Alternating voltages and currents 189

in the opposite direction to that in position (c) and is
thus shown as −E. In positions (b), (d), (f) and (h) some
flux is cut and hence some e.m.f. is induced. If all such
positions of the coil are considered, in one revolution
of the coil one cycle of alternating e.m.f. is produced
as shown. This is the principle of operation of the a.c.
generator (i.e. the alternator).
The time taken for an alternating quantity to complete
one cycle is called the period or the periodic time, T,
of the waveform.
The number of cycles completed in one second is called
the frequency, f , of the supply and is measured in
hertz,∗ Hz. The standard frequency of the electricity
supply in Great Britain is 50 Hz.

1 1
T= or f =
14.3 Waveforms f T

If values of quantities which vary with time t are plot- Problem 1. Determine the periodic time for
ted to a base of time, the resulting graph is called frequencies of (a) 50 Hz and (b) 20 kHz.
a waveform. Some typical waveforms are shown in
Figure 14.3. Waveforms (a) and (b) are unidirectional 1 1
(a) Periodic time T = = = 0.02 s or 20 ms
waveforms, for, although they vary considerably with f 50
time, they flow in one direction only (i.e. they do not 1 1

Part 2
cross the time axis and become negative). Waveforms (b) Periodic time T = = = 0.00005 s or
f 20 000
(c) to (g) are called alternating waveforms since their 50 µs
quantities are continually changing in direction (i.e.
alternately positive and negative). Problem 2. Determine the frequencies for
periodic times of (a) 4 ms, (b) 4 µs.

1 1 1000
(a) Frequency f = = = = 250 Hz
T 4 × 10 −3 4
1 1 1 000 000
(b) Frequency f = = =
T 4 × 10−6 4
= 250 000 Hz or 250 kHz or 0.25 MHz

Problem 3. An alternating current completes

5 cycles in 8 ms. What is its frequency?

8
Time for 1 cycle = ms = 1.6 ms = periodic time T
5
1 1 1 000 10 000
Frequency f = = = =
T 1.6 × 10−3 1.6 16
= 625 Hz

Now try the following Practice Exercise

Practice Exercise 48 Frequency and

periodic time (Answers on page 747)
Figure 14.3
1. Determine the periodic time for the following
A waveform of the type shown in Figure 14.3(g) is called frequencies:
a sine wave. It is the shape of the waveform of e.m.f. (a) 2.5 Hz (b) 100 Hz (c) 40 kHz
produced by an alternator and thus the mains electricity
supply is of ‘sinusoidal’ form.
One complete series of values is called a cycle (i.e. from
O to P in Figure 14.3(g)). ∗ Who was Hertz? Go to www.routledge.com/cw/bird
 190 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

2. Calculate the frequency for the following

periodic times:
(a) 5 ms (b) 50 µs (c) 0.2 s
3. An alternating current completes 4 cycles in
5 ms. What is its frequency?

Figure 14.4

14.4 A.c. values

Instantaneous values are the values of the alternating For a sine wave,
quantities at any instant of time. They are represented
r.m.s. value= 0.707 × maximum value
by small letters, i , υ, e, etc. (see Figures 14.3(f) and (g)). √
The largest value reached in a half cycle is called the (i.e. 1/ 2 × maximum value)
peak value or the maximum value or the amplitude of
the waveform. Such values are represented by Vm , Im , r.m.s. value
Part 2

Form factor = For a sine wave,

etc. (see Figures 14.3(f) and (g)). A peak-to-peak value average value form factor = 1.11
of e.m.f. is shown in Figure 14.3(g) and is the difference
between the maximum and minimum values in a cycle. maximum value
Peak factor= For a sine wave,
The average or mean value of a symmetrical alter- r.m.s. value peak factor = 1.41
nating quantity (such as a sine wave) is the average value
measured over a half cycle (since over a complete cycle The values of form and peak factors give an indication
the average value is zero). of the shape of waveforms.
area under the curve
Average or mean value =
length of base Problem 4. For the periodic waveforms shown in
The area under the curve is found by approximate Figure 14.5 determine for each: (i) frequency
methods such as the trapezoidal rule, the mid-ordinate (ii) average value over half a cycle (iii) r.m.s. value
rule or Simpson’s rule. Average values are represented (iv) form factor and (v) peak factor.
by V AV , I AV , etc.

For a sine wave,

average value = 0.637 ×maximum value
(i.e. 2/π ×maximum value)

The effective value of an alternating current is that cur-

rent which will produce the same heating effect as an
equivalent direct current. The effective value is called
the root mean square (r.m.s.) value and whenever an
alternating quantity is given, it is assumed to be the r.m.s.
value. For example, the domestic mains supply in Great
Britain is 240 V and is assumed to mean ‘240 V r.m.s’.
The symbols used for r.m.s. values are I , V , E, etc. For
a non-sinusoidal waveform as shown in Figure 14.4 the
r.m.s. value is given by:

i 12 + i 22 + · ·· + i n2
I=
n
Figure 14.5
where n is the number of intervals used.
 Alternating voltages and currents 191

(a) Triangular waveform (Figure 14.5(a)) 10 × (8 × 10−3 )

=
(i) Time for 1 complete cycle =20 ms = periodic 8 × 10−3
time, T = 10 A
1 1 1000
Hence frequency f = = =
T 20 ×10−3 20 i 12 + i 22 + · · · + i n2
= 50 Hz (iii) The r.m.s. value=
n
(ii) Area under the triangular waveform for a half
= 10 A
cycle
= 12 × base × height = 12 × (10 ×10−3 ) × 200 however many intervals are chosen, since the
waveform is rectangular.
= 1 volt second
r.m.s. value 10
Average value of waveform (iv) Form factor = = =1
area under curve 1 volt second average value 10
= = maximum value 10
length of base 10 × 10−3 second (v) Peak factor = = =1
1000 r.m.s. value 10
= = 100 V
10
Problem 5. The following table gives the

Part 2
(iii) In Figure 14.5(a), the first 1/4 cycle is divided
into 4 intervals. corresponding values of current and time for a half
Thus r.m.s. value cycle of alternating current.
time t (ms) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
v 12 + v 22 + v 32 + v 42
= current i (A) 0 7 14 23 40 56
4
252 + 752 + 1252 + 1752
= time t (ms) 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
4
= 114.6 V current i (A) 68 76 60 5 0

(Note that the greater the number of intervals cho- Assuming the negative half cycle is identical in
sen, the greater the accuracy of the result. For shape to the positive half cycle, plot the waveform
example, if twice the number of ordinates as that and find (a) the frequency of the supply, (b) the
chosen above are used, the r.m.s. value is found to instantaneous values of current after 1.25 ms and
be 115.6 V) 3.8 ms, (c) the peak or maximum value, (d) the
mean or average value and (e) the r.m.s. value of the
r.m.s. value 114.6
(iv) Form factor = = = 1.15 waveform.
average value 100
maximum value 200 The half cycle of alternating current is shown plotted in
(v) Peak factor = =
r.m.s. value 114.6 Figure 14.6
= 1.75 (a) Time for a half cycle = 5 ms. Hence the time for
1 cycle, i.e. the periodic time, T = 10 ms or 0.01 s
(b) Rectangular waveform (Figure 14.5(b))
1 1
(i) Time for 1 complete cycle =16 ms = periodic Frequency, f = = = 100 Hz
T 0.01
time, T
(b) Instantaneous value of current after 1.25 ms is
1 1 19 A, from Figure 14.6
Hence frequency, f = =
T 16 × 10−3
1000 Instantaneous value of current after 3.8 ms is 70 A,
= = 62.5 Hz from Figure 14.6
16
(ii) Average value over half a cycle (c) Peak or maximum value = 76 A
area under curve area under curve
= (d) Mean or average value =
length of base length of base
 192 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Problem 7. Determine the peak and mean values

for a 240 V mains supply.

For a sine wave, r.m.s. value of voltage V = 0.707 × Vm .

A 240 V mains supply means that 240 V is the r.m.s.
value, hence
V 240
Vm = = = 339.5 V = peak value
0.707 0.707
Mean value VAV = 0.637 Vm = 0.637 ×339.5 =216.3 V

Problem 8. A supply voltage has a mean value of

150 V. Determine its maximum value and its r.m.s.
value.

For a sine wave, mean value=0.637 ×maximum value.

Part 2

mean value 150

Hence maximum value = =
0.637 0.637
= 235.5 V

Figure 14.6 r.m.s. value = 0.707 × maximum value = 0.707 × 235.5

Using the mid-ordinate rule with 10 intervals, each of = 166.5 V
width 0.5 ms gives:
area under curve Now try the following Practice Exercise
= (0.5 × 10−3)[3 + 10 + 19 + 30 + 49 + 63
+ 73 + 72 + 30 + 2] (see Figure 14.6) Practice Exercise 49 A.c. values of
waveforms (Answers on page 747)
= (0.5 × 10−3)(351)
1. An alternating current varies with time over
(0.5 × 10−3 )(351) half a cycle as follows:
Hence mean or average value =
5 × 10−3
= 35.1 A current (A) 0 0.7 2.0 4.2 8.4 8.2
(e) r.m.s. value time (ms) 0 1 2 3 4 5
 
32 + 102 + 192 + 302 + 492 + 632 + current (A) 2.5 1.0 0.4 0.2 0
 732 + 722 + 302 + 22 
time (ms) 6 7 8 9 10
=  
 10 

The negative half cycle is similar. Plot

19 157 the curve and determine: (a) the frequency,
= = 43.8 A
10 (b) the instantaneous values at 3.4 ms and
5.8 ms, (c) its mean value and (d) its r.m.s.
Problem 6. Calculate the r.m.s. value of a value
sinusoidal current of maximum value 20 A.
2. For the waveforms shown in Figure 14.7
determine for each (i) the frequency, (ii)
For a sine wave, r.m.s. value = 0.707 × maximum value
the average value over half a cycle, (iii) the
= 0.707 ×20 =14.14 A

Figure 14.7
r.m.s. value, (iv) the form factor, (v) the peak
factor.
3. An alternating voltage is triangular in shape,
rising at a constant rate to a maximum of 300 V
in 8 ms and then falling to zero at a constant
rate in 4 ms. The negative half cycle is identical
in shape to the positive half cycle. Calculate
(a) the mean voltage over half a cycle, and
(b) the r.m.s. voltage.
4. Calculate the r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal curve
of maximum value 300 V
5. Find the peak and mean values for a 200 V
mains supply.
6. A sinusoidal voltage has a maximum value of
120 V. Calculate its r.m.s. and average values.
7. A sinusoidal current has a mean value of
15.0 A. Determine its maximum and r.m.s.
values.
Alternating voltages and currents 193
14.5 Electrical safety – insulation
and fuses
Insulation is used to prevent ‘leakage’, and when deter-
mining what type of insulation should be used, the
maximum voltage present must be taken into account.
For this reason, peak values are always considered
when choosing insulation materials.
Fuses are the weak link in a circuit and are used to
break the circuit if excessive current is drawn. Exces-
sive current could lead to a fire. Fuses rely on the
heating effect of the current, and for this reason r.m.s
values must always be used when calculating the
appropriate fuse size.
14.6 The equation of a sinusoidal
Part 2
waveform
In Figure 14.8, OA represents a vector that is free to
rotate anticlockwise about 0 at an angular velocity of
ω rad/s. A rotating vector is known as a phasor.
Figure 14.8
After time t seconds the vector OA has turned through
an angle ωt. If the line BC is constructed perpendicular
to OA as shown, then
BC
sin ωt = i.e. BC = OB sinωt
OB
If all such vertical components are projected on to a
graph of y against angle ωt (in radians), a sine curve
results of maximum value OA. Any quantity which
varies sinusoidally can thus be represented as a phasor.
A sine curve may not always start at 0◦ . To show this
a periodic function is represented by y = sin(ωt ± φ),
where φ is the phase (or angle) difference compared with
y = sin ωt. In Figure 14.9(a), y2 = sin(ωt + φ) starts
φ radians earlier than y1 = sin ωt and is thus said to
lead y1 by φ radians. Phasors y1 and y2 are shown in
Figure 14.9(b) at the time when t = 0
In Figure 14.9(c), y4 = sin(ωt−φ) starts φ radians
later than y3 = sin ωt and is thus said to lag y3 by φ
 194 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Comparing v = 282.8 sin 314t with this general

expression gives the peak voltage as 282.8 V
Hence the r.m.s. voltage=0.707 × maximum value
= 0.707 × 282.8 = 200 V
(b) Angular velocity, ω = 314 rad/s, i.e. 2π f = 314
314
Hence frequency, f = = 50 Hz
2π
(c) When t = 4 ms, v = 282.8 sin(314 × 4 × 10−3 )
= 282.8 sin(1.256) =268.9 V
◦
180
(Note that 1.256 radians = 1.256 ×
π
= 71.96◦
Hence v = 282.8 sin 71.96◦ = 268.9 V)

Problem 10. An alternating voltage is given by

Part 2

v = 75 sin(200πt − 0.25) volts.

Find (a) the amplitude, (b) the peak-to-peak value,
(c) the r.m.s. value, (d) the periodic time, (e) the
frequency and (f ) the phase angle (in degrees and
minutes) relative to 75 sin 200πt.

Figure 14.9 Comparing v = 75 sin(200πt − 0.25) with the general

radians. Phasors y3 and y4 are shown in Figure 14.9(d)
at the time when t = 0.
Given the general sinusoidal voltage, v = V m sin(ωt ± φ),
then
expression v = Vm sin(ωt ± φ) gives:
(a) Amplitude, or peak value = 75 V
(b) Peak-to-peak value =2 × 75 = 150 V
(c) The r.m.s. value = 0.707 × maximum value
= 0.707 ×75 = 53 V

(i) Amplitude or maximum value = Vm (d) Angular velocity, ω = 200π rad/s

2π 2π 1
Hence periodic time, T = = =
(ii) Peak-to-peak value = 2 Vm ω 200π 100
(iii) Angular velocity =ω rad/s = 0.01 s or 10 ms
1 1
(iv) Periodic time, T = 2π/ω seconds (e) Frequency, f = = = 100 Hz
T 0.01
(v) Frequency, f = ω/2π Hz (since ω = 2π f ) (f) Phase angle, φ = 0.25 radians lagging
(vi) φ = angle of lag or lead (compared with 75 sin 200πt
v = Vm sin ωt) 180 ◦
0.25 rads = 0.25 × = 14.32 ◦
π
Hence phase angle= 14.32◦ lagging
Problem 9. An alternating voltage is given by
v = 282.8 sin 314 t volts. Find (a) the r.m.s. voltage,
Problem 11. An alternating voltage, v, has a
(b) the frequency and (c) the instantaneous value of
periodic time of 0.01 s and a peak value of 40 V.
voltage when t = 4 ms.
When time t is zero, v = −20 V. Express the
instantaneous voltage in the form
(a) The general expression for an alternating v = Vm sin(ωt ± φ)
voltage is v = Vm sin(ωt ± φ)
 Alternating voltages and currents 195

Amplitude, Vm = 40 V 8
(c) When t = 8 ms, i = 120 sin 100π + 0.36
2π 103
Periodic time, T = hence angular velocity,
ω
= 120 sin 2.8733 = 31.8 A
2π 2π
ω= = = 200π rad/s
T 0.01 (d) When i = 60 A, 60 = 120 sin(100πt + 0.36)
v = Vm sin(ωt + φ) thus becomes
v = 40 sin(200πt + φ) V 60
thus = sin(100πt + 0.36)
120
When time t = 0, v = −20 V π
so that (100πt + 0.36) = sin−1 0.5 = 30◦ = rads
6
i.e. −20 =40 sin φ
−20 = 0.5236 rads
so that sinφ = = −0.5
40 0.5236 − 0.36
Hence time, t = = 0.521 ms
π 100π
Hence φ = sin−1 (−0.5) = −30◦ = −30 × rads
180
π (e) When the current is a maximum, i = 120 A
= − rads
6 Thus 120 =120 sin(100πt + 0.36)

Part 2
π 1 =sin(100πt + 0.36)
Thus v = 40 sin 200π t − V
6 π
(100πt + 0.36) = sin−1 1 = 90◦ = rads
2
Problem 12. The current in an a.c. circuit at any
time t seconds is given by: = 1.5708 rads
i = 120 sin(100πt + 0.36) amperes. Find: 1.5708 − 0.36
Hence time, t = = 3.85 ms
(a) the peak value, the periodic time, the 100π
frequency and phase angle relative to For a practical laboratory experiment on the use of the
120 sin 100π t CRO to measure voltage, frequency and phase, see the
(b) the value of the current when t = 0 website.
(c) the value of the current when t = 8 ms
(d) the time when the current first reaches 60 A Now try the following Practice Exercise

(e) the time when the current is first a maximum.

Practice Exercise 50 The equation of a
sinusoidal waveform (Answers on page 747)
(a) Peak value = 120 A
1. An alternating voltage is represented by
2π 2π
Periodic time, T = = (since ω = 100π) v = 20 sin 157.1 t volts. Find (a) the maximum
ω 100π value, (b) the frequency, (c) the periodic time.
1 (d) What is the angular velocity of the phasor
= = 0.02 s or 20 ms
50 representing this waveform?
2. Find the peak value, the r.m.s. value, the fre-
1 1
Frequency, f = = = 50 Hz quency, the periodic time and the phase angle
T 0.02 (in degrees and minutes) of the following
◦
180 alternating quantities:
Phase angle = 0.36 rads = 0.36 ×
π (a) v = 90 sin 400πt volts
= 20.63◦ leading (b) i = 50 sin(100πt + 0.30) amperes
(c) e = 200 sin (628.4t − 0.41) volts
(b) When t = 0, i = 120 sin(0 +0.36) = 120 sin 20.63◦ 3. A sinusoidal current has a peak value of
= 49.3 A 30 A and a frequency of 60 Hz. At time t = 0,
 196 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

the current is zero. Express the instantaneous

current i in the form i = Im sin ωt
4. An alternating voltage v has a periodic time of
20 ms and a maximum value of 200 V. When
time t = 0, v = −75 volts. Deduce a sinusoidal
expression for v and sketch one cycle of the
voltage showing important points.
5. The instantaneous value of voltage in an a.c.
circuit at any time t seconds is given by:
v = 100 sin (50πt − 0.523) V
Find:
Figure 14.10
(a) the peak-to-peak voltage, the frequency,
the periodic time and the phase angle
(b) the voltage when t = 0 For example,
Part 2

(c) the voltage when t = 8 ms

(d) the times in the first cycle when the voltage
is 60 V
(e) the times in the first cycle when the voltage
is −40 V
(f) the first time when the voltage is a
maximum.
Sketch the curve for one cycle showing rele-
vant points.
14.7 Combination of waveforms
The resultant of the addition (or subtraction) of two
sinusoidal quantities may be determined either:
(a) by plotting the periodic functions graphically (see
worked Problems 13 and 16), or
(b) by resolution of phasors by drawing or calculation
(see worked Problems 14 and 15).
Problem 13. The instantaneous values of two
alternating currents are given by i 1 = 20 sin ωt
amperes and i 2 = 10 sin(ωt + π/3) amperes. By
plotting i 1 and i 2 on the same axes, using the same
scale, over one cycle, and adding ordinates at
intervals, obtain a sinusoidal expression for i 1 +i 2
π Procedure to draw phasor diagram to represent
i 1 = 20 sin ωt and i 2 = 10 sin ωt + are shown plot-
3 v1 + v2:
ted in Figure 14.10.
Ordinates of i 1 and i 2 are added at, say, 15◦ intervals (a
pair of dividers are useful for this).
at 30◦ , i 1 + i 2 = 10 +10 = 20 A
at 60◦ , i 1 + i 2 = 8.7 + 17.3 =26 A
at 150◦ , i 1 + i 2 = 10 + (−5) = 5 A, and so on.
The resultant waveform for i 1 + i 2 is shown by the bro-
ken line in Figure 14.10. It has the same period, and
hence frequency, as i 1 and i 2 . The amplitude or peak
value is 26.5 A.
The resultant waveform leads the curve i 1 = 20 sin ωt
by 19◦ ,
π
i.e. 19 × rads = 0.332 rads
180
Hence the sinusoidal expression for the resultant i 1 +i 2
is given by:
iR = i1 + i2 = 26.5 sin (ωt + 0.332) A
Problem 14. Two alternating voltages are
represented by v1 = 50 sin ωt volts and
v 2 = 100 sin (ωt − π/6) V. Draw the phasor diagram
and find, by calculation, a sinusoidal expression
to represent v 1 + v 2
Phasors are usually drawn at the instant when time t = 0.
Thus v 1 is drawn horizontally 50 units long and v 2 is
drawn 100 units long, lagging v 1 by π/6 rads, i.e. 30◦ .
This is shown in Figure 14.11(a), where 0 is the point
of rotation of the phasors.
(i) Draw v 1 horizontal 50 units long, i.e. Oa of
Figure 14.11(b)
 Alternating voltages and currents 197

Problem 15. Find a sinusoidal expression for

(i 1 + i 2 ) of worked Problem 13, (a) by drawing
phasors, (b) by calculation.

(a) The relative positions of i 1 and i 2 at time t = 0 are

shown as phasors in Figure 14.12(a). The phasor
diagram in Figure 14.12(b) shows the resultant i R ,
and i R is measured as 26 A and angle φ as 19◦ or
0.33 rads leading i 1
Hence, by drawing, iR = 26 sin(ωt + 0.33) A

Part 2
Figure 14.11

(ii) Join v 2 to the end of v 1 at the appropriate angle,

i.e. ab of Figure 14.11(b)
(iii) The resultant v R = v 1 + v2 is given by the length
Ob and its phase angle φ may be measured with Figure 14.12
respect to v 1
(b) From Figure 14.12(b), by the cosine rule:
Alternatively, when two phasors are being added the
resultant is always the diagonal of the parallelogram, as i 2R = 202 + 102 − 2(20)(10)(cos120◦ )
shown in Figure 14.11(c). from which i R = 26.46 A
From the drawing, by measurement, v R = 145 V and 10 26.46
angle φ = 20◦ lagging v 1 By the sine rule: =
sin φ sin 120◦
A more accurate solution is obtained by calculation,
using the cosine and sine rules. Using the cosine rule on from which φ = 19.10◦ (i.e. 0.333 rads)
triangle Oab of Figure 14.11(b) gives: Hence, by calculation
iR = 26.46 sin(ωt + 0.333) A
v 2R = v 12 + v22 − 2v 1 v 2 cos 150◦
2 2 An alternative method of calculation is to use complex
= 50 + 100 − 2(50)(100) cos150◦
numbers (see Chapter 23).
= 2500 + 10 000 − (−8660) π
Then i 1 + i 2 = 20 sin ωt + 10 sin ωt +
√ 3
v R = (21 160) = 145.5 V π
≡ 20∠0 + 10∠ rad
3
100 145.5
Using the sine rule, = or 20∠0◦ + 10∠60◦
sin φ sin 150◦
100 sin 150◦ = (20 + j 0) + (5 + j 8.66)
from which sin φ = = 0.3436
145.5 = (25 + j 8.66) = 26.46∠19.106◦
and φ = sin−1 0.3436 = 0.35 radians, and lags v 1 or 26.46∠0.333 rad
Hence v R = v 1 + v 2 = 145.5 sin(ωt − 0.35) V ≡ 26.46sin(ωt + 0.333) A
 198 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Problem 16. Two alternating voltages are given

by v 1 = 120 sin ωt volts and v 2 = 200 sin(ωt − π/4)
volts. Obtain sinusoidal expressions for v 1 − v 2
(a) by plotting waveforms, and (b) by resolution of
phasors.

(a) v 1 = 120 sin ωt and v 2 = 200 sin(ωt − π/4) are

shown plotted in Figure 14.13. Care must be taken
when subtracting values of ordinates, especially
when at least one of the ordinates is negative. For
example
at 30◦ , v1 − v 2 = 60 −(−52) =112 V

at 60◦ , v1 − v 2 = 104 −52 =52 V

at 150 ◦, v 1 − v 2 = 60 −193 = −133 V and so on.

Part 2

Figure 14.14

By resolution:
Sum of horizontal components of v 1 and v 2

= 120 cos0◦ + 200 cos135◦ = −21.42

Figure 14.13 Sum of vertical components of v1 and v 2
The resultant waveform, v R = v 1 − v 2 , is shown by
the broken line in Figure 14.13. The maximum = 120 sin 0 ◦ + 200 sin 135 ◦ = 141.4
value of v R is 143 V and the waveform is seen to
lead v1 by 99◦ (i.e. 1.73 radians). From Figure 14.14(c), resultant
√
Hence, by drawing, v R = v 1 −v 2 vR = [(−21.42)2 + (141.4)2] = 143.0,
= 143 sin(ωt + 1.73)volts 141.4
and tan φ = = tan 6.6013, from which
(b) The relative positions of v 1 and v 2 are shown at 21.42
time t = 0 as phasors in Figure 14.14(a). Since the φ = tan−1 6.6013 = 81.39◦ and
resultant of v 1 − v 2 is required, −v2 is drawn in the
φ = 98.61◦ or 1.721 radians
opposite direction to +v 2 and is shown by the bro-
ken line in Figure 14.14(a). The phasor diagram
Hence, by resolution of phasors,
with the resultant is shown in Figure 14.14(b),
where −v 2 is added phasorially to v1 v R = v 1 − v 2 = 143.0sin(ωt + 1.721) volts
 Alternating voltages and currents 199

(By complex number: v R = v 1 − v 2

π (a) the voltage drop across the remainder
= 120∠0 − 200∠ − of the circuit, (b) the supply frequency and
4
(c) the periodic time of the supply.
= (120 + j 0)
7. The voltages across three components in a
−(141.42 − j 141.42) series circuit when connected across an a.c.
= −21.42 + j 141.42 supply are:
π
= 143.0∠98.61◦ v 1 = 30 sin 300πt − volts,
6
or 143.9∠1.721 rad π
v 2 = 40 sin 300πt + volts and
Hence, v R = v 1 − v 2 = 143.0 sin(ωt + 1.721) volts) 4
π
v 3 = 50 sin 300πt + volts.
3
Now try the following Practice Exercise Calculate (a) the supply voltage, in sinusoidal
form, (b) the frequency of the supply, (c) the
Practice Exercise 51 The combination of periodic time and (d) the r.m.s. value of the

Part 2
periodic waveforms (Answers on page 747) supply.

1. The instantaneous values of two alternating

voltages are given by v 1 = 5 sin ωt and
v 2 = 8 sin(ωt − π /6). By plotting v1 and v 2 on 14.8 Rectification
the same axes, using the same scale, over one
cycle, obtain expressions for (a) v 1 + v 2 and The process of obtaining unidirectional currents and
(b) v 1 − v 2 voltages from alternating currents and voltages is called
2. Repeat Problem 1 by calculation. rectification. Automatic switching in circuits is achieved
using diodes (see Chapter 11).
3. Construct a phasor diagram to represent i 1 + i 2
where i 1 = 12 sin ωt and i 2 = 15 sin(ωt + π/3).
By measurement, or by calculation, find a
Half-wave rectification
sinusoidal expression to represent i 1 + i 2 Using a single diode, D, as shown in Figure 14.15,
half-wave rectification is obtained. When P is suffi-
4. Determine, either by plotting graphs and
ciently positive with respect to Q, diode D is switched
adding ordinates at intervals, or by calculation,
on and current i flows. When P is negative with respect
the following periodic functions in the form
to Q, diode D is switched off. Transformer T isolates
v = Vm sin(ωt ± φ):
the equipment from direct connection with the mains
(a) 10 sin ωt + 4 sin(ωt + π /4) supply and enables the mains voltage to be changed.
Thus, an alternating, sinusoidal waveform applied to
(b) 80 sin(ωt + π/3) + 50 sin(ωt − π /6) the transformer primary is rectified into a unidirectional
(c) 100 sinωt − 70 sin(ωt − π/3) waveform. Unfortunately, the output waveform shown
in Figure 14.15 is not constant (i.e. steady), and as such,
5. The voltage drops across two components would be unsuitable as a d.c. power supply for electronic
when connected in series across an a.c. sup-
ply are v1 = 150 sin 314.2t and v 2 = 90 sin
(314.2t − π/5) volts, respectively. Determine
(a) the voltage of the supply, in trigonometric
form, (b) the r.m.s. value of the supply voltage
and (c) the frequency of the supply.
6. If the supply to a circuit is 25 sin 628.3t volts
and the voltage drop across one of the compo-
nents is 18 sin(628.3t − 0.52) volts, calculate
Figure 14.15