Chapter 1 EIM-NC2 PDF

IDENTIFYING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
I. OBJECTIVES
The trainee should be able to:

1. Identify electrical tools and equipment
2. Clean electrical tools and equipment
3. Oil electrical tools and equipment
4. Repair/adjust/replace defective parts of tools and equipment
5. Keep electrical tools and equipment after use.
II. THEORIES/PRINCIPLES
1. Electrical Tools and equipment are used to:

1.1 Installing electrical wiring
1.2 Servicing/repairing electrical appliances
2. They are classified according to their uses such as:
2.1 Driving Tools
a. Screw Drivers – used to turn or drive screws with clotted heads. They are made in several sizes
and shapes, and are measured by the length of the blade which is made of tools steel,
hardened and tempered at the point. The most common types of tips of screw drivers are the
standard and Phillips.
Stubb or close quarter screw driver
Standard Screw Driver
Philips Screw Driver
Offset screw driver
b. Hammers – classified as soft and hard-faced. Hard-faces hammers are used for striking hard
objects like cold chisel, star drill and nails. Soft-faced hammers have cylindrical head made of
plastic or hard rubber or wood. The types of hammers are:
1. ball peen
2. claw
3. soft-faced hammer
BALL-PEEN HAMMER
Claw Hammer
Soft-faced Hammer or Mallet
c. Nut Driver – is used to tighten or loosen nuts. Nut drivers usually come from 1/8” to 14”. They
are used to places where a wrench cannot be used. Figure 3 shows a set of nut drivers. (see
next page for the drawing).
Set of Nut Drivers
2.2 Boring Tools
a. Gimlet – a small tool with a tapered drill point used to make a pilot hole for screws. It is
commonly used in knob –and-tube installations and is measured by the diameter of its body.
b. Portable Electric Drill – a small electrically operated drilling machine
Figure 5. Portable Electric Drill
c. Hand Drill and Bit – a manually operated tool in boring holes on metals and woods. Masonry bit
is a special king of bit used for drilling holes on concrete or brick wall.
BREAST DRILL
HAND DRILL
Masonry bit
Hand Drill & Set of Drill bits

d. Auger Brace and Bit – a carpenter’s tool for boring holes in wood. It is also used by an
electrician to bore holes in joints and studs for conductors to pose through.
Auger Brace & Bit
e. Star Drill – is a special tool used to drill holes in brick, stone or concrete wall to let a pipe pose
through or to fasten something on the wall. The point is shaped like a star. The drill is struck
lightly with a hammer and turned a little between blows.
Star Drill
f. Pipe Burring Reamer – cute away rough edges or burrs inside pipe after it has been cut with a
pipe cutter. It is need with an auger brace.
Pipe-Burring Reamer
g. Hand Reamer – used for boring holes and increasing the diameter of the hole.
h. Floor Type Drill Press – electrically operated boring tool.
Floor Type Drill Press
2.3 Bending Tools
a. Hickey – a pipe bending tool made in various sizes and handle lengths, depending upon the
diameter or the pipe to be bent.
Hickey
b. Improvised Metal Conduit Hander – a block of hard wood provided with a hole. The hole is a
little bit bigger than the size of the pipe to be bent.
Improvised Metal Conduit Bender

c. Water Pipe Tee with Extension Handle – used for bending metal conduit instead of a hickey.
Water Pipe Tee With Extension Handle
2.4 Driving Tools
a. Wire Gage – used to measure the size of conductors. The Brown and Sharps Wire Gage (B &
S). or lately the American Wire Gage (AWG) measures from No. 0 to No. 36 solid wires.
b. Outside Micrometer Caliper – used to measure the diameter of wires. It can measure as small
as a thousandth of an inch or millimeter. It is available in various sizes, either in Metric or in
English.
Outside Micrometer Caliper

c. Pull-Push Rule – used to layout distances. It can measure in two measuring systems, English
and Metric.
2.5 Electrical Measuring/Testing Tools
a. VOM (Volt-Ohm-Millimeter) – a multi-tester, it can measure current, resistance and voltage. It is

designed to measure different magnitudes of electrical units. Readings are controlled by:
1. Range Selector
2. Function Switch
3. Zero-Ohm Adjuster
b. Clamp or Hook-On Ammeter – a measuring instrument used by electricians and refrigerator

mechanics for measuring:
1. current
2. voltage
3. resistance
The voltmeter and ohmmeter functions of the clamp ammeter are not as accurate as that of
the Simpson Tester. It is intended for low resistance measurement only.
External Parts of the Two Types of Clamp-On Ammeter
Transistorized insulation resistance tester or megger
Hand-cranked insulation resistance tester or megger
2.6 Cutting Tools
a. Saws – classified into:
1. Cross-Cut Saw – used to cut across the grain of wood

2. Rip Saw – used to cut along the grain of wood.
3. Hacksaw – used to cut metal.
4. Key Hole Saw – used to cut arcs or circles or round holes on pieces of wood. They are
described by theirs:
b. Diagonal Cutter – used for cutting medium or fine wires and bending small pieces of soft metal.
Diagonal Cutter
c. Electrician’s Plier (Side Cutting) – uses for cutting big cables.
Electrician’s Plier
d. Pipe Cutter – is another important tool used to cut pipe and has three small round cutters. It is
made of hardened steel. The pipe is slipped over tongue where the cut is to be made. The
cutters are gradually pressed against the pipe and rotated until it is covered.
PVC Pipe Cutter
e. Electrician’s Knife – is used for removing the insulation of the conductors and scraping the
surface of the conductor.
Electrician’s Knife
f. Mechanical Wire Strippers – these are used for skinning insulated electrical conductors. Figure
27 shows the types of strippers.
Mechanical Wire Strippers
2.7 Holding/Cutting Tools
a. Bench Vice or Machinist Vice – used for holding work while cutting, chiseling or bending metals.
b. Pipe Vices – used to hold pipes while cutting or threading them.

c. C-Clamp –used for holding workpiece like when chiseling or cutting.
C-Clamp
d. Long Nose Plier – used for cutting and holding fine wires; can reach into tight places. It is
commonly used to make terminal loops in copper wires.
Long Nose Pliers
e. Lineman’s or Side cutting Pliers – used in electrical work for cutting big or small wires or nails.
Side cutting Pliers
f. Flat Nose Plier – commonly used in sheet metal work for bending edges of metal.
Flat Nose Plier

2.8 Holding/Cutting Tools
a. Dies and Diestock – used for threading metal rigid conduit…

The stock is used to hold the dies on the cutting part of the tool. The dies are of
different sizes.
Dies and Diestock
2.9 Turning Tools
a. Monkey Wrench – used for turning/fastening big nuts.
b. Adjustable Wrench – used for holding/turning nuts. Opening is adjustable.
Adjustable Wrench
c. Vice Grip Wrench – used for holding work with a locking device to avoid slipping and causing
damage to nuts.
Vise Grip Wrench

d. Pipe Wrench – used for holding and turning pipe. Also used for turning nuts, when fastening
pieces of work.
Pipe Wrench
e. Open-End-Wrench – used for tightening/loosening nuts. It has fixed and opening.
Set of Open-End-Wrench
f. Box Wrench – used for holding, tightening, loosening nuts or bolts. It completely surrounds the
bolt or nut to prevent possible slippage.
Box Wrench
g. Socket Wrench – probably the most useful tool among the wrenches. Used for turning,
tightening, loosening nuts and bolts.
Socket Wrench
h. Allen Wrench – used for fastening/removing Allen set screws.
Allen Wrench
2.10 Soldering Tools/Equipment
a. Electric Soldering Copper and Gun – depends upon electricity for supplying heat. They are
described by their:
1. Operating voltage (110v/220v)

2. Power in watts (602/200w)
3. Number of heats (single heat/dual heat)
4. Brand or make (Germany/US/England)
Soldering Tools
b. Blow Torch – used for heating soldering bit when soldering.
Blow Torch
Test Lamp
Flat file – used for removing external burrs in conduits.
Fish tape – a special flexible steel wire used for pulling in the
conductors in conduits.
TABLES OF METRIC UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Units of Length
10 millimeters (mm) = 1 centimeter (cm)

10 centimeters = 1 decimeter (dm) = 100 millimeters
10 decimeters = 1 meter (m) = 1000 millimeters
10 meters = 1 dekameter (dam)
10 hectometers = 1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters
12 inches (in) = 1 foot (ft)
2.54 cm = 1 inch
25.4 mm = 1 inch
3 feet = 1 yard (yd)
1852 meters = 1 international nautical mile
Interpretations of symbols used in math problems
Plus sign (addition) +

Minus sign (subtraction) -
Times sign (multiplication) x
Division sign ÷
Division frame
Equal sign =
Decimal point .
Percent symbol %
Ratio symbol :
Pi sign π
Terms used in geometry
a. Geometric figure – Shape formed by straight or curved lines

b. Perimeter – Outer limits or boundary
c. Lineal – Relating to, consisting of, or resembling a straight line
d. Parallel – Line or surface extending in the same direction an equal distance
Example: _____________
_____________
e. Right angle – Angle formed by two lines perpendicular to each other: a 90 degree angle.
Example: ┐└
f. Perpendicular – Line or surface at right angle to another line or surface
Example: ┴
g. Radius – Line from the center of a circle to any point on the edge of the circle
Example:
Radius
h. Diameter – Distance between the outer edges of a circle through its center point
Example:
Diameter
i. Circumference – Distance around the outer edge of a circle
j. Pi – Greek letter (π) representing the ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter; ratio is
approximately 3.1416
k. Area – Measure of a flat surface; expressed in square units
Example: W x L = Area in square
l. Cubic unit – Unit with three equal dimensions including length, width, and height
m. Cubic foot – Volume of an object that is 1 foot long, 1 foot wide, and 1 foot high
Types of geometric figures
a. Square – Figure having four sides of equal length and four right angles
Example:
b. Rectangle – Figure with two parallel ends of equal length, two parallel sides of equal length, and four right
angles.
Example:
c. Triangle – Figure having three sides and three angles

Example:
d. Circle – Flat, round figure formed by one curved line, all points of which are equidistant from center point.
Example:
e. Rhombus – Figure having no right angles and four sides of equal length.
Example:
f. Parallelogram – Figure such as a square, rectangle, or rhombus with two parallel ends of equal length and
two parallel sides of equal length
Example:
g. Trapezoid – Figure with only one pair of parallel opposite sides

Example:
Units of measure and their equivalents

a. Inch (“) – Equal to one-twelfth of a foot (1/12’) or one thirty-sixth of a yard (1/36 yard)
b. Foot (‘) – Equal to twelve inches (12”) or one-third of a yard (1/3 yard)
c. Yard – Equal to three feet (3/) or thirty-six inches (35”)
d. Rod – Equal to sixteen and one-half feet (16 ½’)
e. Mile – Equal to five thousand, two hundred and eighty feet (5280’)
f. Degree (˚) – Equal to 1/360 of a circle
Example
1˚
Area Formulas
Note: "ab" means "a" multiplied by "b". "a 2" means "a squared", which is the same as "a" times "a".
Be careful!! Units count. Use the same units for all measurements. Examples
square = a 2
rectangle = ab
parallelogram = bh
trapezoid = h/2 (b1 + b2)
circle = pi r 2
one half times the base length times the

triangle =
height of the triangle
Area is measured in "square" units. The area of a figure is the number of squares required to cover it
completely, like tiles on a floor.
Area of a square = side times side. Since each side of a square is the same, it can simply be the length of one
side squared.
If a square has one side of 4 inches, the area would be 4 inches times 4 inches, or 16 square inches. (Square
inches can also be written in2.)
Be sure to use the same units for all measurements. You cannot multiply feet times inches, it doesn't make a
square measurement.
Calculating area of geometric figures
Note: Area is always labeled in square units of measure.
a. Square – Use the formula Area = Length x Width or A = LW.
L = 10’
A = LW
W = 10’ = 10 x 10
= 100 square feet
b. Rectangle – Use the formula Area = Length x Width or A = LW
L = 9 yd
A = LW
W = 2yd = 9x2
= 18 square yards
c. Circle – Use the formula Area = πr2 (radius x radius)
A = πr2
R = 5” = 3.14 x (5 x 5)
= 78.50 square inches
d. Triangle – Use the formula Area = ½ Base x Height, or A = ½ BH.
A = _1_
BH
2
H = 7”
= ( _1_ x 12 ) x 7
2
= 6x7
B = 12”
= 42 square inches
e. Parallelogram – Use the formula Are = Base x Height, or A = BH
A = BH
H = 7”
= 12 x 7
B = 12” = 84 square inches
f. Trapezoid – Use the formula Area = ½ H(B1 + B2).
B2 = 5’
A = _1_ H (B1 + B2)
H = 7’
2
= ( _1_ x 7 ) x (8 + 5)
2
B1 = 8’
= _7_ x 13
2
= _7_ x _13_
2 1
= _91_
2
= 45 _1_ square feet

2
Surface Area Formulas
In general, the surface area is the sum of all the areas of all the shapes that cover the surface of the object.
Surface Area of a Cube = 6 a 2
(a is the length of the side of each edge of the cube)
In words, the surface area of a cube is the area of the six squares that cover it. The area of one of them is a*a,
or a 2 . Since these are all the same, you can multiply one of them by six, so the surface area of a cube is 6
times one of the sides squared.
Surface Area of a Rectangular Prism = 2ab + 2bc + 2ac
(a, b, and c are the lengths of the 3 sides)
In words, the surface area of a rectangular prism is the are of the six rectangles that cover it. But we don't have
to figure out all six because we know that the top and bottom are the same, the front and back are the same,
and the left and right sides are the same.
The area of the top and bottom (side lengths a and c) = a*c. Since there are two of them, you get 2ac. The front
and back have side lengths of b and c. The area of one of them is b*c, and there are two of them, so the surface
area of those two is 2bc. The left and right side have side lengths of a and b, so the surface area of one of them
is a*b. Again, there are two of them, so their combined surface area is 2ab.
Surface Area of a Sphere = 4 pi r 2
(r is radius of circle)
Perimeter Formulas
The perimeter of any polygon is the sum of the lengths of all the sides.
Square = 4a
Rectangle = 2a + 2b
Triangle = a + b + c
Circle = 2pi r
Circle = pi d (where d is the diameter)
The perimeter of a circle is more commonly known as the circumference.
Be sure to only add similar units. For example, you cannot add inches to feet.
For example, if you need to find the perimeter of a rectangle with sides of 9 inches and 1 foot, you must first
change to the same units.
Perimeter = 2 ( a + b)
INCORRECT
perimeter = 2(9 + 1) = 2*10 = 20
CORRECT
perimeter = 2(9 inches + 1 foot)
= 2( 3/4 foot + 1 foot )
= 2(1 3/4 feet)
= 3 1/2 feet
Steel tape rule reading
Inch
0 1
Centimeter
0 1
.1 .9
.2 .8
.3 .7
.4 .6
.5
METRIC AND PREFIXES
In the metric system of measurement, designations of multiples and sub-divisions of any unit may be arrived at
by combining with the name of the unit the prefixes deka, hecto, and kilo meaning, respectively, 10, 100, and
1000, and deci, centi, and milli, meaning, respectively, one-tenth, one-hundredth, and one-thousandth. In some
of the following metric tables, some such multiples and sub-divisions have not been included for the reason that
these have little, if any currency in actual usage.
In certain cases, particularly in scientific usage, it becomes convenient to provide for multiples larger than 1 000
and for subdivisions smaller than one-thousandth. Accordingly, the following prefixes have been introduced and
these are now generally recognized:
or in SI SI
FACTOR ...or in full ...
words PREFIX SYMBOL
1,0E+24 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 septillion yotta- Y
1,0E+21 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 sextillion zetta- Z
1,0E+18 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 quintillion exa- E
1,0E+15 1 000 000 000 000 000 quadrillion peta- P
1,0E+12 1 000 000 000 000 trillion tera- T
1,0E+9 1 000 000 000 billion giga- G
1,0E+6 1 000 000 million mega- M
1,0E+3 1 000 thousand kilo- k
1,0E+2 100 hundred hecto- h
1,0E+1 10 ten deca- da
1,0E-1 0,1 tenth deci- d
1,0E-2 0,01 hundredth centi- c
1,0E-3 0,001 thousandth milli- m
1,0E-6 0,000 001 millionth micro- µ
1,0E-9 0,000 000 001 billionth nano- n
1,0E-12 0,000 000 000 001 trillionth pico- p
1,0E-15 0,000 000 000 000 001 quadrillionth femto- f
1,0E-18 0,000 000 000 000 000 001 quintillionth atto- a
1,0E-21 0,000 000 000 000 000 000 001 sextillionth zepto- z
1,0E-24 0,000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 septillionth yocto- y
Note: A very common mistake is that the prefix milli- stands for a millionth.
WRONG!!
As can be seen from the table above, milli stands for a thousandth. It comes from the French, mille for 1000 -
they could not use it for the 1000 prefix as that was bagged by the Greek word, kilo
Note: The prefix hecto- to centi- are not 'preferred prefix' but referred to as 'other prefix' by SI, though centi- is
in common use as in cubic centimetre or cc.
Le Système International d'Unités (SI) name the prefix giga and nano, milliard and milliardth respectivly. The
wording shown here was approved by the General Conference on Weights and Measures and has been
adopted in practice.
The scientific notation used in the factors column helps to reduce long numbers to a manageable width. By
convention, the number is always shown as a unit [ 1 to 9 ], with decimal places chosen to suit accuracy, and
the size of the number is adjusted by changing the magnitude [E+?]. E+01 means moving the decimal point
one space to the right so 1.00E+01 is shorthand for 10, then 1.33E+00 stays at 1.33 and 1.33E-01 becomes
0.133. This format tends to be used when the figure gets longer so E+09 or E-09 cuts out a lot of noughts.
Don't confuse scientific notation with powers. You can say, quite rightly, that a million is 10 to the power of 6 [
10^6 or ] but if you confused it with the scientific notation and had 1^7 the answer would be 1 and not a
million ! [ you say one times one is one, seven times, and the answer is still one ]
So it's all a matter of conventions - if we all follow the same rules then the information is passed correctly from
one brain to another which is, after all, the object of writing something down.
Electrical prefixes: An electrical prefix is the term placed before an electrical unit. The prefix affects the value of
the unit to which it is attached. Examples: a kilowatt is 1000 watts; a megawatt is 1 million watts. Kilo and mega
are examples of electrical prefixes. Since you will come across a lot of electrical prefixes in your study of electricity,
it is important that you know their meanings and values. The following are common electrical prefixes:
Milli - means one thousandth of a unit.

Example: 25 milliamperes means 25 thousandth of an ampere (.025)
Kilo - means one thousand.

Example: 10 kilowatts means 10,000 watts.
Micro - means one millionth of a unit.

Example: 12 microvolts mans 12 millionth of a volt.
(.000012)
Mega - means one million.
Example: 15 mega ohms means 15 million ohms.

Sometimes, it is necessary to change a given value to an equivalent value. For example: change 2000 watts to
kilowatts. To change watts to kilowatts, divide the watts by 1000 or simply move the decimal point three places to
the left.
2000
______ = 2 kilowatts or 2.000
1000
To change - Move the decimal point To change Move the decimal point
Watts to kilowatts – three place to the left Megawatt to watt – six places to the right
Example: 35 watts equals .035 Examples 10 megawatts equals 10,000,000 watts
Kilowatt to watt – three places to the right Watts to megawatt – six places to the left
Example: 3 kilowatts equals 3000 watts Example: 300,000 watts equals .3 megawatt
Milliampere to ampere – three place to the left Volt to microvolt – six places to the right
Example: 30 milliamperes equals .03 ampere Example: 2 volts equals 2,000,000 microvolts
Ampere to milliamperes – three places to the right Microvolt to volt – six place to the left
Example: 1 ampere equals 1000 milliamperes Example: 450,00 microvolts equals .4 volts
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTIC
QUANTITY SYMBOL BASIC UNIT UNIT SYMBOL

Current I or i Ampere A
Charge Q or q Coulomb C
Power P Watt W
Voltage E or e Volt V
Resistance R Ohm Ω
Reactance X Ohm Ω
Impedance Z Ohm Ω
Conductance G Siemens S
Admittance Y Siemens S
Susceptance B Siemens S
Capacitance C Farad F
Inductance L Henry H
Frequency F Hertz Hz
Period T Second s
Note Memorize the table

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
 Define electricity and identify the origins of the term.

 Discuss how electricity can be observed in the world.
What is Electricity?
Electricity is a form of energy produced by the movement of electrons. Electricity is electrical power or
an electric current. This form of energy can be sent through wires in a flow of tiny particles. It is used to produce
light and heat and to run motors.
Electricity is the flow of electrical power or charge. It is a secondary energy source which means that we
get it from the conversion of other sources of energy, like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural
sources, which are called primary sources. The energy sources we use to make electricity can be renewable or
non-renewable, but electricity itself is neither renewable nor non-renewable.
Electricity is a basic part of nature and it is one of our most widely used forms of energy. Many cities and
towns were built alongside waterfalls (a primary source of mechanical energy) that turned water wheels to perform
work. Before electricity generation began over 100 years ago, houses were lit with kerosene lamps, food was
cooled in iceboxes, and rooms were warmed by wood-burning or coal-burning stoves. Beginning with Benjamin
Franklin's experiment with a kite one stormy night in Philadelphia, the principles of electricity gradually became
understood. Thomas Edison helped change everyone's life -- he perfected his invention -- the electric light bulb.
Prior to 1879, direct current (DC) electricity had been used in arc lights for outdoor lighting. In the late-1800s,
Nikola Tesla pioneered the generation, transmission, and use of alternating current (AC) electricity, which can be
transmitted over much greater distances than direct current. Tesla's inventions used electricity to bring indoor
lighting to our homes and to power industrial machines.
Despite its great importance in our daily lives, most of us rarely stop to think what life would be like without
electricity. Yet like air and water, we tend to take electricity for granted. Everyday, we use electricity to do many
jobs for us -- from lighting and heating/cooling our homes, to powering our televisions and computers. Electricity
is a controllable and convenient form of energy used in the applications of heat, light and power
Review
1. Electricity occurs naturally and has been observed for thousands of years.
2. Electricity and magnetism are very closely related
THINGS THAT WORK WITH ELECTRICITY
 List a variety of ways electricity affects our lives.
Electricity has a very large influence on our lives, but it is not well understood by many people. Electricity is used
to power many of the things that we use every day. Below are some of the things that use electricity.
You probably do not have to think too hard to come up with some examples on your own, just look around you.
Since electricity is so important to your life, you need to know something about it. This lesson will introduce you
to some of the basic facts about electricity and electromagnetism. You will also learn a little about how electricity
is used to find defects in critical parts before the parts break and cause problems. The instrument above in the
lower right is called an Eddy Current Scope and it uses little electrical currents called "eddy currents" to find
defects in things like jet engine parts. In the career field of nondestructive testing or NDT, engineers and
technicians use eddy current inspection to inspect a lot of different things and to make measurements. You will
learn more about NDT in the following pages.
Review
1. Many everyday household devices use electricity.

2. Without electricity, our lives would be very different and in many cases more difficult.
3. Eddy current testing uses electricity to find defects in parts and materials.
ELECTRICAL CURRENT
 Explain how an electrical current is produced.
Electricity is a term used to describe the energy produced (usually to perform work) when electrons are caused
to directional (not randomly) flow from atom to atom. In fact, the day-to-day products that we all benefit from, rely
on the movement of electrons. This movement of electrons between atoms is called electrical current. We will
look at how electrical current is produced and measured in the following pages.
Review
1. Electricity is a word used to describe the directional flow of electrons between atoms.
2. The directional movement of electrons between atoms is called electrical current.
AMPERAGE
 Define amperes and name the instrument that is used to measures amperage.
 Construct an experiment to determine the amount of amps flowing in a circuit.
It is very important to have a way to measure and quantify the flow of electrical current. When current flow is
controlled it can be used to do useful work. Electricity can be very dangerous and it is important to know something
about it in order to work with it safely. The flow of electrons is measured in units called amperes. The term amp
is often used for short. An amp is the amount of electrical current that exists when a number of electrons, having
one coulomb (ku`-lum) of charge, move past a given point in one second. A coulomb is the charge carried by
6.25 x 10^18 electrons. 6.25 x 10^18 is scientific notation for 6,250,000,000,000,000,000. That is a lot of electrons
moving past a given point in one second!
Since we cannot count this fast and we cannot even see the electrons, we need an instrument to measure the
flow of electrons. An ammeter is this instrument and it is used to indicate how many amps of current are flowing
in an electrical circuit.
Review
1. Amperage is a term used to describe the number of electrons moving past a fixed point in a conductor in
one second.
2. Current is measured in units called amperes or amps.
VOLTAGE
 Define EMF and explain how it is measured.

 Explain why EMF is important to the flow of electrical current.
 List several examples of sources of electromotive force.
We also need to know something about the force that causes the electrons to move in an electrical circuit. This
force is called electromotive force, or EMF. Sometimes it is convenient to think of EMF as electrical pressure. In
other words, it is the force that makes electrons move in a certain direction within a conductor.
But how do we create this “electrical pressure” to generate electron flow? There are many sources of EMF. Some
of the more common ones are: batteries, generators, and photovoltaic cells, just to name a few.
Batteries are constructed so there are too many electrons in one material and not enough in another material. The
electrons want to balance the electrostatic charge by moving from the material with the excess electrons to the
material with the shortage of electrons. However, they cannot because there is no conductive path for them to
travel. However, if these two unbalanced materials within the battery are connected together with a conductor,
electrical current will flow as the electron moves from the negatively charged area to the positively charged area.
When you use a battery, you are allowing electrons to flow from one end of the battery through a conductor and
something like a light bulb to the other end of the battery. The battery will work until there is a balance of electrons
at both ends of the battery. Caution: you should never connect a conductor to the two ends of a battery without
making the electrons pass through something like a light bulb which slows the flow of currents. If the electrons are
allowed to flow too fast the conductor will become very hot, and it and the battery may be damaged.
We will discuss how electrical generators use magnetism to create EMF in a coming section. Photovoltaic cells
turn light energy from sources like the sun into energy. To understand the photovoltaic process you need to know
about semiconductors so we will not cover them in this material.
How does the amp and the volt work together in electricity?
-----------------
To understand how voltage and amperage are related, it is sometimes useful to make an analogy with water. Look
at the picture here of water flowing in a garden hose. Think of electricity flowing in a wire in the same way as the
water flowing in the hose. The voltage causing the electrical current to flow in the wire can be considered the
water pressure at the faucet, which causes the water to flow. If we were to increase the pressure at the hydrant,
more water would flow in the hose. Similarly, if we increase electrical pressure or voltage, more electrons would
flow in the wire.
Does it also make sense that if we were to remove the pressure from the hydrant by turning it off, the water would
stop flowing? The same is true with an electrical circuit. If we remove the voltage source, or EMF, no current will
flow in the wires.
Another way of saying this is: without EMF, there will be no current. Also, we could say that the free electrons of
the atoms move in random directions unless they are pushed or pulled in one direction by an outside force, which
we call electromotive force, or EMF.
Review
1. EMF is electromotive force. EMF causes the electrons to move in a particular direction.
2. EMF is measured in units called volts.
RESISTANCE
 Define resistance and how we measure it.

 Discuss the similarities between resistance in a wire and the resistance in a water hose.
There is another important property that can be measured in electrical systems. This is resistance, which is
measured in units called ohms. Resistance is a term that describes the forces that oppose the flow of electron
current in a conductor. All materials naturally contain some resistance to the flow of electron current. We have not
found a way to make conductors that do not have some resistance.
If we use our water analogy to help picture resistance, think of a hose that is partially plugged with sand. The
sand will slow the flow of water in the hose. We can say that the plugged hose has more resistance to water flow
than does an unplugged hose. If we want to get more water out of the hose, we would need to turn up the water
pressure at the hydrant. The same is true with electricity. Materials with low resistance let electricity flow easily.
Materials with higher resistance require more voltage (EMF) to make the electricity flow.
The scientific definition of one ohm is the amount of electrical resistance that exists in an electrical circuit
when one amp of current is flowing with one volt being applied to the circuit.
Is resistance good or bad?
Resistance can be both good and bad. If we are trying to transmit electricity from one place to another
through a conductor, resistance is undesirable in the conductor. Resistance causes some of the electrical energy
to turn into heat so some electrical energy is lost along the way. However, it is resistance that allows us to use
electricity for heat and light. The heat that is generated from electric heaters or the light that we get from light
bulbs is due to resistance. In a light bulb, the electricity flowing through the filament, or the tiny wires inside the
bulb, cause them to glow white hot. If all the oxygen were not removed from inside the bulb, the wires would burn
up.
An important point to mention here is that the resistance is higher in smaller wires. Therefore, if the voltage
or EMF is high, too much current will follow through small wires and make them hot. In some cases hot enough
to cause a fire or even explode. Therefore, it is sometimes useful to add components called resistors into an
electrical circuit to slow the flow of electricity and protect of the components in the circuit.
Resistance is also good because it gives us a way to shield ourselves from the harmful energy of
electricity. We will talk more about this on the next page.
Color-coding of this form is becoming rarer. In newer equipment, most passive components come in surface
mount packages. Many of these packages are unlabeled, and those that are normally use alphanumeric codes,
not colors.
In one popular marking method, the manufacturer prints 3 digits on components: 2 value digits followed by the
power of ten multiplier. Thus the value of a resistor marked 472 is 4,700 Ω, a capacitor marked 104 is 100 nF
(10x104 pF), and an inductor marked 475 is 4.7 H (4,700,000 µH). This can be confusing; a resistor marked 270
might seem to be a 270 Ω unit, when the value is actually 27 Ω (27×100). Another way is to use the "kilo-" or
"mega-" prefixes in place of the decimal point:
1K2 = 1.2 kΩ = 1,200 Ω

M47 = 0.47 MΩ = 470,000 Ω
68R = 68 Ω
For 1% resistors, a three-digit alphanumeric code is sometimes used, which is not obviously related to the value
but can be derived from a table of 1% values. For instance, a resistor marked 68C is 499(68) × 100(C) = 49,900 Ω.
In this case the value 499 is the 68th entry of a table of 1% values between 100 and 999.
It is sometimes not obvious whether a color coded component is a resistor, capacitor, or inductor, and this may
be deduced by knowledge of its circuit function, physical shape or by measurement (capacitors have nearly infinite
resistance; unfortunately, so do faulty open-circuit resistors and inductors).
One decade of the preferred E12 values (there are twelve preferred values per decade of values) shown with their
electronic color codes on resistors.
A 100 kΩ, 5% through-hole resistor.

A 0Ω resistor, marked with a single black band.
Resistor values are always coded in ohms, capacitors in picofarads (pF), inductors in microhenries (µH), and
transformers in volts.
 band A is first significant figure of component value

 band B is the second significant figure
 band C is the decimal multiplier
 band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no color means 20%)
For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red, and gold will have first digit 4 (yellow in table below),
second digit 7 (violet), followed by 2 (red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold signifies that the tolerance is ±5%, so the real
resistance could lie anywhere between 4,465 and 4,935 ohms.
Resistors manufactured for military use may also include a fifth band which indicates component failure rate
(reliability); refer to MIL-HDBK-199 for further details.
Tight tolerance resistors may have three bands for significant figures rather than two, and/or an additional band
indicating temperature coefficient, in units of ppm/K.
All coded components will have at least two value bands and a multiplier; other bands are optional (italicised
below).
The standard color code per EN 60062:2005 is as follows:
Temp.
Significant
Color Multiplier Tolerance Coefficient
figures
(ppm/K)
Black 0 ×100 – 250 U
1
Brown 1 ×10 ±1% F 100 S
2
Red 2 ×10 ±2% G 50 R
Orange 3 ×103 – 15 P
Yellow 4 ×104 – 25 Q
5
Green 5 ×10 ±0.5% D 20 Z
6
Blue 6 ×10 ±0.25% C 10 Z
7
Violet 7 ×10 ±0.1% B 5 M
Gray 8 ×108 ±0.05% A 1 K
White 9 ×109 – –
Gold – ×10 -1
±5% J –
Silver – ×10 -2
±10% K –
None – – ±20% M –
1. Any temperature coefficient not assigned its own letter shall be markd "Z",
and the coefficient found in other documentation.
2. For more information, see EN 60062.
Note: red to violet are the colors of the rainbow where red is low energy and violet is higher energy.
As an example, let us take a resistor which (read left to right) displays the colors yellow, violet, yellow, brown. We
take the first two bands as the value, giving us 4, 7. Then the third band, another yellow, gives us the multiplier
104. Our total value is then 47 x 104 Ω, totalling 470,000 Ω or 470 kΩ. Our brown is then a tolerance of ±1%.
Resistors use specific values, which are determined by their tolerance. These values repeat for every order of
magnitude; 6.8, 68, 680, and so forth. This is useful because the digits, and hence the first two or three stripes,
will always be similar patterns of colors, which make them easier to understand.
A much older resistor color coding scheme, still to be found on components in vintage radios, is known as 'body-
tip-spot'. Here the color of the resistor body was the first digit, the color of one tip or end of the resistor was the
second, and the color of the spot on the body was the multiplier.
Zero ohm resistors are manufactured; these are lengths of wire wrapped in a resistor-shaped body which can be
substituted for another resistor value in automatic insertion equipment. They are marked with a single black
band.[2]
Mnemonics
A useful mnemonic for remembering the first ten color codes matches the first letter of the color code, by order of
increasing magnitude. There are many variations:
 Bad boys rape our young girls behind victory garden walls.[3][4]
 Bad boys run our young girls behind victory garden walls.[5]
 Bad boys rape our young girls but Violet gives willingly.[3][4]
 Big boys race our young girls but Violet generally wins.[6]
The tolerance codes, gold, silver, and none, are not usually included in the mnemonics; one extension that
includes them is:
 Bad beer rots our young guts but vodka goes well – get some now.[7]
Since B can stand for both "black" and "brown", variations are formed such as "Black boys rape our young
girls...".[5]
Examples
From top to bottom:
 Green-Blue-Brown-Black-Brown
o 561 Ω ± 1%
 Red-Red-Orange-Gold
o 22,000 Ω ± 5%
 Yellow-Violet-Brown-Gold
o 470 Ω ± 5%
 Blue-Gray-Black-Silver
o 68 Ω ± 10% (this wide of a tolerance is now seldom seen)
Not pictured:
 Brown-Black-Brown
o 100 Ω ± 20% (this wide of a tolerance is now seldom seen)
 Black
o zero Ω
OHM'S LAW
 Identify Ohm's law and discuss why it is important.

 Calculate the amount of electric current in a circuit using Ohm's law.
Probably the most important mathematical relationship between voltage, current and resistance in electricity is
something called “Ohm’s Law”. A man named George Ohm published this formula in 1827 based on his
experiments with electricity. This formula is used to calculate electrical values so that we can design circuits and
use electricity in a useful manner. Ohm's Law is shown below.
OHM'S LAW
I = V/R,
I = current, V = voltage, and R = resistance
*Depending on what you are trying to solve we can rearrange it two other ways.
V=IxR
R = V/I
*All of these variations of Ohm’s Law are mathematically equal to one another.
Let’s look at what Ohm’s Law tells us. In the first version of the formula, I = V/R, Ohm's Law tells us that the
electrical current flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the
resistance. In other words, an increase in the voltage will tend to increase the current while an increase in
resistance will tend to decrease the current.
The second version of the formula tells us that if either the current or the resistance is increased in the circuit, the
voltage will also have to increase. The third version of the formula tells us that an increase in voltage will result in
an increase in resistance but that an increase in current will result in a decrease in resistance.
As you can see, voltage, current, and resistance are mathematically, as well as, physically related to each other.
We cannot deal with electricity without all three of these properties being considered.
(The symbol for an Ohm looks like a horseshoe and is pictured after the "100" in the diagram above.)
George S. Ohm, a scientist of the early 1800s, formulated a law that links the relationship of Electromotive
Force (EMF), current flow and resistance in a basic circuit. He found out that: “The current in a circuit is directly
proportional to the applied voltage and inversely proportional to resistance in the circuit”.
or in simpler form
 When Resistance Goes Up or Down – current goes up or down, assuming the voltage is
the same.
 When Voltage Goes Up or Down – current goes up or down, assuming the resistance is the
same.
 When Resistance Goes Up – current goes down, assuming voltage stays the same.
 When Resistance Goes Down – current goes up, assuming voltage stays the same.
Ohm’s Law Formula
Voltage
Amperage
Resistance
 Voltage is represented by the letter “E”
Volts
 Discovered and named after the Italian Scientist: Alessandro Volta

(1745-1827)
 Unit of measurement for electrical pressure.
 Electromotive Force, EMF is another way of indicating voltage.
 The capital letter V is the acceptable abbreviation for volts.
 The symbol used in calculations is the letter E, for EMF.
 Voltage is measured with a Voltmeter.
 Amperage is represented by “I”
Amps
 Discovered and named after Frenchman: André Marie Ampere

(1775-1836)
 Unit of measurement for current flow.
 A and amps are acceptable abbreviations for amperes.
 The capital letter I is for intensity - used in mathematical calculations.
 Amperes is measured by an Ammeter not an ampmeter.
 Resistance is represented by “R”
Ohms
 The German scientist George Simon Ohm (1787-1854) discovered the relationship between
volts amps and resistance and produced Ohms Law.
 Unit of measurement for electrical resistance.
 The symbol for ohms is _____, the last letter of the Greek alphabet.
 The symbol used in calculations is the letter R, for resistance..
 Ohms are measured by an Ohmmeter.
Ohm’s law for computing current ( I ) – I = E/R

a. Ohm’s law for computing resistance ( R ) – R = E/1
b. Ohm’s law for computing voltage ( E ) – E = I x R
Review
1. Ohm's Law is used to describe the mathematical relationship between voltage, current, and resistance.
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE , VOLT
 Explain how a circuit is formed.

 List examples of sources that the voltage for any electrical circuit can come from.
 Compare the differences between kinetic and potential energy.
 Discuss what would happen if a resistor was not included in a circuit.
When we connect various components together with wires, we create an electric circuit. The electrons must have
a voltage source to create their movement and, of course, they need a path in which to travel. This path must be
complete from the EMF source, through the other components and then back to the EMF source.
The voltage for any electric circuit can come from many different sources. Some common examples are: batteries,
power plants, fuel cells.
Flash Light
Power Plant
Battery
Car Battery Fuel Cell
When we plug an appliance into a wall outlet, voltage and current are available to us. That voltage is actually
created in a power plant somewhere else and then delivered to your house by the power wires that are on poles
or buried underground.
As a matter of fact, since no current can flow unless there is a voltage source, we also refer to these sources as
current sources. In other words, without the voltage source, there will be no current flowing. This makes it a current
source instead of a voltage source.
Batteries create voltage through a chemical process. Power plants generate electricity from numerous mechanical
methods. Some burn coal or gas to create steam while others use water flowing through a dam on a lake. There
are also nuclear-powered generating power plants. All of these power-generating systems turn large turbines that
turn the shaft on a generator. All of these sources of electricity convert something called potential energy to
kinetic energy. The potential energy is stored in the fuel, whether it is coal, gas, uranium, water in a dam, etc.
When we utilize these fuels to generate electricity, they become kinetic energy.
We might say that potential energy is waiting to be used while kinetic energy is being used.
In addition to the voltage source, we need to have wires and other components to build an electric circuit.
Remember that copper wires are conductors since they can easily conduct the flow of electrons. We may also
use resistors or other forms of loads to form a complete circuit. If we did not include resistors in our circuit, there
may be too much current flowing to and from our voltage source and we could damage the voltage source.
Review
1. Wires and various components connected together form a circuit.

2. Power plants and fuel cells are some examples of sources that the voltage for any electrical circuit ca
3. come from.
VOM (Volt-Ohm-Millimeter)
A multi-tester, it can measure current, resistance and voltage. It is designed to measure different
magnitudes of electrical units. Readings are controlled by:
4. Range Selector
5. Function Switch
6. Zero-Ohm Adjuster
VOLTMETERS
The voltmeter measures the voltage in a circuit or any EMF-producing component. The meter more accurately
measures any difference in potential between any two places to which the meter leads are connected.
Voltmeters Connected in Parallel
Ammeters or their shunts are always connected in series with the electrical load. Voltmeters are always connected
in parallel. Figure 9-22 and the following figures use resistors to represent the voltmeter movement. Since a meter
movement can be considered as a resistor, the concepts shown are true for voltmeters and resistors. For
simplicity, DC circuits are shown, but the principles apply to both AC and DC voltmeters.
When a voltmeter is connected across or parallel to a load, the measurement value indicates how much
of the voltage was used up pushing current through the electrical load. Voltage is easily referred to as difference
in potential here. Connecting the voltmeter across the terminals of a generator measures the difference in potential
or the difference between the areas where negative electrons are, as opposed to the area where they are not (the
area of positive ions). If the same combination of negative electrons and positive ions were at each terminal of the
generator, then there would be no difference in potential, or zero voltage.
To have a difference in potential, there must be an electron imbalance somewhere. When a generator is operating
properly, negative electrons are excited. The negative electrons leave their atoms and accumulate atone terminal
of the generator. Positive ions accumulate at the other terminal. Both these electrical particles have opposite
magnetic polarities. As long as the generator keeps operating, the only way these negative electrons can
recombine with the positive ions is through the electrical distribution system. Voltage is a measurement of how
great the difference in potential is. The greater the difference in potential, the greater the force available to push
the electrons to the positive ions.
When a load is placed in the circuit, its resistance determines how many electrons will be able to leave the negative
terminal during any given period of time. Since a quantity of electrons exists on each side of the load, the difference
between them is the difference in potential dropped from the original generator voltage source. If there is a high
resistance, such as an open condition, then there would be maximum electrons on one side of the load, and no
electrons on the other side of the load. This would be a maximum voltage reading. A negligible resistance, such
as a good fuse, would have the same amount of electrons on each side of the fuse element. There would then be
no difference in potential and 0 voltage reading.
A good example of this is the series circuit in Figure 9-23, which shows two loads in series with the generator.
Place a voltmeter across the R2 load. Measure the difference in potential between the negative side of the R2
load and the positive side of the R2 load.
Et = 120 volts
Rt = ?
It = ?
R1 = 10 ohms
I1 = ?
E1 = ?
R2 = 20 ohms
I2 = ?
E2 = ?
To determine the electrical values, find the total resistance of the circuit (Rt):
Rt = R1 + R2
Rt = 10 ohms + 20 ohms
Rt = 30 ohms
Since this is a series circuit and current is constant, find the total current (It) allowed to flow through the circuit in
one second:
Do not be concerned with the minimal influence the meter has on the circuit, but transcribe the current value to I1
and I2.
Using the voltmeter, there is a reading of 80 volts across the R2 resistance. By using Ohm's Law, verify this
reading:
E2 = I2 x R2
E2 = 4 amps x 20 ohms
E2 = 80 volts
This is the difference in potential across the R2 resistance. When the meter is repositioned to read the voltage
across R1, a difference in potential between the negative side and the positive side of the resistance is registered.
In this case, there are 40 volts. Figure 9-24 effectively shows the differences in potential.
At point A, there is full generator voltage available (120 volts). At point B, 80 volts are left. This means that the R1
resistance was sufficient enough to use up, or drop out of the circuit, 40 volts when moving 4 coulombs of electrons
through the 10-ohm resistance in one second. At point C, no voltage is left after completing all the work pushing
electrons through the resistances. The voltmeter does not read the points A or B or C, but rather a difference
between points A and B as well as between points B and C. Since voltage is the potential force and a difference
between each side of a resistor exists, a difference in the potential (or voltage) is recorded.
Voltmeter Safety Precautions
Just as with ammeters, voltmeters require safety precautions to prevent injury to personnel and damage to the
voltmeter or equipment. The following is a list of the minimum safety precautions for using a voltmeter:
 Always connect voltmeters in parallel.

 Always start with the highest range of a voltmeter.
 In DC voltmeters, observe the proper circuit polarity to prevent damage to the meter.
 Never use a DC voltmeter to measure AC voltage.
 Observe the general safety precautions of electricity.
OHMMETERS
The two instruments most commonly used to measure resistance are the ohmmeter and the megohmmeter
(megger).
The ohmmeter is widely used to measure resistance and check the continuity of electrical circuits and
components. Using an ohmmeter to determine continuity provides the engineer with information on the circuit's
ability to conduct current. The ohmmeter is inaccurate below the 3- to 5-ohm level. Its range usually extends to
only a few megohms.
The megger is widely used for measuring insulation resistance, such as between a wire and another surface on
the other side of the insulation. The range of a megger extends to more than 1,000 megohms.
Ohmmeter Ranges
The amount of circuit resistance to be measured may vary over a wide range. In some cases, it may only be a
few ohms; in others, it may be as great as 1,000,000 ohms (1 megohm). To enable the meter to indicate any value
being measured with the least error, scale multiplication features are used in most ohmmeters. There are various
scale indicators for checking diodes and capacitors as well. The many different meters require the specific
information attained from their technical manual. TM 11-6625-3199-14 is the reference for the AN/PSM-45A
multimeter. This is required reading before trying to operate this multimeter.
Ohmmeter Safety Precautions
The following safety precautions and operating procedures for ohmmeters are the minimum necessary to prevent
injury and damage:
 Be certain the circuit is de-energized and discharged before connecting an ohmmeter.

 Do not apply power to a circuit while measuring resistance.
 When finished using the ohmmeter, switch it to the OFF position.
 Always adjust the ohmmeter for zero after you change ranges and before making resistance
measurement.
Clamp or Hook-On Ammeter
A measuring instrument used by electricians and refrigerator mechanics for measuring:
7. current
8. voltage
9. resistance
The voltmeter and ohmmeter functions of the clamp ammeter are not as accurate as that of
the Simpson Tester. It is intended for low resistance measurement only.
External Parts of the Two Types of Clamp-On Ammeter
AMMETERS
An ammeter is a device that measures current. Since all meter movements have some resistance, a resistor will
be used to represent a meter in the following explanations. DC circuits will be used for simplicity of explanation.
Multimeter Ammeters Connected in Series
In Figure 9-14 view A, R1 and R2 are in series. The total circuit current flows through both resistors. The total
circuit resistance Rt is --
Rt = R1 = R2
In view B, R1 and R2 are in parallel. The total circuit current does not flow through either circuit. The total circuit
resistance Rt is --
If R1 represents an ammeter, the only way in which total current will flow through the meter (and thus be
measured) is to have the meter (R1) in series with the circuit load (R2), as shown in view A.
In complex electrical circuits, you are not always interested in the total circuit current. You may be interested in
the current through a particular component. In any case, an ammeter is always connected in series with the circuit
that will be tested. Figure 9-15 shows various circuit arrangements with ammeters properly connected for
measuring current in various portions of the circuit.
Connecting a multimeter ammeter in parallel with one of many electrical loads would give an incorrect reading. In
this situation, current would be divided between the resistance in the loads and the very low resistance in the
ammeter. It would not give the true total current moving through that section of the circuit.
Should the multimeter ammeter be connected across a constant potential source, such as the generator terminals,
the minimal resistance in the ammeter would not be sufficient to restrict the majority of the generator's total current.
This would be the equivalent of a shorted circuit. The excessive current draw through the meter movement would
damage the meter..
Ammeter Sensitivity
Ammeter sensitivity is the amount of current necessary to cause full-scale deflection (maximum reading) of the
ammeter. The smaller the amount of current, the more sensitive the ammeter. For example, an ammeter with a
maximum current reading of 1 milliampere would have a sensitivity of 1 milliampere. It would be more sensitive
than an ammeter with a maximum reading of 1 ampere and a sensitivity of 1 ampere. Sensitivity ears be given for
a meter movement, but ammeter sensitivity usually refers to the entire ammeter and not just the meter movement.
Range Selection
Today's meters are extremely sensitive to the ranges and types of currents tested. Before any range selection is
ever made, determine whether the circuits are alternating or direct current circuits. If the incorrect type of current
is chosen, the meter will become damaged, or its fuse will open (blow). In either case, the meter will be rendered
ineffective.
The range switch is another very important part of the meter. To use the meter correctly, the range must be
properly selected. If the current to be measured is larger than the meter scale selected, the meter movement will
have excessive current and may become damaged. Therefore, it is important to always start with the highest
range when using any meter.
If current can be measured on several ranges, use the range that results in a reading near the middle of the scale
(Figure 9-19). This is important enough for digital meters to use bar graphs to indicate what percentage of the
meter scale is in use.
Clamp-on Ammeter
The clamp-on ammeter (Figure 9-20) may be of the digital or the analog (movable needle) type. This meter is
restricted to AC circuits. At the top of the meter is a set of jaws used to surround the wire being tested. The
beneficial part of this meter is its ability to operate by detecting the magnetic field generated by the current moving
in the conductor. This ability prevents the circuit from being opened and having to physically insert the meter.
Current readings can also be taken from easily accessible locations in the circuit.
The clamp-on ammeter operates on the same principle that the transformer uses. The jaws of the ammeter are
clamped around the conductor. The current-carrying conductor of the circuit being tested represents the primary
winding. The jaws of the ammeter are the secondary winding. The current moving through the circuit generates
its own magnetic field that surrounds the conductor. This AC magnetic field can induce a voltage and resulting
current flow in the jaws of the ammeter.
The greater the current through the circuit conductor, the greater the magnetic field surrounding that conductor.
Increased induction between the conductor and the ammeter means a greater current reading on the ammeter.
The conductor does not need to have the insulation stripped back. The only requirements for clamp-on ammeters
are --
 The induction ammeter may only be used on AC systems. The DC electrical system does not have a
constantly changing field. Therefore, without relative motion between the magnetic field of the conductor
and the jaws of the induction ammeter, it is impossible to induce an EMF in the meter movement.
 The ammeter must measure one conductor at a time. If the ammeter jaws are encircling both wires of a
two-wire electrical system, there will be no reading. The current traveling from the power source to the
load sets up a magnetic field in one direction. The same current returning to the power supply from the
load creates a magnetic field in the opposite direction. These two magnetic fields cancel each other out.
Digital clamp-on ammeters, or induction ammeters, are provided with a peak hold setting. This lets the user have
the highest transient current reading displayed and maintained for a period of time. This becomes very important
in electrical systems because of the fluctuating currents when motors are started.
When checking a circuit where the value of current is far below the lowest reading on the meter scale, the wire
can be looped around the jaws of the ammeter. Doubling the conductor passes through the meter jaws doubles
the magnetic field strength (Figure 9-21). Since only one wire is used, the current is traveling in the same direction
and the magnetic field is doubled. Divide the meter reading by two. This also applies when looping the conductor
any number of times through the jaws of the ammeter. Simply divide the current reading by the number of loops
for the actual conductor current. This is an important concept because this type of setup is used in the current
transformers of switchboards in Army Ships.
Ammeter Safety Precautions
When using an ammeter, certain precautions must be observed to prevent injury to yourself and others and to
prevent damage to the ammeter or the equipment being serviced. The following list contains the minimum safety
precautions for using an ammeter:
 Always connect multimeter ammeters in series with the circuit under test.
 Always start with the highest range on an ammeter (or any meter).
 De-energize and discharge the circuit completely before connecting or disconnecting the ammeter.
 In DC ammeters, observe the proper circuit polarity to prevent the meter from being damaged.
 Never use a DC ammeter to measure AC.
 Observe the general safety precautions of electricity.
 Ground all metal case meters to the hull of the ship. Many old metal case meters provide a grounding
jack for this purpose.
Megger (insulation resistance tester)
Transistorized insulation resistance tester or megger
Hand-cranked insulation resistance tester or megger
MEGOHMMETER
An ordinary ohmmeter cannot be used for measuring resistance of multimillions of ohms, such as in conductor
insulation. To adequately test for insulation breakdown, it is necessary to use a much higher potential than is
furnished by the battery of an ohmmeter. An instrument called a megohmmeter (megger) is used for these tests.
The megger is the most useful engineering tool for determining the condition of electrical insulation. Thus, it
determines the condition of the electrical component and possible future operational readiness of the vessel.
In catastrophic cases, the insulation is burned off the conductor by excessive current heat. In this case, the
component requires replacement. More often, the component insulation resistance is slowly reduced over a period
of months. Proper monitoring of the major electrical components will provide information on the expected servicing
requirements for the device. In this manner, major component maintenance can be projected ahead of time,
instead of managed by crisis.
Megger Construction
The megger (Figure 9-27) is a portable instrument that consists of two primary elements:
 A hand- or electric-driven DC generator (G). This supplies the necessary voltage for making the
measurement.
 The instrument portion, which indicates the value of the resistance being measured.
The instrument portion is the opposed coil type, as shown in view A. Coils a and b are mounted on the movable
member c, with a fixed relationship to each other, and are free to turn as a unit in a magnetic field. Coil b tends to
move the pointer counterclockwise, and coil a tends to move the pointer clockwise.
Coil a is connected in series with R3 and the unknown resistance, Rx, to be measured. The combination of coil,
R3, and Rx forms a direct series path between the positive ( + ) and negative (-) brushes of the DC generator.
Coil b is connected in series with R2, and this combination is also connected across the generator. There are no
restraining springs on the movable member of the instrument portion of the megger. Therefore, when the
generator is not operated, the pointer floats freely and may come to rest at any position of the scale. When
checking the megger for proper operation, isolate the two megger leads from each other. Crank or operate the
megger. There should be a maximum resistance or infinite resistance reading. Next, connect the two megger test
leads to each other and operate the megger. The meter should indicate zero resist ante. Do not touch the megger
leads when the megger is being operated.
Megger Ratings
Army meggers are rated at 500 and 1,000 volts. To avoid excessive test voltages, most meggers are equipped
with friction clutches. When the megger is cranked faster than its rated speed, the clutch slips, and the generator
speed and output voltage are not allowed to exceed their rated value. When extremely high resistances (for
example, 10,000 megohms or more) are to be measured, a high voltage is needed to cause sufficient current to
flow to actuate the meter movement. For extended ranges, a 1,000-volt megger is available. Usually, meggers
are only used on circuits with a normal voltage of 100 volts and up. When testing insulation, always refer to the
appropriate TM or the manufacturer's recommendations.
Megger Use
Motor windings and components are tested to ensure that the conductors are not coming in direct contact with
their housing, frame, or other individual conductor turns because the insulation has been damaged. The difference
in potential, provided by the 9-volt ohmmeter battery, may not be substantial enough to correctly indicate an
insulation problem in a 450-volt electrical system. The 9-volt push may not be sufficient to bridge some damaged
insulation. There would then bean indication of infinite (maximum ohms) resistance. What appears to be an
acceptable insulation reading would, in fact, be inconclusive. The higher voltage of the 450-volt electrical system
would have no trouble bridging the gap in the damaged insulation. The megger, available in 500-and 1,000-volt
power supplies, would detect this damage in the insulation and measure the resistance required when pushing
the current past the damaged section of insulation. The megger provides an accurate indication of electrical
insulation under system operating conditions.
The ohmmeter does not allow a conclusive test for conductor insulation. This is because the small potential in the
ohmmeter is not sufficient to force electrons across small distances or high-resistance insulation. For this same
reason, the megger is not suitable for testing the continuity of a conduct or. The higher potential of the megger
would allow completed circuit readings where the low potential ohmmeter would detect defects in conductor
continuity. The megger and the ohmmeter should always be used together when substantiating the condition of
electrical components.
Megger Testing
Many regulatory texts require the periodic testing of insulation. The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
requires the additional testing of idle apparatus. A log book will be maintained for these megger resistance
readings. As equipment ages and becomes contaminated with grease and dirt, the resistance of the insulation
decreases. When these decreases in resistance are noted, preventive maintenance can be planned. Sometimes,
cleaning alone will restore the insulation dielectric strength and return the component to operational condition. It
is recommended that all major electrical components over 100 volts be megger tested every two years. Generators
and critical electric motors can be megged before missions to evaluate and project their future operating condition.
As with the ohmmeter, the megger is never used on an energized circuit. Additionally, the megger is never used
on a circuit in which solid state components cannot be isolated. The high potential of the megger will destroy
rectifiers, voltage regulators, radio equipment, and other electronic equipment. Make sure that the electrical
component undergoing testing is completely isolated from the rest of the circuit.
One megger test lead is connected to the de-energized conductor. The other megger test lead is connected to
the noncurrent-carrying conductive material adjacent to the conductor's insulation. To test a cable, one test lead
would go to the de-energized normally current-carrying copper conductor of a cable, and the other test lead would
be connected to the noncurrent-carrying armor shielding. In another example, a megger lead could be connected
to a motor winding lead, and the other megger test lead could be connected to the motor housing. In both of these
cases, there should be no continuity. There should be a great deal of resistance between the current-carrying
conductor and the housing with which the engineer is likely to come in contact.
The megger is then operated for a period of at least 30 seconds. Refer to the component manufacturer's
information for the specific results of a test. However, if these specifications are no longer available, any change
in the insulation resistance must be considered suspect.
Megger Safety Precautions
When using a megger, observe the following minimum safety precautions to prevent injury to personnel or damage
to the equipment:
 Use meggers on high-resistance measurements only, such as insulation measurements.

 Never touch the test leads when the megger is being operated.
 De-energize and discharge the circuit before connecting a megger.
 Disconnect the component being checked from other circuitry before using the megger.
 Use only on circuits with a normal voltage of 100 volts or greater.
MULTIMETER
A multimeter is the most common measuring device in the Army. The name multimeter comes from multiple meter,
and that is exactly what it is. It combines a DC ammeter and voltmeter, an AC ammeter and voltmeter, and an
ohmmeter.
Digital Multimeters
Several models of digital multimeters have been fielded for use in the Army. Always follow instructions for use in
the applicable TMs. Digital multimeters have a display screen and give their readings as numerals on the screen,
usually using liquid crystal display (LCD).
Analog Multimeters
Analog multimeter are those with d'Arsonval movements using a needle and scale. Most analog multimeter have
been replaced by digital multimeter, but the marine engineman/engineer may still be issued analog multimeter.
Parallax Error
Analog multimeters have a mirror built into the scale to aid in reducing parallax error (Figure 9-28).
Parallax can be a problem when reading analog meters. To prevent improper meter value recognition, a mirror is
placed just above the scale. When properly viewing the meter, the reflection of the pointer will not be seen.
Although portable analog meters are being phased out, in-circuit analog meters are not. The problem of parallax
is nowhere more evident than when paralleling AC generators. Even though some switchboard meters do not
have a mirror, a perfect match of the voltage for each generator is required. Each of the two (or more) voltmeters
must be viewed directly from the front to confirm exact voltage readings.
MULTIMETER
INTRODUCTION
A multimeter also called as multitester, or its very known abbreviation name VOM (Volt-Ohm Meter), is
an electronic measuring device or instrument used to measures different electricity elements such as
voltage, current and resistance.
This handheld device is also used for diagnostic application to which it determines different possibilities
of fault that a service may have.
MULTIMETER
One of the most commonly used tools in an electronics technician’s tool bag is the multimeter. A
multimeter or multi tester is a combination of a multirange DC voltmeter, multirange AC voltmeter,
multirange ammeter, and multirange ohmmeter.
Multimeters may use analog or digital circuits — analog multimeters (AMM) and digital multimeters
(DMM).
DIGITAL MULTIMETER
This handheld electronic device is known for its portability application in most of time. Digital handheld
tester displays the measurement in digits or may display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity
being measured.
This type of multimeter or multitester offers as well the ease of use and give its high level of accuracy
of measurements since it was readable through digital display. Digital Multimeter (DMM) has two types;
bench version and handheld.
The handheld multimeter has selector switch or a rotary switch that is used to position in selecting
ranges: there two “V” settings stands for both ac and dc voltage, “A” settings for current and (Ω) settings
for resistance.
On the other hand, bench version is slightly different from handheld version to which it has push buttons
selecting different ranges and positions showing the same settings with the handheld device.
Figure 1. Typical Digital Multimeter
ANALOG MULTIMETER
Analog instruments are usually based on a microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated
for all the different measurements.
An un-amplified analog multimeter combines a meter movement, range resistors and switches.
This is not a common multitester for a technician that needs portability and easy to use device or
instrument since this gives a hard time to read the measurements through the multiplication factors.
The analog multimeter might not give the precision and accuracy and is susceptible to damage that is
caused either human errors or environmental factors.
However, the analog multimeter is very good in demonstrating the works of voltage, resistance and
current in application approach in which this measures the ability also of the technician on how to
operate the handheld device or instrument in many different factors such as finding fault or
troubleshooting.
COMPONENT UNITS OF AN ANALOG MULTIMETER
Figure 2. Typical Unit of an Analog Multimeter
COMPONENTS’ FUNCTION AND DESCRIPTION

KNOB AND ADJUSTER
Range selector knob – this switch used to turn or select specific ranges and function such as selecting
AC voltage, DC voltage and resistance for continuity testing.
Zero position adjuster – this part of adjuster used to turn and point the meter on the zero point scale
which is located on the left side of the multitester. This knob is ensuring that the scale is pointing to its
exact place before reading measurements.
Zero Ohm Adjuster knob – it is used intended only for resistance. It is necessary that a pointer is
pointing the zero scale on the right side of the multitester (with the symbol “Ω”). The user must ensure
that it was pointed on zero before testing the continuity of a particular materials or entity for accurate
reading of measurements.
Pointer – it is a very thin iron that is connected to a moving magnetic coil inside the instrument. It points
the exact value/division on the scale.
SCALE READING
Range Selection Table
Table 1. Shows selection ranges of current, voltage and resistance.

Reading of Resistance
(On specific description, the device used to measure resistance is Ohmmeter.)
The following safety precautions and operating procedures for ohmmeters are the MINIMUM necessary
to prevent injury and damage.
• Be certain the circuit is de-energized and discharged before connecting an ohmmeter.
• Do not apply power to a circuit while measuring resistance.
• When you are finished using an ohmmeter, switch it to the OFF position if one is provided and remove
the leads from the meter.
• Always adjust the ohmmeter for zero (or ∞ in shunt ohmmeter) after you change ranges before making
the resistance measurement.
Familiarizing Scale
Scale Reading per division

1 0 to 2 .2 Ω
2 2 to 10 .5 Ω
3 10 to 20 1Ω
4 20 to 50 2Ω
5 50 to 100 5Ω
6 100 to 200 20 Ω
Table 2. Shows the summary of value per division of the scale.
Figure 3. Shows the scale identifying each division.

Figure 3. Measuring Resistance
Measuring resistance is a very common and easy task. You just need to assure that the test leads is
touching each terminal of the device which resistance is to be measured.
The test leads will be kept plugged into the same sockets as for the voltage checks, but the selector
switch will need to be turned until it points to the resistance (Ω) symbol.
Measuring resistance must be done on de-energized devices/components because if you test

resistance and the device is being energized it can lead to damage the external component of
multimeter. It is necessary to remember that you should have to shut off or turn off the component or
device that is to be measured before testing its resistance.
Measuring Continuity
In measuring resistance is somewhat useful among technicians in determining wire continuity. When
there is a good, solid connection between the probe tips, simulated by touching them together as shown
in figure 4, the meter shows almost zero Ω. If the test leads had no resistance in them, it would read
exactly zero, however, since there is resistance in the wires, the meter will show a very small number.
Figure 4. Measuring continuity
On the other hand, if the leads or test probes are not in contact with each other or touching opposite
ends of a broken wire, the meter will indicate infinite resistance, usually the pointer will not move as
shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Open loop or pointer is not moving

The following are the examples of reading resistance.
Upon selecting different ranges of resistance we assume that the vertical line pointing each
division is the pointer.
1.) The reading is .2 and the range selection is x1k.

.2 x 1000 = 200 Ω.
2.) The reading is 6 and the range selection is x10.
6 x 10 = 60 Ω.
3.) The reading is 14 and the range selection is x1k.
14 x 1000 = 1,400 Ω converted to 1.4kΩ.
26 x 100 = 2,600 converted to 2.6kΩ.
44 x 10 = 400Ω.
65 x 1 = 65Ω
120 x 10 = 1,200Ω or 1.2kΩ.
Reading of Voltage
(On specific description, the device used to measure voltages is Voltmeter.)
Voltmeter require safety precautions to prevent injury to personnel and damage to the voltmeter or
equipment.
The following is the list of the MINIMUM safety precautions for using a voltmeter.
• Always connect voltmeters in parallel.
• Always start with the highest range of a voltmeter.
• De-energize and discharge the circuit completely before connecting or disconnecting the voltmeter.
• In dc voltmeters, observe the proper circuit polarity to prevent damage to the measuring device.
• Never use a dc voltmeter to measure ac voltage.
 Observe the general safety precautions of electrical and electronic devices.
For measuring AC voltage, it is imperative to remember that you should always set the selection range
at AC position, because testing AC voltage source while tester is set on DC it can lead to external
damage of the multimeter. In testing DC, only difference in the setup of the meter is the placement of
the selector switch (figure 5 and 6). Because voltage is being measured, the test leads will remain
plugged in the same sockets. Always set DC selection range when testing DC voltage sources and set
AC selection range when testing AC voltage sources.
Figure 6. Measuring AC Voltage Figure 7. Measuring DC Voltage

Familiarizing Scale
Range Selection Value per division

1 300 5V
2 60 1V
3 12 .2 V
Table 3. Range Selection of Voltages (AC/DC)
The following are the examples of reading voltages.

Upon selecting different ranges of voltage either AC or DC we assume that the bar pointing the division
is the pointer.
For Voltage - Direct Current and AC Current

1.) Range at x300VAC, where the value per division is 5. And the pointer stops at the 37th division.
Sol. 37 x 5 = 185VAC
2.) Range at x60VAC, where the value per division is 1. And the pointer stops at the 46th division.
Sol. 46 x 1 = 46VAC
3.) Range at x12VDC, where the value per division is .2. And the pointer stops at the 57th division.
Sol. 57 x .2 = 11.4VDC
Reading of Current
(On specific description, the device used to measure current is Ammeter.)
When you use an ammeter, certain precautions must be observed to prevent injury to yourself or others
and to prevent damage to the ammeter or the equipment on which you are working. The following list
contains the MINIMUM safety precautions to observe when using an ammeter.
• Ammeters must always be connected in series with the circuit under test. That means they must be
inserted into the circuit at the point being measured.
• Always start with the highest range of an ammeter.
• De-energize and discharge the circuit completely before you connect or disconnect the ammeter.
• In dc ammeters, observe the proper circuit polarity to prevent the meter from being damaged.
• Never use a dc ammeter to measure ac.
 Observe the general safety precautions of electrical and electronic devices.
By far the most hazardous and complex application of the multimeter is in the measurement of current.
The reason for this is quite simple: in order for the meter to measure current, the current to be measured
must be forced to go through the meter. This means that the meter must be made part of the current
path of the circuit rather than just be connected off to the side somewhere as is the case when
measuring voltage. This configuration is known as “being in series.” Testing the big current is most
possible by using digital multimeter or DMM.
Figure 8. Multimeter is connected in series with the load.

PROTECTING THE EQUIPMENT
The electrical measuring devices as diagnostic instruments are delicately made and these require a
certain proper handling to prevent damages and loses of accuracy in measurements. The analog and
digital multimeter are both expensive.
In preventing the electrical measuring devices to damages,
You should always do consider and observed the following precautions relating to different types of
common hazards; exposure to magnetic fields, excessive current flow and mechanical shock.
Exposure Magnetic Fields Effect – strong magnetic fields can cause damage to the device to which
this impair the moving-coil and moving iron inside the device. Due to this effect, it gives improper scaling
and hence the accuracy of readings might be affected.
Overcurrent Flow – if the technician measures the current or voltage higher to its maximum range
scale can damage the device or either it blows the pre-installed fuse inside the device.
Mechanical Factors – measuring devices contain permanent magnets, meters, and other components
that are sensitive to shock. Heavy vibrations or drop shock and mishandled can cause these devices to
lose their calibration accuracy.
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS ON SAFETY APPLICATION OF MULTITESTER
1. Never use meter on the electric circuit that exceed 3k VA.

2. Pay special attention when measuring the voltage of AC
30Vrms (42.4 V peak) or DC 60V or more to avoid injury.
3. Never apply an input signals exceeding the maximum rating input value.
4. Never use meter for measuring the line connected with
Equipment (such as motors) that generates induced or surge voltage since it may exceed the maximum
allowable voltage.
5. Never use meter if the meter or test leads are damaged or broken.
6. Never use uncased meter.
7. Be sure to use a fuse of the specified rating or type. Never use a substitute of the fuse or never make
a short circuit of the fuse.
8. Always keep your fingers behind the finger guards on the probe when making measurements.
9. Be sure to disconnect the test pins from the circuit when changing the function or range.
10. Be sure to disconnect the test pins from the circuit when changing the function or range.
11. Never use meter with wet hands or in a damp environment.
12. Never open tester case except when replacing batteries or fuse. Do not attempt any alteration of
original specifications.
13. To ensure safety and maintain accuracy, calibrate and check the tester at least once a year.
14. Indoor use.
THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Distinguish between:
a. An open circuit and a closed circuit
b. A ground circuit and a short circuit
c. A series circuit and a parallel circuit
2. Identify the parts of a complete circuit
3. Trace the flow of current in a:

a. ground circuit
b. closed circuit
4. Describe the analogy between water flow and current flow.
5. Construct simple electric circuits.
6. Describe and illustrate:

a. a system of power distribution
b. voltage drop
c. Kirchhoff’s Law
7. Enumerate and describe the various types of appliances.
8. Describe the effect of series and parallel connections on electromotive force and current.
9. Define:
a. overload
b. short
c. ground
The electric circuit. When you want to turn on the ceiling light, you simply use the switch on the wall. When you
want to use the electric fan you simply plug it in the wall outlet. The use of your electric appliances is possible
because of an electrical circuit. You must note that there is a circuit for every electrical connection. The circuit
enables the electric current to travel from its source and back to the source. A circuit is path of electric current
from its source an back.
There are four common electric circuits which you should remember and understand. They are: open-
circuit, closed circuit, ground circuit, and short circuit. You will meet them very often in your study of electricity and
it is important that you know their uses and characteristics.
Open circuit. When there is a break in the circuit and the current could not pass through, the circuit is open. The
switch is a device which opens and closes the circuit. When the switch is “off”, the circuit is open but when the
switch is “on”, the circuit is closed. The switch is a convenient way of stopping the flow of current when it is no
longer need.
Closed circuit. When there is a continuous. When there is a continuous flow of current form its source and back
to the source without interruption, the circuit is closed. When the switch is turned “on”, the circuit is closed. Electric
current travels straight from the source to the electric appliance through the switch and conductor. There is a
closed circuit for as long as the appliance is “on” or being used. The moment the switch is turned “off”, the circuit
is no longer closed and the current will stop flowing. A closed circuit is necessary to enable the appliance to
function or to work.
Short circuit, There is a short circuit when the electric current takes a short cut from its usual path. Electric current
always takes the path of least resistance and will travel in the shortest way from the source and back, if give n the
chance. For instance, if two conductors of different potentials come into electrical contact with each other, the
current will “jump” back to the source without passing through the electrical appliance. A short circuit is dangerous
and should not be allowed to happen.
The cord of an electric flat iron is a common cause of short circuit. Due to constant use, the cord gets
twisted such that the two conductors become bare and touch each other. A big spark will occur because of the
uncontrolled movement of electrons.
Ground circuit. Have you noticed the electric bulb circuit in a passenger jeep? Why is there only one wire
connected to the bulb socket? All moving vehicles, such as jeeps, automobiles, etc., used ground circuits. The
metal body of the vehicle is used as return wire for the electric current. Metal parts are conductors of electricity.
A short circuit
Let us not confuse ground circuit and a “ground”. A “ground” is an accidental touching of one conductor to the
metal body of an appliance. This ground is not a circuit. Can you explain why? In electrical appliances, the ground
is dangerous and unnecessary. An electric flat iron that has a “ground” will produce shock if touched.
A ground circuit
The complete circuit.
There are four conditions which should be satisfied before we can fully utilize the satisfied before we can fully
utilize the electrical energy. First, there should be a source of electrical energy. Secondly, there should be a
system of making the electric current flow where we want it. Thirdly, there should be a way of stopping the flow
of electric current when we no longer need it. Fourth, there should be an electrical device that receives the
electrical energy and changes it into useful energy. If these conditions are met, then we have a complete circuit.
A complete circuit consist of a load, a path, a means of control, and a source of electrical energy.
A complete circuit
Source.
The source is the part of the circuit which supplies the electromotive force. At home, the source of
electrical energy is the wall outlets. These outlets are connected to the generator of the electrical company. For
small appliances, such as flashlight, transistor radio, etc., the batter is the source of electric energy.
Control.
The control is the part of the circuit which connects and disconnects the wire. There must be a way of
stopping the flow of electric current when we no longer need it. The electric switch such as the push button,
tumbler switch, the toggle switch, etc., are devices which cut off the flow of electric current when the appliance is
no longer used. Sometimes, we simply remove the plug from the outlet and the appliance stops working.
Load.
The load is the part of the circuit which uses the electrical energy. The electric appliances receive the
electrical energy. The electric bulb changes electrical energy into light. The electric stove changes electric energy
into heat. The electric bell changes electricity into sound and the floor polisher changes the electrical power into
rotary motion. Can you name some more electrical appliances and theirs uses?
Comparison between water system and electric circuit.
To fully understand the complete circuit, let us compare it to the water system which is very familiar to
you.
Water will flow through the pipe if it is not pushed forward. The water pump forces the water to flow. The electrons
will not flow through the wire if there is no “pump:” to make it move. The generator or the battery forces the
electrons to flow through the electric wire.
The water pipe and the electric wire have the same purpose. The water pipe carries the current; the electric wire
carries the electric current.
The valve and the electric switch perform the same work. The valve must be opened to allow the water to flow;
the switch must be turned “on” to allow the electrons to flow.
The Faucet where water comes out and the appliance serve the same purpose. Water is consumed at the faucet
and electric current is consumed by the electrical appliance.
Both the water pipe and electric wire offer resistance to the flow of water and current respectively. A small
water pipe will give more resistance to the flow of water than does a bigger pipe. A small wire will offer bigger
resistance to the flow of electrons than does a bigger wire.
The load is the circuit, ,m which is the electrical appliance, is classified according to its use. There are four general
uses of appliance: motion, heat, light, and sound.
Appliances for motion. Any appliance which uses an electric motor

can provide motion. Examples: electric fan, floor polisher, electric
mixer, washing machine, sewing machine, electric shaver. In some
buildings, there are elevators and escalators which use electric
motors. In factories, the electric motor is used to operate such
machines as the drill press the lathe machine, the planer, the circular
saw, the scroll saw, etc.
Appliances for heat, Any appliance which uses a heating element can
provide heat. Examples: electric flat iron, toaster, water heater, electric
oven electric stove, cigarette lighter, etc.
Appliance for light. Any appliance which uses a filament or electric

rods gives off light. Examples:
Incandescent bulb, fluorescent lamp, mercury vapor lamp, sodium
vapor lamp, are lamp neon lamp.
Appliances for sound. Sound-producing appliances are: electric bell,

chimes, automobile horn, siren, radio set, television set, record player,
sound system, stereo set.
Series connection. Normally, there is only one load in the circuit. But sometimes several loads are connected in
a single circuit. For example, Christmas lams are connected in series in the circuit.

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IDENTIFYING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

The trainee should be able to:

1. Electrical Tools and equipment are used to:

2. They are classified according to their uses such as:

2.1 Driving Tools

Stubb or close quarter screw driver

Standard Screw Driver

Philips Screw Driver

Offset screw driver

Soft-faced Hammer or Mallet

Set of Nut Drivers

2.2 Boring Tools

Figure 5. Portable Electric Drill

Hand Drill & Set of Drill bits

Floor Type Drill Press

2.3 Bending Tools

Improvised Metal Conduit Bender

Water Pipe Tee With Extension Handle

2.4 Driving Tools

Outside Micrometer Caliper

2.5 Electrical Measuring/Testing Tools

a. VOM (Volt-Ohm-Millimeter) – a multi-tester, it can measure current, resistance and voltage. It is

b. Clamp or Hook-On Ammeter – a measuring instrument used by electricians and refrigerator

Transistorized insulation resistance tester or megger

Hand-cranked insulation resistance tester or megger

2.6 Cutting Tools

a. Saws – classified into:

1. Cross-Cut Saw – used to cut across the grain of wood

c. Electrician’s Plier (Side Cutting) – uses for cutting big cables.

PVC Pipe Cutter

Mechanical Wire Strippers

2.7 Holding/Cutting Tools

b. Pipe Vices – used to hold pipes while cutting or threading them.

Long Nose Pliers

Side cutting Pliers

Flat Nose Plier

a. Dies and Diestock – used for threading metal rigid conduit…

Dies and Diestock

2.9 Turning Tools

a. Monkey Wrench – used for turning/fastening big nuts.

b. Adjustable Wrench – used for holding/turning nuts. Opening is adjustable.

Vise Grip Wrench

e. Open-End-Wrench – used for tightening/loosening nuts. It has fixed and opening.

2.10 Soldering Tools/Equipment

1. Operating voltage (110v/220v)

Flat file – used for removing external burrs in conduits.

10 millimeters (mm) = 1 centimeter (cm)

Interpretations of symbols used in math problems

Plus sign (addition) +

Terms used in geometry

a. Geometric figure – Shape formed by straight or curved lines

Types of geometric figures

c. Triangle – Figure having three sides and three angles

g. Trapezoid – Figure with only one pair of parallel opposite sides

Units of measure and their equivalents

trapezoid = h/2 (b1 + b2)

one half times the base length times the

a. Square – Use the formula Area = Length x Width or A = LW.

b. Rectangle – Use the formula Area = Length x Width or A = LW

c. Circle – Use the formula Area = πr2 (radius x radius)

d. Triangle – Use the formula Area = ½ Base x Height, or A = ½ BH.

B = 12” = 84 square inches

f. Trapezoid – Use the formula Area = ½ H(B1 + B2).