FEDERATED FACULTY FOR RESEARCH IN RELIGION AND CULTURE, KOTTAYAM

MAJOR ISSUES IN THE HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA (HC 2)

GROWTH OF INDIGENOUS MOVEMENTS AND THOUGHTS AND EFFECTS

BY: FR. B.M.THOMAS

DATED: 1ST DEC 2015

INTRODUCTION:
The following paper will focus on the growth of Christian indigenous movements and thoughts and its
effects to the Indian society. The first half of the twentieth century witnessed a significant growth in the
Indian church. The awakening of the cultural consciousness of India had led the educated Indian Christian
leaders to search for self-identity among the existing western mission societies. Christianity is till date
attempted to be stamped as „a foreign religion‟ and more specifically „Western‟. It was in such a complex
time as this there arose a number of indigenous missions in order to provide a contextual theology to the
people in India. The rising national consciousness and the struggle for political self-government formed
the background for the emergence of the indigenous mission movements. Indigenous movement played a
vital role in the growth of the Indian church.

MEANING OF INDIGENIZATION:
In the broadest sense, indigenization is a term describing the "translatability” of the universal Christian
faith into the forms and symbols of the particular cultures of the world.1 The term indigenization is also
defined as the characteristics of a particular region or country.2 Missiologists adopted the word and used
it to refer to churches that reflect the cultural distinctive of their ethno-linguistic group. The missionary
effort to establish indigenous churches is an effort to plant churches that fit naturally into their
environment and to avoid planting churches that replicate western patterns.3 According to P. Solomon Raj
an indigenous mission is a movement that is not started by foreign missionaries, but a creation of Indian
Christians. He says, to be really called indigenous and independent a church or mission should be
financially independent of foreign money, completely relying on Indian Leadership, and able to raise all
its cultural, financial and leadership resources in India.4

INDIAN CHRISTIANS AND THEIR IDENTITY

The St. Thomas Christians were the most ancient of indigenous Christian communities of India. They
were to be found as a single, indigenous community with a unique identity and conscious of their own St.
Thomas tradition. They contributed to the development of indigenous people and to the welfare of their
own community. Gradually they were exposed to eastern tradition in the ecclesiastical matters. P.J.
Podipara opines St. Thomas Christian community as Indian in culture, Christian in religion and Oriental
in worship. However, the Portuguese through their political and religious policies, and effects had made a

1
Harvie M. Conn, “Indigenization”, Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions, edited by A. Scott Moreau (Grand Rapids,
Michigan: Baker Books, 2000), 481.
2
http://www.thedictionary.com/indigenous.
3
John Mark terry, “Indigenous Churches”, Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions, edited by A. Scott Moreau (Grand
Rapids, Michigan: Baker Books, 2000), 483.
4
P. Solomon Raj, the New Wine – Skins (New Delhi: ISPCK, 2003), 4-6.
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great impact in the life and the church of the St. Thomas Christians. Consequently, they were subjected to
radical changes in their fortunes.5

EARLY INDIGENOUS MOVEMENTS AMONG INDIAN CHRISTIANS:

Some modem Indian historians have called the Revolt in 1857 as the "First War of Independence". It was
a spontaneous outburst of wild hatred against the foreign conqueror. It marked the beginning of the Indian
nationalism which eventually led to Independence. Among Indian Christians there were several examples
of national stirrings after 1857, which mostly took the form of opposition to the missionaries. The first of
these movements, took place in Tinnevelly6, where a group of Nadar Christians around 1858 broke away
from the Church Missionary Society and formed The Hindu Church of the Lord Jesus.7 In 1887 Banerjea
and Shome formed The Calcutta Christo Samaj. As the name suggests, it was to be Christian parallel to
the Brahmo Samaj and was organized in a similar way. Its purpose was ‘the propagation of Christian
truth and promotion of Christian union‟, and it was the hope of its founders to gather all Indian Christians
within it, thereby eliminating the denominations. Its confession was the Apostolic Creed only, which,
they thought, provided the broadest basis possible. K.C Banerjea always emphasized the importance of
indigenization. At the Bombay Missionary Conference in 1892 he stressed that a truly indigenous
theology could develop if the Indian church was left alone to work it out.8 In 1885, S. Parani Andi
presented his plans to a group of lay people, mostly students and government officials, and after a period
of discussion and consideration, The National Church in Madras was formed on the 12th of September
1886. The inspiration came not only from the Brahmo Samaj, but from the new Liberal theology in
England. Its aim was the same as that of the Calcutta Christo Samaj, i.e., to gather all Indian Christians
into one self-supporting and self-governing church. The Hindu Church of the Lord Jesus in Tinnevelly,
the Christo Samaj in Calcutta and the National Church in Madras were the first attempts in India to create
united, indigenous churches.9 Although they were all short-lived, their influence on the Indian thinking
was great. The purpose behind these movements was not only autonomy in the sense of freedom from the
missionary control, but much more than that: the discovery of cultural identity of the christian community
within the Indian society as a whole.10

INDIGENOUS CHRISTIAN MOVEMENT IN KERALA:

A number of religious revitalization movements occurred during the 19th century in Kerala. An
indigenous Christian revival movement was founded by Justus Joseph, a Brahmin Convert. Converted
through reading the Bible, the family members were baptized in 1861. Ordained to the Anglican (CMS)
ministry in 1869, he became a popular preacher. Thousands were stirred in the revival at Travancore
under his ministry. Joseph however sought a wider scope for dissemination of his views. This led to
conflict with the missionaries. Joseph wanted to work within the church but was suspected of propagatin
heresey: he expected the second coming in 1881. Joseph separated and established the Kanneett Revival
Church in 1875. This was a clearly indigenous structure with duties for members, revised rituals, direct

5
T.I.Varghese, “The Impact of the Arrival of the Portuguese on the Malankara Church,” in Joint International Commission for
Dialogue between the Catholic Church and the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church: Papers and Joint Statements 1989-2000,
edited by Francis Koodapuza and John Panicker (Kottayam: Joint International Commission for Dialogue...,2001), 276-283.
6
The colonial British East India Company named it, present Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu
7
Kaj baggo, Pioneers of Indigenous Christianity (Madras: CISRS & CLS, 1969),1.
8
Ibid., 4-6.
9
Ibid., 8-11.
10
A.M.Mundadan, Indian Christians Search for Identity and Struggle for Autonomy (Bangalore: Dharmaram Publications,
1984), 170.
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revelations, innovative interpretations. All members were expected to obey the church regulations. The
revival church in 1881 became youmayam, completely separate from any Christian denomination; it now
considered itself the fulfilment of Christianity and all religions. After the death of the founder in 1997, the
movement declined under his successors (his son and His brothers), then dwindled to a few persons in a
few locations. This movement was the product of ferment created by the translation and the publication of
the Bible in Malayalam. The founder was always regarded as Christian, his lyrics and hymns found in the
hymnals of the Syrian Church. A century ago his was an example of contextualization.11
Roger lists a Church of Revealed Salvation, or Pratyaksa Raksha Sabha, in the early 1920s among the
outcast in Travancore.12 As the traditional home of Christianity in India it is expected that a number of
independent movements should be found in Kerala.13

STRUCTURAL INDIGENIZATION:
Transition from Mission to Church:
The national council in 1920 passed a resolution that in view of changing conditions at the present time
the council once again urges on all Missions, Boards and churches, the importance of more centring all
their activities in the church rather than in the mission.14 As nationalism grew stronger there were
significant changes in the life of the mission. On the one hand, with the rise of nationalism, the Indian
Christians became more and more aware of their responsibility to become part of an Indian church and on
the other hand the missionaries began to feel more keenly that nationalism directed against the British
political administration would eventually turn against them also.15 The Travancore church council was
held at Trivandrum on 18th November 1933 in which G.E.Phillips the Foreign Secretary of the LMS was
also present. G.E. Phillips stated "The object was to help the Indian Church to become more indigenous,
so that Jesus might find a suitable home in this country. Christ should not be considered as foreigner in
India, and there was always that danger as long as foreigner appeared to be leaders in the Christian
church". Thus, the movements of the Indian Christians for self government in the churches, the transition
from mission to church became a reality in Kerala and a step on the way to the emergence of an Indian
church.16

CULTURAL INDIGENIZATION:
One aspect of indigenization that has received attention since the end of the 19th century was the effort to
discover the cultural identity of the Christian community within the Indian society as a whole. This
expression was found in a gradual introduction of Indian music and Indian lyrics in worship and
indigenous style in church structure, indigenous methods of proclaiming Christ. Some of the prominent
converts who sought to find Indian ways of expressing their Christian devotion were:17

11
Joseph Chakko Kurundamannil, “Yuomayam:A Messianic Movement in Kerala, India”, 1979.
12
Bibliography of new religious movements in Primal Societies, Vol.4, Europe and Asia: np, 99.
13
Roger E Hedlund, Quest for Identity – India’s Churches of Indigenous Origin; the ‘little Tradition‘ in Indian Christianity (Delhi:
ISPCK, 2000), 70.
14
Mundadan, Indian Christians Search for…, 171.
15
J.W.Gladstone, Protestant Christianity and People’s Movements in Kerala (Trivandrum: The Seminary Publications, 1984),
329.
16
Ibid., 336-337.
17
T.V.Philip, “Protestant Christianity in India,” in Christianity in India, edited by H.C.Perumalil (Allepey: Prakash
Publications,1972), 287.
3|Page
VEDANAYAGAM SASTRIYAR (1774 - 1864)
He is the originator of an indigenous Tamil evangelical devotional literature. He was the first major
protestant Christian poet in the Tamil language. He composed more than 500 songs; establishing a new
Tamil Christian lyrical tradition borrowed from Carnatic classical raga and Marathi devotional kirtan
music tradition.18

NARAYAN VAMAN TILAK (1862 - 1919)

He was a Brahmin poet convert in Maharashtra. He saw his cultural heritage as the best preparation for
Christian conversion. He never gave up his cultural birthright. He brought the riches of the Hindu heritage
into the church. He introduced the singing of bhajans and reciting of kirtans in the Christian worship,
borrowed from Hindu bhakti. He became a Christian sanyasi in 1917.

SADHU SUNDER SINGH (1889 - 1929)

He was an Indian Christian Sadhu. He was one of the greatest pioneers of the indigenous movement in
many respects. He passed his Hindu and Sikh background on to the church for an Indian expression of the
Christian faith.

B.C. SIRCAR practiced yoga and set up a Christian shrine at Puri.19

NATIONAL CHURCH OF BENGAL:

Under the leadership of Lal Behari Dey in Bengal started a movement against the exclusive missionary
control of the church. He later brought a proposal for National Church of Bengal comprising all
Christians, Orthodox and Roman Catholics included, the only confession of which should be the
Apostolic Creed, and which should give freedom in matters of ministry and liturgy.20

THE BENGAL CHRISTIAN HERALD:

Some leaders of the radical groups like Kali Charan Banerjee in 1880 started a newspaper, The Bengal
Christian Herald,21 and his co-editor was Joy Govind Shome. Typical view of the paper was the statement
in the very first issue: In having become Christians we have not ceased to be Hindus, we are Hindu
Christians, as thoroughly Hindu as Christian. We have embraced Christianity, but we have not discarded
our nationality. We are as intensely national as any of our brethren of the native press can be. 22

INSTITUTIONAL EXPRESSIONS OF INDIGENIZATION OR THE INDIGENOUS MISSION

AGENCIES:
THE INDIAN MISSIONARY SOCIETY (IMS) was founded on 12 February 1905 by Christians of
Tirunelveli from the Church Missionary Society (CMS). In its formation V.S. Azariah, along with eight
clergy and twenty laymen, played a prominent role. The two-fold objectives of the IMS were:
1) To develop missionary spirit in the native church and
2) To spread the gospel in un-evangelised parts outside Tirunelveli District.

18
Roger E. Hedlund, “India’s Quest for indigenous Christianity: Some Examples from the recent Past,” in Dharma Deepika,
Vol.6(Jan-Jun, 2002), 19.
19
Philip, Protestant Christianity …, 287.
20
Baago, Pioneers of…, 2.
21
Later it was changed and called ‘The Indian Christian Herald’.
22
Baago, Pioneers of…, 3.

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The threefold principle on which the IMS was founded were:

1) Indian Men,
2) Indian Money and
3) Indian Management23
For the proclamation of the gospel various means were used like bajans, street preaching, film shows,
gramophone records and drama at nights.24

NATIONAL MISSIONARY SOCIETY OF INDIA (NMS): V.S. Azariah and seventeen other
representatives from different churches in India met and constituted the NMS.25 It emphasized on Indian
money and Indian church. It strongly affirmed that “the gospel should be expressed and interpreted in
indigenous forms and that in methods of worship, institutions, architecture etc.” In its evangelistic works
NMS used indigenous methods to proclaim the gospel.26

THE CHRISTIAN ASHRAM MOVEMENT seemed to be an institution, which Christians could use to
express their religious ideal in a way, which India would readily appreciate. The ashram way of life and
work, modelled as it was on the Hindu ashrams of ancient and modern times provided an answer to the
Indian Christians who were looking for ways of Christian witness and service in keeping with the
tradition of Indian spirituality.27
eg: Christian Santhi Ashram (CSA).28

NATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL OF INDIA(NMC).29

It came into being in Nagpur in 1914. It was to represent all Protestant missionary agencies in India.
However, in 1923, the name was changed to National Christian Council, to signify that the Indian Church
had an equal part in it with the foreign missions. It works with regard to the equal participation of
representatives of Indian Churches with the representatives of the Missionary Societies in the
consideration of all problems affecting the Christian movement in India. 26 In 1979, the name was again
changed to National Council of Churches in India (NCCI).

FRIENDS MISSIONARY PRAYER BAND:

Mr. P. Samuel started Friends Missionary Prayer Band in 1967. Their main focus was on church planting
and Bible translation. The leadership is completely from India they raised their missionary support from
within India through individual churches and institutions.

THE INDIAN EVANGELICAL MISSION: In 1954, the Evangelical Fellowship of India (EFI) initiated
the Indigenous Indian Evangelical Overseas Mission (IEOM) to send Indian missionaries overseas and to

23
Franklyn J. Blasundaran, “Indian Missionary Society,” in A Dictionary of Asian Christianity, edited by A. Scott Moreau (Grand
Rapids, WBEPC, 2001), 69-70.
24
Stephen Joseph, “The use of Mission Recoerds and Publications for Academic Research,” in Dharma Deepika, Vol.8(Jan-Jun,
2004), 77.
25 st
Daniel Jeyaraj, “The History of Christianity in India: An Overview from the Protestant Perspective,” in Missiology for the 21
Century: South Asian Perspective, edited by Roger E. Hedlund & Paul Joshua Bhakiaraj (Delhi: ISPCK/MIIS, 2004), 206.
26
Stephen Joseph, “The Use of Mission …, 75.
27
Philip, Protestant Christianity …, 288.
28
It is an indigenous movement in Andhra Pradesh. It has an indigenized form of worship. They sing hymnal containing the
compilation of songs from various denominations. They use their own village musical instruments, indigenous tunes and
other cultural practices in their worship.
29
V.S.Azariah, India and the Christian Movement (Madras: CLS, 1936), 71.
5|Page
support them financially. On Jan 15 1965, Theodore William initiated a meeting at Devlali, Maharashtra,
with fellow Indian members of the EFI (Evangelical Fellowship of India) executive committee to revive
missionary interest. Thus, the IEM was formed as an indigenous, interdenominational and evangelical
mission.30 Their main activities involve church planting and literature distribution.31 The IEM is very
particular about training and appointing leaders from within India and raising missionary support and
other financial resources from India.32

CONTEXTUAL INDIGENIZATION
In the 19th century there was an enormous confusion to the Christian gospel as it was seen as the
manipulation of the western formulations. The idea was that the gospel or the message was the translation
of western doctrines into Indian languages. Even the missionaries had a very negative attitude towards the
native people and its culture. As a result this attitude did not create conducive space for positive
encounter or for the development of Indian Christian theology. Concerted efforts were being made by
missionary theologians like J.N. Farquhar, Nicol Manicol and A.G. Hogg towards communicating the
Gospel in the languages of India or using Indian philosophical categories. By the onset of 20th century
more attempts were made to indigenize the theology Indian Christian Theology.33

Contribution to Christian thought by Hindus:

RAJA RAM MOHAN ROY (1773-1833): Raja Ram Mohan Roy was considered a Unitarian and he
regarded "the Trinitarians" as his opponents. It is to the credit of Ram Mohan Roy he raised serious
theological objections and in that process he proposed his own versions of Christianity, on the basis of
rationalist and monistic interpretation of the biblical evidence.34 He emphasized Christ as the moral and
social reformer.35

30
H.L.Richard,”Indian Interpretation of Christ,” A Dictionary of Asian Christianity edited by Scott W Sunquist (Grand Rapids,
WBEPC, 2001), 368.
31
Sam Lazarus, “Directory of Agencies,” in Proclaiming Christ: A Handbook of Indigenous Missions in India, edited by Sam
Lazarus (Madras: CGAI,1992), 134.
32
L. Joshi Jayaprakash, Evaluation of Indigenous Missions of India (Madras: Church Growth Centre, 1987), 45.
33
Sunanda Sumithra, Christian theologians from an Indian Perspective (Bangalore:TBT,2002), 3-4.
34
K.M.George, Christianity in India Through the Centuries (Hyderabad: Authentic Books, 2010), 260.
35
In 1805 Rammohun published Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin (A Gift to Monotheists) - an essay written in Persian with an introduction in
Arabic in which he rationalised the unity of God. Being published in Persian, it antagonised sections of the Muslim community and
for the next decade Rammohun travelled to serve with John Digby of the East India Company as munshi and then as Diwan. His
English and knowledge of England's Baptist Christianity increased tremendously. He also cultivated friendship in a Jain community
to better understand their approach to Hinduism - rejecting priesthood (which for long in Bengal demanded bloody ritual sacrifices)
and God itself, In 1815 after amassing large wealth, enough to leave the Company, Rammohun resettled in Calcutta and started an
Atmiya Sabha - as a philosophical discussion circle to debate monotheistic Hindu Vedantism and like subjects. Rammohun's mother,
however, had not forgiven him and ironically from 1817 a series of lawsuits were filed accusing Rammohun of apostasy with the
object of severing him from the family zamindari. Rammohun countered denouncing his family's practice of sati where widows
were burned on their husband's pyres so that they laid no claim to property via the British courts. 1817 was also the year when
Rammohun was alienated from Hindu zamindars in an incident concerning the Hindu (later Presidency) College involving David
Hare. Hindu public outrage in 1819 also followed Rammohun's triumph in a public debate over idolatry with Subramanya Shastri, a
Tamil Brahmin. The victory, however, also exposed chinks in Rammohun's command over Brahmanical scripture and Vedanta
whose study he had somewhat neglected. The trusted younger brother of Hariharanda, a Brahmin of great intellect Ram Chunder
Vidyabagish was brought in to repair the breech and would be increasingly identified as Rammohun's alter-ego in matters
6|Page
KESHUB CHNADRA SEN (1838- 84): He used the term Sat-chit-ananda for trinity. Keshub had a deep
affection for the faith in which he had grown up, but he constantly sought to relate Christianity and
Hinduism in meaningful manner. He emphasizes the fact that Christ is hidden in Hindu faith. He writes,
Behold Christ comes to us as Asiatic in race, as a Hindu in faith, as a kinsman and a brother, and
he demand your heart's affection. He comes to fulfil and perfect that religion of communion for which
India has been panting.36

KRISHNA MOHUN BANERJEA(1813-1885): He believed that certain elements in the Vedas bore
witness to Jesus Christ. He went so far as to equate Jesus with Prajapati37 of Vedic Hinduism and Indian
Christians as the descendants of the Vedic seers.38

P.C. MAZOOMDAR (1840-1905): In his twenties Mazoomdar had spiritual experience of Christ which
was a turning point in his life. According to him, the Spirit lives in man as the presiding spirit of his mind,
heart and soul; that the Spirit illuminates the Triune nature of God. According to Mazoomdar, Jesus
Christ completes and reconciles all revelation of the Spirit in the religious history of humankind. He feels
that it was the spirit which led him to Christ and sees the working of the spirit in the expansion of
Christianity.39

RAMAKRISHNA PARAMAHANSA (1836-86): He absorbed Christ into a modified advaitic

worldview. Christ is herein portrayed as an enlightened soul (or as an avatars, a manisfestation of God)
who leads others to enlightenment.40

SWAMI VIVEKANANDA (1862 - 1902): He tries to interpret Jesus Christ in terms of the principal of
the Vedanta, and believes that the Jesus of the New Testament can only be properly understood within the
framework of the Vedanta. Christ to Vivekananda is a Vedantin. For Vivekananda, Buddha is the greatest

theological for the rest of Rammohun's life especially in matters of Bengali concern and language. By now it was suspected (but
never established) that Carey and Marshman were behind Rammohun's English works, a charge repeatedly made by the Hindu
zamindars. From time to time Dwarkanath Tagore a young Hindu Zamindar had been attending Sabha meetings and he privately
persuaded Rammohun (financially reduced by lawsuits and in constant danger from Hindu assassins) to disband the Atmiya Sabha in
1819 and instead be political agent for him." From 1819, Rammohun's battery now increasingly turns against Carey and the
Serampore missionaries. With Dwarkanath's munificence he launches a series of attacks against Baptist "Trinitarian" Christianity
and is now considerably assisted in his theological debates by the Unitarian faction of Christianity.
36
George, Christianity in India …, 262.
37
Krishna Mohan Banergea acknowledges a historical continuity between vedic Hinduism and Christianity in India. According to
him, no person can be a true Hindu without being a true Christian. The relation between vedic doctrine and Christianity is indeed so
intimate that according to him "you can scarcely hold the one without being led to the other, much less can you hold the one while
resisting the claims of the other.” Therefore, he makes an earnest appeal to his Hindu friends thus: Do not think what I have said is
my voice only ... , it is the voice of your primitive ancestors calling upon you in the words of their Vedas ... If it were possible for
those hoary Rishis to reappear in the world, they themselves would exhort you, may beseech you, implore you, perhaps also
constrain you not to neglect so great a salvation, not to waver in your duty to acknowledge and embrace the true Prajapati ... The
appeal I am pressing is an appeal from those in whose history, in whose traditions, in whose language you take such just pride ...
Embracing Christ, you will find in Him a strength and comfort which your ancient Rishis would have regarded as a most valuable
treasure had they lived in these days, You will find in him everything worthy of your lineage, worthy of your antiquity, worthy of
your tradition, and at the same time just to your children and to your successors, in life.
38
Hedlund, “India’s Quest for…, 26.
39
George, Christianity in India …, 264.
40
Richard, “Indian Interpretation of Christ”…, 369.
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vedantin the world has ever seen; next to him is the Christ. He tries to interpret the truth of the religion of
the Bible in the light of his faith in the ultimate truth of the Advaitic religion.41

MAHATMA GANDHI (1869- 1948): The message and the person of Jesus have greatly influenced
Gandhi, particularly the Sermon on the Mount which clearly stands out: "The message of Jesus as I
understand it is contained in his Sermon on the Mount. The Spirit of the Sermon on the Mount competes
almost on equal terms with the Bhagavadgita for the domination of my heart. It is that Sermon which has
endeared Jesus to me."42 The historical Jesus was not Gandhi's concern, but rather the ideas he taught
and the principles displayed in his non-violent endeavours for reform.43

DR.S.RADHAKRISHNAN (1888- 1975): In his whole framework of thought, we find a search for truth
in the context of the impact of Christianity on Hinduism. The kingdom of God for Radhakrishnan is
Brahmaloka, the kingdom of the spirit, the transfiguration of the cosmos, his revolutionary change in
men's consciousness, a new relationship among them as assimilation to God.44

CONTRIBUTION TO CHRISTIAN THOUGHT BY WESTERN CHRISTIAN MISSION AND

MISSIONARIES:

ROBERT DE NOBILI (1577-1656): One of the early Christians of the 17th century who experimented
with an Indian Christian theology was Robert de Nobili.45 He adapted the life style of an Indian. He
changed the black Cassock into a Kavi robe. Nobili gave up non-vegetarian meals and switched on to
pure vegetarian meals. He even appointed a Brahmin cook. He lived in a mud-made hut. His leather shoes
were changed into wooden sandals. He was like a Brahmin even in his appearance. This accommodation
had helped him to reach Brahmins with gospel and to win them for Christ. He learnt Tamil and had a
dialogue with Brahmins in Tamil. He produced more than twenty books in Tamil language for which he
is regarded as father of the Tamil Prose. These works were translated into Telugu as well. He also wrote
books in Sanskrit. It is vivid that these efforts were for the evangelization of the India people. Having
seen his efforts, it is lucid that Nobili had lived as an Indian, preached and worked as an Indian and above
all, suffered as an Indian for the Church.46

PIERRE JOHANNS (1882-1955): The concept of Christ through Vedanta was his main contribution to
Indian Christian theology. For him, Vedanta is the best among the natural religions and therefore it would
be the best foundation for the supernatural structure of Christianity. He came to the conclusion that
Hinduism could be an authentic preparation for the gospel.47

TRANQUEBAR MISSION AND ITS INDIGENOUS METHODS: Bartholomew Ziegenbalg (1682

1719), the first protestant missionary arrived in Tranquebar in 1706. He mastered the Tamil language,
translated the New Testament and part of the Old into Tamil — said to be the first Bible translation in any
Indian language. He prepared the ground for an indigenous Tamil Christianity, distinct from the Danish

41
George, Christianity in India …, 266.
42
George, Christianity in India …, 266-67.
43
Richard, “Indian Interpretation of Christ”…, 369.
44
George, Christianity in India …, 268.
45
George, Christianity in India …, 269.
46
P.Peter Raj, “A Robert De Nobili : An Indigenous Foreigner”, in Christianity is Indian: The Emergence of an Indigenous
Community, edited by Roger E. Hedlund (Delhi: ISPCK, 2000), 110.
47
George, Christianity in India …, 273.
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colonial church. From the beginning, Ziegenbalg appears to have grasped the principle of inculturation,
developing an indigenous church with Indian characteristic in architecture, music and costumes.48

SERAMPORE MISSION AND ITS INDIGENOUS METHODS: The first priority of Serampore Trio
was the translation, printing and dissemination of scriptures. Carey himself translated the entire Bible into
Bengali, Sanskrit and Marathi. Serampore mission could print parts of the Bible in 37 Indian languages;
indeed, this was a landmark in the Indian Literary History. Serampore became the centre for the spread of
Bengali studies around the world.49

CONTRIBUTION TO CHRISTIAN THOUGHT BY INDIAN CHRISTIANS:

NEHEMIAH NILAKANTH SASTRI GOREH50 (1825-95): As a Hindu pandit, Goreh moved from
Saivism to Vaishnavism; but as a Christian he found the bhakti cult of Krishna quite inadequate in
providing a path to God. He was fighting against the tendency of Brahmo Samaj under Keshav Chndra
Sen to revive the Bhakti cult of Vaishnavism within its religion of Hindu theism.51

VENGAL CHAKKARAI (1880-1958): From a predominantly orthodox protestant perspective he

presented Jesus as avatara. His brother-in law P.Chenchiah (1886-1959) formed a more radical
Christology, with Christ as the new man introducing new humanity.52

RAIMUNDO PANIKAR (1918) suggested that Christ is the ishvara of classical advaita philosophy but
later moved beyond this viewpoint towards a theology that Christ fulfils Hinduism.53

M.M. THOMAS54 (1918-95): He sees that whole world as being under the hidden kingship of the risen
Christ. He calls for a 'Christ centred Hindu church‟.55

48
Hedlund, “India’s Quest for…, 58-59.
49
Hedlund, “India’s Quest for…, 59-60.
50
Nehemiah Nilkantha Sastri Goreh (1825-1895), a Maharashtrian Brahmin, a scholar in Sanskrit and Hindu thought, was
born in Jhansi, brought up in Banaras, and came to accept Christian faith through his contact with a C.M.S. Missionary
William Smith. He worked as lay missionary to educated Hindus first in Poona and then in Banaras and Cawnpore. It was in
this period he wrote a Christian critique of the Hindu philosophical systems in Hindu in 1860, it was later translated to English
and published in 1862. In 1870 he was ordained a priest of the Church of England, prior to which he spent some time in the
Bishop's College, Calcutta both studying and teaching. He also brought out a number of booklet's controverting the Brahmo
claims, while continuing his work among educated Hindus in many parts of India with the Society of St. John the Evangelist in
Poona, as his base.
51
George, Christianity in India …, 273.
52
H.L.Richard, “Indian Interpretation of Christ: …, 369.
53
Ibid.
54
Dr. Madathilparampil Mammen Thomas, was a renowned Indian Christian theologian, social thinker, activist and former
Governor of the Indian State of Nagaland (from May 1990 to April 1992). He also served as the Chairperson of the Central
Committee of World Council of Churches (1968–1975). He was conferred with the honorary doctorate degree by the
University of Uppsala in 1978. Being born in a Mar Thoma family, he had a Christian upbringing at home and always
maintained the strong Christian convictions and ideals. Soon after obtaining his degree in 1935, he accepted the post of a
teacher at Ashramam High School, Perumbavoor, a school run by the Mar Thoma Church, where the teachers used to pay
part of their meager salary to the students from poor families. In 1937, instead of taking a lucrative job he went
to Trivandrum, the capital of Kerala and started an orphanage there. He was influenced by the Indian Independence and also
by the Marxist Movement.He was the first full-time Organizing secretary of Yuvajana Sakhyam (the Youth wing of the Mar
Thoma Church) from 1945-47.He applied for ordination in the Mar Thoma Church, but that was rejected because of his
membership in Communist party. At the same time he was rejected by the communist party because of his faith. But by self-
education he became a theologian and was later involved in ecumenical movement.
55
George, Christianity in India …, 303.
9|Page
LAL BEHARI DAY (1824-94): He was keen to find "one form" of the church, which is scriptural, and
which could communicate the gospel of salvation relevantly to the Indian people. He was one of the first
persons in India to see denominational divisions of the church. So he put forward to the missions a
memorandum on, „The desirableness and Practicality of organizing a National church of Bengal' on the
basis of the Apostolic Creed.‟56

BRAHMABANDAV UPADYAY (1861-1907): He converted to Christianity, he was greatly influenced

by K. C. Sen who understood Christ as an important incarnation of God but remained as Hindu. The name
Brahmabandhav is the Sanskrit translation of the Greek name Theophilus (friend of God). His deepest
knowledge in Vedanta inspired him to study the relation between Hinduism and Christianity. He
published his thoughts through a magazine called 'Sophia' in 1894. He explained that Christian teachings
can be understood in Hindu way for that he chose the term Sachitananda. He utilized Advaita as a
platform for Christianity. His proposal was to win over Hindu philosophy to the service of Christianity.
Upadhyay is one among the Bengal pioneers of indigenous Christianity in India.57

SADU SUNDER SINGH (1889-1929): Frequently incited as an example of Indian Christian indigenity.
He is one of the greatest pioneers of the indigenous movement in many respects. His conversion, clothing,
theology, preaching and life style as a wandering Sadhu all carry the marks of authentic Indian
spirituality. He left behind no institutional Church bearing as his mark. New Christian movements such as
the Laymen's Evangelical fellowship claim a heritage received from him.

PANDITA RAMA BAI was another Christian convert who belonged to the Brahmin family contributed
much to the development of indigenization. She was able to distinguish the Christian faith from the
Western traditions of the colonizers.58 She founded the Mukti Mission through which she took many steps
to liberate the Indian women.59

PAULOS MAR GREGORIOS (1922-95): Some of his valuable theological contributions include re-
interpretation of western theology critically and introduction of new ways. He tried reconstructing
theology basing on eastern tradition and attempting to bring out the Patristic theology. 60

EFFECTS OF INDIGENIZATION:

1) It led to the development of an Indian Christian theology, Indian Christian form of worship, and even
create an Indian structure for the church.61

2) It was the protest of Indian Christians against western denominationalism that led to the discussion of
church unity.62 The purpose of Christo Samaj was the propagation of Christian truth and the promotion of
Christian union and hoped to gather all Indian Christians within it. There by eliminating
denominationalism.63

56
George, Christianity in India …, 279.
57
Hedlund, “India’s Quest for…, 26.
58
Hedlund, “India’s Quest for…, 36.
59
George, Christianity in India …, 291.
60
George, Christianity in India …, 305.
61
Mundadan, Indian Christians Search for …, 192.
62
Ibid., 174.
63
Ibid., 175.
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3) The growing indigenization lead to the gradual development of Indian music and Indian lyrics
(bhajans) in the church services and also the adoption of an indigenous style in church architecture.64

4) Growth of indigenous missions involving church planting, evangelism, helping the poor, clinics etc

5) Growth of awareness developed among the Indian Christian community of being a national church,
comprising of all denominations and sects.

6) The process of indigenization also helped the oppressed section of the society to experience
emancipation in their socio-cultural conditions. Indigenous movements paved way for Indigenous
theology such as Dalit theology, Tribal theology and Christian teachings were compared with Hindu
Vedas and it made relevance to the context of the people.

7) The Indian indigenous mission agencies such as IMS, NMS and the Lutheran National Missionary
Society (LNMS) made significant contributions to the church union movements. Kaj Baago opines that
the denomination differences seemed not only absurd but also harmful and hence the indigenous mission
agencies emerged to unite the Indian Christian communities through their indigenous methods.

CONCLUSION: The rising national consciousness and the struggle for political freedom formed the
background for the emergence of the indigenous mission movements. The church in India during the first
half of the twentieth century saw significant changes. The Indian Christians influenced by the reform
movements of that time began to resist the western missions and their leadership. The growth of
indigenous movement marked introduction of Indian music and Indian lyrics in worship and indigenous
style in church architecture, and indigenous methods of evangelism. Indigenous movements gave the
Christian faith to identify itself with its own culture, the rich religious traditions and the spirituality
enriched the devotional life.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Azariah, V.S. India and the Christian Movement. Madras: CLS, 1936.
Baggo, Kaj. Pioneers of Indigenous Christianity. Madras: CISRS & CLS, 1969.
Bibliography of new religious movements in Primal Societies, Vol.4, Europe and Asia: np, 99.
Blasundaran, Franklyn J. “Indian Missionary Society,” in A Dictionary of Asian Christianity. edited by A.
Scott Moreau, Grand Rapids, WBEPC, 2001.
Conn, Harvie M. “Indigenization”, Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions. edited by A. Scott
Moreau, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Books, 2000.
George, K.M. Christianity in India Through the Centuries. Hyderabad: Authentic Books, 2010.
Gladstone, J.W. Protestant Christianity and People’s Movements in Kerala. Trivandrum: The Seminary
Publications, 1984.
Hedlund, Roger E. “India‟s Quest for indigenous Christianity: Some Examples from the recent Past,” in
Dharma Deepika. Vol.6, Jan-Jun, 2002.
64
Ibid., 189.
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Hedlund, Roger E. Quest for Identity – India’s Churches of Indigenous Origin; the ‘little Tradition‘ in
Indian Christianity. Delhi: ISPCK, 2000.
Jayaprakash, L. Joshi. Evaluation of Indigenous Missions of India. Madras: Church Growth Centre,
1987.
Jeyaraj, Daniel “The History of Christianity in India: An Overview from the Protestant Perspective,” in
Missiology for the 21st Century: South Asian Perspectiv. edited by Roger E. Hedlund & Paul
Joshua Bhakiaraj, Delhi: ISPCK/MIIS, 2004.
Joseph, Stephen. “The use of Mission Records & Publications for Research,” in Dharma Deepika, Vol.8,
Jan-Jun, 2004.
Kurundamannil, Joseph Chakko. “Yuomayam: A Messianic Movement in Kerala, India”, 1979.
Lazarus, Sam “Directory of Agencies,” in Proclaiming Christ: A Handbook of Indigenous Missions in
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