya using protocols described by Roberts, (2001).
Data collection
Survey of key informants

In Tanzania informal and formal data collection methods were used to collect information
from key informants. The city council was the first entry point for researchers to gather
general information on major activities and possible pollutants and their sources, major
environmental problems and control measures currently being taken. Within the city council,
key representatives working in agriculture, fisheries, urban planning, environment and
tourism, health and Water and Sewerage Authority departments were visited. Lake Victoria
Environmental Management Project (LVEMP), Nile Perch Industry, Pharmacy and Veterinary
drug stores, Zonal Veterinary Investigation Center in Mwanza, National Fish Quality Control
Laboratory in Nyegezi Mwanza were visited. A reconnaissance survey in proposed sites
for data collection was carried out through informal interviews with key people in order to
get a general sense of major pollutants and their sources. Focus group discussions (FGDs)
were conducted in particular with fishermen to get specific information on fishing and their
perceptions on the amount of fish in the lake. Using a pre-tested questionnaire for individual
interviews, 108 interviews were conducted in two wards.
In Uganda, data were collected using an environmental screening tool, matrix ranking, case
stories, key informant interviews and observation. Focus Group discussions were held with
fishermen, fisherwomen, community members and boy and girl children aged 12-18 years.
One of the discussions included a mixture of fishermen and fisherwomen while the rest
had fishermen only. Community members and children were also disaggregated by gender.
Fisherwomen, who are rare, were represented by 4 fisherwomen during discussions. Children
were selected for participation in discussions because of the household role they play of
cutting fish for cooking and therefore likely to have some knowledge about abnormalities in
fish. They are also involved in waste disposal in households.
In Kenya, the study was carried in Homa bay and Suba districts. The FGDs involving 15 men
and 15 women, each were carried out by the researchers at Suba and Homabay. During group
discussions, a range of questions were asked to capture information related to description of
sources and nature of wastes disposed, disposal methods, impact and severity of pollutants,
extent of impact, duration and frequency of impact, health, social and cultural impact and
strategies to minimize their negative impact. Matrix ranking was mainly used to identify and
rank the common wastes existing in communities and particularly those that are produced
in bigger quantities than others as well as those that end up in the lake more than others.
Key informant interviews were held with members of the agriculture, fishing, fish marketers,
employee of fish processing industries, beach management unit committees and some
district personnel in the fishing and health departments. They provided information under the
same variables as those in group discussions as mentioned above. Observations were made
particularly in the way wastes were disposed into the lake. The lake waters were observed
for any changes and the fish for any abnormalities. These observations were meant to verify
what was reported by participants and respondents and to provide any relevant added data
114
that was not captured through other methods of data collection. Questionnaire survey was
carried out using interviews that were administered by the researchers themselves. Using a
pre-tested questionnaire for individual interviews, 104 individual interviews were conducted
in two wards.
Analysis of water quality and microbial pathogens in fish

In Tanzania, screening of water samples for quality and contamination with microbial
pathogens was carried out in samples that were collected on fish landing sites in Mwanza.
Samples were screened for Total coliforms, Total Faecal Coliforms, Total Viable Counts,
Salmonella, Giardia and Cryptosporidia using standard protocols (Quinn et al., 1998). A total
of 28 water samples and 60 fish from 14 different sampling sites were collected for assessment
of microbial contamination. About 1,000 ml of water was collected in duplicate from each
of the sampling points using sterile bottles and divided into 5 portions for analysis of Total
Fecal Coliforms (TFC), Total Coliforms (TC), Total Viable Count (TVC), Salmonella, Vibrio,
Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Enumeration of total viable bacteria, total coliforms and faecal
coliforms in water samples was carried out using methods described by Quinn et al. (1998).
Total viable count technique was used to estimate the number of viable bacterial found in
water sample. A ten-fold serial dilution of the sample was made using peptone water (0.85%
in normal saline). One ml of diluted water was place in a sterile petri dish in triplicate.
Twenty ml of molten Nutrient Agar cooled at 42oC was added, and then mixed by rotating the
plate to allow uniform distribution of bacterial throughout the agar. After solidification of the
media, inoculated petri dishes were incubated at 37oC for 48 – 72 hours. Counting was made
to colonies and the mean number computed. The average number of colonies was multiplied
by the dilution factor, logarithmicaly transformed and reported as colony forming units of
viable bacteria per ml. Total coliform count technique was used to estimate the number of
coliform bacteria found in water sample. Similar method as for total viable count was used
with exception that diluted water samples were incubated on violet red bile agar (VRBA)
special media. Total faecal coliform count technique was used estimate the number of faecal
coliform bacteria found in water sample. The same method as for total coliform count was
used except that the incubation temperature was 44oC.
For isolation and identification of Salmonella and Vibrio, the procedure described by Quinn
et al. (1998) was used. Suspected and identified isolates were stored in nutrient broth mixed
with 50% v/v glycerol at –20oC for future studies. Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in water
were demonstrated by the acid fast (Ziehl-Neelsen) staining method (Quinn et al., 1998). The
prepared smears were examined under the microscope using 10x and 40x objectives. Detailed
morphology of the oocysts was confirmed using the oil immersion at 100x objective. The
water sample was centrifuged at 3000 x g for 5 min and the sediments were recovered and
used for preparation of smear. The smear was emulsified in saline and Lugol’s iodine mixture
and a cover slip was placed on top of the mixture and the entire coverslip area was examined
systematically under the microscope using the 10x objective for demonstration of G. lamblia
cysts. The 40x objective was used to confirm suspected parasites.
Screening of fish for microbial contamination and pathogens was done in 60 fish samples
that were collected from 14 different sampling sites. From each sampled fish, culture was
made for surface, gill, liver and kidney samples. All these samples were screened for aerobic
115
bacteria using procedures described by Stoskopf, (1993) and Roberts, (2001).
In Jinja Uganda, water and fish samples were collected. Assessment of water quality was
carried out on water samples that were collected from shoreline of rivers/streams/drainages
that pour into the lake as well as other areas thought to be potential sources of pollution into
the water. From each of the sites samples were collected three times on monthly interval
between August and November 2009 for comparison of the changes in the microbial load.
The samples were examined for total aerobic counts, total coliforms, E. coli and pathogens
(Salmonella spp and Vibrio spp.) that cause contamination of water and fish. A total of 100
water samples from 16 different sites were collected and 26 fish as well for assessment.
Surface water samples were collected by hand using autoclaved 250 ml bottles and screw
caps, from approximately 0 – 5 cm below the water surface. Collected samples were put on
ice in a cool box and transported to the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine for analysis where
they were processed on the same day of collection to avoid multiplication of microorganisms.
Each of the samples was analyzed in duplicate and the counts averaged.
The samples were processed by serial dilution of the water samples using sterile peptone
water in a ratio of 1:10. The samples were then thoroughly mixed to make a homogeneous
mixture and inoculated within 15 minutes of blending to avoid further multiplication of the
organisms. The surface spread method was used for total coliforms and E.coli, total aerobic
plate counts and the streak method was used for the detection of salmonella spp and Vibrio
spp. The total aerobic plate count was carried out using plate count agar (PCA) according
to standard procedures (Microbiological Manual, 2000). The dilutions were selected to get
a colony count of between 25 to 250 per petri dish and the counts made accordingly per ml
of the original sample. The contents in the serially diluted tubes were thoroughly mixed by
shaking or by use of a vortex mixer to enable separation of the individual microorganisms,
which are assumed to produce a colony each. The surface spread technique was employed
and 0.1ml of the dilutions was transferred onto duplicate plates for each dilution step and
surface spreading was done using sterile glass surface spreaders. The plates were incubated
at 37oC for 24 - 48 hours. The number of colonies was multiplied by the reciprocal of the
dilution and logarithmicaly transformed into log 10 cfu/ml for further analysis and reporting.
Enumeration of total coliforms and E. coli were done on Chromocult – coliform agar using
similar procedures as described above with 0.1ml of the dilutions onto duplicate plates for
each dilution and surface spreading and incubation at 37oC for 24 hours. Pink colonies were
classified as total coliforms, whereas dark blue colonies were classified as presumptive E. coli
colonies. The counts were similarly made and recorded. A few colonies were confirmed
as E. coli biochemically using the IMVIC reactions where colonies positive for E. coli are
supposed to be indole (+) methyl red (+) voges proskaver (-) and citrate (-)
Detection of salmonella was performed by centrifuging 100 ml of the water sample so that
the salmonella could be captured in the sediment. Fifty ml of the supernatant were poured
off and the remaining portion pre-enriched for 24 hours at 37oC using peptone water to allow
multiplication of Salmonella. The pre-enrichment was followed by selective enrichment with
Tetrathionate broth at a ratio of 1:9 for 24 hrs at 37oC and incubated at 43oC for 24 hours. The
enriched cultures were streaked onto selective media (Xylose Lysine desoxycholate (XLD))
agar and incubated at 37oC for 24-48 hrs and examined for typical salmonella colonies.
116
Salmonella colonies were expected to appear as large sized and completely black colonies.
The suspected colonies of salmonella were sub-cultured to get pure cultures which were
further confirmed using Urease, Tripple Sugar Iron (TSI) and citrate tests after stabbing the
butt and streaking slant and incubating at 37oC for 24 hrs. Samonella in TSI culture typically
produced alkaline (red) slant and acid (yellow) but with production of H2SO2 (Blackening).
The citrate test was done by inoculating the Salmonella colony from the pure culture into
citrate agar by making a straight stab and incubated at 37oC for 24 hrs. The medium changed
from green to blue colour for a positive test. The results were recorded as either present or
absent.
The detection of Vibrio spp particularly V. cholerae was done by centrifuging 100 ml of the
water sample and enrichment of the 50 ml of the sediment using alkaline peptone water for 8
hours at 37oC. The cultures from each of the enrichment media were plated on Thiosulphate
– citrate-bile salts-sucrose (TCBS) agar. The typical suspect colonies of Vibrio were picked
and inoculated in TSI agar and Lysine Iron agar (LI) at 37oC for 24 hours. Cultures that
showed acid slants (yellow) in TSI agar and alkaline slants (purple) and alkali or neutral butts
in LI agar were further examined by inoculation on 1% Tryptone broth with and without 3%
sodium chloride and incubated at 37oC for 24 hours. The microorganisms growing in the
3% sodium chloride medium were considered to be V. cholera. The results were recorded as
either present or absent.
The microbiological quality of fish was assessed for the same organisms as described above.
Samples were appropriately processed and different parts of the fish, namely surface washings,
gills and intestines were analysed for microbial load and contamination with potential human
pathogens in particular Salmonella spp and Vibrio spp.
Fish Pathology
Pathological examination was carried out in fish samples that were collected in Kisumu, Suba
and Homabay in Kenya. A total of 80 fish were examined from Dunga Beach in Kisumu (21),
Suba (15) and Homa bay (44). All fish were examined thoroughly for gross changes at the
site of sampling and tissues collected for histology and endoparasites; and blood prepared and
fixed for haemoparasites using standard protocols (Roberts, 2001).
Data analysis
Data were entered into Microsoft Excel and later imported into GraphPad PrismR version
3.02 for Windows for statistical analyses in order to determine differences in bacterial load
between the different sampling sites. Bacterial counts were transformed into log10 cfu/ml for
water samples or cfu/g for fish. Differences in the means of triplicate counts for each of the
three samples were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Categorical data
were reported in proportions and compared using Chi-Squared test. Significant differences
were tested at p≤ 0.05 in all the statistical analyses.
117
Survey of key informants

Interviews revealed that the major sources of pollutants entering Lake Victoria through
Mwanza were from industrial and agricultural activities that discharged effluents directly into
the lake, or rivers and tributaries that drained into the lake. Unplanned residential settlements
with poor sanitation were major sources of faecal discharges and other domestic wastes into
the lake. Garages that do not have interceptors directly discharged contaminated materials
that were washed by rainfall/surface runoff into the rivers or lake. Solid and liquid hospital
wastes were disposed directly and indirectly into the lake and rivers. Chlorinated compounds
from industries, garages, refrigerators as well as the other chemicals from hair saloons such
as mercury containing make-ups and cosmetics also polluted the lake.
Low production of fish particularly Nile tilapia and reduced diversity of fish species in Lake
Victoria has been attributed to pollution and over fishing due to increased number of fishermen
and fishing gears. Use of illegal fishing nets, pesticides in particular Endosulfan and other
chemicals also reduced fish abundance and diversity. Respondents had little knowledge of
use of contraceptives as sources of pollutants and microbial pathogens.
In Uganda, major constituents of wastes observed at the landing sites and around residential
areas were polythene bags, and agricultural, animal, industrial and medical wastes. Among the
most likely sources of endocrine disruptors were human waste (fecal), agricultural and animal
waste and soiled sanitary pads and contraceptive pills. The observation of contraceptive pills
among the wastes was noted as a matter serious concern with potential to cause endocrine
disruption in fish once they are improperly disposed.
The changes observed on the lake, fish catch and fish were diverse and did not differ among
participants and respondents. Most of the changes reported were change of water colour to
green. Abnormalities in fish included wounds, fish without eyes; some unique growths on
fish and change of colour of fish from dark to pale were the most reported abnormalities. A
significant reduction in the fish catch was also reported. All these changes were reported to
have been noticed in the last three to five years and the situation was reported to be worsening.
This period coincided with increase in the number of factories around the lake and growth
in human population at the landing sites. In many respects, the local community has some
knowledge about the problems resulting from waste disposal in the lake and its effects on
them.
The effect and severity of pollutants on humans was reported in terms of itching of the body,
bilharzia and diarrhea. The local community needs to be involved in addressing the problem of
lake pollution and should participate in planning the interventions to enhance the productivity
of fish in Lake Victoria and improvement of the Lake’s health.
In Kenya, the lake water was observed to be green due to pollution emanating from Kisumu,
Homabay and Suba districts. In contrast, the lake water was clear in Suba (Sindo and Ngeri
village), a possible indication of less pollution or too toxic water. In Ngeri village in Kaksingiri,
there are no industries but there are scattered households on the slopes surrounding the bay.
There are several fish beaches/ landing sites in the area. Fishing is done in the waters near
118
the beaches with nets and lines. Fish predators seen by researchers and those reported by
the local community are fish eagle, king fisher, egrets, cormonants, ibis, hammercock and
otter. Water near the lake shore appeared to have more Nile perch than tilapia and there was
a heavy demand for fish in the area. There was no complain about availability of fish and
the Beach Management Unit (BMU) was functional. Some die-offs were reported in Remba
island every July possibly due to volcanic activities (Rock becomes very hot). In Sindo area
where the fish industry was active, dry fish waste was deposited into the lake, and flash waters
transported pollutants from adjacent agricultural lands planted with maize and fruit trees
during the rainy season and deposited them in the lake. In this area, many Omena (sardines)
harboured tapeworms (Ligula spp). Tilapias with blocked, swollen and full urinary bladders
were common in fish from Ngeri/ Sindo area possibly due to pollution, endocrine disruptors
and parasites. A number of tilapia had pale livers that indicated presence of fats, degeneration
or general impact of pollution.
Pollution was evident during the study as people were openly bathing, washing utensils,
clothes, vehicles and bicycles in the lake. Droppings from cattle, goats, pigs, dogs, cats,
chicken, ducks and various piscivorous birds (hammercock, kingfisher, cormonants, egrets,
ibis, marabou stocks) were discharged directly into the lake. Evisceration of fish and dumping
of offal back into the lake were common. Cleaning of eviscerated fish in the lake was also
a common practice. Local people reported that dead fish with pale gills and deformed eyes
were brought by some fishermen who were possibly using non-convectional fishing methods.
Microbial contamination and fish infection studies

Analysis of water samples that were collected from selected fish landing sites in Mwanza,
showed that 78.6%, 35.7% and 85.7% of the samples were positive for TCC, TFC and TVC
respectively (Table 1). The viable counts decreased from total coliforms to total faecal
coliform. Previous studies in the same area (Mwanza gulf) reported similar results. The fishing
grounds had remarkable bacterial counts in sediments and whole Nile perch guts while lake
water counts were close to detection limits i.e. 0-20cfu/ml (Mhongole, 2009). Although in
the same study Salmonella and Vibrios spp were detected each at 5% in Nile perch and lake
water sample respectively, such pathogens as well as Cryptosporidia and Giardia were not
detected in this study. Given that untreated domestic and industrial wastes were released
directly into the lake, it can be concluded that point and non point sources of pollution are the
main sources of microbial contamination of Lake Victoria’s fish and water.
Table 1: Microbial contamination of water samples (n = 14) collected at various fish

landing sites in Mwanza
Parameter TCC TFC TVC
Positive samples (%) 78.6 35.7 85.7
Mean (cfu/ml) 2.5 2.7 3.7
Standard deviation (cfu/ml) 0.7 0.5 1.2
Median (cfu/ml) 2.2 2.5 3.8
Mode (cfu/ml) 2 2.5 3
Range (cfu/ml) 1.6 - 4 2.3 – 3.6 1 – 5.9
Total number of positive samples (n) 11 5 12
TCC = Total coliform count TFC = Total faecal coliform TVC = Total viable count
119
cfu = Log transformed Colony Forming Unit
Figure 1 shows the extent of microbial contamination in fish collected from different landing
sites in Mwanza city. Overall, the findings demonstrate high surface and gill contamination by
E. coli and Staphylococcus spp. Faecal pollution in water and handling of fish by fishermen as
well as placing fish on contaminated landing sites were the possible sources of contamination
observed.
Figure 1: Microbial contamination of fish in Mwanza.

Microbial analysis showed that in Jinja, from, there was no significant difference in the
microbial counts at the different sampling times (P > 0.05). Furthermore, there was no
significant difference between the counts from the different sites for each category (APC,
total coliforms, and E. coli) of counts except for the sites that experienced limited human
activities. Salmonella spp were detected in only three samples obtained from Kakira drainage
site, National Water and Sewerage Corporation treatment plant drainage, and Masese stone
quarry drainage site. No Vibrio spp were detected.
The average counts for all the microbial categories in the shore line samples were significantly
higher (P<0.05) than the offshore samples in all cases. These findings indicate dilution of the
pollutants along the gradient. However, the dilution effect did not completely eliminate the
organisms with increasing distance from the shoreline. Coliforms were also found in all the
samples albeit with no significant differences among and between the sites. A significant
percentage of these were E. coli indicating a possibility of fecal contamination. Therefore,
there could have been co-pollution with other fecal-route pollutants such as endocrine
disruptors (EDs) from human or agricultural activities hence the motivation for this study.
The bacterial counts from all the sites were higher than expected of good quality water for
fish production. Although the E. coli count was significantly diluted offshore, the levels along
the shore were above the acceptable levels on average and this is of major concern. There
were also clear differences between the various sites ranging from the highest to the lowest
counts (Table 2).
Table 3 shows the microbial counts in fish were higher than what was detected in the water
for all microbial categories assessed and, as was expected, there was a decrease in numbers
120
from the total bacterial counts to total coliforms and E. coli. Salmonella spp were detected in
surface washings and gills of one fish (3.8 %) while it was detected only in the intestines of
two of the fish (7.7%). Although no Vibrio spp were detected in all the fish samples and water
samples, the presence of the salmonella spp among the fish and water samples indicates that
some of the fish are contaminated with potential pathogens of public health significance and
measures are needed to curtail transmission to humans. In addition, it also indicates the risk
of potential contamination with Vibrio in case of an outbreak.
Table 2: Comparison of average counts with ranges and standard deviation for water
quality assessment of triplicate sampling for offshore and shoreline
Shoreline Offshore (150 m offshore)
APC T. coli E. coli APC T. coli E. coli
Average 4.9 x 10 8
6.1 x 10 6
2.0 x 10 4
2.4 x 105
8.4 x 10 3
9.0 x 10-3
Maximum 1.2 x 109 2.1 x 107 1.5 x 105 8.1 x 105 4.2 x 104 1.0 x 10-1
Minimum 1.3 x 106 5.9 x 104 1.0 x 10-7 4.1 x 103 6.1 x 100 0.0 x 100
St. Dev. 3.6 x 108 6.7 x 106 4.2 x 104 2.1 x 105 1.2 x 104 2.8 x 10-2
Table 3: Bacterial counts for fish samples at Masese landing site in Uganda (average log 10
cfu/ml for surface washings and cfu/g for gills and intestines of triplicate counts)
Part of fish APC T. coli E. coli

Surface washings 8.6 6.5 4.0
Gills 9.2 7.0 4.7
Intestines 9.1 6.9 4.4
Average 3.4 x 10 9
2.2 x 10 8
3.0 x 106
Maximum 4.3 x 109 2.8 x 108 5.2 x 106
Minimum 2.2 x 109 1.3 x 108 1.0 x 106
St Dev. 1.1 x 109 7.6 x 107 2.1 x 106
The counts in fish were far beyond the acceptable levels, thus revealing the extent of
contamination and particularly very high E. coli levels beyond the acceptable limits. This
further indicates the potential of contamination of fish with fecal matter that may also carry
other chemicals such as EDs as a result of human or agricultural use of these materials and
discharge into the lake. It is anticipated the analysis of the EDS and their effects on fish will
greatly elucidate this further and shed more light on the importance of pollution control as
one of the strategies for improving fish production in Lake Victoria.
Pathological findings in fish

The gross lesions observed in Oreochromis niloticus showed that the fish had hyperemia,
wounds, ulcers on the lateral side of the body, opacity and no eyes, liver lesions, cystic
bladder, skeletal deformities, atrophied testicles and kidney, degenerated ovaries, clear cysts
in the testis, and change of colour of fish from dark to pale (Table 4). These lesions can be
caused by variable aetiologies, including pollutants thus calling for further studies.
121
Table 4: Type of lesions observed in the fish samples

Pathological lesions Number of fish with lesions
Hyperemia on the various parts of the body 7
Pale liver 2
Liver yellowish-white in color and friable 1
Grey spot on the liver 2
Hemorrhages on the surface of the liver 5
Liver dark red in color 1
Bile imbibitions in the liver 1
Cystic bladder 2
Hyperemia of the gills 1
Atrophied testicles and kidney 2
Opacity in the eye 6
Hemorrhages in the eye 3
Degenerated ovaries 3
Petechiae hemorrhages on the testis 4
Hemorrhages on the intestines 1
Grey patches on the stomach 3
Clear cysts in the testis 2
Dorsal fin starts from the middle of the back 1
Ulcers on the lateral side of the body 2
Fish parasites
Overall, the prevalence of parasite infection was 10% (n=80). Based on geographical
distribution, the prevalence of parasite infection was 29% (n=21) in Dunga (Kisumu), and
4% (n=59) in fish sampled from Suba and Homa Bay. The parasites observed included
Procamallanus laevionchus, Camallanus, Acanthocephala and unidentified nematode. Few
haemoparasites, in particular Trypanosome spp, were also observed. Although all these
parasites have been well documented (Stskopf, 1993), limited information is available for
fish in Lake Victoria that also calls for further studies.
Conclusions
The findings of this study have confirmed similar status of pollution in Mwanza, Kisumu
(Homabay and Suba) and Jinja in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda respectively. Among pollutants
reported and observed, some have the potential to cause endocrine disruption in fish and
eventually impact on their productivity. These pollutants originate from point and non-point
sources. Microbiological and pathological studies have provided findings that demonstrate:
i. The presence of microbial pathogens on the landing sites, water and fish.
ii. Contamination and infection of fish as well as pathological changes in fish.
The significance of these factors on progressive reduction of fish population and diversity in
Lake Victoria need further studies.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge for the financial support from VicRes, logistical support from the
VicRes secretariat and management of the participating universities, National Institute for
Medical Research in Tanzania and cooperation from various stakeholders in Mwanza, Jinja
and Kisumu (Homabay and Suba). Permission to carry out this study in Mwanza was granted
by the National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR) Ref. NIMR/HQ/R.8a/Vol.IX/713.
122
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123
Commonly utilized feed ingredients for culture of Nile tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus L.) and African catfish (Clarias gariepinus
Burchell) in Kenya, Tanzania and Rwanda
Munguti, J., 1Charo-Karisa, H., 1Opiyo, M.A. 2Marijani, E. and 3Nzayisenga, L.

1
1
KMFRI , National Aquaculture Research, Development & Training Center, P.O Box 26
Sagana, Kenya
2
Tanzania Women Association Against Poverty (TWAAP), P.O. Box 106216 Ilala
District, Dar es Salam, Tanzania
3
National University of Rwanda School for foundation of language skills, P.O Box 117
Huye, Rwanda
Abstract
Commonly utilized feed ingredients for culture of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and
Africa catfish (Clarias gariepinus) mainly from agricultural by-products were sampled in
Kenya, Tanzania and Rwanda. Proximate analysis was performed on 30 samples of both
animal and plant origin to test the potential nutritive value for O. niloticus and C. gariepinus
culture. Based on their utilization, availability, potential competition with other uses, content
of protein and fibre and the feasibility of removal of anti-nutritional factors, freshwater
shrimps, blood and bone meal, gallant soldier, feather meal, leaves of sweet potatoes
(Ipomoea batatus), cassava (Manihot esculenta) and Papaya (Papaya carica) were identified
as most promising potential feedstuffs. In addition, different seed cakes and cereal bran may
be utilized.
Key words: Tilapia, catfish, nutritive value, fish feed, by-product,
Introduction
Aquaculture in East Africa, like many other sub-Saharan countries in Africa, is under-
developed and contributes less than 1% to global aquaculture production (FAO, 2007). The
cost of fish feeds is one of the key factors limiting aquaculture development in the region.
Protein is the most expensive component in fish feeds and traditionally fishmeal has been the
main source of animal protein in fish feeds. Fishmeal is the most preferred due to balanced
amino acid profiles (Tacon, 1993; Tacon and Jackson, 1985; Alceste and Jory, 2000; EL-Saidy
and Gaber, 2004). However, fishmeal has continuously experienced fluctuating prices and
competition from other animal feed manufacturers thus affecting aquaculture feed production
and profitability (Watanabe, 1988; Watanabe and Pongmaneerat, 1991; Lim and Dominay,
1990). As a result, a lot of effort has been focused on feed alternatives to fishmeal both from
plant and animal protein sources worldwide (EL-Sayed, 1998; Fasakin et al., 1999; Hossain
et al., 2002). In order to enhance fish farming yields, improve food security, reduce the level
of poverty in developing countries and create employment, a search for cheap and locally
available feedstuffs is desirable.
124
The Eastern Africa region has many agro-industrial by-products from agricultural processing,
which are usually not utilized for human consumption, but may have a high potential in
tilapia and catfish feeds. African catfish (C. gariepinus) and Nile tilapia, (O. niloticus) are
the most commercially important species among the farmed fish in the East African countries
(Pullin, 1988; Moriarty, 1973; Getachew, 1987; Diana et al., 1991). Although most of these
agro-industrial by-products have been evaluated for inclusion in poultry and livestock feeds
(Gomez, 1982; Lawrence and Mugerwa, 1974; Ledger and Tillman, 1972; Jackson and
Fulton, 1971; Baustad, 1974), only a few have been evaluated for their potential as fish feeds
(Waidbacher et al., 2006; Liti et al., 2005; Maina et al., 2002; Liti et al., 2006). Development
of a feed for fish production involves evaluation of proximate composition, digestibility and
performance efficiency as well as cost implications and conditions of application.
The current study was undertaken to determine the feeds that the farmers are currently utilizing
for C. garieinus and O. niloticus in Kenya, Rwanda and Tanzania as well as the nutritive
value. Data from the current study are expected to form a basis for further evaluation of the
effects of selected feed components on digestibility and fish growth in the three countries. It
is anticipated that value addition of the already utilized fish feeds in the East African region
will be a major contribution towards production of quality fish feed, cutting fish feed cost and
improving the returns from fish farming in the region.
Study area
The feed ingredients were collected two sites in Kenya, Tanzania and Rwanda (Figure 1)
from January to June 2010.
Figure 1. Map of Lake Victoria basin showing the collection sites of ingredients
Key: (A) Bidii - Luanda region; (B) Bigege - Kisii region; (C) Ukerewe island; (D) Magu Mwanza
region ; (E) Kigembe Gisakara - Butare region; (F) Kicukiro-Kigali region
125
Proximate Analysis of the Ingredients
Samples of feed ingredients were analyzed at National Aquaculture Research, Development

& Trainning Center (0° 39’S and 37° 12’E; at 1230 m above mean sea level). The ingredients
were sun-dried and ground to coarse particles using a blender liquidizer (model A989,
Hampshire, UK) and later into finer particles using an electric grinder fitted with a 1 mm
sieve (Thomas-Wiley intermediate mill, 3348-L10 series, USA) and then dried in an oven to
a constant weight at 60 oC. Crude protein, crude fibre, ether extracts, ash and moisture content
were analyzed in triplicates following the procedure by AOAC (1995). Dry matter (DM) was
determined by drying 5 grams of sample in an oven for six hours to constant weight at 105 °C.
Crude protein was quantified by the standard micro-Kjeldahl Nitrogen method, using a
sample size of 0.4 g, a Behroset InKje M digestion apparatus and a Behr S 1 steam distillation
apparatus (both: Labor-Technik GmbH, Düsseldorf, Germany). The distillate containing
ammonia was trapped in 4 % boric acid solution prior to titration with 0.1N HCl. Crude
protein was estimated by multiplying the nitrogen content with a factor of 6.25. Ether extracts
were analyzed using a sample size of 2 g in a Soxhlet extractor with petroleum ether (boiling
point 40–60 °C). Crude fiber (CF) was determined by boiling 1 g of sample in a standard
solution of 3.13 % H2SO4 for 10 minutes. The remaining sample was rinsed with hot water
followed by boiling in 3.13 % NaOH for another 10 minutes. Thereafter the remaining sample
was rinsed repeatedly with hot water followed by acetone. The residue was oven dried at 60
°C for 4 hours, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The residue was ashed at 550 °C in a
muffle furnace overnight. CF was quantified by expressing the loss in weight after ashing as
a percentage of the original weight of the sample. Nitrogen Free Extracts were estimated by
difference (DM-CP-EE-CF-Ash). The type of sample and some basic information on their
availability are summarized in Table 2.
Proximate Analyses of Feed Ingredients from Kenya, Tanzania and Rwanda
Feed ingredients and status of their availability is presented in Table 1. Most of the feeds were
found in all countries except a few that were specific to one or two countries. Apart from the
feeds that were being used by the farmers a few other feed stuff found in abundance in the
study sites such as water fern and water hyacinth were also collected for proximate analysis
for future use. The results of proximate analysis of the different feed ingredients are given in
Table 2.
126
Table 1: Commonly utilized feed ingredients in Kenya, Tanzania and Rwanda
Ingredient Country
Kenya Rwanda Tanzania
Cost US Cost Cost
Availability Availability Occurrence
$/kg US $/kg US $
Fish meal (Rastrineobola argentea) 0.76 0.40
Shrimp (Caridina nilotica) meal 0.5 0.40
Cow (Bos taurus) Blood meal 0.00 0.35
Cow (Bos taurus) offals 0.88
Cow (Bos taurus) Bone Meal 0.63
Cassava (Manihot esculenta)
Na Na Na
leaves
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) flour 0.07
Premix
Soya bean (Glycine max) flour 0.70
Rice (Oryza sativa) bran 0.08 0.09 0.09
Rice (Oryza sativa) polishing 0.16
Maize (Zea mays) bran 0.25 0.44 0.14
Wheat (Triticum aestivum) bran 0.08 0.53 0.00
Wheat (Triticum aestivum)
0.15
pollard
Maize (Zea mays) corn glutten 0.78
Arrow root (Maranta
Na Na Na
arundinacea)leaves
Sweet Potatoe (Ipomoea batatus)
Na Na Na
leaves
Banana (Musa paradisiaca)
Na
leaves
Papaya (Carica papaya) Na Na Na
Mchicha (Amaranthus blitum) Na Na Na
Galant soldier (Galinsoga
Na
parviflora)
Avocado (Persea americana) Na Na Na
Lucerne (Chamaecytisus
Na Na Na
palmensis)
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus)
0.19 0.12
seed cake
Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) cake 0.15
Cotton (Gossypium spp) seed
0.23 1.72
cake
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea) Na 0.09 0.40
Concentrate 0.35
Kitchen wastes Na
Na = Not applicable; the feedstuff may be sourced off farm, off field or the household at no defined
cost
127
Table 2: Proximate composition of different feed ingredients analysed in Kenya, ( x ±s)

Product n *DM CP EE CF NfE Ash
g/kg g/kg DM
Fish meal(Rastrineobola
879±0.6 551±1.7 187±1.5 13±0.6 68±1.0 182±1.5
argentea)
Shrimp (Caridina nilotica) meal 877±1.7 635±3.3 13±1.3 50±1.8 67±2.1 228±2.5
Maize (Zea mays) bran 8 894±3.0 118±4.6 107±2.7 55±0.7 349±3.5 29±1.3
Wheat (Triticum aestivum) bran 8 882±1.6 171±6.2 58±2.3 127±2.3 582±6.9 60±2.6
Rice (Oryza sativa) bran 5 923±4.2 70±3.8 41±1.6 309±2.4 349±3.5 229±2.2
Arrow root (Maranta
6 903±2.6 335±1.0 85±1.5 106±4.6 381±2.1 93±2.3
arundinacea)leaves
Banana (Musa paradisiaca) peel 5 901±2.1 72±1.7 79±1.3 113±2.6 627±1.7 109±2.8
Banana (Musa paradisiaca) )
7 926±1.0 100±1.8 50±2.2 441±1.7 205±3.5 205±4.5
stem
6 899±1.0 170±1.8 127±1.4 241±01.8 337±1.3 124±3.6
leaves
Cotton (Gossypium spp) seed
5 892±2.0 388±7.2 107±1.0 249±4.5 192±2.6 63±4.6
cake
Sunflower(Helianthus annuus)
5 929±0.4 259±0.1 54±0.8 368±0.2 266±0.8 51±0.1
seed cake
Cassava (Manihot esculenta)
5 919±3.6 308±4.8 86±4.1 156±4.0 368±2.1 82±5.2
leaves
Papaya (Carica papaya)peel 6 839±1.3 179±2.4 18±3.1 194±2.2 456±4.0 154±03.4
Papaya (Carica papaya) leaves 7 903±2.9 282±5.0 105±2.5 130±1.3 329±3.3 154±1.2
Papaya (Carica papaya)seed
4 945±1.7 264±21 316±1.3 119±1.0 203±1.6 98±1.3
meal
Sweet potatoe (Ipomoea batatus)
5 892±1.6 353±3.6 43±3.7 105±3.6 388±1.1 104±3.6
leaves
Water fern, (Salvinia auriculata)
6 888±2.4 232±1.9 49±0.8 302±3.6 239±1.3 179±3.4
whole
Mango (Mangifera indica)seed
2 907±1.4 70±0.7 97±1.4 37±0.7 771±2.1 24±1.4
embryo
Coffee (Coffea arabica) husks 4 893±1.9 47±1.8 36±0.6 383±2.6 418±3.6 115±2.8
Cotton (Gossypium spp) husks 3 906±4.9 173±4.4 55±1.0 587±1.5 153±1.5 36±0.6
Brewery by-product 6 919±1.9 264±0.3 291±0.1 158 ±0.6 221±0.5 66±0.4
128
Tilapia (Oreochromis Spp) fillet

7 916±1.4 580±1.7 181± 1.5 67±1.7 75±1.7 97±1.4
remains
Catfish (Clarias gariepinus)
6 923±2.5 570±2.4 192 ±2.3 73±2.4 96±2.4 69±2.2
fillet remain
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)
4 948±1.2 461±1.6 165±1.5 109±1.4 224±1.5 41±1.2
beetle
*DM=Dry matter, CP=Crude Protein, EE=Ether Extracts, CF= Crude Fibre, NfE=N-free Extracts.
Most of the feed ingredients analyzed were found in all countries except a few which were
specific to one or two countries, the protein content of feed ingredients from animal origin
was higher than that of plant origin in all the three countries. Nevertheless, the costs of feed
ingredients from animal origin are generally high and are unlikely to be economically viable
for semi-intensive O. niloticus and C. gariepinus culture. Freshwater shrimp meal (FSM)
was present in Kenya and Tanzania and it had the highest CP (Table 2, 3), which was within
the range of 490–740 g/kg DM as reported by Jauncey & Ross (1982). Although FSM has a
high potential for inclusion in fish feeds because it is not used as human food, it has several
limitations. In previous studies, Liti et al. (2005) reported higher costs of fish feed production
with diets containing FSM compared to those containing all plant protein ingredients. In
addition, FSM is often scarce in the Kenyan market due to seasonal closures of the Omena
(R. argentea) fishery in Lake Victoria, in which FSM is a by-product. Furthermore, there is
stiff competition from other feed industries such as the poultry and dairy feed industry. These
limitations make FSM a less competitive ingredient in fish feed production. The protein
content of R. argentea is high (Table 3), and is a suitable source of dietary protein in fish
feeds. However, R. argentea is directly used as human food and thus inclusion in fish feeds
might imply direct competition with the ultimate target. This, coupled with cost implications,
reduces its feasibility for utilization in semi intensive pond production systems.
129
Table 3: Proximate composition of different feed ingredients analysed in Tanzania ( x ±s)

DM=Dry matter, CP=Crude Protein, EE=Ether Extracts, CF= Crude Fibre, NfE=N-free Extracts.

g/kg g/kg DM
Fish meal(Rastrineobola
9 892±1.7 551±1.7 187±1.5 13±0.6 67±1.0 182±1.5
argentea)
Fresh water shrimp
8 877±1.7 635±3.3 13±1.3 50±1.8 74±2.1 228±2.5
(Caridina nilotica) meal
Cow (Bos taurus) Blood
9 908±1.6 420±1.5 18±1.6 11±1.5 453±1.7 98±1.7
meal
Cow (Bos taurus) 0ffals 8 912±1.8 409±1.9 98±1.6 88±1.6 310±1.6 95±1.6
Cassava (Manihot
9 912±4.7 286±4.8 84±4.1 145±4. 388±2.1 97±5.2
esculenta) leaves
Cassava (Manihot
9 920±4.5 24±4.8 13±4.6 70±4.6 801±4.6 92±4.6
esculenta) flour
Maize(Zea mays) corn
9 913±3.0 550±4.6 187±2.7 89±0.7 62±3.5 112±1.3
glutten
Arrow root (Maranta
9 901±2.9 314±1.0 85±1.5 106±4.6 402±2.1 93±2.3
arundinacea)leaves
Sweet Potatoe (Ipomoea
8 897±1.6 334±3.6 48±3.7 116±36 389±1.1 113±3.6
batatus) leaves
Papaya (Carica papaya) 9 902±2.9 279±5.0 107±2.5 128±13 325±3.3 161±1.2

Mchicha (Amaranthus
8 891±1.6 359±3.6 53±3.7 107±36 384±1.1 97±3.6
blitum)
Avocado (Persea
9 903±2.9 182±5.0 405±2.5 130±13 159±3.3 124±1.2
americana)
9 898±1.7 329±2.6 56±3.7 112±36 388±1.1 107±3.6
palmensis)
Sunflower (Helianthus
8 929±0.4 259±0.1 54±0.8 368±02 268±0.8 51±0.1
annuus) seed cake
Cotton (Gossypium spp)
9 892±2.0 388±7.2 107±1.0 249±45 193±2.6 63±4.6
seed cake
Cabbage (Brassica
8 901±3.4 219±3.2 47±3.3 98±3.4 499±1.1 137±3.2
oleracea)
All plant leaves with the exception of banana leaves contained crude protein levels above 25 %
(Table 3, 4) and thus may have a high potential for inclusion in O. niloticus and C. gariepinus
feeds. However, no plant protein can on its own support good growth of fish due to deficiency
in at least one essential amino acid (Jauncey and Ross, 1982) their utilization may be feasible
in semi-intensive production systems, where autotrophic and heterotrophic food material may
130
supply the deficient amino acids (Rakocy and Mcginty, 1989; Li and Yakupitiyage, 2002).
Based on their proximate composition, leaf meals with exception of banana leaves have a
high potential for inclusion in O. niloticus and C, gariepinus feeds, as they all had protein
contents above 250 mg kg-1 feed, which was close to the value recommended for inclusion
in the grow out diets for O. niloticus (Santiago and Lovell, 1988). The suitability of these
feedstuffs for use in O. niloticus and C. gariepinus feeds is further made feasible by the
fact that with the exception of arrowroot, they grow well in low rainfall areas, which form
a greater portion of Kenya, Tanzania and Rwanda. Cassava, arrowroot and sweet potatoe
are tuber plants and their roots are commonly used as human food. Their leaves are rarely
consumed by human in East Africa region, and may be available for use in O. niloticus and C.
gariepinus feeds. Compared to values from previous research (Oyenuga,1969; ADCP, 1983;
ADCP, 1987; TAN, 1970, Nyina-wamwiza et al ., 2007; Hasan,and Chakrabarti, 2009), sweet
potato leaves registered higher CP levels than reported from other plant leaves (Table 5, 6, 7).
All the other feedstuffs were in the same range as shown from results from previous studies
(Table 5, 6, 7).
131
Table 4: Proximate composition of different feed ingredients analysed in Rwanda ( x ±s);

g/kg g/kg DM
Cow (Bos taurus) Blood meal 9 912±1.5 459±1.6 39±1.6 16±1.8 387±1.0 99±1.0
Cow (Bos taurus) offals 8 909±1.6 407±1.7 98±1.6 98±1.4 300±1.0 97±1.6
Rice (Oryza sativa) bran 9 921±4.3 75±3.7 45±2.5 311±2.4 338±1.0 231±2.4
Wheat (Triticum aestivum)
9 888±1.7 178±6.2 67±2.3 122±2.3 563±1.0 70±2.6
bran
Arrow root (Maranta
9 905±2.7 322±1.3 83±1.5 109±4.6 389±1.0 97±2.3
arundinacea)leaves
Sweet Potatoe (Ipomoea
8 895±1.8 359±3.8 53±3.8 112±3.4 372±1.0 104±3.6
batatus) leaves
9 899±1.0 170±1.8 127±1.4 241±1.8 338±1.0 124±3.6
leaves
Papaya (Carica papaya)
9 903±2.9 282±5.0 105±2.5 130±1.3 329±1.0 154±1.2
leaves
Mchicha (Amaranthus blitum) 8 891±1.6 359±3.6 53±3.7 107±36 384±1.0 97±3.6
Avocado (Persea americana) 8 903±2.9 182±5.0 405±2.5 130±1.3 159±1.0 124±1.2
8 898±1.7 329±2.6 56±3.7 112±3.6 396±1.0 107±3.6
palmensis)
Peanut (Arachis hypogaea)
8 921±1.4 229±0.1 94±0.8 68±0.2 547±1.0 62±0.1
cake
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea) 9 900±2.3 211±3.3 57±3.3 98±3.4 497±1.0 137±3.2
Kitchen wastes 9 865±2.1 189±2.2 86±1.4 142±1.4 462±1.0 121±1.2

132
Table 5: Comparison of nutritive levels of common selected animal and plant by-products of
the current and previous studies (ADCP, 1983; 1987), Oyenuga (1969); Nyina-Wamwiza et
al. (2007); Hasan & Chakrabarti (2009) Senthilkumar et al. (2010) Kenya
Product *DM CP EE CF NfE Ash

g/kg g/kg DM
Fish meal (Rastrineobola argentea)
Current study 879 551 187 13 68 182
Fresh water shrimp (Caridina nilotica) meal
Current study 903 335 85 106 381 93
India - 455 - - - 221-
Madagascar - 736 66 - - 186-
Malaysia 795 455 21 400 - 124
Maize (Zae mays) bran
Current study 894 118 107 55 349 29
Tanzania 890 106 48 13 19 814
Thailand 880 109 50 34 29 768
Wheat (Triticum eastivum) bran
Current study 882 171 58 127 582 60
Tanzania 876 169 38 64 113 616
India - 128 31 86 - 45
Malaysia 881 188 46 54 97 616
India 907 139 83 46 131 601
Rice (Oryza sativa) bran
Current study 923 70 41 309 349 229
India 913 137 54 181 488 181
Thailand 886 174 27 104 509 106
Malaysia 899 109 108 136 454 136
Arrow root (Maranta arundinacea)leaves
Current study 903 335 85 106 381 93
Banana(Musa paradisiaca) peel
Current study 901 72 79 113 627 109
Nigeria 141 79 - - - 134
Banana (Musa paradisiaca) stem
Current study 926 100 50 441 205 205
Banana leaves
Current study 899 170 127 241 337 124
Cotton (Gossyium spp) seed cake
Current study 892 388 107 249 192 63
Egypt 879 264 57 66 242 371
USA 989 461 7 71 151 310
Israel 923 477 54 66 125 278
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) cake
Current study 929 259 54 368 266 51
Uganda 910 341 143 132 318 66
Rwanda 918 269 - 69 - .0
Nigeria - 411 - - - -
China - 316 89 24 - 64
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) leaves
133
Current study 919 308 86 156 368 82

Nigeria 256 147 - - 161
Papaya(Carica papaya) leaves
Current study 903 282 105 130 329 154
Nigeria 184 91 56 - - 172
Sweet potatoe (Ipomoea batatus) leaves
Current study 892 353 43 105 388 104
Israel 892 194 37 259 105 408
Malaysia 913 188 23 113 188 488
Trinidad 877 219 34 150 180 417
Nigeria 946 28.55 - - - 475
Water fern(Salvinia auriculata)whole
Current study 888 232 49 302 239 179
India - 116 28 204 469 183
Cotton (Gossyium spp) husks
Current study 878 638 12 179 51 120
Brewery by-product
Current study - 455 - - - 221-
India 291 243 52 196 451 58
Tilapia (Oreochromis Spp) fillet remains
Current study - 736 66 - - 186-
Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) fillet remain
Current study 795 455 21 400 - 124
Table 6: Comparison of nutritive levels of common selected animal and plant by-products
of the current and previous studies (ADCP, 1983; 1987), Oyenuga (1969); Nyina-Wamwiza
et al (2007); Hasan & Chakrabarti, (2009); Imram et al. (2009) Tanzania

g/kg g/kg DM
Fish meal (Rastrineobola argentea)
Current study 892 551 187 13 67 182
Kenya 879 551 187 13 68 182
Rwanda 921 652 - 151 - 115
Fresh water shrimp (Caridina nilotica)
Current study 877 635 13 50 74 228
Kenya 903 335 85 106 381 93
India - 455 - - - 221-
Madagascar - 736 66 - - 186-
Malaysia 795 455 21 400 - 124
Cow (Bos taurus) Blood meal
Current study 908 420 18 11 453 98
Rwanda 256 147 - - 161
China - 735 04 - - 58
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) leaves
Current study 912 286 84 145 388 97
Nigeria 256 147 - - - 161
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) flour
Current study 920 24 13 70 801 92
134
Nigeria 319 24 - - - 29
Current study 894 118 107 155 591 29
Kenya 890 106 48 13 19 814
Thailand 880 109 50 34 768 29
Maize (Zae mays) corn glutten
Current study 913 550 187 89 62 112
China 921 466 - - - 99
Arrow root (Maranta arundinacea)leaves
Current study 901 314 85 106 402 93
Kenya 903 335 85 106 381 93
Papaya (Carica papaya) leaves
Current study 902 279 107 128 325 161
Kenya 903 282 105 130 329 154
Nigeria 184 91 56 - - 172
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) cake
Current study 929 259 54 368 268 51
Uganda 910 341 143 132 318 66
Rwanda 918 269 - 69 - .0
Nigeria - 411 - - - -
China - 316 89 24 - 64
Cotton (Gossyium spp) seed cake
Current study 892 388 107 249 193 63
Egypt 879 264 57 66 242 371
USA 989 461 7 71 151 310
Israel 923 477 54 66 125 278
Nigeria 946 28.55 - - - 475
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea)
Current study 901 219 47 98 499 137
Nigeria 948 200 - 20 - 20
*DM=Dry matter, CP=Crude Protein, EE=Ether Extracts, CF= Crude Fibre, NfE= N-free Extracts,
Table 7: Comparison of nutritive levels of common selected animal and plant by-products
of the current and previous studies (ADCP, 1983; 1987), Oyenuga (1969); Al–Ruqaie,
(2007); Nyina-Wamwiza et al (2007) ;Hasan & Chakrabarti (2009); Yang et al. (2009)
Imram et al. (2009) Rwanda

g/kg g/kg DM
Cow (Bos taurus) blood meal
Current study 912 459 39 16 387 99
Rwanda 256 147 - - 161
China - 735 04 - - 58
Rice (Oryza sativa) bran
Current study 921 75 45 311 338 231
India 913 137 54 181 488 181
Thailand 886 174 27 104 509 106
Malaysia 899 109 108 136 454 136
Current study 899 120 109 155 584 32
Tanzania 890 106 48 13 19 814
Thailand 880 109 50 34 29 768
135
Wheat (Triticum eastivum) bran

Current study 888 178 67 122 563 70
Tanzania 876 169 38 64 113 616
Kenya 882 171 58 127 582 60
India 907 139 83 46 131 601
Malaysia 881 188 46 54 97 616
Arrow root (Maranta arundinacea) leaves
Current study 905 322 83 109 389 97
Kenya 903 335 85 106 381 93
Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatus) leaves
Current study 895 359 53 112 372 104
Kenya 892 353 43 105 388 104
Israel 892 194 37 259 105 408
Malaysia 913 188 23 113 188 488
Trinidad 877 219 34 150 180 417
Banana (Musa paradisiaca) leaves
Current study 899 170 127 241 338 124
Kenya 899 170 127 241 337 124
Papaya (Carica papaya) leaves
Current study 903± 282 105 130 329 154
Kenya 903 282 105 130 329 154
Nigeria 184 91 56 - - 172
Mchicha (Amaranthus blitum)
Current study 891 359 53 107 384 97
Avocado (Persea americana)
Current study 903 182 405 130 159 124
Lucerne (Chamaecytisus palmensis)
Current study 898 329 56 112 396 107
India - 245 26 162 410 157
Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) cake
Current study 921 229 94 68 547 62
Nigeria 904 514 104 45 30 35
China 911 483 - - - 117
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea)
Current study 900 211 57 98 497 137
Nigeria 948 200 - 20 - 20
Kitchen wastes
Current study 865 189 86 142 462 121
Saudi Arabia 951 338 - 40 503 25
*DM=Dry matter, CP=Crude Protein, EE=Ether Extracts, CF= Crude Fibre, NfE= N-free
Extracts,
136
Several of the agricultural by-products studied are likely to contain components which may
affect their nutritive value. In the case of cassava, a toxic component known as Linamarin has
to be considered. Linamarin causes cyanide poisoning, but the toxicity may be removed by
boiling and/or sun drying (Jauncey and Ross, 1982; Tewe, 1991). Literature on the utilization
of Papaya (papaya carica) leaf meals in fish feeds is scarce. The limited available information
(Reyes and Fermin, 2003) indicate that Papaya leaf meal could be a good protein source
because of its amino acid profile (Gerpacio and Castillo, 1979). In Kenya, Papaya leaves are
not used for human food. The Papaya leaf and the unripe Papaya fruit contain papain, which
degrades protein into amino acids (Chaplin, 2005). Buchanan (1969) reported that papain
promotes proteolytic digestion and thereby increases the protein digestibility of Papaya leaf
meal. Therefore, future studies on
Papaya leaves may be directed towards improvement of feed digestibility. P. carica peels
contain lectins, which are toxic compounds relevant to fish and other animals (Makkar and
Becker, 1997; Cano Asseliech et al., 1989), but can be destroyed by heat treatment followed
by aqueous methanol extraction or soaking in water for 24 hours under refrigerated conditions
(Makkar and Becker, 1999). If anti-nutritional components can be inactivated, Papaya leaves
may be a valuable feed component in O. niloticus and C. gariepinus production systems,
which are based on local resources, due to their high protein content and proteolytic properties.
Information on the use of Lucerne leaf meal in fish feeds is limited (Santiago et al., 1988), but
it is widely used in livestock feeds (Duke, 1983). The plant is rich in the amino acid leucine,
which enhances its potential for inclusion in fish feeds. However, the presence of mimosine
(Table 2), which is toxic to most animals, may limit its application in fish feeds (D’Mello,
1991).
Difference in growth response of male and female tilapia has been observed when fed a diet
containing Lucerne leaf meal: males seemed to tolerate it better than females. However, the
production of fry was significantly reduced beyond the 40 % inclusion level (Santiago et al.,
1988). D’mello (1991) noted that mimosine causes disruption of reproductive processes and
teratogenic effects in animals. Mimosine toxicity can be removed through boiling in an open
vessel or by addition of ferrous sulphate solution (Duke, 1983) and/or soaking in water at
30°C for 48 hours (Wee and Wang, 1987). The nutritional quality of oilseed by-products has
been extensively evaluated (Olvera et al., 2002; EL-Sayed, 1990; Maina et al., 2002; EL-
Saidy and Gaber, 2004).
Seed residues have generally high CP levels but may be low in cystine, methionine and
lysine, which are frequently lacking in plant protein sources (Table 5,6 and7;Jauncey and
Ross, 1982). The levels of nutrients and toxic compounds in seed residues depend largely
on the methods of processing and may also vary between strains (Liener, 1980). The limit
in inclusion levels of Cotton Seed Cake is determined by the level of gossypol (Lin et al.,
1988; Rinchard et al., 2002; Elsaidy and Gaber, 2004), a toxic phenolic compound that is
found in the pigment glands of the cotton plant (Berardi and Goldblatt, 1980). Gossypol has
been associated with reduced fingerling recruitment in O. niloticus (Liti et al., 2005). The
suitability of sunflower seed cake (SFSC) as a fish feed has been evaluated (Olvera et al., 2002;
Jackson et al., 1982; Maina et al., 2002). SFSC contains a high level of protein (Table 5, 6,
7), which may vary according to the quality of the original seed and the method of processing
137
(Jauncey and Ross, 1982). Among the different by-products of sunflower seed, Gohl (1975)
recommended that dehulled cakes are the by-product to be included in fish feeds because of
their high protein and relatively low CF levels. Sunflowers are widely grown in many parts
of east African region; therefore their by-products have a high quantitative potential for use
in fish feeds. Papaya seeds and peels may quantitatively have a high potential in the fish feed
industry throughout Kenya, where Papaya plants are abundant. Mango stone seeds are also
available in great amounts, mainly in the drier areas of Eastern Kenya. However, due to the
low CP content of the seed (Table 5), it is unlikely to become an important food component
for O. niloticus and C. gariepinus.
The use of cereal bran in Kenya has recently been evaluated. Liti et al. (2006) fed wheat,
maize and rice brans to O. niloticus and evaluated the growth performance in fertilized ponds.
Both wheat bran (WB) and maize bran (MB) promoted good growth of Nile tilapia and can
substitute each other, depending on whichever of the two is locally available (Liti et al.,
2006). The authors reported that rice bran (RB) was nutritionally inferior to WB and MB.
The low nutritive quality of RB was attributed to poor processing methods. RB is reportedly
mixed with hulls (Veverica et al., 1998; Liti et al., 2006) resulting in high levels of crude
fibre and a low protein content (Table 5, 6 and 7). Gohl (1975) reported a general deficiency
of lysine in cereal by-products, but deficient nutrients might be supplemented by natural
pond food in semi-intensive culture systems (NRC, 1993). Cereal brans are generally cheap
and readily available in most East Africa region, and may therefore be an important feed
component in semi-intensive O niloticus and C. gariepinus production. Seed pulp/husks are
quite cheap and abundantly available from agricultural processing factories. However, most
seed pulps and husks are of low nutritive quality, due to high fibre contents (Table 5, 6 and
7) and eventually their low acceptability by fish (Ullao and Verrth, 2002). Nevertheless, they
may be utilized as feed components in semi-intensive fish production, where they may be
either consumed directly by the fish or serve as organic fertilizers and thereby indirectly
enhance the food basis for the cultured fish (NRC, 1993).
Conclusion
From the data presented here and information gleaned from literature, it can be concluded
that the currently underutilized leaves of C. sinensis (residues), I. batatus, M. esculenta,
and P. carica may have a high potential as feedstuffs for O. niloticus and C. gariepinus
grown in semi-intensive pond culture which relies greatly on local feed resources. This
estimation is mainly based on the actual contents of protein and crude fibre, the possibility
and practicability of removing anti-nutritional constituents, and on the local availability and
the potential competition with other uses. However, before whole scale utilization there is
need for further research to evaluate among others the amino acid profile, digestibility and
anti-nutritional factors of these feed ingredients.
Acknowledgment
We thank Lake Victoria Research Initiative (VicRes) for funding of the study. Special thanks
go to KMFRI technicians, for their technical support during sample analysis.
138
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143
Fish Species Composition and Feeding Habits in Rivers Kisian and

Awach, Kenya
1
Mwangi, B.M., 1Gatheri, B.W., 2Ntambi, B., 3Shilla, D, 1Ombogo, M.A. and
2
Mugalu. D.
1
Kenyatta University, P.O. Box 43844, Nairobi, Kenya;
2
National Fisheries Research Institute, P.O. Box 343, Jinja-Uganda;
3
University of Dar es Salaam, Department of Zoology
Abstract
A preliminary study on the fish species composition and diets were undertaken from August
2009 to May 2010 in Rivers Kisian and Awach Seme, Kenya. The main objective was to
analyse the biotic constituents of the river systems in order to assess possible impacts of
management interventions such as weirs on the rivers fisheries productivity. Data were
collected from the upper, mid and lower reaches. Fish were caught using an electro-fisher,
identified in the field, measured for standard lengths (cm) and weighed to the nearest 0.1 g.
Fish were then gutted and stomachs preserved in vials for analysis of dietary components.
Results showed the fish community in the two rivers were diverse consisting of 11 species,
namely Tilapia leucostictus, Barbus nyanzae, B. kerstenii, Labeo victorianus, Gambusia
affinis, Barbus jacksonii, Clarias gariepinus, B. cercops, B. altianalis, Bagrus docmak and
Barbus apleurogramma. Kisian River had higher species diversity than Awach Seme. Clarias
gariepinus dominated the ichthyofauna community at Kisian River with over 42%, followed
by Gambusia affinis (26%) and Barbus altianalis (17.8%). At River Awach, Barbus altianalis
dominated with over 46% followed by Barbus nyanzae (30.7%). Other species were rare in
both rivers. Stomach content analysis showed the riverine fishes fed largely on animal matter,
consisting of insect larvae and adults, although C. gariepinus subsisted on an omnivorous diet.
The results suggest that any management interventions in the rivers aimed at improving the
fisheries productivity must focus on the three dominant species, C. gariepinus, B. altianalis
and B. nyanzae as G. affinis is too small to make a significant contribution to the riverine
fishery. Further long-term surveys and detailed identification is recommended to ascertain
seasonal and annual dynamics of these riverine species, which have a close linkage with the
Lake Victoria fisheries.
Introduction
Fresh water ecosystems support a large number of species of plants and animals. Fish
inhabiting freshwaters comprise about 25% of living vertebrates (about 55,000 described
species) and represent 13– 15% of the 100,000 freshwater animal species currently known
(Leveque et al., 2008). In Africa, a large proportion of the inland fisheries are located along
the shores of lakes, but the continent’s vast river system supports many fisheries as well,
producing an estimated 0.7 million tons of fish in 1975, about one-half the total catch from
inland waters (Welcomme, 1979). Riverine fisheries are often given low priority by national
governments because inland fisheries supply only the domestic market and contribute little
to the export economy.
144
Riverine fisheries are critical resources that provide important source of high quality protein
in areas that would suffer from serious nutritional deficiencies and unemployment. Market
surveys show strong consumer preference (Ogutu, 1988) and higher pricing (Reynolds and
Greboval, 1988) towards riverine fish species. In spite of this, riverine fishes are still under-
exploited and scientific knowledge is still inadequate to support appropriate intervention
strategies.
Most studies on riverine fisheries in East Africa have concentrated on large rivers like Sondu-
Miriu, Kuja, Nzoia, Yala and Nyando, where fisheries potential is expected to be large. But
exploitation of such resources by artisanal fishermen poses a great challenge due to lack of
appropriate fishing gears. Although smaller rivers, may offer significant alternative to protein
sources, there is little scientific knowledge on their fisheries potential. Of immediate concern
to most ecologists is the amount of disturbance facing small rivers and streams and the nature
of fisheries occurring in such streams. This study assessed the fish species composition, their
abundance, distribution and diets in two small Kenyan rivers in the Lake Victoria Basin,
which was can be a basis for application of appropriate interventions for fisheries utilization
of small rivers in the Lake Victoria Basin.

River Kisian (0°04´16´´S - 034°40´03´´E) and River Awach Seme (0°09658´´S - 034°47434´´E)
were selected due to their proximity to one another and similar hydrologic characteristic
(Figure 1). River Kisian arises from the Maragoli forest while Awach arises from Maseno
highlands. During the dry season, the rivers flow into Lake Victoria as small streams but
during the wet season they flow as torrential rivers exceeding their banks. The catchment
receives a bimodal rainfall pattern with one short season from October to December and a
long rainy season from March to July. Rainfall varies from 258 to 816 mm per month while
daily air temperatures range from 11.3 to 28.0⁰C.
145
Figure1: Map of study area showing the various sampling sites at Awach Seme and Kisian
Rivers.
At each river, three sampling sites were selected representing the upper (KS1 and AS1),
middle (KS2 and AS2) and lower (KS3 and AS3) reaches for Kisian and Awach respectively
(Figure 1). Substratum at Kisian sites varied from mud in the upper and lower reaches to a
continuous rocky bottom interspaced by huge boulders at the mid reaches. The river banks
146
were bare with farming activities extending up to the river banks. The diversity of the riparian
vegetation was variable consisting mainly of Napier grass, eucalyptus, Mimosa spp, Albezia
caraira, Lantana camara, Phragmites australis, Musa domestica, and Tithornia diversiflora.
At Awach, the substratum consisted mainly of sand and boulders. Several sections of the
banks were well protected. The riparian vegetation comprised Phragmites australis, Psidium
guajava, Mimosa spp. and Tithornia diversiflora, Psidium guajava, Ficus spp., Acacia
spp. and Mimosa spp. The rivers were affected by activities such as sand harvesting, car
washing, fishing, and livestock watering, bathing and domestic use. Small scale gold mining
was also practiced at Awach upper site. At each site, GPS readings were taken and physical
characteristics recorded.
Fish were collected using electro-fishing equipment operated with a Honda generator GX
240 8 HP that produced a current of 400 V and 10 A. Electro-fishing lasted 15 to 20 min per
site, depending on water depth, terrain and catches. Fishing covered a span of 50 m upstream
and 50 m downstream of the generator. Fish specimens were identified and counted with the
assistance of experts from Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute and manuals of
Greenwood (1966). Other fish species were identified at the Kenya National Museums. Fish
standard lengths (SL) were measured to the nearest 0.01 mm and weighed (wet weight) to
the nearest 0.01g. Representative samples were then gutted and stomach contents preserved
in 5% formaldehyde.
Fish species diversity between sites was compared using Shannon-Wiener Diversity index,
computed as:
Where:
pi = the relative abundance of each species, calculated as the proportion of individuals of a
given species to the total number of individuals in the community.
In(pi) = the natural logarithm of this proportion (pi).
Shannon’s equitability (EH) was used to determine whether the population was evenly
distributed among the species present using the formula:
EH = H/lnS
Where:
H= Shannon’s diversity index
S = total no of species in the habitat (species richness)
lnS = the natural logarithm of species richness
Equitability assumes a value between 0 and 1 with 1 being complete evenness.

Stomach contents were examined using a dissecting microscope and food items categorized
as insect larvae, adult insects, and sand and silt particles and percentage occurrence for
each item computed based on Ogari and Dadzie (1988) and Okach and Dadzie (1988). The
mean percentage of relative occurrence of each food category was computed separately and
symmetric overlaps between species diet were calculated using the formula of Morisita Horn
(1977) and Pianka (1981).
147
Pianka’s index is calculated as Ojk=ÓPijPik/√ÓPij²ÓPik² while Morisita’s index is computed

as CH=2ÓPijPik/ÓPij²+ÓPik², where Pij and Pik are proportions of the food category i in the
diet of species j or k. Niche breadth was calculated using Levin’s (1968) index (B) expressed
as B= 1/ÓPj², where Pj is the proportion of resource j in the diet.
Results
Fish Species Community Dynamics

During the sampling period, eleven fish species (Tilapia leucostictus, Barbus nyanzae, B.
kerstenii, Labeo victorianus, Gambusia affinis, B. jacksonii, Clarius gariepinus, B. cercops,
B. altianalis, Bagrus docmak and Barbus apleurogramma) were caught from the two rivers
(Table 1 and Plate 1). Kisian River had the highest species richness (9) albeit in very low
numbers. The fish community was dominated by C. gariepinus, which constituted 42.5% of
the total catch (Table 2) and was common at all sampling sites (Table 3). Other frequently
occurring species at Kisian River included Gambusia affinis, which constituted 26% of the
total catch and Barbus altianalis which constituted 17.8%. Other fish species were very rare
and often constitued only a single specimen. Tilapia leucostictus, Gambusia affinis, Bagrus
docmak and Barbus apleurogramma occurred in very low numbers at Kisian mid and lower
sites.
Table 1: Relative abundance of different fish species caught in Rivers Kisian and Awach
Seme, Kisumu District, Lake Victoria Basin.
River Kisian (total River Awach

Species % %
count) (total count)
1 Tilapia leucostictus 1 1.4
2 Barbus nyanzae 1 1.4 183 30.7
3 Barbus kerstenii 1 1.4 4 0.7
4 Labeo victorianus 15 2.5
5 Gambusia affinis 19 26.0
6 Barbus jacksonii 14 2.4
7 Clarius gariepinus 31 42.5 55 9.2
8 Barbus cercops 1 1.5 49 8.2
9 Barbus altianalis 13 17.8 276 46.3
10 Bagrus docmak 1 1.4
11 Barbus apleurogramma 2 2.7
148
Table 2: Presence and absence of the various fish species at the different sampling sites
Sampling sites
Awach Seme River River Kisian
Species Upper Mid Lower Upper Mid Lower
site site site site site site
1 Tilapia leucostictus - - - - - +
2 Barbus nyanzae - + + - - +
3 Barbus kerstenii + + - - + +
4 Labeo victorianus - + + - - +
5 Gambusia affinis - - - - - +
6 Barbus jacksonii - + + - + -
7 Clarius gariepinus + + + + + +
8 Barbus cercops + + + - - +
9 Barbus altianalis + + + - + +
10 Bagrus docmak - - - - + -
11 Barbus apleurogramma - - - - - +
At Awach Seme River, Barbus altianalis and Barbus nyanzae dominated constituting 46.3
and 30.7% of the total catch, respectively. Fish species at Awach River occurred in greater
abundance at all sites including Kisian River sites, suggesting better adaptability to the
riverine environment. Despite fish occurring in low abundance at Kisian River, fish species
diversity, richness and evenness was higher than at Awach Seme River (Table 3). Kisian and
Awach lower sites had the highest species diversity, probably due to their proximity to the
lake. At the upper sites in both rivers, C. gariepinus was the only species present.
Table 3. Fish community characteristics of Rivers Awach and Kisian in Kisumu District,
Kenya.
Community index River Awach River Kisian

Total catch 596 73
Species richness 7 10
Species diversity (H’) 1.359 1.545
Species evenness (EH) 0.698 0.671
Feeding habits
Stomach content analysis showed that the riverine fishes fed mainly on animal matter,
consisting of insect larvae and adults, crustaceans (crabs), fish remains and birds, probably
taken accidentally as the fish took other diets. A few stomachs, contained plant remains,
detritus, pebbles and silt particles. Dipteran larvae of the family Chironomidae and Simuliidae
were the main insect orders eaten. The dominant fish species, C. gariepinus subsisted on an
omnivorous diet, ate both animal and plant matter, which may explain its wide distribution and
adaptability. Plant matter was the main dietary component of C. gariepinus at Awach River,
upper site, constituting over 52%. Barbus altianalis also largely devoured a carnivorous diet
dominated by insect remains with over 93% in both rivers. Barbus jacksonii, however, fed
on plant matter when young but consumed increasingly higher amounts of animal matter as
they increased in size to over 6 cm standard length. Labeo victorianus is largely omnivorous
149
feeding more on insect larvae when young but taking more of detritus as it increases in size.
Tilapia leucostictus (ngenge) B. nyanzae (Adel) B. kerstenii (Adel)
G. affinis B. jacksonii (Adel) C. gariepinus (mumi)
B. altianalis (fwani) Bagrus docmak B. cercops (Adel)
L. victorianus (Ningu)
Plate 1. Fish species in the two rivers (local names in brackets).
Analysis of dietary overlap between species pairs showed commonality between C. gariepinus
and B. altianalis (0.746), C. gariepinus and Barbus nyanzae (0.716), B. altianalis and B.
cercops (0.7661) and between C. gariepinus and B. jacksonii (0.6899), suggesting possibility
of species competition. The competitive advantage of C. gariepinus is increased by its wide
niche breadth measuring 3.76 as compared to that of B. altinalis (2.56), B. apleurogramma
(1.92) and B. jacksonii (1.72). The wide niche breadth explains the successful establishment
of C. gariepinus in the rivers.
150
Discussion
The higher species diversity and richness at Kisian River may be linked to its morphology and
hydrology. The river is characterized by a rocky substratum interspaced by large boulders,
rapid riffles and shallow short pools, which significantly increase its habitat heterogeneity.
Hence, the river is generally much faster than Awach, resulting in higher disturbance effects
on the stream communities. The higher disturbance may explain the increased diversity
but low fish abundance. This observation is supported by the Intermediate Disturbance
Hypothesis (IDH) of Connell (1978), which states that local species diversity is maximized
when ecological disturbance is neither too rare nor too frequent.
The high diversity of fish species found in the two rivers is in agreement to results obtained in
most other African riverine ecosystems. Likongwe (2005), carried out a preliminary study on
biodiversity of riverine fishes in Malawi and found 13 families, most of which also occurred
in the lake systems to which the rivers flowed. Similarly, most of the fish species caught
in Kisian and Awach Rivers, also constitute the ichthyofauna community of Lake Victoria
(Awange and Onga’nga, 2006), suggesting a close link between the rivers and the lake. Among
the species constituting the Lake Victoria fish community were Clarias gariepinus, Barbus
altinialis, B. jacksonii, Bagrus docmac, Oreochromis leucostictus and Labeo victorianus.
This close linkage between the rivers and the Lake Ecosystem suggests that the rivers can
act as refuges for the Lake Victoria fisheries. In fact, B. altianalis and L. victorianus, which
were once the most abundant fish species in Lake Victoria have virtually disappeared from
the commercial catches (Ochumba and Manyala, 1992; Abila and Jansen, 1997; Balirwa et
al., 2003) and their abundance in the river ecosystems may form a source of recolonization.
These findings indicate that a riverine fishery has potential in improving provision of fish in
the area if well managed, thereby reducing poverty in the area.
Most of the fish species were carnivorous feeding largely on insect larvae, except for Clarias
which was omnivorous. Similar observations were reported by Adeyeni et al., (2009) who
found the genus Labeo some commercially important fish species in Gbedikerel Lake,
Nigeria, including Labeo sp. and Synodontis taking largely food of animal matter. Clarias
similarly fed on omnivorous diets. Species belonging to the same genera such Barbus feed
largely on similar diets, suggesting possibility of close species packing and efficient niche
partitioning in rivers. Huguency and Pouilly, (1999) noted that fish species with similar
diets tend to converge for some morphological attributes. The results of this study generally
indicate that small rivers have potential for contributing significantly to the riverine fisheries,
if well managed.
Acknowledgement
We wish to thank most sincerely Dr. Gichuki, Deputy Director, KMFRI, who allowed us to
use the station laboratory facilities, the four-wheel drive vehicles and the electric fisher. We
also thank the technicians at KMFRI for their field and laboratory assistance. This study was
sponsored by the Inter-University Council for East Africa (IUCEA) through Lake Victoria
Research Initiative (VicRes).
151
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their aquaculture potential. African Crop Science Conference Proceedings, Vol. 7.
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Ogari, J. and S. Dadzie 1988. The food of the Nile Perch, Lates niloticus (L.), after the
disappearance of the haplochromine cichlids in the Nyanza Gulf of Lake Victoria
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152
Improving Farm yields, Income and Environmental Sustainability

through Integrated Aquaculture-Agriculture in the Lake Victoria
Basin
1
Mwayuli, G. A., 2Getabu, A., 3Shoko, A. and 4Kabonesa, C.
1
Catholic University of Eastern Africa
2
Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute
3
Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute
4
Makerere University
Abstract
The majority of the population in the Lake Victoria basin comprises poor small-scale farmers
whose livelihoods depend on seasonal rain-fed crops namely; grain, vegetables and fruits.
External input farming is not sustainable due to fragile socio-economic and environmental
conditions and overall farm production is low. Integration of aquaculture into overall farm
activities has the potential to increase incomes and food security and to rehabilitate water
resources. A farmer participatory research on “Integrated Aquaculture – Agriculture” was
undertaken in the Lake Victoria basin between 2005 and 2009. The aim was to promote
integrated aquaculture among resource poor rural farmers with a view to increasing farm
yields and income. Fish ponds and vegetable gardens were set up in farmers’ fields in Nyaguta
and Chinche in Kisii region, Kehancha and Kegonga in Kuria District in Kenya, at Tarime
in Tanzania and in Busoga in Uganda. Oreochromis niloticus were cultures in in Kenya and
Tanzania and O. niloticus and Clarias gariepinus in Uganda. Kales, Vigna unguiculata and
Solanum nigrum were cultivated in Kenya, Amaranthus spp and Solanum nigrum in Uganda
and Vigna unguiculata and Amaranthus spp in Tanzania.
Fish stocking densities ranged from 1 – 4 fish m-2. The mean size at stocking was 6.5 cm
and maximum sizes attained in the ponds were 20 - 22 cm. Fish growth rates ranged from
1.2 – 2.0 cm with a mean of 1.66 ± 0.11 cm.month-1. The mean income per farmer obtained
from the integrated aquaculture-vegetable system in Kenya was USD 125 ± 46 from a total
area of 0.025 – 0.035 ha (fish pond and vegetable included). In Uganda the income obtained
ranged from USD 771 – 1203 for fish sales and USD 119 -156 for vegetable sales. Integration
of fish-horticulture-poultry into overall farm activities increased yields and income among
small-scale rural farmers and rehabilitated exhausted lands. For sustainability of fish farming
in the Lake Victoria Basin on-arm studies should focus on manuring rates, mixed stocking
techniques, differential stocking times, farmer (especially women and the youth) participatory
research to improve quality, quantity and yield of fish fingerlings for culture should be
undertaken.
Key words: Aquaculture; Integrated fish-crop system; Stocking density
153
Introduction
Aquaculture is one of the most viable farming options to alleviate food insecurity and poverty
in many parts of the world. Aquaculture in Africa has been evolving and growing after
numerous false starts that did not result in any meaningful development despite the untapped
potential particularly in the Sub Saharan Africa (Kapetsky, 1995; Vincke, 1995). This lack
of development exists against a backdrop of conditions that would benefit greatly from
the rapid development of aquaculture on the continent namely high incidence of poverty,
malnutrition and unemployment (Jamu and Ayinla, 2003). The reasons advanced for lack of
growth include overzealous and unplanned promotion of aquaculture that places emphasis
on technical research and technology transfer with little regard to the natural resource base
and socio-economic and cultural context in which the technologies are being promoted
(IFAD, 1999; Jamu and Ayinla, 2003). In addition, poor adoption of aquaculture has hindered
integration of aquaculture into farm economy (Brummett, 1995) due to too much emphasis
on the role of central government structures desired for technical support and provision of
inputs; poor understanding of the household economies and rural livelihood strategies into
which aquaculture should be integrated and constraints and opportunities they present; poor
understanding of the roles of farmers in particular women; poor understanding of social
constraints, poor assessment of markets, too much emphasis on bio-technical methods rather
than simpler more readily adopted and more adaptable approaches, and inadequate extension.
The majority of the population in the Lake Victoria basin is composed of poor small-scale
farmers whose livelihoods depend on seasonal rain-fed crops (maize, millet and sorghum),
vegetables and fruits. Overall farm production is low due to fragile socio-economic and
environmental conditions. Integration of aquaculture into overall farm activities has the
potential to increase incomes and food security and to rehabilitate water resources (Jamu
and Ayinla, 2003). On station integrated aquaculture-agriculture has been attempted in the
region with the aim of increasing food production and adoption by farmers. This has not been
successful since the process was researcher-manager driven and did not include farmers at the
planning and experimentations stage (Okemwa and Getabu, 1996).
The study tested the hypothesis that integration of fish-horticulture and poultry into overall
farm activities increases overall yields and income among small-scale rural farmers, increases
efficiency of recycling energy and nutrients in the farm and rehabilitates farm ecosystems and
degraded environments. The objectives of the study were to promote integrated aquaculture–
agriculture (IAA) among resource poor rural farmers in the Lake Victoria basin, inculcate in
the farmers the critical importance of IAA for sustainable use of natural resources and enable
farmers to acquire improved fish farming techniques with a view to increasing farm yields
and income.
Methods
Study design
Purposive sampling and snowballing technique were used to identify 20 fish farmers in
Kisii, Migori and Kuria regions in Kenya, 30 from Tarime, Serengeti and Inchage districts
154
in Tanzania and Namungalwa on Iganga-Kaliro highway in Uganda to participate in the

project. A list of fish farmers was obtained from the district fisheries offices. Farmers that
were involved in fish farming or whose farms have permanent access to river or spring
water were selected. Fifty five farmers from Kenya, 53 from Uganda and 30 from Tanzania
were interviewed in a reconnaissance study to gather personal information and status of fish
farming. Further information was collected on resources available, utilized, unutilized and
over utilized on the farms, common property resources e.g. water, dams and wetlands and
those controlled by few farmers.
A participatory approach was adopted and we had regular contact with farmers. The selected
farmers were inducted to Integrated Resource Management in a workshop and trained on how
to make fish ponds, fishpond water management, predator control, integrated aquaculture,
fish feed preparation and feeding, disease control and harvesting of fish. The workshop was
interactive thus gave farmers the opportunity to express their views on the problems they
encounter in fish farming, the successes achieved and their expectations. Farmers’ knowledge
of integrated fish farming was assessed with a view to determining how to involve them fully
in fish farming. They were also taught how to collect data on production and marketing of fish
and other farm enterprises. This information was used to monitor their progress in improving
farm yields. With the assistance of researchers, the farmers identified natural resource types
in their farms and defined their uses by enterprises. The concept of integrated fish farming
was introduced to farmers by noting each natural resource type, its attributes and listing the
enterprises for all the seasons.
Participants’ fishponds were prepared afresh or renovated to standard aquaculture practice.

Pond drainage was tested to ensure that they filled and evacuated properly. Fish ponds size
differed from farmer to farmer depending on land size and whether the fishponds were
prepared anew or renovated. Each fish pond measured on average 200 - 300 m2 and 1 – 1.5
m depth. The 200 m2 ponds were each limed at 0.25kg m-2. After one week the ponds were
stocked at densities of 4 fish m-2. Fish size at stocking on average was 10-12 cm in total
length. The banks between the fish ponds as well as the fence around the fish farms were used
to raise horticulture crops (Plates 1 and 2) for household consumption and as fish feed. The
vegetables grown were Amaranthus lividus, Solanum aethiopicum, Vigna, Cucurbita pepo,
Basella alba, and kale.
155
Plate 1: Integration of fish culture with kales. Plate 2: Integration of fish culture with cow
pea and kales at Nyaguta, Kisii, Kenya.
The vegetable integration with fish in the Tarime region is illustrated in Plate 3 – 5. The main
vegetables integrated were Amaranthus and cow pea. The banana plants also provided a good
source of fish food and manure to the pond. Other crops grown on the farms at Tarime were
sweet potatoes, kales, pumpkin, beans, maize, cassava, sugar cane and millet.
3. 4 5
Plate 3 - 5 Fish ponds and vegetable integration at Tarime Tanzania.
Experimental design
In the first phase only experiments on Tilapia-Vegetable integration was conducted. In the
second phase the African catfish. G. gariepinus-Tilapia-Vegetable integration was conducted.
In the third phase Poultry- African catfish -Tilapia-Vegetable integration was conducted. An
experimental design for on-farm research was set up as illustrated in Table 1. Six ponds each
measuring 200 m2 and depth 1 – 1.5 m were constructed for raising Tilapia fingerlings at the
Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute, Kegati (Plate 6). More Tilapia fingerlings and
156
African catfish fingerlings in Kenya were obtained from Sang’oro stations, and the Kibos fish
farm of the Lake Basin Development Authority. The sources of fingerlings in Tanzania and
Uganda were also far – the Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute, Sota and Menonite both in
Mwanza >300 km being the leading supplier, Arusha (>400 km) and Mugabiri, and selected
farmers at Wakiso, Kampala and Mukono Districts and Sunfish Ltd in Uganda.
Table 1: Experimental block design for on-farm research on Integrated Fish – vegetable
farming
(a) Integration
Fish + normal feeding
Fish + vegetable feed
Fish + formulated feed + vegetable feed
b) Vegetable plots
Vegetable + pond water
Vegetable + River water
Vegetable + normal rain water
Plate 6: Fish ponds constructed at KMFRI, Kegati for fingerling production.
In Uganda the on-station experiment was located at Namungalwe on Iganga-Kaliro highway.

There were eight on-farm experimental ponds operated by male dominated households except
one which was female headed at Iganga. In Tanzania fish farmers were drawn from Serengeti,
Tarime and Inchange districts.
Normal aquaculture practices were followed in the establishment and management of the
fish ponds. Feed made from maize bran, potatoes and cassava peelings mixed with dagaa
was used as fish feed (Shoko, 1996). The ratio of carbohydrate to protein in the feed was 5:1.
Feeding was calculated at 5% body day-1 and was gradually raised by 10% every week until
harvest. Chopped vegetables and kitchen remains were used to supplement the artificial feed.
The on-station experiment was visited daily, while the on farm experiments were inspected
once a week to check the progress and advice farmers on good management practices. Raw
data was collected bimonthly on the growth rate of fish and vegetables, amounts of feeds
and other farm inputs used and monitoring of limnological parameters. Fish harvest data was
obtained after eight months.
157
Results
Reconnaissance survey
The percentage distribution of fish pond sizes in the study sites in Kenya is presented in
Figure 1 Pond areas ranged from 52 to 911 m2. The mean pond area was 207.34 ± 29.78 m2
(n = 39). The highest number of fish ponds was within the size range 100 to 200 m2.
>300 m2 < 50 m2
17% 14%
50-100 m2
200-300 m2 10%
7%
100-200 m2
52%
Figure1: Size distribution of fish ponds in Kisii, Kuria and Migori districts.
The age range of people involved in aquaculture was 20 to 80 years with the majority being
in the age bracket 30-40 years. Only 19% were above 60 years; 56% had primary education
while 44% had secondary education.
The categories of people participating in fish farming in Uganda is illustrated in Figures 2

to 3. Individual farmers constituted 79 %, schools – 38 % and farmer groups 17.6 %. More
males participated in fish farming than females. Most of the fish farmers were in the age
bracket 30 to 60 years.
At the beginning of the project, 53 farmers in Kenya were interviewed, 55 % of whom grew
vegetables. Of these the family constituted 29%, followed by parents 12 %. Fathers alone did
not grow any vegetable. Seventy per cent of the farmers indicated that vegetable were not
grown for integration. Only one respondent indicated that he integrated vegetable with fish.
schools
3.8% group farmers

17.0%
individual farmers
79.2%
158
Figure 2: Category of people participating in fish farming, Iganga (Uganda).

40
30
Age category
Total count
20 80
70
60
10
50
40
0 30
Females Males
SEX
Figure 3: Gender and age of people participating in fish farming, Iganga (Uganda).
Vegetables were mainly grown for home consumption with only 3.4% selling for cash among
individual farmers and only 1.7% among group farmers. Consequently only 2% indicated
that they obtained profit from vegetable sales.
In Tanzania, 30 farmers were interviewed comprising 18 farmers in Tarime, 11 in Serengeti

and 1 in Inchage districts. All the respondents were married comprising 3 women and 27 men.
In the Mara region of Tanzania 14.8% of the fish farmers had no formal education, 77.8%
had primary school education, 3.7% had secondary and university education respectively.
Farmers above the age of 65 had no formal education. The age distribution of the farmers is
illustrated in Figure 4. The majority of them were in the age range of 30 to 70 years. The 3
female farmers were in the age bracket of 30 – 40 years.
70 - 80
60 - 70 4% 20- 30
11% 18%
50 - 60
7%
40 - 50
25% 30 - 40
35%
Figure 4: Age distribution of the farmers in Tanzania.
159
The mean pond size was 170.35±19.07 m . Some of the farmers did not have pond inlets
2
or outlets or overflow pipes. Some farmers fertilized their ponds. Some ponds though with
permanent water sources nearby were inactive. The average number of ponds per farmer was
1 (range 1-9) with an average of 2 ± 0.31 ponds farmer-1. The farmers used brans, vegetable
leaves and kitchen remains as fish feeds. They also used organic and inorganic manure at the
rate of 10 – 30 kg yr-1 applied 1 – 2 times a week.
Experimental results
The observed differences in growth rates of O. niloticus in different fish ponds was due to
stocking rates used, the differences in the fertility of the different places where the ponds were
situated, application of manure and feeding rates as well as the experience of the fish farmers
in fish pond management.
The mean value of fish harvested per farmer practicing integrated aquaculture – agriculture
was Kshs 7,193 ± 2885 from a mean pond area of 148.85±10.74 m2 (0.015 ha), of which the
value of fish sold was Kshs 6,023 ± 2911, while the value of fish consumed by household was
Kshs 2,340±753 (Table 2).
Table 2: Value (Kshs) of fish and vegetable harvests by farmers practicing IAA in Kenya
Farmer Fish Vegetable

Total
Value of Value of amount
Number Value of Sold Value of Sold
fish eaten vegetable obtained
fish vegetable
by eaten by by farmer
harvested harvested
household household
1 19650 19650 5020 5020 24670

2 1190 1190 1500 1500 2690
3 10480 7500 2980 1140 1140 11620
5 6500 3300 3200 2500 1600 900 9000
6 900 900 900
7 4440 3600 840 2100 600 1500 6540
Total 43160 36140 7020 12260 9860 2400 55420
Mean 7193 6023 2340 2452 1972 1200 9237
SE 2885 2891 753 684 782 300 3481
CL (85%) 7416 7432 3239 1898 2171 3812 8949
The mean value of vegetable harvested per farmer (Table 2) was Kshs 2,452 ± 684 of which
the mean value of vegetable sold was Kshs 1972 ± 782, while the value of those consumed
at home was Kshs 1200 ± 300 per farmer. If the yields of the farmer mentioned above are
included in the calculations, then the mean value of vegetable harvested per farmer was Kshs
14, 803 ± 8098, of which the value of those sold was Kshs 11,174 ± 6.061, while that of those
consumed at home was Kshs 6, 350 ± 3,016. The mean overall income from the aquaculture
– vegetable integration per farmer was Kshs 9,237 ± 3481 otherwise it becomes Kshs 25, 863
± 12,344 when yields of the farmer mentioned above are considered
160
Table 3 illustrates an example of a number of bioresources available on one of the experimental

farms. Some of the resources are of high commercial value such as maize, beans, spinach,
and the vegetables such as Solanum aethiopicum. Others of little commercial but high
nutritional value were Basella alba, Amaranths, pumpkin leaves and other forms of traditional
vegetables. Only the spoiled components of these resources were used in the fish ponds as
fish feed. During the wet season all the vegetable resources are produced in large quantities
and their commercial value is considerably reduced. During the dry season, the resources
both of high and low commercial value are scarce and their market value appreciates. There
is opportunity to convert some of the resources into fish feed and store it for use during the
dry season. This opportunity has not been captured by farmers. Currently, there is no locally
available fish feed in Kenya. For a long time, imported animal feeds have been adapted to
feeding fish. These do not adequately address nutrition requirements of fish under culture
conditions. One way of addressing this problem, is to use vegetable as part of the ingredients
for manufacturing locally available fish feeds.
Table 3: A profile showing different bio-resource enterprises on Mathew Ondiek’s farm,

Kisii, Kenya
Bioresource Total Quantity Quantity

Quantity Value Value
value used at used by Comments
produced Kshs Kshs
home fish
Maize 6 bags 7800 all 7800 2 bags 2600

Beans 4 bags 12800 1 bag 3200 120 kg 9600
Basella alba 520 kg 5200 104 kg 1040 0 0 Undervalue
Pumpkin 520 kg 5200 365 36500 0 0 underused
Cleome sp 10400 kg 260000 18.25 456.25
Solanum sp 10400 312000 1095 32850 18.25 kg 547.5
Spinach 1040 104000 0 104000 0 0
Galinsoga
Plenty 2000 all 2000 all 2000
(weed)
Carrots 12480 249600 0 0 0 0
Napier grass 2880 2000 all 0 0 0 Underused
520 24
Bananas 62400 2880 0 0
bunches bunches
Tea 3000 36000 all 36000 0 0
Avocado 480 kg 4800 all 0 0 0
Eucalyptus 10 trees 10000 all 0 0 0
Cow dung 720 kg 7200 all 7200 40 kg 400
Kitchen
365 14600 all 14600 all 14600 Overvalued
remains
Millet husks 1460 73000 all all 7300 Overvalued
Fish harvest 1300 fish 26000 Paid school fees
The study experimented on the use of pond water in growing vegetable under IHA. Since the
ponds were fertilized with manure, vegetable and farm organic wastes, the water from the
drainage used was assumed to be rich in nutrients which are necessary for vegetable growth.
The green vegetable not utilized by fish decomposes and encourages the proliferation of fish
food in the pond. In fish pond culture, algae are the primary food for fish. Most of this natural
161
fish food has high protein content. A stable algal composition is needed to sustain the biomass
and growth of fish in ponds. The addition of organic manure and remnant vegetables after
fish have fed decay in the pond and release nutrients which stimulate production of natural
fish foods. This should be one of the management tools for stabilizing natural fish food and
improving fish yields in ponds.
Fish growth
In Uganda the mean size of fish in ponds increased from a total length of 10.63 ± 0.18
to 16.93.89 ± 0.08 cm (19.09 ± 0.99 to 83.05 ± 1.15 g) for fish fed on a commercial diet
indicating a growth rate of 2.1 cm (21.32 g) month-1. For those fed on diet supplemented with
vegetable material, fish grew from a mean length of 10.4 ± 0.11 to 16.65 ± 0.30 cm (17.81
± 0.59 to 79.11 ± 4.64 g) in a period of 3 months indicating growth rates of 2.08 cm (20.43
g) month-1. There were no significant differences in fish growth rates and maximum sizes
attained between those fed on a commercial diet and those in which vegetable supplemented
the diet. The farmers’ fish and vegetable yields increased after practicing IAA except farmer
number 4 whose yield decreased though his income increased (Table 4).
Table 4: Vegetable harvest and sales (Uganda)
Before IAA After IAA

Farmer Vegetable yield Vegetable yield
Income (USD) Income (USD)
(kg) (kg)
Namunlalwe-Male - - 159.6 119
Karim – Male - - 173.5 134
Nakisenyi - Male - - 190.5 131
Ekirita – Female - - 199.0 155
The fish fed on a commercial diet grew from 7.25 ± 0.29 to 13.89 ± 0.22 cm (6.79 ± 0.61 to
49.53 ± 2.15 g) depicting a growth rate of 2.19 cm (4.219 g) month-1. Those not fed grew
from mean length of 7.29 ± 0.29 to 11.40 ± 0.19 cm (6.79± 0.61 to 26.19 ± 1.45 g) depicting a
growth rate of 1.38 cm (6.46 g) a month-1. The length-weight relationship of fish in the ponds
is presented in Figure 14. The regression equation is represented as: W = 0.0108TL3.1673 g
and R2 = 0.9806, suggesting that the growth of tilapia in the ponds is isometric.
Conclusions
i. Integration of fish-horticulture-poultry into overall farm activities increases overall

yields and income among small-scale rural farmers and rehabilitates exhausted
lands. Supplementation of fish feed with vegetables reduces costs of inputs. The
reclamation of the idle land once used for brick making and rehabilitating it for fish
culture improved environmental quality.
ii. The Integrated aquaculture system provided fish and vegetable to the farmers during
the dry season. They did not purchase any vegetable from the market as was the
162
practice before. They also sold some of the fish and vegetables and used it for paying
fees and settling debts. The portion of farms dedicated to IAA and integration of
vegetable were initially small but on realization, the farmers increased their pond
sizes as well as the number of traditional and exotic vegetables on their farm in order
to increase yields.
iii. Integrated –Aquaculture-Agriculture further transforms farm activities. The farmers

moved the cultivation of vegetables form upland near the homestead to the area
around the fishponds and used the later to cultivate other crops such as maize, beans
and bananas. IAA ensures recycling of farm wastes and nutrients in the farm. This
was through the use of vegetable and other farm wastes, kitchen remains and weeds
as fish feeds.
Recommendations
a. Indigenous leafy vegetables are important for food security in the Lake Victoria Basin
during periods of relish shortages due to drought and poor harvest. The lowest supply
of these vegetables is in the dry season when the prices increase almost twofold. The
abundant vegetables in the wet season with appropriate skills and technology should
be processed into fish feed. Fish farmers should be trained in to process and store the
vegetables for use and sale during the dry season when they are very costly.
b. More males participated in fish farming than females. A deliberate effort should be made
to involve women in fish farming especially in aspects that do not call for challenging
physical activities. Women should be trained in fingerling production and value addition
to the fish for better sales.
c. For sustainability of fish farming in the Lake Victoria Basin, further farmer participatory
research should be undertaken on application of manure, mixed stocking techniques and
differential stocking times.
Acknowledgements
We thank Sida and the Inter-University Council of East Africa for funding the project through
the VicRes programme. We are grateful to Vice-Chancellors/Directors, scientists and other
administrative staff at KMFRI, Makerere University, CUEA and TAFIRI for giving us time
and space for the research.
163
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Victoria Basin. Meded. Zitt. K. Acad. Overzeese 42 (1996-4): 813-831.
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to food security in Africa. Pages 547-572. In: Symoens, J.J. and Micha, J.C. (Eds).
Proceedings of a Seminar on “The management of Integrated Freshwater Agro-
Piscicultural Ecosystems in Tropical Areas”, Brussels, 16-19 May 1994, 587pp
Shoko, A. P.A., 2002. The effects of different diets and stocking density in the growth.
Vincke, M.M.J., 1995. The present state of development in continental aquaculture in Africa.
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164
Role of Pond Fish Farming on Socio-Economic Development of

Rwanda
Nzayisenga, L., 2Harrison Charo, H., 1Nzayisenga, L. 3Marijani, E., Munguti, J.

*1
1
National University of Rwanda, Butare, 2KMFRI, 3Open University of Tanzania, 4KMFRI.
Abstract
This study was conducted to find out the role fish farming plays on development of the country.
The focus was to show how aquaculture as money making activity helps farmers to solve their
family problems especially economic and social problems. It explores the challenges faced
by fish farmers. The research questions focused on the importance of aquaculture to farmers.
The research areas were Kicukiro and Kigembe. This reaseach was qualitative in design
and used interview, focus group discussion and observation as data collection tools. Major
findings include that fish farmers from both areas have improved their life. The research also
includes some recommendations
Key words: Fish farming; Ponds; Aquaculture; Rwanda; Farmers
Introduction
This study was a complement of an on-going project titled “Commercializing production of fish
feeds through value addition of locally available feed ingredients”. Aquaculture development
in Rwanda, like in most African countries, has had primarily social goals, such as community
development and nutrition improvement. Lately, economic objectives have been included
on the agenda—objectives, such as generation of supplementary income, diversification of
production activities, and creation of employment, especially in rural communities—where
opportunities for economic activities are limited (FAO, 1994).
Providing families with food and alternative sources of protein are another reason why many
farmers were involved in fish farming, this is the reason why fish farming was considered as
a family enterprise. Nutritious foodstuff, such as fish was not readily available, because fish
from the market was unaffordable to local communities. Expansion of fish-farming practices
should be encouraged as a means of addressing the gap created by inadequate fish supply.
Taking into consideration the involvement of rural areas in aquaculture to improve their
family income, this project sought to investigate its role in the development of Rwanda.
Although aquaculture development in target countries (Rwanda, Kenya, and Tanzania)

is constrained by several factors, the lack of inexpensive fish feeds is said to be the most
pertinent. This is because 40-50% of the production costs of commercial fish farms are
spent on fish feeds. Due to lack of fish feeds, fish farmers in these countries have generally
remained very poor. Fish feeds used by fish farmers are usually from locally available plant
and animal wastes. While several studies to increase nutrient bioavailability have been
undertaken in other countries, they may not be applicable to local conditions because they
rely mainly on fish meal as main source of protein. The socio economic status of fish farmers
165
was examined in Rwanda, a country where due to 1994 genocide and the HIV/AIDS scourge,
rural communities are mostly made of women and children as heads of families, and who
may suffer some form of malnourishment largely due to high levels of unemployment and
lack of cheap sources of protein. The rural women can be engaged gainfully in aquaculture to
raise their income levels. The study attempted to answer the following questions: What is the
importance of fish farming? How does the neighbourhood benefit from it? The importance of
fish farming to farmers and society in general was assessed. Most women and child-headed
families live in rural areas and most of them suffer malnutrition-related diseases due to
genocide and HIV/AIDS effects.
To understand fish farmers’ needs and aspirations very well, one had to examine the socio-
economic and cultural situations and livelihood of households especially in rural areas in
Rwanda. The 1994 genocide resulted in major distortions in sex ratio of Rwandan population
which created high incidence of female headed households. 54% of the population are women
and 46.5 are men. In addition, 21.5% of adult women are widow; 35% of households are
headed by women; and 35% of those households are below the poverty line (National Action
plan 2006).
According to the Household Living Conditions Survey (EICV, 2006), 94 % of Rwandan

households are considered as poor and live in rural areas; and most of them (65%) are headed
by women. NISR and World Food Programme (2006) indicate that 52% of households in
Rwanda are food insecure. The food insecurity resulted in high level of malnutrition which is
also a big challenge to the welfare of the household. In fact, 43% of the Rwandan population
under the age of 15 and 45% of children under the age of 5 suffer from chronic malnutrition;
19% suffer from its most severe form due to inability to afford cheap source of protein. Thus,
food insecurity is highest among agricultural labourers and those with marginal livelihoods
including female-headed households as stated by Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning
(MINECOFIN, 2007).
In order to fight this food insecurity and devastating poverty, Rwandan people are involved
in different kinds of income generating activities. It is in this framework that aquaculture has
been practised. Farm ponds provide food security, nutrition, and occasional cash income for
the rural poor (Castillo et al., 1992; Lightfoot et al., 1991). It has become popular but the
production is quite limited due to lack of appropriate feed. To achieve good yield of fish good
quality feed is essential.
Methodology
Study design
In this context, a qualitative research approach was judged appropriate. The advantage of
using the method is that it allowed the researcher to check the data that were collected using
three research tools namely observation, interview and focus group discussion. The interview
was done with agricultural stakeholders and fish farmers with whom focus group discussion
was done. The researcher observed the farmers’ ponds.
166
Study area
The study was was carried out in Gisagara district, Kigembe sector and Kicukiro district,
Niboyi sector. The choice of the study area was due to different reasons: people in the
countryside are the ones that were left behind in development; now that they have woken
up, it was necessary to check what changes have occurred in the farmers’ lifestyle. Is their
life still the same? Is there any change? If yes, what is it? The researcher found out how
fish farming is useful to people in the countryside and what interests the inhabitants of the
countryside find in it. The reason for the researcher to choose the area was that it is not
very far from where the researcher lives, therefore, it was neither time consuming nor very
expensive to reach the informants.
Sample population
The population was selected using cluster sampling technique. It consisted of agricultural
stakeholders and cluster sampling. The study also included neighbours of farmers who were
met at the market because I was informed about when it was easy to find them. I used sample
of convenience. This gave the idea of the fish farming o not only to their members but also
to the neighboring environment.
Data collection methods

Many data collection techniques including less-structured interviews which were held
face-to-face, focus group discussions, observation, document reviews, and key informant
interviews, were used to ensure validity, reliability and comprehensiveness. Fish farmers
were the primary sources of information, complemented by agricultural stakeholders and
different literature on aquaculture. The focus group discussion lasted an hour while interview
lasted 5 hours. The main targets of questioning for farmers were problems they encounter
and how they solve them, how they collaborate with the local government and how their
ventures are developing. Also, the main focus was how fish culture helps them to improve
their lifestyle: themselves, their families. For neighbours, the main target was how they judge
the importance of fish farming to the society.
Sample size and sampling techniques

A representative sample size of 50 farmers and two agricultural stakeholders was chosen
using cluster sampling. A sample of 50 respondents was interviewed in Kinyarwanda. The
sample consisted of both men and women. Cluster sampling technique was used to select the
sample. The sample was typical because it included people of different age, income and from
rural areas.
Validity and reliability of the instruments

To test content validity, the content was discussed beforehand with an experienced researcher.
Then I went on to pilot the procedures: I chose ten fish farmers that were similar to the
population of my study and used it for piloting. This helped me to do some corrections to
avoid errors in the main research. The participants understood the questions. After that, some
questions were modified for increased clarity. Also, some questions were removed from the
instrument. The pilot study was a useful tool for increasing the clarity of the questions and
reducing the length of the interview
167
Data analysis
The study collected a variety of data, which included verbatim notes, transcribed recording
of interviews or focus groups, jotted notes and field notes of observational research and
the researchers’ reflective notes made during the research. Qualitative data were in textual
form, and indexed to generate or develop analytical categories and theoretical explanations
to describe and explain social phenomena. These data were coded and rearranged according
to themes with a view to providing explanations for the findings (Patton,1994; Australian
Bureau of Statistics, 2004).
Ethical consideration
To gain cooperation and interest of informants, informed consent from respondents was
obtained before collecting data. A good relationship was established during introduction of
the researchers to the community. The researcher explained why the study is being conducted,
assured them of confidentiality and anonymity.
The two research questions provided a framework for analyzing the data gathered on two
fish farming clusters. Since the clusters have the same standards, the data were not analyzed
separately. The data were analyzed in the following sub headings: social development of
fish farmers, economic development of fish farmers, and collaboration between the local
authorities and fish farmers
Social development of fish farmers

Most of these fish farmers are members of cooperatives in accordance with government
policy of poverty reduction. As members of one cooperative, they have mutual aids. As
Munkner (2001) states :“cooperatives do not help the poor, but by working together, by
pooling their resources, by submitting themselves to group discipline and by accepting to
combine self-interest and group solidarity the poor can solve some of their problems by way
of organized self-help and mutual aid better than alone.” The data revealed that interaction of
fish farmers’ cooperatives helped them to change their minds. They are developed, not afraid
to discuss, they have time to learn how to read and write, they discuss how to behave in their
homes, changing their mentalities and this changed many things in their life. They stated for
example that they are now able to solve many problems because there are sometimes conflicts
between themselves.
“Sometimes there are conflicts between us. Since we have experience combined with trainings,
we have the capacity to end conflicts in a way that is convenient to both parties.” Fish farmers
do believe that the way they live today is different from the way they lived in the past. As they
said, some changes have taken place due to what the government has taught their husbands.
Husbands have learnt to help their wives and to treat them right.
“In the history of our country no woman was allowed to discuss with a husband. That is what
our mothers taught us before we got married. We should avoid arguing to avoid being beaten.
A woman had to obey in everything: cultivating, taking care of the plant and make sure that
they are growing very well, taking animals to the bush in the morning and bring them back
168
home in the evening, cooking for the family, taking care of children and their father because
in Rwanda we say (umugabo ni nk’umwana) meaning that a woman should take care of her
husband as much as she takes care of her children. But today we have the right to say what
is wrong in our families, discuss it and find solutions together with our husbands. They no
longer beat us because our government has taken measures to men who beat their wives. That
gave us the right to defend ourselves and to have a word in our families instead of being there
like servants or children.”
These fish farmers are either married or widows; and others are rich while some others are still
poor. This difference makes them talk about their problems differently. For widows, who had
a lot of pond labour to do alone before becoming a member of cooperative, the cooperative
helped them to reduce the amount of work and risks in their business.
“I used to have a problem of not finding who could help me because I am a widow. There was
really much work on ponds: feeding fish, removing plants surrounding the ponds, etc. it was
really discouraging. But today those problems are over because our cooperative enables us
to work together.”
Those who are still married have a different problem as they said. They do not provide pond
labour alone but it does not mean that all their problems were solved. Although women are
helped by their husbands, they mentioned a problem of selfishness of their husbands who still
have an old mentality concerning their properties.
“As a married woman, I can say that the change is not big yet because, you know, men are
selfish, they think that nobody has the right on their ponds. Selfishness is still there but at least
we share the work. We no longer work alone for them to harvest when everything is ready.
They help us because the government has been teaching them to. Change is still small but we
hope it will change in a bigger way.”
Economic development of fish-farmers and their community
Aquaculture development in Rwanda, like most of African countries, has primarily social
objectives, such as nutrition improvement in rural households, generation of supplementary
incomes, diversification of activities and incomes, and creation of employment, especially
in rural communities where opportunities for income generating activities are limited (FAO
1994). This agrees with the findings of this study, where the majority of farmers were involved
in fish farming activities to fulfil social obligations: improving household income, providing
food for home consumption and alternatives to proteins sources, putting idle resources to use,
and fighting devastating poverty.
The results showed that they began fish farming to increase household income and fight food
insecurity, and to use well the limited available resources. Fish farmers from both clusters
agreed that the need to improve household income was the most motive for carrying out
the activity. Fish farmers believe their economic situation has improved and there are facts
that illustrate it. As it was revealed during data collection, people were able to eat fish, buy
good food and new clothes not only on Christmas, not because they were necessarily poor,
but because they thought it was the right time to enjoy their properties. But when they are
169
in cooperatives they discuss not only their resources, but also how to change their image in
the society, how to reach social development and how to get out of darkness. There has been
mind openness. “I used to get new clothes from my husband at the time of harvest, and he
only bought new clothes for Christmas. That’s when I and all the children were brought to the
market to choose our favourite clothes and food that we hadn’t eaten for a long time (meat
or fish). But now, when the cooperative has a big income, we share what to take home. My
share to take home is so big that when I don’t have many problems I buy some new clothes for
myself and for my children and I give them good food too.”
Fish farmers reported that they used to harvest every six months and most of them use it to
buy family meals and do pond activities. The fish farmers stated that the benefit from fish
farming was mostly viewed from social aspects, such as nutritional improvements and social
interaction (meeting neighbours in cooperative and exchanging ideas). They also revealed
that the main reason of farming fish was to generate income, thus, rise above poverty, but
most of them had failed to do so. Income from fish farming has remained generally low, but
non-cash benefits were perceived to be high; they said they did not save any money from fish
farming.
They also said that there is a clear difference between fish farmers and the rest of community;
and that everybody who is not a fish farmer cannot afford fish. They believe that besides
providing affordable fish to their community, fish farming wakes people’s minds up because
of meeting different people especially in their cooperatives. It helps them fight malnutrition
problems which devastates the region. This is a positive impact on the community in general.
“You know my children eat fish many times because I do not buy them. They cannot get suffer
from malnutrition illness, fish are sold in supermarket or market in Butare town and they
are very expensive. I cannot go there to buy fish. As you know it is far from here and I can
buy beans instead. But because we can find them near here, we usually buy them on the New
Year’s Day it is the time to enjoy.”
Another fact that showed that cooperatives are improving is that, for example the one that
cultivates maize is thinking about how to expand its activities next year. They think of
including rearing their own animals to make their cooperative richer. They have hope for a
good future and they are thinking about running bigger projects than their projects today. “We
are planning to start rearing our own animals so that the problem of fertilizers can be solved.
This will give us a better harvest and when the animals are big enough we will take them to
the market and our income will increase.”
They believe that when their income increases, their families’ income will also increase
because when the cooperative is rich, the share is bigger and they really benefit from the
cooperative. Their hope for the future is good and when you listen to them, it is clear that they
are optimistic about the future of their families.
“Our share will increase; we will have enough to eat and to save because in our vision,
we don’t forget to plan for our future life. Our children are studying, they will soon go to
secondary school, and they will need food and clothes, etc if we don’t think about all this
nobody else will take care of them.”
170
Another fact that showed that fish farming is improving is that, for example they used
integration systems in which fish culture is integrated with rabbit farming, poultry, pig
farming, cow farming and vegetable farming. In the area of study many ponds had been in
use for only one or two years.
There is a need to fertilize the ponds so that they can improve the yield. They have hope for
a good future and they are thinking about running bigger projects than their projects today.
“We also use integration of farming fish with rabbits, goats, cows etc so that the problem
of fertilizers can be solved. This will give us a better harvest and when the animals are big
enough we will take them to the market and our income will increase.”
Farmers believe that when their incomes increase, their families’ income will also increase
because when the cooperative is rich, the share is bigger and they really benefit from the
cooperative. Their hope for the future is good and when you listen to them, it is clear that they
are optimistic about the future of their families.
“Our share will increase; we will have enough to eat and to save because in our vision,
we don’t forget to plan for our future life. Our children are studying, they will soon go to
secondary school, and they will need food and clothes, etc if we don’t think about all this
nobody else will take care of them.”
Fish Farming and Productivity
Fish farming was being taken up as a major activity to increase household income and
provide employment especially to people from rural areas where it is not easy to find money;
and this agreed with the findings of this study. People involved in fish farming considered
it to be an important venture because it helps them satisfy the household’s basic needs such
as buying meals, paying school fees, buying soaps and eating fish whenever it is necessary
(when there is a guest). This implied that the activity had been mostly practised by women
due to the fact that a great number of households are headed by women, who had to work
hard to satisfy the household needs. Some challenges like lack of access to fish feeds, other
necessary requirements such as information on fish farming, labour requirements, good
quality of fish types, and in some cases made some people abandon the activity due to poor
gain and profitability. Fish farmers agreed that they spent more than 50% of the gain to fish
ponds’ requirements. This led them to stop feeding fish and reduced pond labours to save
time for other activities.
As regards inputs other than labour, it was found that essential feeds, fertilisers and fish seed
were purchased from local sources. Commonly used feeds included rice bran, concentrate
which were sometimes found in the nearest trading centers (Butare and Kanyaru). Locally
obtained feeds were from natural productivity due to pond fertilisation or made on the farms.
Common feeds included sweet potatoes and arrow root leaves, several other leafy materials,
and food remains from the farmers’ homes; and most of them used locally available fertilisers.
It is also notable that they used of integration systems in which fish culture is integrated with
rabbit farming, poultry, pig farming, cow farming and vegetable farming. In the area of study
many ponds had been in use for only one or two years.
171
As far as collaboration with stakeholders is concerned, farmers revealed that they they did
not get any extension services from local authorities in charge of agriculture, and even those
who received little information from local authorities and agricultural stakeholders claimed
that the information did not include fish feeding advice.
Challenges faced by farmers
Among the main problems fish farmers from both clusters were facing, getting fish feeds was
their most need. Besides, due to high level of poverty among fish farmers especially the ones
from Kigembe area, investing (such as pond labour requirements and feeding fish) on their
activity of fish farming was very low. This study indicated that fish farmers from Kigembe
faced resource constraints more that those from Kicukiro. This was shown by how they used
to feed their fish and how they hired labourers. For example, most farmers from Kicukiro fed
fish with rice bran and plant leaves at least twice a day and hired at least one labourer while
those from Kigembe used only plant leaves and did all ponds’ activities themselves because
they cannot afford the price of rice bran and pay the employee.
In addition, in the present study, fish farmers reported that they were able to undertake
fish farming; however, they often faced some challenges including lack and high cost of
fingerlings, lack of feeds, lack of fish-farming skills, limited capital, floods, lack of market for
their pond yields, low market prices, lack of fish seed, damaged ponds (during the genocide),
flooding or water scarcity in some of the ponds due to poor pond siting, lack of affordable
fish feed, inability to control aquatic weeds, and precocious breeding of tilapia leading to
overpopulation in ponds. Farmers indicated that they also lacked general expertise in day to
day managing of ponds. In summary, to attain the goals of aquaculture development, there is
a need to solve these problems especially those related to fish feeds because without a good
diet, the production of ponds is still poor.
Conclusions
Aquaculture is primarily undertaken for social and economic reasons. It is essentially an

agricultural activity, competing with other agricultural enterprises for the same basic inputs
(land, water, labour, nutrients) and forming part of the farm resource cycle. In Rwanda,
however, fish farming was not considered as the most important agricultural enterprises,
such as cattle, goat keeping and poultry farming; it was carried out to supplement income
from agriculture. Fish farming also required resources that include feeds, land, fertilisers,
and expertise in day to day managing of ponds and labour which most of the poor from rural
areas lack.
Findings have shown that fish farming helps people improve both socially and economically.
Still, there is a need to formulate affordable and good quality fish feeds in Rwanda to improve
the diet of fish. Since the better the diet is, the better the production will be. Once the
production is improved, the profitability will be improved, too.
172
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pp. 174-185 Printed in Uganda. All rights reserved
Developing Decentralised Rice Seed and Fish Fingerling Production

Strategies in Farmers’ Ricefields in the Lake Victoria Basin
Rasowo, J., 2Auma, E.O., 3Ssanyu, G. and Ndunguru, M.J.
1
Department of Biological Sciences, Moi University, P.O.Box 1125, Eldoret, Kenya

1
2
Department of Seed, Crop, and Horticultural Sciences, Moi University, P.O.Box 1125 Eldoret,
Kenya
3
Department of Biological Sciences, Kyambogo University, P.O.Box 1, Kyambogo, Uganda
4
Institute of Development Studies, Mzumbe University, P.O.Box 83, Morogoro, Tanzania
Abstract
The aim of the study was set up and develop integrated rice-fish farming in decentralized rice
and fish seed (fingerlings) production on farmers rice fields in Lake Victoria Basin. Three
rice and fish growing districts of Kisumu (Kenya), Iganga (Uganda) and Ilemela (Tanzania)
were chosen as the research sites. The results of the socioecomic survey revealed that the
rice cultivars grown differed in the various districts while the Nile tilapia and African catfish
were the main fish species farmed in all the three districts. In Kisumu district, the ITA rice
cultivar was found to be the most appropriate cultivar for integrated rice-fish farming. Nile
tilapia seed (fingerling) production was demonstrated in a participatory research conducted
with farmers in Kisumu district.
Key words: Nile tilapia, African catfish, Seed production, Cultivar, Rice field
Introduction
The Lake Victoria Basin (LVB) has a high potential for rice and fish farming due to the
presence of clay-loamy soils in many areas, abundant water, relatively cheap labor and high
tropical temperatures. Most of the rice farmers in LVB are smallholders and practice rice
monoculture on fields that range in size from 0.5 ha to 2.0 ha (Kouko, 2000). Productivity
from the rice fields are relatively low at 1.0 - 3.5 t/ha instead of more than 4.0 - 6.0 t/ha world
averages that are achievable under better management (Kouko, 2000). The dominant fish
production systems in LVB are earthen ponds ranging from 100 m2 to 400 m2 (Anon 1999;
Anon 2002). Fish production from the multitude of small scale fish ponds is generally low.
Since rice is grown in flooded fields and since fish culture needs a water medium, rice and
fish can be produced concurrently in the same rice field with rice being the main crop and
fish an additional crop. This is a technology that enhances the production in the rice field
without increasing the area under cultivation. It is known that agricultural production can be
enhanced by increasing the area under cultivation, reducing post harvest losses, or increasing
yield per unit of production area. Integrated production of rice and fish thus makes a more
efficient use of the water, land and labor resources.
174
An affordable and sustainable quality seed supply is pivotal for improved agricultural
production. The same rice field can be used to produce rice seed and fish seed if the farmers
are trained on the appropriate seed production techniques. This will guarantee farmers access
to affordable and readily available high quality seeds and reduce the current reliance on the
few expensive and centrally located seed supply sources.
The adoption of rice-fish culture comes with a number of challenges. One of them is the ability
of the farmers to understand and eventually adopt and embrace the technology. This is largely
determined by the farmers’ socio-economic, socio-cultural and educational status. Another
challenge is the suitability of the rice varieties grown in the region, with the short stemmed
rice varieties being less suitable because of the deeper standing water required in the rice-fish
farming (Rosario, 1984). Many of the new rice varieties mature within approximately 100
days or less and with such a short culture period for the fish, there is a need to either stock
larger size fish fingerlings with the associated problems of the larger fish dislodging and
eating rice plants, or to harvest the fish early before rice harvest for further on-growing. The
rice paddy environment is another challenge. The fish stocked in rice fields should be able
to tolerate the harsh rice field environment characterized by high (up to 40oC) and variable
temperatures (range of 10oC in one day), low oxygen levels and high turbidity (Khoo and
Tan, 1980). Therefore, fast growth is a desirable characteristic of the fish so that it can attain
marketable size in the shortest time possible within the period the rice takes to be ready for
harvest.
Fortunately the two main aquaculture species in the LVB, the African catfish (Clarias
gariepinus) and the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) have high tolerance to various
extreme environments (Viveen et al., 1985) that enables their culture in the rice field
environment. These include an ability to tolerate poor water quality, an ability to withstand
high diurnal temperature fluctuations, tolerance to low oxygen levels, and rapid growth (Clay,
1979; Hecht et al.,1996; Henken et al., 1986; Huisman and Richter, 1987).
The rice-ecosystem is an agro-ecosystem that is made up of many components with rice, fish,
and plankton being the major components of this ecosystem. Phytoplankton supports the
zooplankton community on which the fish depend on for nourishment. The relative status of
the plankton (zooplankton and phytoplankton) community structure gives an indication of the
possible success or failure of the integrated rice-fish culture system.
The overall objective of the study was to increase rice and fish production in the Lake Victoria
Basin by integrating the rice and fish farming and eventually developing a decentralized
rice seed and fish seed supply through localized seed production in farmers rice fields. The
specific objectives were to (1) document the current rice and fish production methods (2)
identifying suitable methods of integrating rice and fish production in farmers’ fields and (3)
develop integrated rice seed and fish fingerling production methods in farmers’ fields.
Methods
Study sites
The study was carried out on-farm in three sites in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. In Kenya,
the trials were carried out in Kisumu District of Nyanza Province. In Uganda, the study site
175
was at Iganga in Iganga District, while in Tanzania the trials were carried out at Nyamadoke
village in Ilemela District. The socio-economic surveys were carried out in the three districts
of LVB while the on-farm trials on rice cultivars and fish seed production were carried out in
Kisumu district, Kenya. For the on-farm experiments, one rice farmer with a minimum of 0.4
ha of rice field was selected and recruited to participate in the trials.
Socio-economic survey
All the rice and fish farming households in the selected district in each country constituted
the study population. Data were collected through both formal and informal surveys. A cross
sectional design was used to identify the rice farmers, fish farmers, and their social-cultural
and social-economic status, gender and their level of participation. Data were collected using
questionnaires, oral interviews, focus group discussions, and interviews with key informants.
Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the qualitative data. Quantitative data were
analysed in Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Computer Program.
Suitability of the various rice cultivars for integrated rice-fish culture

Nine experimental plots with an average size of 54 m2 were used. Each plot had elevated
dikes with base widths of 0.5 m, top widths of 0.3 m and heights of 0.4 m, and separate
screened water inlets and outlets. Those plots for integrated rice-fish were physically modified
to provide refuge for fish by constructing peripheral trenches (refugia) each with an area of 18
m2 and a depth of 0.5 m. Water height in all the plots was maintained at an average of 25 cm.
The experiment was laid out in a split plot design with rice cultivar as the main plot and
method of rice-fish culture as the sub-plot. Treatment consisted of two levels of rice-fish
culture and three cultivars of rice replicated in three blocks. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivars
tested were the commonly grown varieties in the district and included; ITA, BR 11 and IR
2793-80-1 while the fish species used was the African catfish, Clarias gariepinus.
Fish were released into the plots at 14 days after transplanting (DAT) of rice at a density of
6 fish per m2. Average weight of the catfish at stocking was 15.4 g. Data were collected on
rice growth (tillers per plant/per quadrant, plant height, time to flowering, effective tillers),
fish growth (fish weight, fish length), temp, pH, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, nitrates and
phosphates. All data except fish growth and yield were analyzed using two way split-plot
ANOVA and the means separated by LSD at p>0.05. Mean values for fish growth and
yield was compared using one-way ANOVA followed by Duncan’s multiple range test at a
significance level of p>0.05.
Production of Nile tilapia seed in integrated rice-fish culture

The field plots for integrated rice-fish trials were physically modified to provide refuge for the
fish by constructing a peripheral trench (refugia) occupying about 10 percent of the area of
the rice research plot. A total of four fish refugia were constructed each measuring 5 m x 25
m in length and 0.7 m to 1.0 m deep. The plots were provided with separate screened water
inlets and outlets. Water height was maintained at an average of 25 cm in the rice-fish culture
plots. The refugia were stocked with mixed sex mature brood stock (150-200 g) of Nile tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus) at a ratio of 1:3 (male:female) four days after transplanting (DAT) of
the rice in the paddies,. Three weeks later the first tilapia fingerlings were recorded and then
every week thereafter, the schooling fry fingerlings were removed with a scoop net, counted
176
and transferred directly into nylon net cages (Hapas) measuring 1x3x1m placed in adjacent
holding ponds. All the refugias were fertilized bi-weekly with chicken manure at 1,000 kg
per ha with a weekly addition of inorganic fertilizers N (20 kg per ha) and P (5 kg per ha)
to stimulate zooplankton growth. Supplemental feeding was done using rice bran. Physico-
chemical parameters of the water in the refugias and rice fields were recorded on a weekly
basis. This continued for the four months of rice growing cycle until the rice was harvested.
Plankton studies on rice-fish culture ponds

Zooplankton was sampled using integrated water sample collected with a 2 litre canister
from the pond and filtered through a net of 5 mm mesh size. Samples were preserved with
95% alcohol. Zooplanktons were counted using a light microscope. Phytoplankton was
collected with a 0.5 litre canister at a depth of 0.2 m and preserved using Lugol’s solution.
Phytoplankton counts and length measurements were done using a light microscope. Using
the total counts and length and biovolume formula, each taxa biomass was calculated. Algae
were identified up to genus or species level using identification keys by Bourrelly (1972),
Coesel (1983), and John et al. (2002).The plankton data recorded were analysed in SPSS.
Socio-economic characteristics of the farmers

Results on the socio-economic characteristics of the rice farmers in Kisumu District are
presented in Table 1. Most farmers were between the ages of 31-50 years (52.6%). Majority of
them were males and most had basic levels of education. Farmers with professional training
in fish and rice farming were few. In Ilemela District, Tanzania, most of the rice farmers were
between 41 and 60 years of age and the majority were men (Table 2). Over 60% of them were
married with most of the farmers (77%) having no professional training. There were more
men (90.5%) than women farmers in Iganga District, Uganda. About 25% of the farmers had
professional training in fish growing and rice production and the rest had only primary level
education without any professional training. The levels of education of the farmers show that
they are trainable in basic modern rice and fish farming techniques. They would be able to
follow the trainings especially if conducted in the local language. We strongly recommend
that the training materials should be translated in the local language in such a circumstance.
177
Table 1: Socio-economic characteristics of the rice farmers in Kisumu District, Kenya
Location
Apondo Nyakalewa West Kano Miriu Ahero Arombo Ogongo Overall
(n=18) (n=16) (n=32) (n=7) (n=21) (n=16) (n=10) (n=120)
Age
21-30 3.3 0.8 0.8 0.0 2.5 1.7 1.7 10.8
31-40 5.0 5.8 4.2 0.0 5.0 1.7 1.7 23.3
41-50 2.5 4.2 6.7 3.3 1.7 5.8 4.2 28.3
51-60 2.5 0.8 5.8 1.7 6.7 2.5 0.0 20.0
>60 1.7 1.7 9.2 0.8 1.7 1.7 0.8 17.5
Gender
Male 13.3 9.2 19.2 3.3 14.2 7.5 5.0 71.7
Female 1.7 4.2 7.5 2.5 3.3 5.8 3.3 28.3
Level of
education
Never 1.7 0.0 2.5 0.0 3.3 4.2 1.7 13.3
Primary 5.0 11.7 16.7 2.5 6.7 5.8 4.2 52.5
Secondary 8.3 0.8 7.5 3.3 7.5 2.5 2.5 32.5
College 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.0 1.7
Professional
training
Yes 9.2 8.3 10.8 1.7 5.0 2.5 1.7 39.2
No 5.8 5.0 15.8 4.2 12.5 10.8 6.7 60.8
178
Yes 9.2 8.3 10.8 1.7 5.0 2.5 1.7 39.2
No 5.8 5.0 15.8 4.2 12.5 10.8 6.7 60.8
Table 2: Social economic characteristics of the farmers in Ilemela District,

Tanzania
Table 2: Social economic characteristics of the farmers in Ilemela District, Tanzania
Location
Sangabuye Buswelu Marutunguru Nduruma
21-30 6.3 31.3 15.8 33.3
Age 31-40 31.3 18.8 31.6 16.7
41-50 25.0 18.8 15.8 41.7
51-60 25.0 31.3 26.3 8.3
>60 12.5 0.0 10.5 0.0
Male 50.0 87.5 68.4 83.3
Gender Female 50.0 12.5 31.6 16.7
Single 12.5 12.5 12.5 6.3
Marital status Married 62.5 87.5 87.5 68.8
Widow 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0
Divorced 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0
Never 6.3 0.0 5.3 8.3
Primary 68.8 87.5 78.9 83.3
Education levels Secondary 0.0 6.3 5.3 8.4
College 25.0 6.3 10.5 0.0
Self employed 93.8 100.0 100.0 100.0
(Agriculture)
Occupation Self employed 6.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
(Non-farm income)
Professional Yes 25.0 25.0 15.8 25.0
training No 75.0 75.0 84.2 75.0
Are you able to read Yes 56.3 50.0 84.2 50.0

and write No 43.8 50.0 15.8 50.0
Information
Informationononfarm farmsizessizes
and proportion of farm of
and proportion sizefarm
undersize
rice production
under riceinproduction
Kisumu District
in
is given in
Kisumu Table 3.
District is Farmers
given ininTable
Ahero 3.andFarmers
West Kano Irrigation
in Ahero andschemes
West Kanohad significantly
Irrigation
(P<0.05)
schemes larger farm sizes than
had significantly those inlarger
(P<0.05) other irrigation
farm sizes schemes. The main
than those cropsirrigation
in other grown by
farmers
schemes. The main crops grown by farmers apart from rice were maize (92.5%) green
apart from rice were maize (92.5%) and beans (84.5%). Fewer farmers planted and
grams (45.8%), peas (40.8%) and tomatoes (30.8%). In Iganga,
beans (84.5%). Fewer farmers planted green grams (45.8%), peas (40.8%) andmany rice farmers grow other
crops to supplement rice production. Maize growing was most dominant
tomatoes (30.8%). In Iganga, many rice farmers grow other crops to supplement rice crop (58.7 %) in the
region.
production. Maize growing was most dominant crop (58.7 %) in the region. OtherIn
Other crops were cassava (14.4 %), vegetables (11.1), yams and potatoes (7%).
Ilemela District, the findings revealed that crops grown are mostly food crops whereby the
land under rice is small compared to land under other crops. Rice seemed to be grown as a
cash crop (Figure 1). Farmers in the three districts in the three countries have had experience
153
in cultivating the rice crop and hence the concept was therefore not new to all of them.
179
Table 3: Mean (± SEM) of farm sizes, farm size under other crops and rice, and percentage of
farm size under rice crop in Kisumu District
Scheme
Apondo Nyakalewa West Kano Miriu Ahero Arombo Ogongo
Farm size 1.70 ± 0.18b 1.21 ± 0.11a 2.00 ± 0.08c 0.85 ± 0.12a 1.93 ± 0.11c 1.11 ± 0.16a 1.29 ± 0.21ab
Size under
other crops 0.82 ± 0.11b 0.71 ± 0081a 0.47 ± 0.07a 0-63 ± 0.09a 0.56 ± 0.08a 0.46 ± 0.11a 0.93 ± 0.25b
(ha.)
Land size 0.63 ±
0.87 ± 0.07b 0.64 ± 0.12ab 1.52 ± 0.07c 0.50 ± 0.11a 1.51 ± 0.10c 0.96± 0.18b
under rice (ha.) 0.09ab
% of farm size
51.06 52.73 75.58 58.18 81.89 56.44 74.43
under rice
Mean values followed by the same superscript are not significantly different across the column at
µ=0.05.
4
Land size in acres .
Farm size
3
Size of farm under these
crops
Land size under rice
2
0
Sangabuye Buswelu Marutunguru Nduruma
Figure 1: Farm characteristics in Ilemela District, Tanzania.
Rice Varieties
Several varieties of rice were grown in Ilemela District, Tanzania, but the most common were
Super, Sukari sukari, Sindano, Rangimbili and Kahogo (Figure 2). Information on rice varieties
grown in Kisumu District, Kenya is shown in Table 4. According to the respondents, Basmati
was the most preferred variety (73.3%). In Iganga District, Uganda, eight rice varieties were
being grown with the most popular being K5-k25 (Table 5). These results show that the rice
varieties grown differed from country to country. Even in the same district, preference for
various varieties differed. It is therefore important that cultivar trials be conducted for each
district in order to identify the variety most suitable for integrated rice-fish culture in each
district and each country.
180

Table 4: Rice varieties grown by farmers in Kisumu, Kenya
Varieties IR ITA BR Basmati
% of farmers
growing the 35.0 7.5 15.8 73.3
variety
Scheme % farmers Scheme % farmers Scheme % farmers Scheme % farmers

% of farmers Nyakalewa 40.5 Nyakalewa 50.0 Nyakalewa 66.7 West Kano 33.3
per scheme Apondo 29.7 Ogongo 25.0 Ogongo 16.7 Ahero 19.2
growing the Miriu 10.8 Arombo 12.5 Arombo 11.7 Arombo 15.1
variety Ogongo 16.2 Apondo 12.5 Apondo 5.6 Ogongo 9.1
Arombo 2.7 Nyakalewa 9.15
Table 5: Rice varieties grown by farmers in Iganga, Uganda
Variety K5-k25 Kaiso Super Super Super Super Upland Vietnam

America China Pakistan
% of farmers 38.7 16.5 12.7 12.7 9.5 3.2 6.3 4.8

growing variety
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0 Sangabuye
50.0 Buswelu
40.0 Marutunguru
Nduruma
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
li
e
ga
i
o
hi
ta
r
bi
ar
ul
or
pe
an
ga
en
os
k
im
am
sh
Su
nd
su
Lu
M
as
Pi
ng
in
Si
ri
ng
w
Ra
ka
Se
M
Su
Figure 2: Rice varieties grown by farmers in Ilemela District Tanzania.
181
Rice cultivar/Fish growth experiments in integrated rice-fish culture
Three of the four rice cultivars grown in Kisumu District (ITA, IR, BR and Basmati) were
tested. Basmati was left out because the research team could not get pure seeds of the cultivar.
Apparently what the farmers were referring to as Basmati is a mixture of Basmati and IR. Rice
plant height was used to study the effects of treatment on plant growth. When the different
cultivars were compared, the IR cultivar was significantly taller than the other cultivars (Table
6). There was significantly less incidence of stem-borers in ITA cultivar compared to the other
cultivars (Table 6). Table 7 compares the fish yield performance in the rice-fish treatments.
Although there were no significant differences in the initial weights of the fish stocked, the
fish yields differed significantly (P< 0.05) in terms of weight gain. Mean net fish production
was highest in the ITA-Fish plots. However there was no statistical difference (P > 0.05)
between BR and IR-Fish plots. There were significant differences in growth performance of
C. gariepinus among the three types of rice cultivar treatments (P < 0.05). Growth was best
in Fish-ITA and least in Fish-BR integration.
Plant height may be determined by the genetic constitution of the cultivar. In addition it may
be influenced by external factors including status of soil fertility. Although the IR cultivar
was significantly taller, the ITA cultivar was significantly more tolerant to attack by rice
stem borers hence resulting in higher net rice yields. Thus, when the yields were taken into
consideration, the cultivar ITA performed best under the rice-fish polyculture trial. It should
therefore be the cultivar to be promoted in the Kisumu district as the best rice to be used for
integrated rice-fish farming. The same experimental setup is being used in the on-going trials
in Iganga (Uganda) and Ilemela (Tanzania) in order to identify the appropriate cultivars for
the regions.
The net fish yields realized in Kisumu district ranged from 4.6-5.5 Kg/plot and gave an
annual net fish production range from 3.2 to 3.8 tons per ha per year of fish should be seen
as an additional crop in the paddies. The additional crop increases the profitability of the
farming system and this should be clearly demonstrated to the rice farmers. This will probably
improve the chances of adoption of the integrated rice-fish farming technology.
Table 6: Influence of rice cultivar on selected performance indices of rice in a rice-fish culture
in Kisumu, Kenya
Plant Tillers Panicles Harvest 1,000- Seed yield Dead hearts

Treatment height stool-1 stool-1 I n d e x s e e d (g m-2) stool-1
(cm) 6 3 98 DAT (%) weight (g) 84 DAT
98DAT DAT
BR Cultivar 67.2b 7.9c 3.9b 31.8ab 21.0a 308c 1.4a
IR Cultivar 75.7a 10.1b 3.5b 26.3b 18.4b 369b 1.6a
ITA Cultivar 69.5ab 11.9a 5.2a 33.8a 19.1b 417a 0.7b
LSD 0.05 8.4 1.7 0.9 6.4 1.8 12 0.6
Values in the same row with the same superscript are not significantly different (P >0.05),
DAT = Days after transplanting rice.
182
Table 7: Fish yield parameters (mean ± SEM) in plots containing rice-fish cultures in Kisumu,
Kenya
Parameter IR-Fish BR-Fish ITA-Fish
Mean initial fish weight (g) 15.4± 0.6a 15.6± 0.4a 15.3 ±0.7a
Mean final fish weight (g) 69.6 ±1.52a 66.27 ±1.71a 75.51± 3.14b
Recovery (%) 79.9 81.5 82.6
Mean Net fish yield (NFY) (kg/plot) 4.67 ±0.03a 4.51± 0.01a 5.46 ±0.08b
Mean Net annualized production (NAP) (Kg

3232± 287a 3111 ±189a 3767± 300b
ha-1 yr-1)
Values in the same row with the same superscript are not significantly different (P >0.05),
SEM, standard error of the mean.
Nile Tilapia Seed (fingerling) Production in rice-fields in Kisumu

The mean total Nile tilapia fingerling production is given in Table 8. There was a large
monthly variation in the number of fingerlings harvested with the highest number being
harvested during the rice growing season of April-May-June which coincided with the height
of the long rains in Kenya. The lowest harvest figures were recorded in September.
Table 8: Average fingerling numbers and chemical parameters of the fish refugia in Kisumu.
M e a n Dissolved pH NH4-N NO3-N P O 4- P

fingerlings oxygen (µgl-1) (µgl-1) (µgl-1)
(number per (ppm/µgl-1)
harvest/day)
Paddy 1 100.5 ± 19.43 10.02 ± 1.14 6.9 ± 0.22 < 0.1 1.33 ± 0.52 < 0.5
Paddy 2 114.25 ± 33.89 9.3 ± 1.16 7 ± 0.10 < 0.1 1.5 ± 0.55 < 0.5
Paddy 3 108.5 ± 26.66 10.64 ± 0.52 7.2 ± 0.3 < 0.1 1.5 ± 0.54 < 0.5
Paddy 4 84.75 ± 18.34 9.02 ± 0.86 6.9 ± 0.23 < 0.1 1.5 ± 0.55 < 0.5
Plankton Studies in Fish refugia

A total of 79 taxa of phytoplankton were identified in the fish refugia with four major taxa
being Euglenophytes, Dinoflagellates, Greens, Blue greens and Diatoms (Figure 4).The
zooplanktons Brachionus sp, Asplanchna sp, Moina and Cyclopids were the most common.
Although plankton was abundant in the refugias it is probable that the abundance can be
further increased by additional fertilization.
183
120,000
100,000
80,000
Biomass(µg/l)
60,000
Diatoms
40,000
Blue greens
Greens
20,000
Dianoflagellates
0 Euglenophytes
pond1 pond2 pond3 pond4
Figure 4: Biomass (µg/l) of the major taxa in refugia for months of February, April,
FigureMay
4: Biomass (µg/l)during
and June 2009 of the major
one taxa
rice-fish in refugia
growing for months of February, April, May and
season.
June 2009 during one rice-fish growing season.
Conclusions
Conclusions
This study has demonstrated that integrated rice-fish farming is feasible in LVB. The
rice cultivar ITA was found to give the best growth and yield results during trials in
This study has demonstrated
an integrated rice-fish farmingthatsetup
integrated
in Kisumurice-fish farming
and is therefore is feasiblefor
recommended inrice
LVB. The rice
cultivar ITA was
farmers founddistrict,
in Kisumu to giveKenya.
the bestNilegrowth and yieldproduction
tilapia fingerling results during trials was
in rice fields in an integrated
shown
rice-fish to be setup
farming feasible.
inIfKisumu
the methodology is perfected
and is therefore and fully adopted,
recommended it can
for rice bring in Kisumu
farmers
great benefits to subsistence farmers in LVB through cash generated through sales,
district, Kenya. Nile tilapia fingerling production in rice fields was shown to be feasible. If the
direct consumption or for restocking. The approach will also enable small-scale
methodology
farmers toisreadily
perfected
accessand fully
high adopted,
quality it can bring
tilapia fingerlings in great benefits
the local to subsistence farmers
vicinities
in LVB through cash generated through sales, direct consumption or for restocking. The
Acknowledgement
approach will also enable small-scale farmers to readily access high quality tilapia fingerlings
in the local vicinities
We gratefully acknowledge the financial support from Sida through the Inter-
University Council for East Africa (IUCEA) and Lake Victoria Research Initiative
Acknowledgement
(VicRes) which made this study possible. The logistical support from the VicRes
secretariat is greatly appreciated. The team is indebted to Moi University (Kenya),
Kyambogoacknowledge
We gratefully University (Uganda) and Mzumbe
the financial university
support from(Tanzania) for allowing
Sida through the
the Inter-University
researchers time to do fieldwork and to use university facilities.
Council for East Africa (IUCEA) and Lake Victoria Research Initiative (VicRes) which made
this study possible. The logistical support from the VicRes secretariat is greatly appreciated.
References
The team is indebted to Moi University (Kenya), Kyambogo University (Uganda) and
Mzumbe university (Tanzania) for allowing the researchers time to do fieldwork and to use
university facilities.
158
184
References
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of the Socioeconomics Workshop. GCP/KEN/060/BEL. Lake Basin Development
Authority. 26th-30th July 1999, Kisumu, Kenya.
Anon, 2002. Aquaculture in Uganda: Baseline Survey Report 1999-2000. NARO and MAAF.
107 pages.
Bourrelly, P., 1970. Les algues déau douce. Tome III: Les algues bleues et rouges, Les
Eugléniens, Peridiniens et Cryptomonadines. Ed. Boubée, Paris, 512pp.
Clay D (1979). Population biology, growth and feeding of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus)
with special reference to juveniles and their importance in fish culture. Archive of
Hydrobiol. 87:453-482.
Coesel, P. F. M. 1983. De Desmidiaceeen Van Nederland. Deel 2. Fam. Closteriaceae.
Wetenschappelijke Mededelingen van de Koninklijke Nederlandse Natuurhistorische
Vereniging.
Hecht, T., Oellermann, L. and Verheust, L. 1996. Perspectives on clariid catfish culture in
Africa. Aquatic and Living Resources 9:197-206 (Hors serie).
Henken AM, Machiels MAM, Deeker W, Hogendoorn, H. 1986. The effect of dietary protein
and energy content on growth rate and feed utilization of the African catfish, Clarias
gariepinus (Burchell 1822). Aquaculture 58:55-74
Huisman, E.A. and Richter, C.J.J. 1987. Reproduction, growth, health control and aquaculture
potential of African catfish, Clarias gariepinus (Burchell 1822). Aquaculture 63:1-
14.
John D.J., Whitton B.A. & Brook J.A. (eds) 2002. The fresh alga flora of the Britishisles. An
identification guide to fresh water and terrestrial algae, Cambridge University press
United Kingdom 702 pp
Khoo, K.H., Tan, E.S.P. 1980. Review of the rice-fish culture in Southeast Asia, p. 1-14.
In. R.S.V. Pullin and Z.H. Shehadeh (eds) Proc. Of the ICLARM-SEARCA Conf.
on Integrated Agriculture-Aquaculture Farming Systems, 6-9 August 1979, Manila,
Philippines, p. 258
Kouko, W. 2000. Current status of rice production in Kenya. 7th Bienniel KARI Scientific
Conference, 13-17 Nov 2000.
Viveen W.,Richter C.,Van Oordt P.,Jensen,J.,Huisman, E. 1985. Practical manual for the
culture of the African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) Directorate General for International
Technical Cooperation. The Hague. The Netherlands.
185
Team building and leadership: a tool for enhancing collaborative

research performance
Joseph Rasowo
Department of Biological Sciences
Moi University, P.O. Box 3900
Eldoret, Kenya
Abstract
The Lake Victoria Research (VicRes) Initiative is a regional collaborative multidisciplinary

research program that has invigorated research in the Lake Victoria Basin. Groups of funded
projects that address closely related issues have been grouped into clusters. The Fisheries
and Aquaculture Technologies Cluster has sixteen individual research projects. Due to the
functional and geographical barriers between the researchers from the different training and
cultural backgrounds, the success of the projects will depend on how well each group operates
as a team. This paper discusses team building practices needed for teams to unleash the talent
of individual team members. The paper further identifies different stages of team development
and discusses characteristics of an effective team. In addition, it discusses problem solving
techniques and strategies for dealing with team conflicts.
Key words:
Introduction
Lake Victoria Research (VicRes) Initiative has, since 2003, been supporting inter- and multi-
disciplinary research projects contributing towards poverty reduction and environmental
restoration in the Lake Victoria Basin. Eligibility criteria stresses a regional collaborative
multidisciplinary approach with funding awarded only to a research team with representation
from at least two of the East African Community partner states of Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania,
Rwanda and Burundi.
One of the persistent challenges to VicRes research has been that of quickly transforming
research groups into research teams. Breaking down functional and geographical barriers
between the researchers who are drawn from different training and cultural backgrounds
continues to consume a large percentage of the project duration. Often, researchers are
interacting for the first time in response to a call for concept papers when they are trying to
meet the eligibility criteria. The researchers are meeting for the first time when VicRes holds
a concept harmonization workshop where the researchers are brought together during the
development of a full proposal for submission for possible funding.
Each research group elects a team leader who is expected to have sufficient levels of ingenuity
and leadership skills. However a lot of time passes (even up to one year) before the group
begins to function as a team. Some projects take even longer with members being disgruntled
and activities having no focus and synergy. With teams being at the core of corporate strategy
of VicRes, the success of the research depend on how quickly the group members begin to
operate as a performing team and work towards achieving the mission of VicRes.
186
Working as a team
The words “team” and “group” are often used interchangeably suggesting that they mean
the same thing. However, this is not true, and just calling a “group” a “team” doesn’t make
it so. We can define a team as a group of people who come together under shared leadership,
mutual responsibility, and conscious authority to achieve agreed-upon goals in a mutually
effective fashion (Parker, G.N.,1996). In other words, members of a team agree on a goal and
agree that the only way to achieve the goal is to work together. A group can have a common
goal but they do not work together towards achieving it while some groups do work together
but they do not have a common goal.
A group needs to perform several activities on a regular basis if they desire to grow into a
team. These include setting and resetting goals and priorities, analyzing or allocating the way
work is being performed according to team members’ roles and responsibilities, examining
the way the team is working, and examining how the group handles agreement, conflict and
how group members relate to one another.
All teams should have norms, rules, or guidelines that guide the behavior of team members
(Harrington-Mackin, 1994). In most cases they need not to be written down but are simply
understood by team members. Teams should spend time establishing a set of norms or ground
rules before they begin their research work. The ground rules need to cover team trust,
participation, communication, and conflict solving.
Trust and communication in a team
Trust is the bond that allows any kind of significant relationship to exist between people. Trust
is produced in a climate that includes honesty, openness, consistency and treating each other
with dignity and fairness (Parker, 1996; Harrington-Mackin, 1994). A climate of trust fosters
teamwork. Trust allows team members to stay problem-focused. The absence of trust diverts
the mental concentration and energy of a team away from its performance objective and onto
other issues. Communication becomes guarded and distorted. Alliances and personal agendas
begin to take precedence over the team goal. The resulting loss of focus on the common goal
often renders it ineffective. Conversely, when trust is present, a collaborative climate is more
readily fostered, allowing team members to stay focused on their common problem or goal.
There is no suspicion or conflict to divert their attention. Team problem-solving relies on the
unhampered exchange of information and communication that is born of trust.
Trust improves the quality of collaborative outcomes. If a team member is having problems
figuring something out or making a decision, this is the kind of information that must be
shared. Hiding negative information and not being willing to listen to negative information
are norms that can ruin team outcomes. Some people might question whether individuals are
team players if they persist in talking about problems they need help with, warning the team
about a violation of its own standards, or pushing for clarity on an issue that most members
of the team seem to understand. Yet the facts might reveal that these people are committing
their mental and emotional energy to the success of the team effort.
187
Trust improves the quality of collaborative efforts because with it, decisions are more in tune
with what is in fact happening. Problems are raised and dealt with instead of being hidden
until they become disastrous. And if something internal to the team itself is interfering with
the team’s success, then that problem is more likely to be confronted and resolved (Parker,
1996; Harrington-Mackin, 1994).
Trust leads to compensating. Compensating happens when one team member picks up the
slack that occurs when another member falters. If a lot of compensating occurs then a whole
team is capable of pulling itself, collectively, to new levels of performance. Compensating
builds confidence. There is, in fact, a strong association between what you think you are
capable of and your actual performance level. When a team is clear about its goal and unified
in its effort, and at the same time no one fears being left behind, being criticized for failing, or
being left on his own without support, then that team is capable of reaching new heights and
arriving at the goal as an intact unit (Parker, 1996; Harrington-Mackin, 1994).
Lastly, trust promotes more efficient communication and coordination. Communicating

candidly, confronting issues, and using each other’s resourcefulness are factors that affect
climate and increase the likelihood of teams attaining missions, goals, and objectives. Trust
is associated with efficiency of communication and coordination, especially in activities
directed toward improving the team’s understanding of its own performance. Thus, trust not
only characterizes a team that functions effectively in pursuit of its goal, it also characterizes
a team that is self-correcting, better at examining and improving its own processes.
Solving conflicts in a team
Conflicts will always occur when people are working as teams. The VicRes team leader is
expected to have effective leadership skills and qualities to deal with any team conflicts.
In most cases the team leader is given this responsibility without prior training on team
management or conflict resolution. More often than not, whenever a group of people are
brought together, one hardly misses one or two difficult people amongst the group who will
create conflicts. Usually the easiest way to deal with difficult people is to stay as far away
from them as possible (Cava, 1992). For VicRes funded projects, this is not an option since
you are expected to work as a team. If you avoid dealing with a touchy problem, it’s not going
to go away. In all probability, avoiding it will just make the problem worse.
Conflict can be a positive thing for the team if handled properly. If the team ignores the
conflict, and keep the anger and frustration tamped down, it can smolder underground, until
all of a sudden, it blazes up out of control. A team leader who avoids conflict sets the team on
a calamitous course. For example, maybe there is a team member who is constantly late with
reports and schedules, but the team leader lets the situation ride without dealing with it. Not
only will this reinforce bad work habits, but team leader will lose the respect of those who
see him/her not dealing with the conflict. On the other hand, the team leader can’t go around
confronting everyone and everything. This leads to the questions: when does one ignore
and when does one confront? Sometimes the team leader is reluctant to ask for the team
members help in resolving conflicts because they feel that the burden for conflict resolution
rests entirely on their shoulders. This is not only inaccurate; it can also be detrimental to the
team. Team leaders who appoint themselves sole arbitrators and harmonizers for their teams
are headed for disaster.
188
When a team is in internal conflict, there are several things that the team leader can do. The
first is to try and identify the real problem, since quite often the real problem lurks somewhere
behind or underneath the apparent problem (Bennis &Burt, 2007; Covey, 2004). Conflict will
not be resolved until the process can address the true problem. Next is to develop several
possible solutions to the problem. In reality, most situations can go in a variety of directions.
It may be up to the team leader to create the choices and to choose the best workable choice
from the possibilities gathered. The goal is to choose the possibility that will hold the most
for both parties. A great idea goes nowhere if you don’t communicate it to others, so, the team
leader needs to communicate in a manner certain to be received (Portnoy, 1998). Resolving
conflict is about preserving relationships. If that were not so, people would not try to resolve
their conflicts. Disputes would just fester and eventually destroy the relationship. In solving
a conflict, the team leader must give up a must-win attitude. Conflicts are not won; they are
resolved (Bennis &Burt 2007; Covey, 2004).
Team development
Teams go through various stages of development namely forming, storming, norming, and
performing (Harrington-Mackin,D.,1994). Team leaders and other members of the group
have an important role to play in each stage and knowing what to expect in each stage can
greatly help teams or individuals in the team.
During the forming stage group members may be anxious, adopt wait-and-see attitude, or be
formal. Usually members have no clear idea of goals, objectives or expectations. The team
leader should assist the members to clarify the goals. The team members should get to know
each other and build commitment towards one larger goal.
The storming stage is characterized by team members being eager to get going. Conflict
normally arises at this stage as people bring different ideas of how to accomplish goals and
notice other members differences rather than similarities. Tensions can increase and some
members may drop out mentally or physically. At the norming stage members will begin to
recognize ways they are alike and that they are in this project together with the all members
being winners or losers. They will get more social. In the last stage, the performing stage,
team members are trained and competent, and able to do their own problem-solving. The
team leader will ask for critical self-assessment and looks at ways to challenge team members
and develop them. At this stage, the team members understand their roles and responsibilities
and self-motivated and self-trained.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEAMS
Several characteristics of effective teams have been recognized. These include among others
clear purpose, informality, participation, listening, civilized disagreements, consensus
decisions, open communication, clear roles and work assignments, shared leadership, style
diversity, and self-assessment (Blanchard and Bowles,2000). VicRes project teams should
constantly check to see if they are on track towards attaining these characteristics.
It is quite frustrating to be part of a team with no clear purpose, where members have no idea
of why they are there or what they should be doing. It is important that team members know
189
and accept the vision or mission of the funding agency. They should alo ensure that they
are active participants when the research team sets the goals and objectives of the research
project. During the setting of the goals and objectives, there are some things which should
be internalized by all team members to guide the goals and objectives, and these are summed
up by an acronym: SMART PPP. This acronym stands for Specific, Measurable, Attainable,
Realistic, and with Timelines. Goals should be expressed Positively, be Personalized for
each member of the team, and all goals should be Put in writing, where every team member
can see them often (Blanchard and Bowles 2000; Huszczo,G., 1996). Once the team set
goals, an action plan should be developed for accomplishing the goals.
Usually with high-performance teams, the climate tends to be informal, comfortable, and
relaxed. There are no obvious tensions or signs of boredom. Teams enjoy getting together and
they interact easily (Huszczo,G., 1996 ). High-performance team members also use effective
listening techniques such as questioning, paraphrasing, and summarizing to get out ideas.
Listening is the single most effective factor that distinguishes effective teams from ineffective
teams. The ability to really listen is an important skill for any team member to have. Listening
allows one to understand where the other person is coming from, and shows one is interested
in what others have to say.
For important decisions, the goal is substantial agreement through open discussion of
everyone’s ideas and avoidance of formal voting or easy compromises. Consensus is finding
a proposal acceptable enough that all members can support it and no member opposes it.
Consensus, however, is not a unanimous vote as a consensus may not represent everyone’s
first priorities. In a majority vote, only the majority gets something they are happy with;
people in the minority may get something they don’t want at all, which is not what consensus
is all about.
Team players can encourage open communication and trust by being dependable, pitching
in and helping out, reading and responding to verbal cues, and candidly sharing views. The
basic principles of good communication include the objective, the method, the structure and
feedback of the communication (Hamilton and Parker 2007; Guffey,E. 2006). One should
have an end result or objective clearly in mind before communicating. The purpose should
be examined and specifically what one wants the receiver to understand or to do as a result
of the communication. The best method for achieving ones objective is essential. Obviously,
some communication methods or channels are better than others for a given objective. One
should weigh the alternatives (written or oral, group or individual, formal or informal) before
selecting a specific method such as a letter, memo, meeting, telephone call, or e-mail. How
one organizes and constructs ones communication is very important to its success. There are
many considerations: How much or how little to cover? What is the best way to organize
the message? How you can keep it simple and concise yet complete ?. How you can gear
it to your audience’s needs (frame of reference)? In order to ensure that ones message has
been understood and to evaluate the emotions of the receiver one should encourage frequent
responses.
Another characteristic of effective teams is that there are clear expectations about the roles
played by each team member. When action is taken, clear assignments are made, accepted,
and carried out. Work is fairly distributed among team members ..
190
Shared Leadership is an idea to consider when working in a team environment. Being the
team leader doesn’t mean doing all the work yourself (Bothwell, L.1983; Bennis,W. 2003).
Nor does it mean always being the one out in front. There are several benefits of sharing
the burden of leadership including: more ideas, burden of decision making not on one
person’s shoulders, gives everyone the chance to grow, more buy-in, and sense of ownership
( Bothwell, L.1983; Bennis,W. 2003; Caroselli,M., 2000; Portnoy R.,1998).
There are also some possible disadvantages of shared leadership including: some groups
require more direction and need a central leader, some groups cannot work to full potential
without central leader, and decision making can take more time (Bothwell, L.1983; Bennis,W.
2003; Caroselli,M., 2000). The key to shared leadership is communication. If several (or all)
members of the group are going to share in leading the group, they must agree on where they
are going and how they are going to get there. They must also communicate along the way
to make sure they are on track. When people work in teams, it can be helpful to get a sense
of what the team strengths and weaknesses are. In addition it is useful for team leaders to
undertake a self evaluation in order to understand their individual strengths and weaknesses.
Conclusions
When a team becomes more aligned, a commonality of direction emerges and individual
energies harmonize. The team has a shared vision and an understanding of how to complement
each others efforts. When energies of individual members work at cross purposes, their efforts
do not translate into team effort and this results in wasted energy however hard they work.
Table 1 gives a team development survey structure that VicRes project teams can use to
assess themselves.
A team should routinely undertake a SWOT analysis. SWOT stands for Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats. SWOT Analysis is used for understanding your strengths and
weaknesses and for looking at the opportunities and threats you face. In a team sense, it is
used for identifying a team’s strengths and weaknesses, and for areas of growth and potential
problems that lie ahead. It is a good idea to perform a SWOT analysis of the project team at
pre-defined points in time. For example, since VicRes funds a three-year research project, the
team may want to do a SWOT analysis as often as every three or six months. A SWOT analysis
of the team can also help direct the team and make it be focused on their set objectives.
A SWOT analysis for the teams in the VicRes projects may reveal the following generalities
which can be turned into team assets;
(i) Strength: Members from diverse backgrounds, countries, universities and research
institutions.
(ii) Weakness: Members are from diverse backgrounds and may feel unequal.
(iii) Opportunity: If successful, the teams can have a major impact on customer satisfaction.
(iv)Threat: Diversity in the team can negatively impact that success.
191
References
Barner, R.W. 2001. Team Troubleshooter. Davies-Black Publishing, London.

Bennis, W. 2003. On Becoming A Leader. Perseus Publishing, London.
Bennis, W. and Burt, N. 2007. Leaders: Strategies for Taking Charge. Collins, London.
Blanchard, K. and Sheldon, B. 2000. High Five! The Magic of Working Together. William
Morrow, London.
Bothwell, L. 1983. The Art of Leadership. Prentice Hall, New York.
Caroselli, M. 2000. Leadership Skills for Managers. McGraw-Hill, NewYork.
Cava, R. 1992. Difficult People. Key Porter Books, London.
Covey, S. 2004. The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People. Free Press, London.
Guffey, M.E. 2006. Essentials of Business Communication . South-Western College, London..
Harrington-MacKin, D. 1994. The Team Building Tool Kit. AMACOM.
Hamilton, C. and Cordell, P. 2007. Communicating for Results. Wadsworth Publishing,
Lndon.
Huszczo, G. 1996. Tools for Team Excellence. Davies-Black Publishing, London.
Parker, G.M. 1996. Team Players and Teamwork. Jossey-Bass, London.
Portnoy, R. 1998. Leadership: 4 Competencies for Success. Prentice Hall, London.
192
Table 1: Team Development Survey
How often is this statement true?

(Please circle one number only)
Very
Statements Seldom Sometimes Often frequently
1. Clear Purpose: The vision, mission, goal, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
objectives or task of the team has been
defined and is accepted by everyone. There is
an action plan.
2. Informality: The climate tends to be informal, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
comfortable, and relaxed. There are no
obvious tensions or signs of boredom.
3. Participation: There is a lot of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
communication, discussion, and everyone is
encouraged to participate.
4. Listening: The members use effective 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
listening techniques such as questioning,
paraphrasing, and summarizing to get out
ideas.
5. Civilized Disagreement: There is 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
disagreement, but the team is comfortable
with this and shows no signs of avoiding,
smoothing over, or suppressing conflict.
Very
Statements Seldom Sometimes Often Frequently
6. Consensus Decisions: For important 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
decisions, the goal is substantial but not
necessarily unanimous agreement through
open discussion of everyone’s ideas to
avoidance of formal voting and easy
compromises.
7. Open Communication: Team members feel 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
free to express their feelings on the task as
well as on group’s operation. There are few
hidden agendas. Communication takes place
outside of meetings.
8. Clear Roles and Work Assignments: There 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

are clear expectations about the roles played
by each team member. When action is taken,
clear assignments are made, accepted and
carried out. Work is fairly distributed among
team members.
9. Shared Leadership: While the team has a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
formal leader, leadership functions shift
from time to time depending upon the
circumstances, the needs of the group, and
skills of the members. The formal leader
models the appropriate behavior and helps
establish positive norms.
193
10. External Relations: The team spends time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

developing key outside relationships,
mobilizing resources, and building credibility
with important players in other clusters
within VicRes.
11. Style Diversity: The team has a broad 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

spectrum of team-player types including
members who emphasize attention to
tasks, goal setting, a focus on process, and
questions about how the team is functioning.
12. Self-Assessment: Periodically, the team stops 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

to examine how well it is functioning and
what may be interfering with its effectiveness.
194
Epidemiological Factors Affecting Survival of African Catfish

Clarias gariepinus Larvae, Fry and Fingerlings in Hatcheries in
Uganda
Rutaisire, J., 1Okechi, J., 2Boera, P. and 1Ssekaayi, J.

1
1
National Fisheries Resources Research Institute – Kajjansi, P.O. Box 530, Kampala, Uganda.
2
Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute P.O Box 1881, Kisumu-40100, Kenya
Abstract
The African catfish, Clarias gariepinus is an excellent candidate for culture in many parts
of Africa and ranks high in consumer preference. Though many farmers in Uganda have
shown interest to farm the species, production is still low just like in other East African
countries. Attempts to culture the species are hindered by low survival of eggs, larvae and
fry in hatcheries leading to scarcity of seed. This study was carried out in five fish farms in
Uganda for a period of 24 months to investigate low survival. Information was also collected
on eggs incubation and prophylactic measures, feeding of larvae, fish grading and stocking
densities in rearing facilities. Results showed that a number of factors contributed to better
survival of fry to fingerling stage. Brood fish of size 1.1± 0.2 kg gave better quality eggs
compared to brood fish of size 3±1kg. Poor eggs would not hatch and were prone to fungal
infections. Hatched larvae fed on artemia cysts survived better than those fed on zooplankton
harvested from fertilized ponds. Increasing water to 26oC and aeration improved hatching
and survival. Stocking bigger size of fry in earthen ponds gave better survival rates. In
situations where fish were stocked in earthen ponds at ≥8 cm TL a recovery of fingerlings of
12 cm TL was 90% in HDPE lined ponds and 82 % in earthen nursery ponds after 30 days of
rearing was realized. It is concluded from the study that, high mortalities of C. gariepinus in
hatcheries in Uganda can be reduced by Best Management Practices based on knowledge of
epidemiological factors.
Key words: Epidemiology, Clarias gariepinus, Best Management Practices.
Introduction
The African catfish, Clarias gariepinus is considered an excellent candidate for aquaculture
in many parts of Africa. The species ranks high on the consumer preference list in quite
a number of African countries and has several biological attributes (Huisman and Richter,
1987) that render it suitable for culture in most parts of the continent. The recent fast growth
of the aquaculture sub sector in Nigeria that has marked a turn around of fish farming in that
country is attributed to successful culture of African catfish (Olagunju et al., 2007). However
production of the species in Uganda is still very low although many farms targeting culture
of the species have sprang up mainly due to encouragement by the successes registered in
Nigeria and South East Asia. These early attempts to culture C. gariepinus are however being
hindered by low survival of eggs, larvae and fry in hatcheries. The common complaints in
Uganda are associated with low survival up to fingerling stage. Poor survival in hatcheries
leads to scarcity of seed which hinders wide spread culture of the species. This study
investigated the reported low survival and recommended remedial measures.
195
Material and methods

Study area
This study was conducted at Umoja fish farm, Kisimbiri fish farm, Sunfish farm, JAFF fish
farm and Kajjansi fish farm; all located within a radius of 40 km from Kampala City for a
period of 24 months from January 2006 to December 2007. All the farms owned hatcheries
and some earthen ponds. In hatcheries, C. gariepinus was induced to spawn by hypophysation
techniques followed by dry fertilization (Rothbard, 1981). The hatcheries were equipped with
concrete incubation and nursing tanks, earthen and High-density polyethylene (HDPE) lined
nursery ponds. Brood stock and grow-out production ponds were earthen. The average size
of the brood fish was 1.1 ± 0.2 kg (mean ± SD) at the farms. However Sunfish farm at times
used brood fish of 3 ±1kg at the start of the study but later preferred 1.1± 0.2 kg size. Initially
the farms fished in one pond for brood fish and returned spent fish to the same pond. This
resulted in poor eggs so they changed and constructed more brood ponds that allowed spent
fish to recover. In this case the pond with spent brood fish was not fished for three months.
All the farms fed their brood fish on Ugachick growers feed with a composition of 28% crude
protein at 5% body weight twice a day. At the start of the study the farms fed newly hatched
larvae on zooplankton collected from fertilised ponds. During the study, feeding of larvae on
zooplanktons collected from ponds was replaced with the brine shrimp cysts artemia salina.
After 5 days of feeding on decysted artemia larval feed from Raanan Feed Mill, Israel was
introduced gradually till fingerlings stage. The composition was 54% crude protein, 10-13%
crude fat, 9% fibre, 9% ash and complete with vitamins but varied in particle size. Aeration
was also introduced at 8 months of the study.
Information on hatchery management was obtained through interviews of the managers.

Data captured included: size of brood fish, frequency of use of brood stock, feeding rates
and quality of brood stock feed. Information was also collected on eggs incubation and
prophylactic measures, feeding of larvae, fish grading and stocking densities in rearing
facilities. Clarias gariepinus fish specimens were collected from hatching tanks, nursing
tanks or ponds from all the hatcheries. Visibly sick live fish samples were transported in plastic
containers under aeration to the histopathology and microbiology laboratories at the Faculty
of Veterinary Medicine, Makerere University where parasite investigation was immediately
done. Mortalities were recorded through out the production cycle. Additional data on survival
in grow-out earthen ponds were obtained at National Fisheries Resources Research Institute
Kajjansi. Survival rates were determined for fry, fingerlings and table size fish at harvest.
In response to the mortalities, Kisimbiri Farm started to treat eggs against fungal infection
(Marking et al., 1994; Rasowo et al., 2007). Umoja and sun fish used 2 ppm of potassium
permanganate for 30 minutes to treat eggs. Umoja and Kisimbiri used graders with PVC bars
obtained from Kærhede Dambrug ApS Denmark. The two farms started grading fish at 6
weeks when they were 3 – 4 cm TL and continued to grade whenever shooters were observed
in the batch. Kajjansi started grading fish at 6 weeks and graded only twice throughout the
production cycle. Sunfish farm started grading at two weeks when the fry were 1-3 cm TL and
continued every 14 days till the fish was 8 cm total length.
JAFF, Kajjansi and Sunfish used locally available plastic baskets and graded five times
starting at 2 cm TL till the fish fingerlings were 8 cm TL. During the course of this study, the
farms were advised to raise the fry to ≥8 cm TL before stocking them in HDPE lined ponds
or keeping them in rearing tanks till they attained market size of 10 – 14 cm TL.
196
All water parameters- dissolved oxygen: ammonium, nitrate, temperature, and pH were
measured in situ using water kits and probes. Temperature and oxygen levels were measured
using YSI Environmental DO 200 probe while for pH, ammonium, and nitrate using the
Visocolor Test kit, Model OX-2P for dissolved oxygen,
In the laboratory, the fish samples were examined directly under an optic microscope for
presence of ectoparasites on the skin and fins. Skin scrapings from the fish were taken with
a cover slip from near the operculum to the caudal peduncle on the lateral side of the body
length, dorsal part of the head, and ventral region of the fish. Mucus smears taken from various
sites were mounted on glass slides, observed immediately unstained under light microscope.
Parasites observed were recorded, identified at least to genus level and counted. Fish samples
that showed parasitic infestations were fixed using standard histological procedures (Luna,
1968.) Swabs taken from the fish samples were cultured for bacterial growth according to
Roberts (1989). Fungi was discerned by wool like growth on the eggs during incubation and
water in the incubation tanks turning milky and turbid from clear to milky turbid appearance.
Results
Sudden death followed by a white colouration were later observed 10 – 12 hours post hatching
at 24oC in previously normal but poor quality eggs. In farms that incubated poor quality eggs.
The few larvae that survived were lethargic, kept at the bottom of the tank, exhibited clinical
fungal infection signs and later died.
Egg hatchability ranged from 10 - 70% at Kisimbiri, 50 – 70% at JAFF, 45 - 90% at Umoja
and Sunfish farms. There were 8 cases of fungal attack of incubating eggs at Kisimbiri. In
these cases, water turned milky immediately after hatching and all the newly hatched larvae
died. There was no immediate larvae mortality of larvae that hatched from treated eggs.
Feeding on wild zooplankton was noted to lead to poor survival of the larvae. Laboratory
examination of zooplankton samples indicated that the zooplankton harvest included
copepods, cladocerans a few rotifers and protozoa mainly Trichodina sp. Use of Artemia
salina, followed by commercial starter feeds and aerations was noted to reduce mortality
by 80%. However, mortalities continued to be registered in the nursery tanks at fry stage.
In all the hatcheries, mortalities begun to occur 14 days post hatching and continued till 30
days. Mortality rates ranged from 80 to over 90% with the lowest rates in tanks and highest
in earthen ponds. Between October and November 2006 there were 3 cases at Kisimbiri,
2 at Sunfish and 3 at Umoja when fry mortality was 100%. In October 2006 and 2007, the
mortality registered was 60 – 80%; at Umoja 60% at Kisimbiri and 70% at Sunfish, and
JAFF. In both years, Kajjansi did not experience this situation. It was noted that fry mortality
was highest when temperatures fell to 20oC. The signs exhibited by the affected fry included
standing vertically in the water column, a swollen abdomen, white patches first on the head
and later spreading to the whole body, fin and barbel rot. Mortality occurred at night. This
occurred during chilly rainy nights during the months of October – November. This condition
was not observed at Kajjansi fish farm where the hatchery water was heated throughout the
production cycle. Water quality measurements from all the hatcheries indicated that dissolved
oxygen in tanks was 4.6 ± 1.8 mg/l (range: 4.2 - 6.5 in tanks and 0.5 – 6.5 in earthen ponds)
while pH was 6.8 ± 0.9 (range: 6.0-7.3). Chemical parameters: nitrite and ammonium was
below 0.1mg/l.
197
Laboratory examination of the submitted samples indicated presence of protozoan parasites,

monogenean, and bacterial pathogens. The parasites could only be identified to genus level.
The protozoan parasites included Trichodina (Ehrenberg, 1838) (Figure 1a), Apiosoma
(Blanchard, 1885), and Epistylis (Ehrenberg, 1838) while the monogenean was Gyrodactylus
(Von Nordmann, 1832) (Figure 1b). Trichodina was the most prevalent (164 of the 180)
specimen) examined. This parasite covered the entire body with highest concentration at
the fins. Gyrodactylus (Von Nordmann, 1832) was the only metazoan parasite found during
the study. Bacterial culture revealed presence of Flavobacterium columnaris on 93% of the
180 samples from fry that were examined. When mortality was noticed during this study,
the farms improvised heaters powered by different types of fuels such as firewood, sawdust,
coffee husks, used engine or furnace oil to raise the temperature to 26oC at night which
reduced mortality
.
A B
Figure 1. A: Trichodina, B: Gyrodactylus recovered from C. gariepinus fingerlings.
Results from 30 batches that were stocked after 14 days indicated survival of less than 1%
after 30 days in the ponds. When fish were stocked in the earthen ponds at ≥8 cm TL a
recovery of fingerlings of 12 cm TL was 90% in HDPE lined ponds and 82 % in earthen
nursery ponds after 30 days of rearing. Survival per batch from hatching to 8 cm was 20% at
JAFF, 22 –25% at Kajjansi, 20 – 30% at Kisimbiri, Umoja and Sunfish.
Discussion
The average size of brood fish of 1.1 ± 0.2 kg at all the farms was considered appropriate.
Larger brood fish of more than 3 kg were not easy to handle, and were frequently not as
ripe as the smaller ones although they laid more eggs per female when they were properly
managed. The brood fish were stocked in various small ponds after noticing that stocking
them in one pond provided insufficient time to rest due to frequent fishing leading to poor egg
quality for the subsequent breeding and hence poor fry survival. Poor egg quality has been
attributed to genetics, diet stress, poor water quality or over ripening of eggs. Incubation
and culture of poor quality eggs was unintentionally attempted by Kisimbiri and Umoja and
recorded during the current study; in all these cases there was total mortality.
198
According to Rani (2005) incubation of poor quality eggs and embryos has been found to
be futile resulting in inefficient use of time, space and resources. Kelly (2004) observed a
practice where the pond from which brood fish were selected was not fished again until all
the other brood fish ponds are used or harvested greatly improved on the quality of eggs from
the fish and hence the quality of fry. The study revealed that minimum post spawning rest
period for C. gariepinus brood fish that permitted complete recovery and oocyte development
to ripeness was 3 months. During the post spawning rest period, the fish were feed on 28%
crude protein pellets. It is known that proper feed, feeding schedules and water quality will
ensure maximum gonadal development before the spawning season. On the other hand a poor
diet may results in poor egg quality or reduced spawning success. Robinson et al. (2001)
recommended that catfish brooders be fed a typical (28 - 32%) % protein feed once daily. The
feed provided in this study was therefore on the lower margin of the recommended protein
range.
During the study, it was observed that the hatching rates varied ranging from 10 - 70%, 50 –
70%, 45 - 90% at Kisimbiri JAFF, Umoja and Sunfish respectively depending on the level of
management in the particular hatchery. In some cases the water turned whitish or milky just
before or after total hatching resulting into poor embryo survival indicating fungal infection
on the incubating eggs and hatchlings. One of the probable cause of erratic hatching is the
parasitization of catfish eggs by aquatic fungi and bacteria. During artificial fertilization, a
percentage of the eggs usually escape unfertilized and were susceptible to fungal infection
particularly from the family Saprolegniaceae. During egg incubation, this fungi produces
mycelia which grow and spread from the nonviable to the healthy eggs suffocating them and
causing mortality (Rasowo et al., 2007; Post, 1987). In order to eradicate fungal infection on
the incubating eggs and hence improve improving on embryo survival, Kisimbiri used 1000
ppm of formalin for 10 min to treat its eggs while Umoja used 2 ppm KMno4 of potassium
permanganate for 30 min. Sunfish used 2 ppm potassium permanganate to treat the hatchlings
for 30 min. According to Rasowo et al. (2007), chemicals are used for treating fungal
infections of eggs in intensive aquaculture operations in an effort to improve the efficiency
rates. A 1,000-ppm treatment of formalin not only prevented infection but also decreased
existing infection and increased hatching rates at exposures of 15, 30, or 60 min (Marking et
al. 1994). Rasowo et al. 2007 reported that concentrations of formaldehyde treatment ranging
from 250 - 2000 ppm gave hatching percentages of over 70% which were higher than the
untreated control (0 ppm) with the highest percent hatch achieved with a 15 min dip in 1000
ppm. Potassium permanganate has been tested as an effective fungicide on eggs of several
fish species. Effective dosages have been found to vary with the various fish species tested.
According to Rasowo et al. (2007), the highest hatching percentage (96.7%) was obtained
when the eggs were treated with 2 ppm KMno4 for 30 min.
Like other cultivated fresh water fish species, C. gariepinus larvae after yolk-sac absorption,
require an initial phase of exogenous feeding preferably with live food organisms (Huisman
and Richter, 1987). Zooplanktons are live organisms that can easily be obtained by harvesting
prepared ponds at the farm. However the use of the wildly collected zooplankton resulted in
poor survival of C. gariepinus larvae in the hatcheries while the brine shrimp cysts artemia
salina gave good results. The poor survival of larvae fed on zooplanktons could be attributed
to the presence of protozoan parasites such as Trichodina sp. It was found that on average
500 g of artemia salina lasted 10 -12 hatching cycles on the farms. It was more cost effective
199
to use artemia than to continually collect zooplankton mixed with parasites from ponds. This
was in line with the findings of Knud-Hausen et al. (1990) that although hatchery foods,
particularly Artemia nauplii are expensive, they may be cost effective relative to the price of
Clarias batrachus.
According to Huisman and Richter (1987) starting with dry diets for larval culture of C.
gariepinus can not be recommended because of low growth rate while use of brine shrimp
cysts artemia sp., has several advantages such as: eliminating inconvenience associated with
production of live food. Cysts are disinfected, have a higher dry weight and energy content,
do not leach nutrients into the water like the formulated feeds. Furthermore brine shrimp cysts
possess high floating capacity and their particle size (200-250µm) is appropriate for many
fish species including artemia. Although farmers in Uganda were scared of costs associated
with importing artemia, results from its use outweighed use of wild zooplankton by far. These
finding are in congruence to those by Lim et al. (2003) who found that C. gariepinus larvae
and fry survive better when fed with artemia salina. In fact some workers (Hung et al., 2002;
Huisman and Richter, 1987) have recommended artemia as a reference diet for the nutritional
study of C. gariepinus larvae.
The low survival rate leading to failure in rearing of the species was a problem faced by
many fish farmers. In the current study, survival of 14 day old fry (1.5±0.5 cm TL) in earthen
nursery ponds was very poor (≤1%). De Graaf et al., (1996) observed a varied survival range
of 0-60 fingerlings/m2/cycle in African catfish. The poor survival in earthen ponds has been
attributed to poor water quality which stresses the fish, making them more vulnerable to
diseases and parasites (Kelly, 2004). According to Hogendoorn, (1980) and Yong-Sulem et
al., (2006), predation by various organisms, shortage of adequate feed and poor water quality
interfere with fry rearing and that rearing of fry to fingerling size is unreliable in earthen
ponds. Yong-Sulem et al., (2006) stated that the survival of C. gariepinus fry in earthen ponds
is too low and variable to support planning of commercial aquaculture.
The study showed that rearing of fry to fingerling size 8cm TL in tanks improved the survival
of fish per batch. The survival was higher than the survival in earthen ponds (≤1%) when
fish were stocked at 14 days old. According to Wembiao et al. (1988), the survival rate of
catfish in earthen ponds increases as the size of stocked fingerlings is increased. Fingerlings
of normally not less than 5 cm in body length should be stocked in ponds. Tucker et al., 2004
also recommend fingerlings of at least 5 inches (= 12.7 cm) for use in ponds managed as
multiple-batch systems. Fingerlings smaller than that size may not compete effectively with
larger fish for feed and may be more prone to predation by birds and large catfish, leading
to reduced yields and lower survival. The better survival of fry sized ≥ 8cm TL could be
attributed to better developed sensory organs (eyes, olfactory system, nervous system, and
brain) for capture of feed particles, better consumption capability, and strong musculature for
swimming, more developed organs for digestion and absorption of feed and ability to search
and utilize feed (Sahoo et al., 2004).
The tanks were aerated through out with a continuous water flow. Dissolved Oxygen was
4.6 ± 1.8 mg/l and pH was 6.8 ± 0.9. Chemical parameters: nitrite and ammonium were <
0.1 mg/l. Continuous aeration during the first days after stocking is required to supply as
much oxygen as possible to the fry. At this stage, the fry (about 10 days old) are unable to
200
use their developing accessory breathing organ. Thereafter aeration is employed primarily
for the purpose of the removal of gases, largely CO2 and NH3, which accumulate during
high temperatures following when there is accelerated organic decomposition (Carreon et al,
1976).
All freshwater fishes are known to be particularly susceptible to habitation by Chilodonella,

Trichodina, Epistylis, Trichophrya and species of other ciliates or suctorian genera. The
organisms are commonly found on cultured and aquarium species. According to Post (1987),
large numbers of Trichophrya attached to the gills may reduce oxygenation of the blood
while protozoa with cilia or tentacles are quite found on intensively reared fishes and rarely
can skin scrapings or gill mounts be examined microscopically without finding one or more
species. Fall and water temperatures are known to reduce the immune response in fish and
made them vulnerable to disease vectors (Bhuiyan et al., 2007). According to Obiekezie
and Ekanem, (1995) pathogens have contributed to significant losses during early life stages
and several cases of mortality in hatchery-reared fry have been reported due to epizootic
infections with protozoa and monogenea. Fungi often invade external lesions of warm water
fish affected with F. columnaris if water temperatures fall below about 15.5oC. According to
Post (1987), epizootics involving sessile or motile ciliates have been responsible for extreme
mortality among cultured and aquarium fishes and that mortality of up to 50% can be expected
under severe conditions or of susceptible fishes. All fresh water fishes are susceptible to F.
columnaris infection. The disease was reported to occur after fish had been stressed e.g.
after grading, during poor water quality conditions and when the fish were heavily infested
with parasites which normally injure various organs. Local baskets used to grade at JAFF
and Sunfish were found to have sharp edges that could injure fish and predispose them to F.
columnaris. The disease does not occur as a spontaneous infection but results from injuries
to fish, or physical and nutritional deficiencies (Post, 1987). Infection with F. columnaris
has also been associated with environmental changes (temperature, water quality, handling
of fish, etc.) and has been reported to cause great losses in high-density fingerling culture
(Huisman and Richter, 1987).
Size-grading is routinely practiced in fish hatcheries for several reasons, such as increased
growth among small fish, reduction in cannibalism , decrease in size variability among
harvested fish and facilitated feeding by using a smaller range of food particles for each
graded group (Saoud et al. 2005). Grading is especially important where cannibalism from
shooters is common. A sample of un-graded fish can result in under- or over-stocking and
may lead to poor feeding practices and increased production costs (Saoud et al., 2005). Some
species are cannibalistic and periodic size grading is important to obtain good survival and
yields and to eliminate runts. These and other species may require frequent grading when
maintained at high densities in tanks or troughs (Jensen, 1990).
During production of fingerlings, the size of fry at stocking is an important criterion apart
from stocking density, suitable feed and water quality for high survival and growth. The size
of fish during stocking determines the economic viability of all types of production systems
(Sahoo et al., 2004). According to Carreon et al. (1976), limited supplies of the catfish Clarias
macrocephalus fry are inhibiting development of technology for pond production of the
species in the Philippines and that the need to propagate the species in hatcheries is critical
to the development of catfish farming in the country. The situation is not any different in
201
Uganda and neighbouring countries where there is a huge unmet demand for African catfish
and suitable natural resources for its culture and yet lack of seed remains a limiting factor.
Conclusion
From the present study, it can be concluded that high mortalities in C. gariepinus hatcheries in
Uganda can be reduced by Best Management Practices based on knowledge of epidemiological
factors.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to The Lake Victoria Research Initiative (VicRes) for funding this
study. We acknowledge institutional support received from Makerere University, National
Fisheries Resources Research Institute and Kenya Marine Fisheries Research Institute. Our
thanks are extended to management of the study farms for availing us opportunity to carry out
investigations at their commercial establishments. We are grateful to Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine, Makerere University for providing laboratory facilities.
202
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(Hamilton) from Rajshahi. Univ. J. Zool. Rajshahi Univ. 26: 31-34.
Carreon, J.A., Estocapio, F.A. and Enderez, E.M. 1976. Recommended procedures for
induced spawning and fingerling production of Clarias Macrocephalus Gunther.
Aquaculture 8: 269-281.
De Graaf, G. andJanssen, J. 1996. Handbook on the Artificial Reproduction and Pond Rearing
of the African Catfish Clarias gariepinus in Sub-Saharan Africa. FAO Fisheries
Technical Paper, Vol. 362.
Hogendoorn, H. 1980. Controlled propagation of the African catfish, Clarias lazera (C. &V.),
III. Feeding and growth of fry. Aquaculture 21: 233-241.
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Lim, L.C., Dhert, P. andSorgeloos, P. 2003. Recent developments in application of live feeds
in the fresh water ornamental fish culture. Aquaculture 227: 319-331.
Luna, L.G. 1968. Manual of histological staining methods of the Armed Institute of Pathology.
pp. 5-46. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
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H.M. 1990. Hatchery techniques for egg and fry production of Clarias batrachus
(Linnaeus). Aquaculture, 89: 9-19.
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culture: The Progressive Fish Culturist. 56: 225-231.
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(Teleostei, Clariidae) with Trichodina maritinkae (Ciliophora, Peritrichida). Aquat.
Living Resour, 8: 439-443
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Production in Oyo State, Nigeria. J. Hum. Ecol. 21: 121-124.
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Neptune City, New Jersey.
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and Feeding of Catfish (Second Revision). Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry
Experiment Station Bulletin 1113.
Rasowo, J., Okoth, E.O. andNgugi, C.C. 2007. Effects of formaldehyde, sodium chloride,
potassium permanganate and hydrogen peroxide on hatch rate of African catfish
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Clarias gariepinus eggs. Aquaculture 269: 271-277.

Rothbard, S. 1981. Induced reproduction in cultivated cyprinids-the common carp and the
group of Chinese carps: the technique of induction, spawning and hatching. Bamidgeh
33: 103-121.
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Fry on Growth and Survival during Fingerling Hatchery Production. Asian Fisheries
Science 17: 229-233.
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stocking. Journal of Applied Aquaculture 17: 73-85.
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204
Heat Induced Sex Reversal in Oreochromis niloticus in Lake

Victoria basin
Waindi, E.N., 2Owori-Wadunde, A. and 3Nkwabi, N.
1
Department of Zoology, Maseno University, Kenya

1
2
National Fisheries Resources Research Institute, Kajjansi, Uganda
3
St. Augustine University of Tanzania, Tanzania
Abstract
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is widely farmed with a wide range of distribution in both
tropics and temperate regions. The fish is easily bred in captivity without complex hatchery
equipment or hormonal induction of spawning. The basic problem of tilapia aquaculture is
that mixed sex cultures breed prolifically, thereby overpopulating the pond with undersized
stunted fish. One of the methods being tried to solve this problem is the use of monosex
cultures. Male monosex cultures are preferred to female ones because there is a differential
growth in favour of males in which metabolic energy is channelled towards growth, while in
females there is a greater reallocation of metabolic energy towards reproduction. This study
examined the effect of heat treatment on O. niloticus. Juvenile Nile tilapia were subjected to
heat treatment at temperatures ranging from 26°C (control) and 34°C to 37°C (experimental).
There was a positive correlation between treatment temperatures and male sex ratios (p<0.01),
while the survival of the fry showed negative correlation with temperature (p<0.01). The
temperature that provided for optimization of both sex reversal and fry survival was 36°C.
The results suggest a critical temperature for optimization of sex shift and sex survival of the
fry, as well as providing an adoptable application for production of monosex Nile tilapia
seed.
Key words: Nile tilapia, monosex male, heat treatment.
Introduction
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is a popular cultured fish due to its economic importance.
It has a wide range of distribution in both tropics and temperate regions. It is the most dominant
fish among the group of tilapias farmed in sub-Saharan Africa. Cultured O. niloticus are easily
bred all year round in captivity without complex hatchery equipment or hormonal induction of
spawning. Therefore, Tilapia farming if well-developed could provide the needed fish protein
as well as monetary gains to the local communities living in the Lake Victoria basin. A major
problem in Nile tilapia aquaculture is fish stunting. Nile tilapia population, kept in a confined
space such as a fish pond, matures early and breed prolifically, thereby overpopulating the pond
with undersized stunted fish (Mair et al, 1997). One of the methods being tried to solve the
problem of overpopulation of tilapia in ponds is the use of monosex cultures. Male monosex
cultures are preferred to female ones because of the differential growth in favour of males.
In females there is a greater reallocation of metabolic energy towards reproduction while in
the males the metabolic energy is channelled towards growth (Fontaınhas-Fernandes et al.,
2002).Most research on sex reversal in tilapia has been on the use of hormones (Clemens and
Inslee, 1968; Nakamura and Takahashi, 1973; Guerrero, 1975; Hopkins et al., 1979; Jensen
and Shelton, 1979; Buddle, 1984). Hormonal treatment, though effective, is faced with a
205
general public resentment against the use of hormones in foods. While genetic methods are
sophisticated and therefore not easily adoptable in developing countries.
Another area of research for the development of monosex male tilapia is heat treatment in
which higher temperatures favours sex shift toward males, and the method has shown good
prospects in laboratory experiments (Mires et al.,1974; Baroiller et al., 1995; Nomura et
al., 1998; Pavlidis et al., 2000). Research on heat treatment as a means of producing mono
sex tilapia however, is still inconclusive, as it has been shown that there are some critical
parameters that should be considered, for example the ages of the fry at the commencement
of treatment and the duration of treatment may affect the rate of survival of the fry (Wang and
Tsai, 2000; Baras et al, 2000; Azaza et al., 2008). This is relevant if the fry are developed for
monosex (male) aquaculture production. In this study, heat treatment was used to induce sex
reversal towards males in Nile tilapia, O. niloticus, so as to determine the optimal treatment
conditions that result in maximization of sex reversal towards males while at the same time
maintaining high survival rates of the fry.
Broodstock Fish
A fresh stock of Nile tilapia (O. niloticus) obtained from minimally disturbed point of Lake
Victoria was used for this study. The fish were trapped by use of seine nets and immediately
transferred into aerated water in large PVC tanks. Only large-sized tilapia (length≥15 cm)
were retained in the tanks, while smaller ones were released back into the lake. The fish were
transported in the aerated water tanks to our aquarium facilities, about 25 Km away. At the fish
pond facilities the fish were sexed and those that were clearly determined as males or females,
by visual examination of urogenital papillae, were transferred into separate concrete ponds
designated as such, and let to acclimate for three months before commencing the experiments.
They were fed on whole maize meal supplemented with 25% fish protein. Out-door concrete
water ponds were used for spawning and brooding. These were layered at bottom with sand
from the lake to mimic the natural environment. It had been observed that such a system
is more conducive to natural spawning and fertilization of the eggs. The tanks were water
aerated and replenished through the project water circulation system. Sexually mature males
and females, were transferred into brood tanks at two females to one male, and let to brood
and hatch freely. The hatched embryos at yolk sac stages were collected by scooping from the
tanks using plastic commercial sieves, pooled into single lots, and transferred into an indoor
glass aquaria and observed daily for yolk adsorption and movement. One day after yolk
absorption constituted day one post yolk sac stage of development. Light feeding on juvenile
feeds was also commenced at this time.
Heat treatment
Glass aquaria measuring 1.0 x 0.5 x 0.3 m were used for heat treatments. These were fitted with
constant temperature thermostat heaters, aerator pumps, fine sand gravel filters systems and
mercury thermometers. The aquaria were filled with equal volumes of water and thermostats
set at respective temperatures: 26°C, (control) and experimental temperatures of 34°C, 35°C,
36°C, 37°C and 38°C. The actual temperatures however, varied by ±1°C as shown by daily
readings from the mercury thermometers. The average temperatures did not vary much from
the thermostat set temperatures. The temperatures were allowed to stabilize for several days
206
before introducing the fry into the aquaria. One hundred fry at 10 days post yolk sac were
introduced into each aquarium for the various treatment temperatures. Heat treatments were
conducted for 10 days after which the thermostats were switched off and the aquaria allowed
to cool to room temperature. During heat treatments, the fry were observed daily and any
deaths recorded. The final numbers of the fry in each aquarium were recorded for at least 24
hrs post heat treatment. These were used to calculate the survival rates of the fry. At 15 days
post heat treatment, the fry that survived heat treatment for each temperature were transferred
into separate fry holding ponds at a stocking density of 5 fry per cubic metre.
Determination of sex ratios

Sexing was done at 5- 6 months post heat treatment to both experimental and control fingerlings.
This was done by microscopic observations of wet squash preparations of the gonads, fixed
in ethanol/acetic acid fixative and stained with aceto-orcein (Waindi, 1994) to distinguish the
ovaries from the testis (Plate 1). In a few cases standard histological preparations were used
to confirm the results. The number of males and females for each treatment temperature were
recorded and sex ratios calculated as percentages of the totals.
Plate 1: Squash (a, c) and histological (b, d) preparations showing evidence of ovarian
development with primary stage (a) and secondary stage (d) oocytes, and the evidence of
testes (c, d) showing somniferous tubules with spermatocyte (d) and cluster of spermatocytes
(c).
207
Survival rates
Survival rates were based on the numbers of fry that survived the heat treatment up to 24
hours post heat treatment and expressed as percentages of the initial numbers.
Weight measurements
At weekly intervals up to 10 weeks post heat treatment, and at monthly intervals up to 6
months, about 10 fry/fingerlings were drown from the ponds and quickly weighed and
returned into the ponds. This was used to determine growth rates and feed rations.
Water quality
Water quality parameters: dissolved oxygen (DO), salinity, pH, conductivity, total dissolved
solutes (TDS) and temperature were monitored daily in the ponds and the aquaria.
Statistical analysis
Two-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to the data. Comparisons between
temperature and sex shifts and between temperature and survival rates were done at statistical
significance P<0.01.
Results
Effect of heat treatment on sex ratios and survival rates

Figure 2 shows the effects of treatment temperatures on sex ratios of the fingerlings. There was
a positive correlation between temperatures and resultant sex ratios for males (P<0.01), but a
negative correlation with respect to females (p<0.01) with higher temperatures favouring sex
reversal towards males. The survival rates of the fry, on the other hand, showed a negative
correlation against the treatment temperature (p<0.01), with low temperatures favouring the
survival of the fry (Figure 1). The maximum temperatures that provided for optimization of
both sex reversal (towards males) and the survival of the fry was found to lie within a narrow
range between 36°C and 37°C, with 36°C.providing the most optimal conditions of 86.31%
males and 65.25% survival of the fry.
208
Figure 1: Survival and sex ratios (%) of the fry after heat treatments at indicated temperatures.
Growth patterns of fry/fingerlings

Experiment in which samples of fry that had been heat treated at various temperatures were
weighed at weekly intervals, up to 10 weeks, and also at monthly intervals up to six months
post heat treatment indicated that the highest mean weights were obtained at 36°C (Figures
2a &b).
4
36
3 34
Weight (g) 32
30
2
25
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Weeks post heat treatment
Figure 2a: Growth curves showing the effects of heat treatment on O. niloticus fry at weekly
intervals at the various temperatures. Values 25, 30, 32, 34 and 36 are temperatures.
209
60
55
50
45
40
34
35
36
Weight (g) 30 37
25 26
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (months post heat treatment)
Figure 2b: Growth curves showing the effects of heat treatment O. niloticus fingerlings at
monthly intervals at the various temperatures. Values 26, 34, 36 and 37 are temperatures.
Discussion
The results presented in this study show the effect of temperature on sex determination in
Nile tilapia, O. niloticus. Higher temperatures caused sex reversal towards males, but had
a negative effect on the survival of the fry. The survival of the fry following heat treatment
is an important parameter to be considered in temperature induced sex reversal, so as to
conserve a critical mass of the fry required for stocking the fish ponds. The balance between
the resultant sex ratios and fry survival seems to depend on the ages at which the fry are heat
treated, the treatment temperatures, and the length of treatment (Wang and Tsai, 2000; Baras
et al., 2001; Azaza et al., 2008). Juvenile Oreochromis mossambicus that were heat treated
before 5 days of age showed a higher incidence of deformities than those that were equally
treated but at older ages (Wang and Tsai, 2000). In the current study, heat treatment was
performed at 10 day post yolk sac stage. The survival of the fry at the optimal sex reversal
temperature (36°C) was 65.25%, and the resulting fry had normal feeding and movement
characteristics, with no observable abnormalities. The results infer the existence of a critical
optimal temperature at which both sex reversal and fry survival can be harmonized. In the
current and several previous studies it has been shown that elevated temperatures favour
masculinity in O. niloticus and other fishes (Wang and Tsai, 2000; Pavlidis et al., 2000; Baras
et al., 2000; Desprez and Melard, 1998.
In the interest of Nile tilapia aquaculture development, the question that may arise from our
results is whether the 13.69% of female fry in the 86.31% monosex male cultures would
cause a serious overpopulation problem. In the tropics, tilapia becomes sexually mature at
about 4 to 5 months of age. They attain market sizes at 7 to 9 months, at which time the whole
pond is harvested. This may allow the females to have only one cycle of reproduction. This
210
situation therefore, may not present a serious overpopulation problem. Sex determination
and differentiation in tilapia is a subject of heightened research interest today. While it is
generally accepted that sex determination is based on the genetic ‘blue print’, the ultimate
phenotypic sex differentiation is thought to involve interactions between the genome and
some environmental factors.
Recently, two types of sex determining systems have been proposed: XX/XY in which (XY)
denotes heterogametic males, and WZ/ZZ system, in which females are delineated as WZ
and males as ZZ (Muller-Belecke and Horstgen-Schwark, 1995). According to Shelton
(1989), the species with environmental sex determination showing female size advantage
are predisposed to evolve the WZ/ZZ mechanism, whereas species with male size advantage
are predisposed to evolve the XX/XY mechanism. The role of temperature in the regulation
of sex determination and differentiation in tilapia is receiving attention in current research.
Temperature is believed to activate several gene systems, e.g. the genes encoding for the
receptors for aromatase, oestrogen, 5α-5β reductive and androgen (Pieau, 1996; Crews,
1996). A recent sex reversal study in O. niloticus suggests a genetic linkage between sex
reversal genes and colour genes (Karayucel et al., 2002). Further, thermo- sensitivity sex
differentiation has been found in populations of Nile tilapia that are naturally adapted to three
different extreme temperature regimes. These observations therefore, suggest the involvement
of ‘temperature activated factors’ linked to temperature-induced sex reversal, as reported in
this study, that may be involved in sex determination and differentiation in Nile tilapia.
Acknowledgement
We acknowledge with great thanks the financial support from the Inter-University Council
for East Africa through Lake Victoria Research Initiative (VicRes) that made it possible to
carry out this study. We are indebted to our institutions for giving us time and facilities to
undertake the project.
211
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Potential for Women Fish Traders to Upgrade within the Fish Trade
Value Chain: Evidence from Kenya
1
Iembo, B., 2Kinyanjui, M.,2Kamau, P., 3
Mbwambo, A., 4Bateganya, F.
1
Mzumbe University 2University of Nairobi, 3Mzumbe University), 4Makerere Universi-
ty
Abstract
Fishing is an important economic activity in Kenya which provides employment, income and
food to a significant percentage of the Kenyan population particularly the local community.
Over the last decade the aggregate landings of fish from inland waters have increased
tremendously with Lake Victoria contributing about 98% of production from Kenya’s
inland lakes, and constitute about 93% of all fish landed in 2009. In spite of these enormous
contributions, population round the Lake has remained relatively poor in economic terms.
Moreover, gender and cultural barriers impede participation by women in some activities
within the fish value chain. This paper investigates the location of women fish traders in the
fish value chain and the rewards accruing to them.
One of the major findings of this paper is that women traders in Lake Victoria are located in
the lower nodes of the chain whose returns are low. In addition, women fish traders tend to
operate in very micro-scale enterprises. Women fish traders are also challenged by cultural
and gender constraints in terms of their potential to upgrade within the value chain.
The paper recommends the need for affirmative action to empower women in the fish trade
to upgrade. This can be achieved through tailor made training on business practices, assisting
them to register as community based organization in order to link them with formal institutions;
and finally to assist them acquire modernized technology that can help them grow.
Key words: Women; Fish trade; Value chain
Introduction
Kenya’s fisheries resources are important sources of food, employment, and foreign
exchange. Over 90% of the total fish production in Kenya comes from Lake Victoria. Driven
by relatively high GDP growth rate in recent years and changing consumer habits, fish has
become an increasingly important part of the Kenya’s households’ diet (USAID, 2008). It is
estimated that the fishing industry employs over 50,000 fishermen and women, and another
800,000 persons are engaged in fish processing and trade. In addition, fish exports generated
US$ 60 Million in export earning in 2008 (Kenya, 2010).
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Lake Victoria is the second largest fresh water body in the world that is endowed with enormous
fresh water fishery resource. It has a total surface area of 68,870 km2 and a total catchments
area of 180,950 km2. This lake water is shared by Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. As the
largest lake in Africa, Lake Victoria is the most single source of fresh water fish on the African
continent and it is of great importance to the region’s economy and population. Tanzania
occupies that largest portion of the lake (51%), followed by Uganda (43%) and Kenya (6%).
The Lake contributes immensely to the socio-economic development of the EAC countries.
Some of these benefits include:
(1) Supporting a highly productive fishery estimated at 1,000,000 tones annually and
valued at US$ 640 million with over US$ 300 million in export.
(2) Providing high protein food, employment, income, and clean water for industrial,
agricultural and domestic use.
(3) Contains a high fish species diversity of over 500 endemic fish species of ecological
importance; and
(4) Provides an avenue for transport and recreation and hydro-power generation
Fish Production and Trade in Kenya

Freshwater fishery accounts for about 96% of Kenya’s total fish production, principally from
Lake Victoria. Kenya is endowed with extensive inland waters, covering between 10,500
and 11,500 km2 depending on rainfall, but it is the country’s 6% share of Lake Victoria
that accounts for almost all (96%) national freshwater fish production. Lake Victoria has a
multi-species fishery of tilapiines and haplochromines, cichlids and more than 20 genera of
non-cichlid fish, including Mormyrus, catfish, cyprinids and lungfish. Lake Victoria is the
third largest freshwater lake in the World, with an area of 68,000km2. However, the lake
is relatively shallow, with a maximum depth of 84m and mean depth of just 40m, which
makes it quite susceptible to pollution (USAID, 2008). The area of the lake is divided into
the national waters of the bordering countries, with Kenya owning 6%, Uganda 45% and
Tanzania 49% of the area. There has been a steady decrease in fish diversity and quantity due
to increase in fishing effort as a result of commercialization of fishing in the last two decades.
Lake Victoria accounts for more than 90% of all fish harvested in Kenya with an annual
output of approximately 175,000 Metric tones. The fresh water lake fish account for the
largest share of the fish harvest. A wide variety of fish species are harvested in Lake Victoria,
of which the main ones are (1) Nile Perch, (2) Tilapia, and (3) Omena.
The Nile Perch is mainly for the export market of industrialized countries such as European
countries where consumers perceive fish as a healthier product relative to alternative meats.
The demand is relatively high for fish fillets (Schuurhuizen, et al. 2006; USAID 2008). Fresh
Tilapia is the preferred species for the domestic market in Kenya. The other important fish
species is Rastrinobola argentea (Omena). Its production has been on the rise in recent past
215
and has surpassed the dominant Nile perch. Most of Omena in Kenya is marketed through
the animal feed industry channel (70%) and only 30% is available for human consumption
resulting in serious competition for the commodity between direct human food and raw
material for animal feed.
Research problem
The Lake Victoria Basin region is characterized by high poverty amongst its people even
though there are natural fish resources. These issues serve as an indication that there are some
constraints that deter entrepreneurship amongst women in the fish trade.
Although women participate in the fish production and trade activities, their involvement has
been limited to particular nodes of the chain due to cultural, gender and social factors that
some how inhibit their moving up and down the value chain (Ngigi, 2008). The fish trade
in particular, is characterised by high participation of women in the fish trade as opposed
to actual fishing. There are some instrumental factors that influence women location and
participation in fishing sector in Lake Victoria. These include socio-cultural (factors imposed
on women by the society), psychological (factors imposed internally by women concerns and
aspirations) and economic aspects governing the trade (Madanda, 2003).
In spite of these enormous contributions, population round the Lake has remained relatively
poor in economic terms. Moreover, gender and cultural barriers impede participation by all
people in different activities within the fish value chains. Most disadvantaged are women
whose presence in the fish trade activities has remained generally low owing to the socio-
cultural constraints. This study was designed to investigate how gender and cultural issues
affect women’s participation in the fish trade value chain.
Gender inequalities are often critical to understanding and addressing the weak links within
the fish value chains as well as the most critical areas for upgrading within the value chain
and poverty reduction. Gender analysis is however one of the weakest point in most value
chain analysis, and largely ignored in most value chain manuals. Gender differences and
inequalities affect the ways in which value chains operate at every level. Many of the tricky
and complex issues highlighted by gender analysis are often not confined to gender itself, but
reflections of other inherent shortcomings in the types of economic analysis which commonly
dominate value chain analyses and development. Gender analysis provides a starting point
for more accurate poverty analysis and integration of key dimensions of extra-market factors,
power relations and motivations into the currently incomplete understanding of economic
growth.
Understanding and incorporating these dimensions are essential not only for gender but to
designing effective sustainable pro-poor growth strategies. Although women are engaged
in fish trade value chain activities, their contribution is more often than not undercounted.
Similarly their returns within the value chain are lower than those of men (Schuurhuizen, et
al., 2006; Spencer et al. 2000). Through value chain analysis, one is able to determine value
chain nodes where women are located, constraints they face and possible intervention to
improve their welfare in the chain.
Objectives
The value chain analysis was undertaken in order to understand the location and factors that
determine women participation in fish trade value chains. Value chain analysis enables one
216
to discuss potential and bottlenecks with regard to upgrading within the value chain. Finally,
issues of governance in the value chain are discussed with a view to highlight possible policy
and regulatory interventions necessary for promoting women participation in high earning
value chain nodes.
Methodology
This paper is drawn from a research project entitled “Gender, Women and Culture in the Lake
Victoria Fish Trade: A Value Chain Analysis” which is a three years project funded by the
VicRes during the 2007/2008 round. The study employed both qualitative and quantitative
methodologies. A cross sectional study design was used since it was a multi-site and country
study.
Both purposive and random sampling protocols were used to select primary study respondents.
For qualitative data, purposive sampling was used since we wanted to have in depth interviews
with them. Random sampling was used for the survey since the sample included both women
and men. In Kenya, a sample of 100 respondents was randomly selected in which a semi
structure questionnaire was administered to collect information about fish traders and their
businesses. The questionnaire was divided into seven main parts to inquire on personal
information, business information and gender and cultural issues. Other parts inquired on
networking, performance, value chain questions and participation.
In addition, four (4) case studies and two (2) focus group discussion were conducted to collect
qualitative data. This was facilitated by use of harmonized interview guides for women actors,
fish folks, members and leaders of Beach Management Unit and local government leaders.
Case studies were also used to capture in-depth understanding of involvement in the fish
value chains.
Data analysis was conducted using quantitative and qualitative approaches. Filled
questionnaires were coded and the data was entered in SPSS (Statistical package for social
scientist) template. After data entry, data editing, cleaning and then analysis followed.
Quantitative analysis provided both descriptive and association analyses.
Qualitative data was analyzed using pre determined themes which were coded after a thorough
reading of all interviews notes. Key issues of qualitative data analysis related to role of culture
in participation of value chains. In assessing if there was any variation in women composition
in the fish value chain activities, the study adopted an Index of Qualitative Variation (IQV).
The Index varies from 0 (no variation) to 1 (maximum variation) and has been used most
commonly with variables measured at the nominal level. However, the index of qualitative
variation can be used with any variable when scores have been grouped into a frequency
distribution.
Fish Value Chain
Fishing is an important economic activity in Kenya which provides both employment and
incomes to a significant percentage of the local communities. It is characterised by dominance
of foreign demand, the persistence of artisanal fishing and processing and prominent industrial
processors. The interaction among different actors in the chain is governed by institutions
217
and organisations in the fish trade. Figure one demonstrates how a typical fish value
chain is structured.
1. Figure 1: Fish Value Chain

Figure 1: Fish Value Chain
Fishermen
Local Fish Industrial

traders Processors
Foreign
buyers
Domestic Domestic
wholesale retail
traders traders
Local
Regional / consumers Foreign
National consumers
Consumer
s
NB: The shaded nodes are where women dominate.
Source: Field data, 2008
6
NB: The shaded nodes are where women dominate.
Source: Field data, 2008
A value chain is a sequence of target-oriented combinations of production factors that
create a marketable product or service from its conception to the final consumption. The
value chain describes the full range of activities which are required to bring a product or
service from conception, through the different phases of production and delivery to final
consumers (Porter, 1980; Kaplinsky and Morris, 2000). This includes activities such as
218
design, production, marketing, distribution and support services up to the final consumer. The
activities that comprise a value chain can be contained within a single firm or divided among
different firms, as well as within a single geographical location or spread over wider areas.
The term Value Chain refers to the fact that value is added to preliminary products through
the combination with other resources (for example tools, manpower, knowledge and skills,
other raw materials or preliminary products). As the product passes through several stages of
the value chain, the value of the product increases.
The value chain is a concept from business management that was first described and
popularized by Michael Porter in his 1985 best-seller, ‘Competitive Advantage’.
A value chain is a chain of value adding activities which generally describes a product from
its conceptualization to the time it reaches the final consumer. Fish like any other product
passes through a number of activities of the chain in order and at each activity the product
gains some value.
Conceptually, a value chain shows the process of creating value, and clearly pinpoints that
creation of value is not by production alone. A product is brought to the market through
a combination of activities in which production is just but one of the value added links
(Kaplinsky and Morris, 2007). The value of a product increases at each point of the process,
which is why the whole process is described as a value chain (McCormick and Schmitz, 2002
p. 41). A value chain can be straightforward or complex. Value chains exist at local, regional,
national and global level. Value chain is an important model that can help one to understand
activities, participation and power relations among different actors in a chain. It is very useful
conceptual tool in understanding the factors that impact the long-term profitability of an
enterprise. Thirdly, value chain can help answer questions revolving around: how products
reach final consumer; the economic relationships between players in the chain; threats to the
entire chain and key determinants of profitability across the various nodes of the chain. Value
chains take a variety of forms: local, national and international depending on how actors in
a chain are located. The term ‘global value-chain’ is used when value adding processes are
organised in such a way that design, production and marketing involve a chain of activities
taking place in different parts of the world. Seemingly, increasing amount of international
trade occurs within trading networks whose understanding is only possible through value-
chain research (Kamau 2009, McCormick and Schmitz 2002, Kaplinsky and Morris 2007).
In this study, value chain analysis and fish value chain are used interchangeably to describe
those value activities from actual fishing to delivery of fish to the final consumer.
A value chain can be broken into four elements namely: design and product development;
production; marketing and consumption/recycling. These elements describe the transition
processes that a product undergoes as before it is finally consumed. These key elements can
further be broken into various sub-components and sub-processes depending on the product
under analysis (McCormick & Schmitz, 2002).
A typical value chain has three distinctive dimensions which include the input-output structure,
the geographical spread and the governance.1 The input-output structure is concerned with
activities that add value to inputs in order to generate output. A product is first designed,
then raw materials are purchased, and production takes place, the product is then distributed
through wholesalers and retailers (McCormick and Schmitz, 2002). As the value chain
describes the activities required to bring a product from its conception to the stage of final
1 For more details on dimensions of a value chain, see Gereffi and Korzeniewicz (1994), Gib-
bon (2001), McCormick and Schmitz (2002), and Kaplinsky and Morris (2002).
219
consumption, it thus include, the descriptive configuration of product development stages,

namely, design, inputs, production, marketing, and distribution. A value chain has less visible
input-output structure because it is made up flow of knowledge and expertise necessary for
the physical structure to function (Kaplinsky and Morris, 2002). The flow of knowledge
generally parallels the material flows, but with different intensity.
The second dimension of value chain is the geographical spread. The geographical spread
within a value chain ranges from global, regional, or local. Value chain framework are said to
be global when value adding activities take place in different countries. Local, regional and
national chains are geographically limited in the sense that all their activities take place within
smaller area (McCormick and Schmitz, 2001). It is possible to identify national, regional,
or local value chains. They operate in the same way as global chains, but their geographic
reach is more limited. The fish industry is faced with a challenge of ensuring satisfaction of
consumers in the international market. With the growing interdependence of fish trade actors
for increasing competitiveness has become increasingly important paradigm. Value chain
analysis, enables us to examine how efficiency is significant in penetrating global fish market.
It also demonstrates the dynamic factors that determine the sharing of benefits among actors
participating in the fish trade.
The third dimension of value chains is the control that different actors have over the activities
in a chain. Actors control their own activities and they are directly or indirectly controlled
by other actors. Conversely, an actor may also exert control over activities of other actors
in the chain. This pattern of direct and indirect control in a value chain is referred to as the
governance. Governance is exercised in different ways and these differences in governance
are critical in determining upgrading prospects for fish producers in developing countries
(Kiggundu, 2007). Governance in a value chain may be in the form of market, networks
or hierarchy. The market governance occurs when buyers and sellers deal with each other in
arm’s-length exchange transactions, and that no actor exerts control over others. In this case,
the chain is characterized by market-type relationships. In the case of network, co-operation
occurs among equal actors in the chain, while in the ‘quasi- hierarchy’, buyers have a high
degree of control over suppliers. In the hierarchy, buyers assume direct ownership of some
operations in the chain. Depending on the nature of governance, value chains can be
described as either ‘’supplier-driven’’ or buyer’- driven’’ depending on which actors
control key activities of the chain. The fish value chain is generally a buyer driven
chain with the buyer playing key role in determining how other actors within the
chain operate.
220
Basic Characteristics of Women Fish Traders in Kenya
Of the 100 fish traders randomly sampled in our study, 91% were women and only 9% were
male. The inclusion of males in our sample was to serve as a control for perception given by
female traders. Given than the study mainly targeted female fish traders, the proportion of
male in the sample was purposively set to be less than 10%.
The sample was distributed among the three major landing sites around Lake Victoria namely
Usare, Ogal and Pagal. The choice of these study sites was informed by activities being
undertaken by other stakeholders such as WIFIP. In addition to participants from these landing
sites, other respondents were drawn from the Oile fish international market (otherwise known
as Jubilee market).
Most of the respondents (66%) were in the 21-40 years of age implying that majority of them
were in their productive age. Only one respondent indicated her age as below 21 years of age.
221
Table 1: Characteristics of Fish Traders in Kenya
Variable &
Category
Number %
Sex Male 9 9
Female 91 91
Age (years) 10-20 1 1
21-30 31 31
31-40 35 35
41-50 21 21
> 50 12 12
Marital Single 7 7
status Married 64 64.4
Divorced 2 2
Widowed 27 27
Experience in < 5 31 31
business 5-10 32 32
(years) 11-16 16 16
17-22 7 7
> 22 14 14
Level of No formal 13 13
education Primary 67 67
Secondary 5 5
Dipl. & above 1 1
Marital status has implication on the choice of enterprise and extent to which women
participate in entrepreneurship. There is a widespread belief that women who are divorced,
widowed or single dominate in the fish trade. This is informed by the perception that they
have limited options to support their livelihoods and have relative more independence
compared to women who are married. Contrary to this believe, our study found that 64% of
the respondents were married while 27% were widowed and only 7% were single.
222
Those who were divorced accounted for only 2%. Women fish traders indicated that they
had to seek consent of their husbands to be involved in fish trade because of the negative
perception that the community have on fish women traders.2
On education, 67% of the respondents indicated that they had completed primary school
education, while 13 per cent did not have formal education. There was only one respondent
that indicated to have attained a diploma. Those that had completed secondary education
were only 5% of the sample. It is therefore evident that fish trade is dominated by either
illiterate or people with only basic education. This may to a large extent limit their potential for
upgrading. Given their lack of education most of the fish traders cannot venture into markets
in other regions where the may be expected to communicate in English or Kiswahili. Export
market is even a huge challenge for these traders, who are more often than not exploited by
middle men. Education contributes to development of entrepreneurial human capital, which
is the ability to discover and exploit market opportunities through taking the appropriate risky
decisions (Ngigi, 2008). This ability is influenced by innate and acquired skills. The innate
skills include creativity, alertness and imagination. Other skills are acquired through formal
education, access to social capital and general experiences (Kirzner, 2002 cited in Ngigi,
2008).
Business experience varies considerably among fish traders in Kenya. 31% of the respondents
indicated that they had less than 5 years experience in fish trade. Moreover those with less
than 10 years of business experience accounted for more than 60% of the respondents.
The status of the business ownership is key in determining activities that one is involved in
within the value chain. First, it affects the flexibility of the owner in the case sole proprietorship.
Secondly, it may affect the amount of resources available to the business. Eventually, this
may have an implication on the performance of the business. Most of the fish traders in
Kenya (98%) operated a sole proprietorship business. Available evidence shows that most
respondents operated their businesses single handedly. Family businesses accounted for only
2% of the sampled businesses. Most of the businesses were not registered with the local
authority. The only registration that appeared to be related to licenses was the ministry of
fisheries. This licenses was to authorize fishing and also transport of fish from landing sites
to the markets.
2 It widely believed that women must pay with sex to get fish (product) from the fishermen,
and also in to transporters so that their loads can be transported to the fish markets (see Kivolonzi,
2009). Because of this negative connotation, many married men would not easily allow their wives to
engage in fish trade.
223
For a business to be established, availability of initial start-up capital is critical. The surveyed
women entrepreneurs identified several sources of their initial capitals. The survey indicates
that most of the respondents mobilized initial start-up capital through own savings (43%),
followed by income generating activities such as small-scale agriculture (24%). Others
obtained their start-up capital from relatives, husbands and savings from merry-go-round.
Potential for Upgrading
Gender division of roles generally characterizes fish trade. Though this is slowly ebbing
away, it can still be seen to be governing fish trade especially in fishing and collection nodes.
Fishing is a preserve of men while women dominate handling, processing and marketing
nodes of the chain. The table 4.3 indicates the activities that the women respondents engage
in, along the tilapia value chain. The answers are however multiple, as the question required
the respondents to tick all the activities that she performed in fish trade.
The value chain activities considered in this study are actual fishing, fish processing and fish
marketing. The study has found that, a large number of women in all the three countries are
engaged in fish marketing as out of 300 sample surveyed, 244 (81.3%) fall in this category.
On the other hand, it was revealed that there are very few women, only 9 (3%) who are
engaged in actual fishing. This is because, traditionally actual fishing is considered as men’s
job as most of the women suggested in the ground and actual fishing requires time, be outside
the home environment, capital and working in difficult environment, circumstances which
favors men than their women counterpart.
To them marketing and trading for example is easy and suitable. Only 9 (3.0%) of all those
who were interviewed showed to have been doing actual fishing, this includes the few men
which were captured in the sample. There are also a small number across countries. 21 (7.0%)
which does the fish processing, like sun drying, smoking and frying, the activity seem to them
as not profitable, so you find many are engaged in trading and marketing
In patriarchal societies an elaborate division of labor where sex (male or female) is usually
the basis for this allocation duties. As it were this division of labor was found to exist in
fishing industry with some activities being out rightly for men and others for women. For
example, no woman was supposed to indulge in actual fish harvesting due to the fact that
are many taboos and beliefs associated with womanhood and holiness. Due to the monthly
menstruation women were and are still forbidden from fish harvesting since “they are deemed
not to be clean when they are in the periods”. Thus to avoid annoying the water gods all
women were prohibited from fish harvesting.
224
Furthermore, it was reported that fish harvesting is done by scantily dressed men (one ought
to dress lightly as possible so that in case of accident it is easy to swim to safety and body
retrieval). While it is easy for men to fish with bare chests it was inconceivable for women to
fish with their breasts open. To capture this, a respondent reported that: -
The gods would not be happy with us if women with their nakedness were to fish. Remember
that these waters are “sacred” and should be used thus. Women nakedness may not only lead
to little or no catch but also drowning of the boat carrying women fishers.
While the above beliefs have informed the fishing activity for centuries, they have formed a
belief system where even women accept it and justify their participation in fish value chain
thus
…..that the level of participation along the value chain differs. Women, for example, are
hardly found in areas like fishing. Even if a few women might be found in fishing, the practice
is that women do not participate in the fishing itself. Although it is not by force, the fishing
needs courage and determination that most women do not have.
Gender roles were a major constraint to women participation the fish value chain. Gender,
which is the socially and culturally constructed differences between women and men impacted
on the kind of activities and amount of time a woman invested in her business or activity.
Communities living around the lake are largely patriarchal societies where gender inequality
is highly witnessed between women and men. Many women respondents reported how in
addition to their business they had to attend to the domestic chores of caring and looking after
children. Though many voices were heard regarding women’s domestic chores, one of the
respondents had this to say: -
As women we have to balance between our business and the family. We

have family chores, this is a challenge to all women, specifically because
the general feeling is that women are expected to stay at home or work in
the nearby places where they can easily take care of cooking for the family,
bringing up the children and making sure that the family is well cared.
At the time of bulk landings, women undertake salting and/or drying of fish, sometimes even
extracting fish oil and thereby preserving the catch for later use. This helps them gain better
earnings and it also makes fish accessible to distant markets in the interiors and far regions
of country.
225
Conclusion
Women fish traders in the Lake Victoria often experience some gender and cultural conflicts.
With regard to gender, a clear and remarkable difference is seen on actual fishing. The
society considers actual fishing as men’s job and cannot be done by women. In fact this is a
combination of both gender and cultural issues. Though cultural barriers have shown to have
insignificant effect in constraining women from fish trade activities as the large percentage
approved it to be supportive, still there is a need to address the two issues to the stakeholders
concerned. This will be done in the later days as indicated in the work plan. Women also face
difficulties in obtaining start-up capital from financial institutions. Collaterals required by the
banks are not affordable and in some other financial institutions, they are told to form groups in
order to obtain credits, with this criteria it is difficult to obtain mates with same characteristics
since the responsibility for paying back the loan is of the group and not individuals. Such
issues are worth mentioning and need to be addressed as well.
All in all, women need to be encouraged, empowered with capital investments and allowed
opportunities to trade and participate fully in all the fish trade activities along the chain
including actual fishing, processing (smoking, drying, frying etc) regardless of their gender
and the existing cultural norms. When they are given opportunities, we hope that they are
going to be good entrepreneurs and in one way or another, poverty is going to be alleviated
through them.
Women importance and contribution to the fish industry has got little or no attention from
the respective governments and organizations. The study revealed further that fish catching is
predominantly a male job and women are much involved in trading, marketing, transporting
and fish processing. Despite the fact that cultural values do not prevent women involvement
in the fish trade, there has been a feeling that in some places there are norms that prevent them
from doing the actual fishing. With regard to business networking, all women interviewed
were found to be networking with others.
Despite their importance and contribution to the artisan fish industry, women have received
little attention from both the governments and non-governmental organizations. The
negligence of women in the fish sector is a matter of priority if the fishery section is to
maintain its current level of contribution towards household and national economy.
This study has also revealed that majority of the fish traders had experience of at least 5 years
in the trade and generally have low levels of education. In fact, 86% of all the respondents had
226
attained at least primary education. Therefore, with this level of they are able to understand
some trading activities in the fish value chains. However, cultural and gender issues seriously
impede their potential.
Drawing from the findings of this study, we propose the following recommendations:
1. There should be a training on women entrepreneurship and best practices
2. Interest rates from financial institutions are very high and therefore need to be
lowered to enable women fish traders acquire credits and hence capital investment
3. There should be meetings with stakeholders in order to have time to address culture
and gender issues as factors which constrain women from fish trading activities
4. Sensitization to men fish traders to accept their women counterpart and that women
are able to do things which some men cannot do
227
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Fisheries & Aquaculture

Proceedings of the Cluster Workshop

Inter-University Council for East Africa

Proceedings of the Cluster Workshop

12th - 14th December 2010

Inter-University Council for East Africa

3. Riparian Vegetation Propagation for Improved Fisheries Productivity in Lake Victoria

4. Business Planning, Development and Management for Aquaculture. Kamundia P.W.,

5. Participation of Women in Fish Trade: A Case Study of Tanzania. Kituu, G.M.,

6. Current State of Handling, Processing and Quality of Omena Rastrionebola argentea

7. Convergence of Scientific Experiments and Local Knowledge in Aquaculture:

8. Occurrence of Trypanosoma in Nile tilapia in Lake Victoria, Kenya. Kamundia P.W.,

15. I Role of Pond Fish Farming on Socio-Economic Development of Rwanda. Nzayisenga,

17. Epidemiological Factors Affecting Survival of African Catfish Clarias Gariepinus

Improving Livelihoods of Fishing Communities in the Lake Victoria

*1Akumu, J., 2Bwanuka, G., 3Makombe, I, and 2Chamwali, A

Key words: Landing sites; Fishing communities; Livelihoods;

# Landing site Kikondo #

Figure 1. Location of landing sites in Uganda selected for the study.

Table 1. Profiles of the four districts

Figure 2. Types of fisher folks operating at the landing sites.

Table 2. Number of social service facilities at the landing sites

Table 3. Distribution of households by size

Number of residents Kikondo Katosi Kasenyi Kigungu Total %

Multidimensional poverty analysis of fishing communities using fuzzy sets

Table 4. The selected factors and their indicators

Table 5. Value of the indicators for Uganda

Household income and expenditure

Table 6 a. The distribution of households by monthly income

Occupation group N Mean UShs

Social indicators of poverty

Figure 3. Distribution of households by main water source.

Strategies pursued by the fishing communities

Table 7. Livelihood strategies used by the households in the landing sites

Vulnerability is a process in which individuals, households or communities are impoverished

Conclusions and Recommendations

LVFO, (2005), Implementation of a fisheries management plan for Lake Victoria.

Technology for Small-Scale Drying of Fish and its By-products

Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Dar es Salaam

Key words: Fish processing; Tray drier; Technology development

Attribute Energy Source

Economic 0.3 About US$ 6 Requires open 9 Equipment cost 7

Operating 0.15 Labour 7 Labour intensive 8 Labour only 6

Technical 0.2 Medium 5 Low throughput. 6 High throughput. 7

1-Chimney, 2- Burner position, 3- Tubes, 4-

Figure 2. Heat exchanger tube arrangement. Plate 5. Fabricated heat exchanger.

E-4 TI- 8 TI-1 TI- 2

TI- 9 TI- 5 L=6m TI- 4

Results and Discussion

Table 2. Local and foreign names of the tested Fish

Swahili Name English Name Species Name

1- Herring; 2- Ponyfish; 3- Anchovy; 4- Sardinella

Plate 8. Different species and sizes used for test drying.

Figure 5. Open-loop temperature response under no-load conditions.

Figure 6. Temperature Response at Different Sensor Location

In order to ensure uniformity it will be necessary to install a distribution mechanism like a

Figure 7. Moisture content determination for various fish species.

Figure 8. Drying different species and sizes under similar conditions.

Plate 9. Sample of dried anchovy packed in a 250 g polyethlyene bag.

Conclusions and Recommendations

careful cost-benefit analysis should include socio-economic and environmental parameters.

Adeleye, O. A. 1992. Conservation needs of fisheries resources and reorientation for