Documentation On Proposed UWB Antenna

A NOVEL ELLIPTICAL SHAPED ANTENNA FOR WiMAX, X
BAND AND Ku BAND APPLICATIONS
CHAPTER1
INTRODUCTION
Antennas are the basic components of any electric system and are connecting the
transmitter and receiver through space as the communicating medium. They play a vital role in
wireless communications. An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric
currents into radio waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio
receiver. In transmission, a radio transmitter applies an oscillating radio frequency electric
current to the antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as
electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of
an electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals that is applied to a
receiver to be amplified. An antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving.
Antennas are essential components of all equipment that uses radio. They are used in
systems such as radio broadcasting, broadcast television, two-way radio, communications
receivers, radar, cell phones, and satellite communications, and other devices such as garage
door openers, wireless microphones, Bluetooth-enabled devices, wireless computer
networks, baby monitors, and RFID tags on merchandise.
1.1 Antenna Definition:

The antennas are an essential part of any wireless systems. According to the IEEE
standard definitions of terms for antennas, an antenna is defined as a means for radiating or
receiving radio waves.
An antenna is a specialized transducer that converts radio-frequency (RF) fields into

alternating current (AC) or vice-versa. There are two basic types: the receiving antenna, which
intercepts RF energy and delivers AC to electronic equipment, and the transmitting antenna,
which is fed with AC from electronic equipment and generates an RF field. The first antennas
were built in 1888 by German physicist Heinrich Hertz in his pioneering experiments to prove
the existing of electromagnetic wave predicted by the theory of James clerk Maxwell.
St. Ann’s College of Engineering and Technology, Dept. of ECE Page 1

1.2 Antenna Parameters:
1.2.1 Radiation pattern:

The radiation pattern defines the variation of the power radiated by an antenna as a
function of the direction away from the antenna. This power variation as a function of the
arrival angle is observed in the antenna's far field. The radiation pattern is a graphical depiction
of the relative field strength transmitted from or received by the antenna. Antenna radiation
patterns are taken at one frequency, one polarization, and one plane cut. The patterns are usually
presented in polar or rectilinear form with a dB strength scale. Patterns are normalized to the
maximum graph value, 0 dB, and directivity is given for the antenna.
In the field of antenna design the term radiation pattern (or antenna pattern or far-field
pattern) refers to the directional (angular) dependence of the strength of the radio waves from
the antenna or other source. For the calculation of field strength, the voltages at two points on
electric lines of force, are taken and then divided by the distance between the points. Hence unit
of the radiation pattern in volt/meter or milli volt/meter. The radiation pattern of an antenna is
the most basic requirement because it determines the distribution of the radiated energy in
space. Once the operating frequency is known, the radiation pattern is the first property of the
antenna that is specified.
Fig 1.1: Basic radiation patterns with major and minor lobes
1.2.2 Radiation Intensity:

Radiation intensity is defined as “Power per unit solid angle”. This parameter is used to
define directivity, power gain and antenna gain. In electromagnetism, radiation intensity
describes the power density that an antenna creates in a particular solid angle. A solid angle is a
section of the surface of the imaginary sphere around the antenna.
Given an antenna's power density P, radiation density is calculated by multiplying it

with the square of the distance ( γ2) from the antenna to the designated solid angle.
U =P . γ 2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→(1.1)
This is so because unlike power density, radiation intensity does not depend on distance:
because radiation intensity is defined as the power through a solid angle, the decreasing power
density over distance (i.e. γ2 over of the imaginary sphere around the antenna) due to the
inverse-square law is offset by the increasing area of the solid angle due to the same law.
Therefore, power density can be converted to radiation intensity by multiplying it with γ2.
1.2.3 Gain:
The gain of antenna is a basic property which is frequently used as figure of merit. Gain
is closely associated with directivity and directivity itself dependent entirely upon the shape of
the radiation pattern of an antenna. The ability of antenna or antenna system to concentrate the
radiated power in a given direction or conversely to absorb effectively the incident power from
that direction is specified by various antenna term as Antenna gain or simply gain or directive
gain or power gain or directivity. Since the passive element thus the gain of an antenna is not
same as the gain of an amplifier in which case it is the ratio of output to input. Therefore in case
of an antenna gain is a relative term in which actual antenna is compared with ‘reference
antenna’.
The reference antenna normally used is a hypothetical lossless isotropic radiator or

antenna which radiates uniformly in all directions. Although half wave dipole antenna is also
sometimes used as a reference antenna but isotropic antenna as reference antenna is preferred. If
all the available power is radiated in a desired direction then naturally there is a gain in that
direction. Thus gain of antenna may be defined in any way. Gain of an antenna is defined as
“the ratio of maximum radiation intensity in given direction to the maximum radiation intensity
from a reference antenna produced in the same direction with same power input”.

Gain=Maximum radiation intensity ¿ test antenna ¿ reference antennawit h same input p

Maximumradiation ¿
When reference antenna is taken as isotropic antenna then gain of subject antenna is
denoted by Go is also known as Gain with respect to isotropic antenna.
Gain ( G o )=Maximum radiation intensity ¿ test antenna ¿ isotropic antenna wit h sa

Radiation intensity ¿
−−−−−−→(1.3)
1.2.4 Directive Gain:
All practical antennas concentrate the radiated energy to more or less extent in certain
preferred directions. The extent to which a practical antenna concentrates its radiated energy
relative to that of some antenna is termed as directive gain. Thus the directive gain in given
direction is defined as “the ratio of the radiation intensity in that direction to the average
radiated power”.
P(θ , φ)max
D= −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→(1.4 )
P (θ , φ) av
The directive gain is a function of angles (θ and φ).
Let Ф (θ, φ) = radiation intensity in particular direction.
wr
Φav =average radiation intensity in that direction =
π
Radiation intensity∈a particular direction

Directive gain= −−−−−−→(1.5)
Average radiated power
Directive gain in decibels
4 πϕ (θ ,φ )
Gain dB=10 log 10 { ∫ ϕdΩ} −−−−−−−−−−−−−−→(1.6)

The directive gain solely depends on the distribution of radiated power in space. It does
not depend upon the power input to the antenna, antenna losses or the power consumed in a
terminating resistance. Thus stating in another words the directive gain of an antenna is defined,
in particular direction “as the ratio of power density in that particular direction at a given
distance, to the power density that would be radiated at the same distance by an isotropic
antenna, radiating the same total power” given as
Power density ∈a particular direction by subject antenna

Gd= −−(1.7)
Power radiater ∈t h atbparticular direction by an isotropic antenna
1.2.5 Antenna Efficiency:
“Efficiency” is the ratio of power actually radiated to the power put into the antenna
terminals. A dummy load may have an SWR of 1:1 but an efficiency of 0, as it absorbs all
power and radiates heat but not RF energy, showing that SWR alone is not an effective measure
of an antenna’s efficiency. Radiation in an antenna is caused by radiation resistance which can
only be measured as part of total resistance including loss resistance. L-oss resistance usually
results in heat generation rather than radiation, and reduces efficiency.
Mathematically, efficiency is calculated ad radiation resistance divided by total resistance. It is
denoted by η.
Power radiated
Antenna Efficiency= −−−−−−−−→(1.8)
Total input power
wr wr
Antenna Efficiency= = −−−−−−−−→(1.9)
wt w r +w i
Where,
w r= Power radiated
w t = Total input power
w i= Ohmic losses
Antenna efficiency in terms of Radiation resistance is given as

Rr
η %= × 100−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→(1.10)
Rr + Ri
Where,
Rr = Radiation resistance
Ri= Ohmic loss resistance of antenna conductor
1.2.6 Effective Area:
A transmitting antenna transmits electromagnetic waves and a receiving antenna

receives a fraction of the same. The concept of effective area or aperture is best understood by
considering an antenna to have an effective area which it extracts electromagnetic energy from
the travelling electromagnetic waves. Antenna effective area or effective aperture is the
functionally equivalent area from which an antenna directed toward the source of the received
signal gathers or absorbs the energy of an incident electromagnetic wave.
Note 1: Antenna effective area is usually expressed in square meters.
Note 2: In the case of parabolic and horn-parabolic antennas, the antenna effective area is about
0.35 to 0.55 of the geometric area of the antenna aperture.
Power received
Effective area= −−−−−−−−→(1.11)
Poynting vector of the incident wave
Where Po is the power absorbed by the antenna in watts, and P is the power density
incident on the antenna in watts per square meter. It is assumed that the antenna is terminated
with a matched load to absorb the maximum power. It is defined as ratio of power received at
the antenna load terminal to the Pointing vector (P) of the incident wave. Thus
W
Ae = = A−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→(1.12)
P
W =PA−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→(1.13)

1.2.7 Front to Back Ratio:
It is defined as the ratio of the power radiated in desired direction to power the power
radiated in the opposite direction. To overcome misleading aspects of both 180-degree and
worst-case front-to-back ratios, some engineers have adopted the front-to- rear ratio. This ratio
is based on averaging the power gain of the antenna over the rear quadrant and using the
resulting figure as the basis for a ratio with the forward gain. There is no general standard on
exactly how many data points to use or where to locate them.
It is useful to know the front-to-back ratio that is the ratio of the maximum directivity of
an antenna to its directivity in the rearward direction. For example, when the principal plane
.Pattern is plotted on a relative dB scale; the front-to-back ratio is the difference in dB between
the level of the maximum radiation, and the level of radiation in a direction 180 degree.
FBR changes if frequency of operation of antenna system shifts. It value tends to

decrease if spacing between elements of antenna increases. The FBR depends on the tuning
conditions or electrical length of the parasitic elements.
Power radiated ∈desired direction

FBR= −−−−−−−−→(1.14)
Power radiated ∈opposite direction
1.2.8 Band Width:
Bandwidth is another fundamental antenna parameter. Bandwidth describes the range of

frequencies over which the antenna can properly radiate or receive energy. Often, the desired
bandwidth is one of the determining parameters used to decide upon an antenna. For instance,
many antenna types have very narrow bandwidths and cannot be used for wideband operation.
Bandwidth is typically quoted in terms of VSWR. For instance, an antenna may be

described as operating at 100-400 MHz with a VSWR<1.5. This statement implies that the
reflection coefficient is less than 0.2 across the quoted frequency range. Hence, of the power
delivered to the antenna, only 4% of the power is reflected back to the transmitter.
Alternatively, the return loss S11=20 × log 10 ( 0.2 )=−13.98 dB.

There are also other criteria which may be used to characterize bandwidth. This may be
the polarization over a certain range, for instance, an antenna may be described as having
circular polarization with an axial ratio< 3dB (less than 3 dB) from 1.4-1.6 GHz. This
polarization bandwidth sets the range over which the antenna's operation is approximately
circularly polarized. The bandwidth is often specified in terms of its Fractional Bandwidth
(FBW). The FBW is the ratio of the frequency range (highest frequency minus lowest
frequency) divided by the center frequency. The antenna Q also relates to bandwidth (higher Q
is lower bandwidth, and vice versa).
1.2.9 Beam Width:
Antenna beam width, also known as the half-power beam width, is the angle of an
antenna pattern or beam over which the relative power is at or above 50% of the peak power.
An antenna's beam width is usually understood to mean the half-power beam width. The peak
radiation intensity is found and then the points on either side of the peak which represent half
the power of the peak intensity are located. The angular distance between the half power points
is defined as the half the power expressed in decibels is -3dB, so the half power is sometimes
referred to as the 3dB.Both horizontal and vertical beam width are usually considered.
Assuming that most of the radiated power is not divided into side lobes, then the
directive gain is inversely proportional to the beam width, as the beam width decreases, the
Directive gain increases.
Beam width = (HPBW) horizontal x (HPBW) vertical
Beam width = (HPBW) E x (HPBW)H
1.2.10 Beam Efficiency:
In order to judge the quality of transmitting or receiving antenna, we can use parameter
called Beam efficiency.
It is the ratio of power transmitted within one angle θ1to the power transmitted by
antenna.

Power received ∨transmitted with∈cone angle θ

Beam Efficiency= −−−−−→(1.15)
Power transmitted∨recived by antenna
Where θ1= half angle of the cone with in which the percentage of the total power is to be
found.
1.2.11 Antenna Polarization:
The polarization of an antenna is the polarization of the radiated fields produced by an

antenna, evaluated in the far field. Hence, antennas are often classified as "Linearly Polarized"
or a "Right Hand Circularly Polarized Antenna". This simple concept is important for antenna
to antenna communication. First, a horizontally polarized antenna will not communicate with a
vertically polarized antenna. Due to the reciprocity theorem, antennas transmit and receive in
exactly the same manner. Hence, a vertically polarized antenna transmits and receives vertically
polarized fields. Consequently, if a horizontally polarized antenna is trying to communicate
with a vertically polarized antenna, there will be no reception. In general, for two linearly
polarized antennas that are rotated from each other by an angle Ф, the power loss due to this
polarization mismatch will be described by the Polarization Loss Factor (PLF):
PLF =cos2 ϕ−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→(1.16)
Hence, if both antennas have the same polarization, the angle between their radiated E-
fields is zero and there is no power loss due to polarization mismatch. If one antenna is
vertically polarized and the other is horizontally polarized, the angle is 90 degrees and no power
will be transferred. As a side note, this explains why moving the cell phone on your head to a
different angle can sometimes increase reception. Cell phone antennas are often linearly
polarized, so rotating the phone can often match the polarization of the phone and thus increase
reception. Circular polarization is a desirable characteristic for many antennas. Two antennas
that are both circularly polarized do not suffer signal loss due to polarization mismatch.
Antennas used in GPS systems are Right Hand Circularly Polarized. Suppose now that a
linearly polarized antenna is trying to receive a circularly polarized wave. Equivalently, suppose
a circularly polarized antenna is trying to receive a linearly polarized wave.

Recall that circular polarization is really two orthogonal linear polarized waves 90
degrees out of phase. Hence, a linearly polarized (LP) antenna will simply pick up the in-phase
component of the circularly polarized (CP) wave. As a result, the LP antenna will have a
polarization mismatch loss of 0.5 (-3dB), no matter what the angle the LP antenna is rotated to.
Therefore:
PLF (linear to circular) = 0.5= -3dB
The Polarization Loss Factor is sometimes referred to as polarization efficiency, antenna

mismatch factor, or antenna receiving factor. All of these names refer to the same concept.
1.2.12 VSWR:
When a transmission line (cable) is terminated by impedance that does not match the
characteristic impedance of the transmission line, not all of the power is absorbed by the
termination. Part of the power is reflected back down the transmission line. The forward (or
incident) signal mixes with the reverse (or reflected) signal to cause a voltage standing wave
pattern on the transmission line. The ratio of the maximum to the minimum voltage is known as
VSWR, or Voltage Standing Wave Ratio. A VSWR of 1:1 means that there is no power being
reflected back to the source. This is an ideal situation that rarely, if ever, is seen. In the real
world, a VSWR of 1.2:1 (or simply 1.2) is considered excellent in most cases.
At a VSWR of 2.0, approximately 10% of the power is reflected back to the source. Not
only does a high VSWR mean that power is being wasted, the reflected power can cause
problems such as heating cables or causing amplifiers to fold-back.

Fig 1.2: Voltage Measured Along a Transmission Line
1+ τ
VSWR= −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→(1.17)
1−τ
Where Γ is reflection coefficient, and it is lies between 0& 1.
1.3 History of Wireless Communication

Wireless Communication is the transfer of information between two or more points that are
not connected by an electrical conductor. Communication systems using electrical and
electronic technology have a significant impact on modern society. As the courier speeding
from Marathon to Athens in 490 B.C. illustrates, in early history information could be
exchanged only by physical transport of messages. The first wireless networks were developed
in the Pre-industrial age. These systems transmitted information over line-of-sight distances
(later extended by telescopes) using smoke signals, torch signaling, flashing mirrors, signal
flares, or semaphore flags. Only a few examples exist of non-electrical communication
techniques for transfer of information via other infrastructures than those for physical transport:
smoke signals, signal flags in maritime operations and the semaphore are among them. Many
scientists had made important contributions to the field of communication since 19th century.
The telegraph and telephone systems came into existence in 1838 and 1895 respectively, which
laid some of the foundation upon which radio communication was developed. Ubiquitous
connectivity to the internet, to company’s intranets or to the other data services like Wi-Fi and

the Wi-MAX are beginning to exist in any parts of the world. This chapter describes recent
growth wireless communications and related work in the field of wireless communication.
1.4 Evolution of Wireless Communication

The immense growth of information exchange by electronic means has caused an
unprecedented boost in the development of telecommunications technologies, systems and
services. Communications that were formerly carried on wires are now supplied over radio
(wireless). Thus, wireless communication that uncouples the telephone from its wires to the
local telephone exchange, has seen explosive growth. Mobile communications systems
revolutionized the way people communicate, joining together communications and mobility. A
long way in a remarkably short time has been achieved in the history of wireless.
Evolution of wireless access technologies is about to reach its fourth generation (4G).
Looking past, wireless access technologies have followed different evolutionary paths aimed at
unified target: performance and efficiency in high mobile environment. The first generation
(1G) has fulfilled the basic mobile voice, while the second generation (2G) has introduced
capacity and coverage. This is followed by the third generation (3G), which has quest for data at
higher speeds to open the gates for truly "mobile broadband" experience, which will be further
realized by the fourth generation (4G). The Fourth generation (4G) will provide access to wide
range of telecommunication services, including advanced mobile services, supported by mobile
and fixed networks, which are increasingly packet based, along with a support for low to high
mobility applications and wide range of data rates, in accordance with service demands in
multi-user environment. This paper provides a high level overview of the evolution of Mobile
Wireless Communication Networks from 3G to 4G.
1.4.1 First Generation (1G):

In 1980 the mobile cellular era had started, and since then mobile communications have
undergone significant changes and experienced enormous growth. First-generation mobile
systems used analog transmission for speech services. In 1979, the first cellular system in the
world became operational by Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT) in Tokyo, Japan. Two
years later, the cellular epoch reached Europe. The two most popular analogue systems were

Nordic Mobile Telephones (NMT) and Total Access Communication Systems (TACS). Other
than NMT and TACS, some other analog systems were also introduced in1980s across the
Europe. All of these systems offered handover and roaming capabilities but the cellular
networks were unable to interoperate between countries. This was one of the inevitable
disadvantages of first-generation mobile networks.
In the United States, the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) was launched in
1982. The system was allocated a 40-MHz bandwidth within the 800 to 900 MHz frequency
range by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for AMPS. In 1988, an additional 10
MHz bandwidth, called Expanded Spectrum (ES) was allocated to AMPS. It was first deployed
in Chicago, with a service area of 2100 square miles. AMPS offered 832 channels, with a data
rate of 10 kbps. Although Omni directional antennas were used in the earlier AMPS
implementation, it was realized that using directional antennas would yield better cell reuse. In
fact, the smallest reuse factor that would fulfill the 18 dB Signal-to-interference ratio (SIR)
using120-degree directional antennas was found to be 7. Hence, a 7-cell reuse pattern was
adopted for AMPS. Transmissions from the base stations to mobiles occur over the forward
channel using frequencies between 869-894 MHz . The reverse channel is used for
transmissions from mobiles to base station, using frequencies between 824-849 MHz AMPS
and TACS use the frequency modulation (FM) technique for radio transmission. Traffic is
multiplexed onto an FDMA (Frequency division multiple access) system.
1.4.2 Second Generation (2G):
Second-generation (2G) mobile systems were introduced in the end of 1980s. Low bit
rate data services were supported as well as the traditional speech service. Compared to first-
generation systems, second-generation (2G) systems use digital multiple access technology,
such as TDMA (Time division multiple access) and CDMA (Code division multiple access).
Consequently, compared with first-generation systems, higher spectrum efficiency, better data
services, and more advanced roaming were offered by 2G systems.
In Europe, the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) was deployed to
provide a single unified standard. This enabled seamless services throughout Europe by means
of international roaming. Global System for Mobile Communications, or GSM, uses TDMA
technology to support multiple users during development over more than 20 years, GSM

technology has been continuously improved to offer better services in the market. New
technologies have been developed based on the original GSM system, leading to some more
advanced systems known as 2.5 Generation (2.5G) systems. In the United States, there were
three lines of development in second-generation digital cellular systems. The first digital
system, introduced in 1991, was the IS54 (North America TDMA Digital Cellular), of which a
new version supporting additional services (IS-136) was introduced in 1996. Meanwhile, IS-95
(CDMA One) was deployed in 1993.
The US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) also auctioned a new block of

spectrum in the 1900 MHz band (PCS), allowing GSM1900 to enter the US market. In Japan,
the Personal Digital Cellular (PDC) system originally known as JDC (Japanese Digital Cellular)
was initially defined in 1990 [3].Since the first networks appeared at the beginning of the 1991,
GSM gradually evolved to meet the requirements of data traffic and many more services than
the original networks.
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication): The main element of this system is
the BSS (Base Station Subsystem), in which there are BTS (Base Transceiver Station) and BSC
(Base Station Controllers); and the NSS (Network Switching Subsystem), in which there is the
MSC (Mobile Switching Centre), VLR (Visitor Location Register), HLR (Home Location
Register), AC (Authentication Centre) and EIR (Equipment Identity Register). This network is
capable of providing all the basic services up to 9.6 Kbps, fax, etc. This GSM network also has
an extension to the fixed telephony network.
A new design was introduced into the mobile switching center of second-generation
systems. In particular, the use of base station controllers (BSCs) lightens the load placed on the
MSC (mobile switching center) found in first-generation systems. This design allows the
interface between the MSC and BSC to be standardized. Hence, considerable attention was
devoted to interoperability and standardization in second-generation systems so that carrier
could employ different manufacturers for the MSC and BSCs. In addition to enhancements in
MSC design, the mobile-assisted handoff mechanism was introduced. By sensing signals

received from adjacent base stations, a mobile unit can trigger a handoff by performing explicit
signaling with the network.
GSM and VAS (Value Added Services): The next advancement in the GSM system was
the addition of two platforms, called Voice Mail Service (VMS) and the Short Message Service
Centre (SMSC). The SMSC proved to be incredibly commercially successful, so much so that
in some networks the SMS traffic constitutes a major part of the total traffic. Along with VAS,
IN (Intelligent services) also made its mark in the GSM system, with its advantage of giving the
operators the chance to create a whole range of new services. Fraud management and ‘pre-paid’
services are the result of the IN service.
GSM and GPRS (General Packet Radio Services): As requirement for sending data on
the air-interface increased, new elements such as SGSN (Servicing GPRS) and GGSN
(Gateway GPRS) were added to the existing GSM system. These elements made it possible to
send packet data on the air-interface. This part of the network handling the packet data is also
called the ‘packet core network’. In addition to the SGSN and GGSN (Gateway GPRS) were
added to the existing GSM system. These elements made it possible to send packet data on the
air-interface. This part of the network handling the packet data is also called the ‘packet core
network’.
It also contains the IP routers, firewall servers and DNS (Domain Name Servers). This
enables wireless access to the internet and bit rate reaching to 150 kbps in optimum conditions.
The move into the 2.5G world began with General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). GPRS is a
radio technology for GSM networks that adds packet-switching protocols, shorter setup time for
ISP connections, and the possibility to charge by the amount of data sent, rather than connection
time. Packet switching is a technique whereby the information (voice or data) to be sent is
broken up into packets, of at most a few Kbytes each, which are then routed by the network
between different destinations based on addressing data within each packet. Use of network
resources is optimized as the resources are needed only during the handling of each packet.

GSM and EDGE (Enhanced Data rates in GSM Environment): With both voice and
data traffic moving on the system, the need was felt to increase the data rate. This was done by
using more sophisticated coding methods over the internet and thus increasing the data rate up
to 384 kbps. Implementing EDGE was relatively painless and required relatively small changes
to network hardware and software as it uses the same TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
frame structure, logic channel and 200 kHz carrier bandwidth as today's GSM networks. As
EDGE progresses to co-existence with 3G WCDMA, data rates of up to ATM-like speeds of 2
Mbps could be available. Nowadays, second-generation digital cellular systems still dominate
the mobile industry throughout the whole world. However, third generation (3G) systems have
been introduced in the market, but their penetration is quite limited because of several techno-
economic reasons.
1.4.3 Third Generation (3G)
The objective of the third generation of wireless communication is to provide fairly high-
speed wireless communications to support multimedia, data, and video in addition to voice.
Telecommunications for the year 2000 (IMT-2000) initiative has defined the ITU's view of
third-generation capabilities as follows:
 Voice quality comparable to the public switched telephone network

 144 Kbps data rate available to users in high-speed motor vehicles over large areas
 384 Kbps available to pedestrians standing or moving slowly over small areas
 Support for both packet-switched and circuit-switched data services
 More efficient use of the available spectrum in general
 Support for a wide variety of mobile equipment
 Flexibility to allow the introduction of new services and technologies

Improved data rates of 3G systems over their predecessors have opened the doors for
applications like mobile TV, video-on-demand, video conferencing, tele-medicine, and
location-based services. High data rates have also allowed users to browse the Web using their
cell phones and consequently gave birth to the term mobile broadband. 3G paved the way for
the rise of smart phones and their wide screens as they were more suitable for viewing mobile
Websites, video conferencing, or watching mobile TV.
1.4.4 Fourth Generation (4G)
4G refers to the fourth generation of cellular wireless standards. It is a successor to 3G
and 2G families of standards. It is basically the extension in the 3G technology with more
bandwidth and services offers in the 3G.The expectation for the 4G technology is basically the
high quality audio/video streaming over end to end Internet Protocol. If the Internet Protocol
(IP) multimedia sub-system movement achieves what it going to do, nothing of this possibly
will matter. Fourth generation wireless networks are expected to provide comprehensive and
secure IP-based solutions, facilitating existing and emerging services such as voice, data,
streamed multimedia, sensory, e-health, and social networking. It is expected that 4G will be
provided to users on an "Anytime, Anywhere" basis and at much higher data rates compared to
the current and previous mobile generations.
1.5 Organization of thesis

This thesis is organized in seven different chapters
Chapter 2: A brief introduction to microstrip patch antennas is presented in this chapter.
Its advantages and applications are also discussed.
Chapter 3: This chapter covers about the basic concepts of ultra wideband antennas. The
history of UWB technology is described.
Chapter 4: A brief introduction to UWB technology is presented in this chapter. Its
advantages and applications are also discussed.
Chapter 5: In this chapter, Bevel shaped antenna with triple band notched characteristics
is designed. The proposed ultra wideband antenna acts as a notch filter and the antenna
configuration is discussed.
Chapter 6: The simulation results of the proposed UWB antenna with notching and
without notching are evaluated in this chapter.
Chapter 7: This chapter concludes the researches that have been done in this thesis.
Suggestions for future work are also given in this chapter.

CHAPTER 2
MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS
Antenna is a transducer designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic waves. Micro

strip antennas have several advantages over conventional microwave antenna and therefore are
widely used in many practical applications.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The micro strip antenna is now an established type of antenna that is confidently
prescribed by designers universal, principally when low profile radiators are required. The
printed antenna has now reached an age of maturity where many well-tried techniques can be
relied upon and there are few mysteries about it is performance. With increasing requirements
for personal and mobile communications, the demand for a low profile and smaller antennas has
brought the microstrip antennas to the forefront. In useful UWB applications, patch antennas
that can be directly printed onto printed circuit boards (PCBs) are the most promising
applicant .Such as PCB antenna has a low manufacturing cost, a low profile and can be easily
integrated with other parts of monolithic microwave integrate circuit (MMIC) for a transceiver.
Microstrip Antenna (MSAs) has the attractive features of easy fabrication, light weight
and low profile. However, Microstrip antennas inherently have a narrow bandwidth and
bandwidth enhancement is usually demanded practical applications. In addition, applications in
present-day mobile communication systems usually require smaller antenna size in order to
meet the miniaturization requirement of mobile unit is. Therefore, size decrease and bandwidth
enhancement are becoming major design considerations for practical applications of microstrip
antennas. Some approaches have been developed for bandwidth enhancement. Among those
common ones, one is to increase the height of the dielectric substrate while the other is to
decrease the substrate dielectric constant.
Microstrip antennas can be divided into two basic types of structure, namely microstrip slot
and patch antenna, the slot antennas can be fed by slot line, microstrip line and coplanar
waveguide (CPW) feed. Microstrip UWB antennas are simplest form consist of a radiating

patch etching one side of a dielectric substrate and a partial ground plane on the other side if the
antenna is fed by microstrip transmission line or on the same side in the case of coplanar
waveguide feeding. The patch is generally made of conducting material such as copper and can
take any possible profile. The feed lines and the radiating patch are usually photos etched on the
dielectric substrate. However, such a configuration leads to a larger antenna size.
To satisfy such requirements, various types of planar antennas have been developed
for UWB communications over the last few years. Also, several bandwidth enhancement
techniques have been reported, to improve the impedance bandwidth of these antennas.
2.1.1 DEFINITION OF PATCH ANTENNA

A patch antenna (also known as a rectangular microstrip antenna) is a type of radio
antenna with a low profile, which can be mounted on a flat surface. It consists of a flat
rectangular sheet or “patch” of metal, mounted over a large sheet of metal called a ground
plane. The patch antenna is one of the most preferred antennas due to its low cost of production,
light weight and simple implementation process.
2.1.2 MICROSTRIP PATCH

The typical geometry of a microstrip patch antenna consists of radiating metallic patch
and a larger ground plane etched on either side of a substrate having a fixed dielectric constant
and thickness is given by the Figure 2.1.
Fig 2.1: Structure of the Microstrip Patch Antenna
The antenna patch can have different shapes, but is most likely rectangular. In order to
make performance predictions the rectangular patch antenna has the following parameters,
where λo is the wavelength in vacuum also called the free-space wavelength.

Length (L): 0.3333 λ 0< L <0.5 λ 0
Height (H): 0.003 λ 0< H < 0.05 λ 0
Thickness (t): t << λ 0
Dielectric constant (ε r): 2.2 ≤ ε r ≤12
In electromagnetic radiation λ is often given instead of λ 0 as the speed of light in

vacuum is very close to the speed of light in air. As described later in this chapter the length of
the patch is very important when it comes to the radiation. Looking at the parameters of the
λ
length, the length is slightly less than .
2
2.2 PATCH SHAPES
The shape of the patch is the main parameter which effects the bandwidth of the antenna. It
also effects its electrical characteristics such as polarization and gain. It is very difficult to make
a general rule instead we are discussing here some of the radiating patch shapes namely circular,
square, triangular, rectangular, elliptical, or any other configuration, as illustrated in Figure 2.2.
(a) Square (b) Rectangle (c) Dipole (d) Circle
(e) Triangular (f) Circular Ring (g) Elliptical

Fig 2.2: Common shapes of Patch Antenna
Microstrip patch antennas radiate primarily because of the fringing fields between the
patch edge and the ground plane. For good antenna performance, a thick dielectric substrate
having a low dielectric constant is desirable since this provides better efficiency, larger
bandwidth and better radiation how-ever , such a configuration leads to a larger antenna size.
An exhaustive list of the geometries along with their salient features is available [1] .In order to
design a compact Microstrip patch antenna , higher dielectric constants must be used which are
less efficient and result in narrow bandwidth compromise must be reached between antenna
dimensions and antenna performance.
2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
Microstrip patch antennas are increasing in popularity for use in wireless applications
due to their low-profile structure. Therefore they are extremely compatible for embedded
antennas in handled wireless devices such as cellular phones, pagers etc., The telemetry and
communication antennas on missiles need to be thin and conformal and are often Microstrip
patch antennas. Another area where they have been used successfully is in satellite
communication. Some of their principal advantages are given below [2]:
 Low fabrication cost, hence can be manufactured in large quantities.
 Easily integrated with microwave integrated circuits (MICs).
 Capable of dual and triple frequency operations.
 Supports both, linear as well as circular polarization.
 Low cost, Less size, Low Mass.
 Mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces.
 High Performance
 Light weight and low volume.

 Micro strip patch antennas are suffer from a number of disadvantages as compared to
conventional antennas. Some of their major disadvantages are given below [2].
 Narrow bandwidth associated with tolerance problem.

 Large ohmic losses in feed structure of arrays.
 Excitation of surface waves.
 Most Microstrip antennas radiate into half-space.
 Relatively low efficiency (due to dielectric and conductor losses).
 Relatively high level of cross polarization radiation.
 Spurious feed radiation (surface waves, strips, etc.)
 Inherently low impedance bandwidth.
 Low efficiency.
 Extraneous radiation from feeds and junctions.
 Low power handling capacity.
2.4 Feed techniques

Microstrip patch antennas can be fed by a variety of methods. These methods are
classified into two categories one is contacting and another one is non-contacting. In the
contacting method, the RF power is fed directly to the radiating patch using a connecting
element such as a microstrip line. In the non-contacting method, electromagnetic field coupling
is done to transfer power between the microstrip line and the radiating patch.
The four most popular feed techniques used are the micro strip line, coaxial probe(both
contacting schemes),aperture coupling and proximity coupling (both non- contacting schemes) .
2.4.1 Microstrip feed line
The microstrip feed line is connected directly to the edge of the patch antenna. This
feed understanding has the benefit is that it can be etched on the same substrate, so the total structure

remains planar. As illustrated in Figure 2.4, it is usually of much smaller width compared to the patch,
simple to match and easy to fabricate by controlling the inset position .
Fig 2.3: Microstrip feed line to the antenna
The purpose of the feed line is to match the impedance from the patch without any
additional matching component, however because the feed line is a patch itself it can cause
radiation interfering with the patch which will decrease the bandwidth of the antenna. When
designing the feed line, this must be along the side of the length, as the current flow is along the
direction of the feed wire and at the length is where the maximum radiation of the patch is
created.
2.4.2 Coaxial feed
Another way to feed the antenna is to directly connect it to a coaxial cable to avoid
radiation from the feed line. The coaxial feed (also referred to as a probe feed) is a very
common way to feed the antenna. As seen from figure 3 the coaxial connector is inserted at the
ground plane where the inner conductor extends through the dielectric substrate and is soldered
on to the patch.
Fig 2.4: coaxial feed

The advantages of this kind of feed are it’ s lower radiation and the fact that it can be
placed anywhere to match the impedance of the patch (though a calculation of the x, y plan of
the patch). The disadvantage is that it provides a narrow bandwidth and is it is difficult to drill
though the substrate. With a fragile dielectric substrate you might end up damaging the
substrate or the inner connector might not perfectly fit the drilled hole and thereby create power
loss to air conductivity. Another problem is that with a thick substrate the inner coaxial
conductor has to be longer leading to higher input inductivity which creates matching problems.
I chose to use the feed line method as this is the most popular and as this seems more
straightforward when seen from a simulation perspective. Next will follow a description on how
to define the size of the patch and the line feed dimensions.
2.4.3 Proximity coupled feed
This type of feed technique is also called as “the electromagnetic coupling scheme”. As
shown in the Fig 2.5, two dielectric substrates are used such that the feed line is between the
two substrates and the radiating patch is on top of the upper substrate.
The main advantage of this feed technique is that it eliminates spurious feed radiation
and provides very high bandwidth due to overall increase in the thickness of the Microstrip
patch antenna. This scheme also provides choices between two different dielectric media, one
for the patch and one for the feed line to optimize the individual performance.
Fig 2.5: Proximity coupled feed
Matching can be achieved by controlling the length of the feed line and the width-to-line
ratio of the patch. The major disadvantage of this feed scheme is that it is difficult to fabricate

because of the two dielectric layers which need proper alignment. Also, there is an increase in
the overall thickness of the antenna.
2.4.4 Aperture coupled feed
In this type of feed technique, the radiating patch and the Microstrip feed line are separated
by the ground plane a shown in Fig 2.6. Coupling between the patch and the feed line is made
through a slot or an aperture in the ground plane.
Fig 2.6: Aperture coupled feed
The coupling aperture is usually centered under the patch, leading to lower cross
polarization due to symmetry of the configuration. The amount of coupling from the feed line to
the patch is determined by the shape, size and location of the aperture. Since the ground plane
separates the patch and the feed line, spurious radiation is minimized. Generally, a high
dielectric material is used for the bottom substrate and a thick, low dielectric constant material
is used for the top substrate to optimize radiation from the patch. The major disadvantage of this
feed technique is that is difficult to fabricate due to multiple layers, which also increases the
antenna thickness. This feeding scheme also provide narrow bandwidth.

CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE SURVEY
Some of the approaches to obtain multiband antennas are recorded by various research scholars
such as,
 The conception of fractals can be enforced to the design of low profile and for multiband
antennas. In this article, multiband antenna is obtained by applying the periwinkle
flower shaped slot (top side) and SRR (flip side) antenna is presented. The proposed
antenna can be used for the resonant frequencies i.e., 3.476 GHz at S-band, 4.844 GHz
at C-band, 8.3 GHz also 10.28 GHz at X-band, 17.76 GHz and at Ku-band.
 A novel compact CPW-fed tri-band printed antenna with meandering split-ring slot for
WLAN/WiMAX applications is investigated. By employing three different types of
resonant structure and embedding a meandering split-ring slot in the Y-shaped
monopole radiator, the proposed antenna can obtain good tri-band operation
performance which can cover the 2.4/5.8-GHz bands for 2.5/3.5-GHz bands for
WiMAX operation.
 A dual wide-band CPW-fed modified Koch fractal printed slot antenna is proposed in
this paper. A modified Koch snowflake slot is fed by a 50 Ω CPW feed along with a
tuning stub embedded with a U-shaped slot. The performance of the antenna is analyzed
by using Ansoft HFSS. The radiation characteristics of the proposed antenna indicate
that a modified Koch fractal slot antenna has an impedance bandwidth ranging from
2.38 to 3.95 GHz and 4.95–6.05 GHz covering 2.4/5.2/5.8 GHz WLAN bands and the
2.5/3.5/5.5 GHz WiMAX bands.
 A small planar dual-band microstrip-fed monopole antenna for wireless local area
network applications using slotted conductor-backed plane is proposed. A dual-band
monopole antenna fed by a 50-Ω microstrip line for wireless local area network
applications consists of a square patch as radiator and slotted conductor-backed plane
which can generate dual-band operations.
MULTIBAND ANTENNAS:
4.1. INTRODUCTION

The wireless communication devices such as mobiles, Bluetooth use worldwide

Interoperability for Wi-Fi (wireless Fidelity), WiMAX (World Wide Interoperability for
Microwave Access), GSM (global system for mobile communication), LTE (long term
evaluation), VOLTE frequency bands. As of now, conventional out designed is able to operate
only in one frequency band. For multiple applications we need to design multi band antennas.
Hence there is a need to design a multi band antenna which will work at multiple frequencies.
Rapid growth in wireless technology lead awards configuration of gadgets with reduced size
and multi functionality various. Wireless sensors are provided with various applications like
GPS, GSM Wi-Fi, WiMax, Bluetooth with different range of frequencies.
The fast changes of intelligent multimedia technology advancement claims for much
higher data rate communication and to accomplish this multiband antenna plays an important
role. Although volume, impedance matching, incorporation with RF circuits, cost associated
with the applications, and compactness pose challenges in outline and usage of such antennas.
The use of multiband frame works with an assortment of frequency band is abruptly increasing.
4.2. MULTIBAND ANTENNA DESIGN
Multiband antennas could be designed by adding multi-branched strips and etching slots
(such as U, E, and C slots) over a radiating patch, alternatively it can also be designed with
feeding technique. The feeding techniques can be classified into two methods- contacting and
non-contacting. In the contacting method, the RF power is fed directly to the radiating patch
using a connecting element such as a microstrip line. In the non-contacting method,
electromagnetic field coupling is done to transfer power between the microstrip line and the
radiating patch. The four more popular feed techniques used are the microstrip line, co-axial
probe (both contacting methods), aperture coupling and proximity coupling (both non-
contacting methods).
The growing use of wireless technology is spurring the need for practical antenna
designs. The demand for low profile, compact antennas with multiband compatibility has
encouraged the development of various types of patch antennas, monopole antennas, and planer
inverted-F antennas (PIFAs).

The transmitting and receiving antennas are not stationary, therefore, there will be
polarization mismatch which can be calculated by polarization loss factor; PLF. Polarization
Loss Factor is given as- PLF = cos² Ø. If one antenna is vertically polarized and other antenna is
horizontally polarized than the angle between them is 90 degrees and no power is transferred. In
circular polarization, waves propagate in all planes so there is no polarization mismatch.
Suppose now that a linearly polarized antenna is trying to receive a circularly polarized wave or
vice versa. Circular polarization is really two orthogonal linear polarized waves 90 degrees out
of phase. Hence, a linearly polarized antenna will simply pick up the in-phase component of the
circularly polarized wave. Circular polarizations also overcome from the interference caused by
rain. Hence the reception of the antenna becomes strong. Axial ratio for circular polarization
i.e., the ratio of major axis to the minor axis is unity unlike the linear polarization where it is
infinite. Coaxial probe feed is used because it is easy to use and the input impedance of the
coaxial cable in general is 50 Ω. There are several points on the patch which have 50Ω
impedance. We have to find out those points and match them with the input impedance. These
points are found through a mathematical model. The dielectric substrates used are Bakelite, FR4
Glass Epoxy, RO4003, Taconic TLC and RTDuroid. The height of the substrates is constant
i.e., 1.6 mm. Different parameters such as VSWR, Return Loss, Gain, Radiation resistance,
Radiation pattern and Efficiency.
4.3:LITERATURE REVIEW:
 Dual band modified circular ring shaped slot antenna for GSM and
WiMAX applications:
In 2019, researchers Som Pal Gangwar , Kapil Gangwar , Arun Kumar presented dual
band modified circular ring shaped slot antenna for GSM and WiMAX applications.
Dual frequency bands are achieved by combining the circular ring shaped slot with U-
shaped slot. The far-field features of proposed radiator are stable and confirm its better
performance in between dual frequency range i.e., 1.69 to 1.94 GHz and 3.64 to 3.88
GHz with the impedance bandwidth of 14.1% and 6.4%, respectively.
The geometry of the dual band modifies circular ring shaped slot antenna is
depicted in the Figure 4.1 (a, b).

(A) (B)
Figure 4.1: Geometry of the proposed antenna (a) top view (b) bottom view
The simulated return loss and VSWR plots of the dual band circular shaped slot antenna
is shown in Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.2: Return loss plot (S11) of the proposed antenna.

Figure 4.3: VSWR plot of the proposed antenna.
 In 2018 researchers, Som Pal Gangwar , Kapil Gangwar , and Arun Kumar proposed
dual-band modified circular slot antenna for WLAN and WiMAX applications. This
article presents a modified circular shaped slot antenna for dual-frequency applications
and an asymmetrical microstrip line is used to feed the proposed slot antenna. The
proposed antenna structure is designed for two frequency bands, i.e., 2.88–3.92 GHz and
5.26–6.28 GHz. It provides stable far-field characteristics with average gains of 3.0 dBi
and 6.0 dBi in lower and upper frequency bands, respectively.
The diagrammatic representation of dual-band modified circular slot antenna is
Illustrated in the Figure 4.4

(a) (b)
Figure 4.4: Geometry of proposed antenna (a) top view (b) bottom view.
The simulated return loss and VSWR plots of the dual band circular shaped
slot antenna is shown in Figure 4.5 and Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.5: Return loss plot (S11) of the proposed antenna.

Figure 4.6: VSWR plot of the proposed antenna

CHAPTER-4
DESIGN OF PROPOSED ELLIPTICAL SHAPED ANTENNA
INTRODUCTION:
The proposed antenna consists of elliptically slot structured patch with a 50 Ω microstrip
feed line and a partial ground plane. The antenna is printed on a low cost FR-4 substrate with a
compact size, simple structure and is suitable for WiMAX, X and Ku band applications in the
frequency range 3.2-3.5 GHz, 8.6-12.6 GHz, and 13.9-15.4 GHz respectively. The basic design
of the elliptical shaped patch antenna with dielectric substrate, patch, feed line and partial
ground plane is shown in Figure 5.1.
Fig 5.1: Proposed Elliptical Shaped Antenna Design
ANTENNA DESIGN:
The structure of the proposed microstrip-feed of dimension W F × LF is printed along with an
elliptical shaped antenna for triple band applications is depicted in Figure 5.2.The proposed
antenna has an elliptical radiating patch with a partial ground plane and a microstrip feed line.
The antenna is printed on a low cost FR-4 substrate of relative permittivity 4.4 and loss tangent
of 0.02.The overall dimension of the proposed antenna is W s × Ls which equals to 14 × 23 × 1.6
mm3. The dimensions of the proposed elliptical shaped patch antenna is illustrated in Table 5.3.

R2
R4
R8 R6
R1
R3 Ls
R5 & R7
R12
R11
R9
R10
y
LF3 LF1
LF2
x
Wf z
Ws
Figure: 5. 2 (a)
Ws
Lg
(b)
Figure 5.2: Geometry of proposed antenna (a) front view (b) back view

Table 5.3: Dimensions of the Proposed Elliptical Shaped Antenna (all dimensions are in
“mm”)
Parameter Value (mm) Parameter Value (mm) Parameter Value (mm)

Ws 14 R1 6.5 R7 4
Ls 23 R2 8.5 R8 6.25
WF 3 R3 5.5 R9 1.75
LF 7 R4 6.75 R10 3.5
Wg 14 R5 4 R11 3
Lg 6 R6 5.75 R12 4.25
LF1 5.25 LF2 5.5 LF3 5.625
The patch of the proposed antenna is modified in four steps as presented in Figure
5.4.The proposed antenna comprises of an elliptical patch having lengths of semi-major axis
(R1) and semi-minor axis (R2) are 6.5mm and 8.5mm respectively as shown in Figure
2(a).Form the structure shown in Figure 5.4(a), another elliptical patch having semi-major axis
(R3)of 5.5 mm and semi minor axis (R4) of 6.75mm is etched to obtain the antenna structure
shown in Figure 5.4 (b). To procure the inverted moon shaped structure as shown in Figure
5.4(c), an ellipse structure of 4mm (R5) and 5.75mm (R6) is etched out from another ellipse of
dimensions 4 mm (R7) and 6.25 mm (R8). The semi major axis (R9) and semi minor axis (R10)
of an ellipse are 1.75mm and 3.5mm is etched from an ellipse having size 3mm (R11) and
4.25mm (R12) is illustrated in Figure 5.4(d).
Fig: 5.4(a) Fig: 5 .4 (b) Fig: 5.4(c) Fig: 5.4(d)

Fig 4.4: Design of the elliptical patch of the proposed antenna
The prototype of the proposed elliptical shaped antenna for WiMAX, X band and Ku band
applications is shown in Fig 4.5
(a) (b)
Figure 4.5: Prototype of the proposed antenna (a) front view (b) bottom view
The patch antennas are rapidly used in various fields like space technology,
aircrafts, missiles,GPS, mobile communication ,broadcasting etc. Their planar profile
configurations attract commercial, industrial and medical applications.
CHAPTER-5



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A NOVEL ELLIPTICAL SHAPED ANTENNA FOR WiMAX, X

BAND AND Ku BAND APPLICATIONS

1.1 Antenna Definition:

An antenna is a specialized transducer that converts radio-frequency (RF) fields into

St. Ann’s College of Engineering and Technology, Dept. of ECE Page 1

1.2 Antenna Parameters:

1.2.1 Radiation pattern:

1.2.2 Radiation Intensity:

Given an antenna's power density P, radiation density is calculated by multiplying it

The reference antenna normally used is a hypothetical lossless isotropic radiator or

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Gain=Maximum radiation intensity ¿ test antenna ¿ reference antennawit h same input p

Gain ( G o )=Maximum radiation intensity ¿ test antenna ¿ isotropic antenna wit h sa

1.2.4 Directive Gain:

The directive gain is a function of angles (θ and φ).

Let Ф (θ, φ) = radiation intensity in particular direction.

Radiation intensity∈a particular direction

Directive gain in decibels

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Power density ∈a particular direction by subject antenna

1.2.5 Antenna Efficiency:

w t = Total input power

Antenna efficiency in terms of Radiation resistance is given as

Ri= Ohmic loss resistance of antenna conductor

1.2.6 Effective Area:

A transmitting antenna transmits electromagnetic waves and a receiving antenna

Note 1: Antenna effective area is usually expressed in square meters.

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1.2.7 Front to Back Ratio:

FBR changes if frequency of operation of antenna system shifts. It value tends to

Power radiated ∈desired direction

1.2.8 Band Width:

Bandwidth is another fundamental antenna parameter. Bandwidth describes the range of

Bandwidth is typically quoted in terms of VSWR. For instance, an antenna may be

Alternatively, the return loss S11=20 × log 10 ( 0.2 )=−13.98 dB.

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1.2.9 Beam Width:

Beam width = (HPBW) horizontal x (HPBW) vertical

Beam width = (HPBW) E x (HPBW)H

1.2.10 Beam Efficiency:

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Power received ∨transmitted with∈cone angle θ

1.2.11 Antenna Polarization:

The polarization of an antenna is the polarization of the radiated fields produced by an

PLF =cos2 ϕ−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→(1.16)

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PLF (linear to circular) = 0.5= -3dB

The Polarization Loss Factor is sometimes referred to as polarization efficiency, antenna

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Fig 1.2: Voltage Measured Along a Transmission Line

Where Γ is reflection coefficient, and it is lies between 0& 1.

1.3 History of Wireless Communication

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1.4 Evolution of Wireless Communication

1.4.1 First Generation (1G):

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The US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) also auctioned a new block of

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 Voice quality comparable to the public switched telephone network

 Support for both packet-switched and circuit-switched data services

 More efficient use of the available spectrum in general