International Journal of Mineral Processing 96 (2010) 14–26

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International Journal of Mineral Processing

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / i j m i n p r o

Which demands should and can meet a separation model for

hydrocyclone classification?
Heinrich Schubert
TU Bergakademie Freiberg, D-09596 Freiberg, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: For technological design and operation of hydrocyclone classification a separation model should be available,
Received 13 July 2009 which largely comprises the physical phenomena of the process, reflects their effects by appropriate process
Received in revised form 20 April 2010 parameters and can be mathematically formulated as separation function. The most models, which are known so
Accepted 25 April 2010
far, do not meet these requirements in their entirety. In the main they have been empirically formulated and/or
Available online 10 May 2010
do not reflect that the separation effect, caused by the centrifugal field, is superimposed by an intensive mixing
effect caused by the macroturbulence of the hydrocyclone flow. Only the models of turbulent cross-flow
Keywords:
Hydrocyclone classification
classification, which are adjusted to the conditions of hydrocyclone classification in dilute suspensions, come in
Turbulent transport phenomena the form of the tapping model or partition model close to the satisfaction of the demands mentioned above.
Turbulent cross-flow classification After outlines of the characteristics and the transport phenomena of turbulent flows as well as of the
Separation models indispensable simplifications and adjustments to given materials, geometrical and hydrodynamical properties,
Separation function the model derivation is described. In particular the wide range of the rheological properties of the feed
Dilute flow classification suspensions as well as the phenomena of turbulence damping cause restrictions regarding the quantification of
Dense flow classification the model predictions. Further improvements of the model predictions are only attainable by means of empirical
Fishhook effect
adjustment corrections. In order to ensure an adequate reliability of the correction factors, they should be
determined using similar material systems and also similar hydrocyclones. Meanwhile several working teams
have successfully tested the efficiency of such models for dilute flow classification.
The first and so far only known model development for dense flow classification in hydrocyclones starts from the
fact that the operation space must be divided into two subspaces and thus also two subprocesses, namely the
sediment formation in the outer subspace and the formation of the radial concentration profiles of the particle
sizes in the inner suspension subspace. Progress in this field necessitates further research.
The so-called fishhook effect is based on flow forces, which cause an enrichment of finest particles in the zones of
the velocity gradients around settling coarser particles in a certain Re-range, and superimposes the turbulent
cross-flow classification.
© 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2. Characterization of the effects of turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3. On the derivation of the separation model of hydrocyclone classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1. Basic structure of the separation models to be taken into consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2. Indispensable simplifications in model development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3. Adaptation of modelling to given material, geometrical and hydrodynamical conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4. Present state of modelling hydrocyclone classification of dilute slurries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.5. Adaptation of the tapping model to the geometrical and hydrodynamical conditions of dilute flow classification in hydrocyclones . . . . . . . 21
3.6. Modelling dense flow classification in hydrocyclones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4. Origin of the fishhook effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
References
Symbols
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

E-mail address: schuberh@mvtat.tu-freiberg.de.

0301-7516/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.minpro.2010.04.003
 H. Schubert / International Journal of Mineral Processing 96 (2010) 14–26 15

1. Introduction the range 105 to 106). Because of that the separation effect caused by
the centrifugal field of the hydrocyclone flow is superimposed by an
There is no doubt that hydrocyclones belong to the most applied intensive and rapid mixing effect of diffusive character mainly
separation equipments in technology. In this connection the process achieved by the macroturbulence (see also Fig. 1). Therefore, the
results aimed at are the classification of fine and finest solids, the turbulent character has a strong influence on the process phenomena.
solid/liquid separation (cut size dT → 0) or rather the gravity Hinze has written on the role of the turbulence among others (Hinze,
concentration of fine materials. In some industrial fields and beyond 1975): “typical of turbulent flows is the diffusive character of
that, their use is indispensable (mineral processing, chemical transport processes, owing to the randomness of turbulent motions.”
industry, pharmaceutical industry, sewage treatment, recyling and Turbulent fluid motion is an irregular condition of flow in which the
others). Therefore, a separation model should be available for various quantities show random variation with time and space
technological design and operation which largely comprises the coordinates, so that statistically distinct average values can be
physical phenomena of the process, reflects their effects by appro- discerned” (see also Fig. 2). Meanwhile the stochastic character of
priate process parameters and can be mathematically formulated as the transport phenomena in hydrocyclones has also been demon-
separation function (separation curve, grade efficiency curve) con- strated by measurement of particle trajectories (Wang et al., 2008).
taining the essential variables. The most models which are known so
far and dominate the common discussion (see e.g. Chen et al., 2000; 2. Characterization of the effects of turbulence
Coelho and Medronho, 1992, 2001; Flintoff and Plitt, 1987; Heiskanen,
1987; Kraipech et al., 2006; Lynch, 1977; Nageswararao et al., 2004; The strong turbulence effects in hydrocyclones result in corre-
Plitt, 1976; Silva et al., 2009; Svarovsky, 1984) do not meet these spondingy high values of the relative turbulence intensity Tu, which is
demands, namely neither with regard to the reflection of the physical given by (see also e.g. Hinze, 1975; Liepe, 2003):
phenomena nor to a physically based mathematical formulation of the qffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
separation function. 2
Tu = u′ = u ð1Þ
It is typical of classification processes in hydrocyclones that their
separation function shows a shape as qualitatively represented in pffiffiffiffiffiffi
Here u means the mean flow velocity and u′2 the root–mean–
Fig. 1c. This means that with decreasing particle size the curves turn in
square value of the velocity fluctuations u' (see Fig. 2), where
a parallel line to the abscissa and do not reach T = 0, if anomalous  2
shapes are neglected (fishhook effect). For the following discussion u′ results from:
the fishhook effect is disregarded at first. After a widespread
interpretation, the characteristic shape of the T-curves is attributed  ′2 ′2 ′2
′2 1 tm u x + u y + u z
to a by-pass (‘dead flux’, short circuit) of the feed flow which leaves u = ∫0 dt ð2Þ
tm 3
the hydrocyclone more or less unclassified into the underflow. As a
consequence of this interpretation the procedure has come into use to
determine a “reduced” or “corrected” separation function, which u′i component of fluctuation velocity (i = x, y, z)
excludes the by-pass in the graphical and mathematical representa- tm time of averaging (tm ≳ 2Λ/u)
tions. Such a description, however, expresses that the fundamental Λ macroscale of turbulence
process phenomena are not adequately identified and considered.
Obviously the highly turbulent character of the hydrocyclone flow Using a hot-wire technique, the measurement of the relative
is the reason for the shape of the separation function (Re number in intensity in the water flow in a hydrocyclone yielded noteworthy and

Fig. 1. Dilute flow separation in a hydrocyclone (φP ≲ 7.5%): a) radial concentration profiles of narrow particle size classes; b) dilute flow separation; c) shape of the separation curve.
16 H. Schubert / International Journal of Mineral Processing 96 (2010) 14–26

Fig. 2. Velocity fluctuations in turbulent flows: a) decomposition of the velocity vector ut into its time average value u and the fluctuation components ui′; b) variation of the velocity
with time in and normal to the flow direction.

comprehensible results (Averous and Fuentes, 1997). While Tu of the In the case which is mainly important in technology that the
main flow as well its tangential component was 0.08, a much higher gradients of the particle concentrations are only relevant in one
value of 0.3 was measured for the axial component, and for the radial direction (here z-direction) and the fluid velocities in this direction
component even 7. The correspondence of the values of the main flow can be ignored for the process, then one obtains from Eq. (4a):
and its tangential component is understandable, because the velocity of
the latter is in general only a little smaller than that of the main flow. The 2
∂ ni ∂n
very high value of the radial Tu-component must be emphasized. This Dt + vsi i = 0 ð4bÞ
qffiffiffiffiffiffi ∂z2 ∂z
means that the value of u′r2 ; which is relevant to the classification
process, exceeds the mean radial flow velocity by several times.
From this it follows by integration for the particle number
Furthermore, it is characteristic of the turbulence that it consists of
concentration ni related to the concentration ni0 or to the averaged
a superposition of eddies of ever-smaller sizes, i.e. a spectrum of
particle concentration ni̅ :
eddies exists. The primarily generated large and energy-containing
eddies belong to the macroturbulence and decay step-by-step into    
ni v z n vsi H exp½−vsi z = Dt 
smaller ones (microturbulence) until the energy of the smallest = exp − si or i = ð4cÞ
ni0 Dt ni Dt 1−exp½−vsi H = Dt 
laminar flowing eddies dissipates by friction into heat. The dimen-
sions of the large eddies are characterized by the macroscale Λ, which
corresponds to their wavelength. This simplified model makes clear that in stationary flows as a
Analogous to the molecular diffusion coefficient Dmol. and to the consequence of the macroturbulence, particle concentration profiles
kinetic viscosity of gases, which are proportional to the product of the arise which are controlled by the value of the term (vsiH/Dt) in Eq. (4c)
mean free path length and the mean velocity of the molecules, the (Fig. 3). If this value is small enough, then an almost uniform
turbulent transport coefficient (turbulent diffusion coefficient, turbu- distribution of the corresponding particles sizes results over the
lent viscosity) is given by: height H, i.e. they remain more or less homogeneously suspended.
This supplies the explanation of the shape of the separation curves in
qffiffiffiffiffiffi the fine size range of the hydrocyclone classification (see Fig. 1). As
u′ ∝ u0 l0 :
2
Dt ≈ AΛ ð3Þ already mentioned, the turbulence damping and because of that also
the reduction of the turbulent diffusion coefficient Dt as well as of the
u0 and l0 are the characteristic velocity and length of the respectively energy dissipation rate ε are small at low volume percents of solids
considered process (e.g. velocity of the main flow, peripheral stirrer (about φs ≲ 7.5%) and high dispersion of the particles (Bischofberger,
velocity and others; pipe, nozzle or stirrer diameter and others). In 1986; Hinze, 1975; Neeße et al., 1977, 1979; Weiß, 1988; Weiß and
flows of free turbulence, it is valid if A ≈ 0.4 to 0.6 (Liepe, 2003; Schubert, 1988). If the finest particles are not adequately dispersed,
Schubert, Heidenreich, Liepe, et al., 1990). then a distinct turbulence damping already occurs at low volume
In turbulent liquid two-phase flows, the eddies of the macro- percent of solids.
turbulence control the turbulent transport phenomena of the particles
analogously to the transport phenomena in one-phase flows. If the
particles are very small in comparison with the macroscale and,
furthermore, their concentration is low enough so that their
counteraction on the flow turbulence can be neglected, then the
turbulent diffusion coefficients ascertained for the one-phase flow can
also be applied to the turbulent particle transport (Hinze, 1975). Such
conditions are only approximately given in hydrocyclone classifica-
tion of dilute suspensions showing no flocculation phenomena.
Provided that a force field must be taken into consideration only in
one direction (here z-direction), and if ni is the number concentration
of the i-th particles size class and vsi their terminal settling velocity,
then the balance equation of the particles in stationary flows (∂n/
∂t = 0) is given by (Liepe, 2003; Schubert et al., 1990):

!
∂ni ∂n ∂n ∂2 ni ∂2 ni ∂2 ni ∂n
ux + uy i + uz i −Dt + + −vsi i = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 ∂z
Fig. 3. Vertical profiles of the particle concentrations for ρP N ρF in a homogeneous
ð4aÞ turbulence field at Dt = const. (H — height of the suspension layer).
 H. Schubert / International Journal of Mineral Processing 96 (2010) 14–26 17

3. On the derivation of the separation model of

hydrocyclone classification

Because the object of a classification process is the separation of a

particle collective into size fractions, it follows that the model must
reflect its statistical character. This demand fulfils a separation
function which meets the requirements mentioned in the introduc-
tion. As in every particle separation process, it must be achieved by
means of an action mode that the product fractions to be separated
must carry out motions in different directions within the operation
space, so that they can be discharged separately. This requires
accordingly directed motions under the action of a force field (here
centrifugal field), which can be superimposed, however, by diffusive
motions (here caused by the flow turbulence). Consequently, the
model must include the respectively directed and diffusive transport
phenomena.

3.1. Basic structure of the separation models to be taken into consideration

In hydro-classification three characteristic action modes can be

differentiated. They are represented in Fig. 4 for the case that the
gravity field is the effective force field (Schubert, 1989, 2003b).
Moreover, in case of turbulent cross-flow separation the suspension
tapping model and the suspension partition model must be distin-
guished (Fig. 5). In some classification equipments one can come close
to the realization of the tapping model. Here, the concentration profile
of the suspension flow is tapped at the bottom and the top, so that a
coarse particle product containing the concentrations ni0 as well as a
fine particle product containing the concentrations niH can be
separately discharged (see also Eq. (4c)). In this way relatively sharp
separations are possible despite the turbulence (Schubert, 1989,
2003b; Schubert et al., 1986). Thus the separation function is given
according to Fig. 5 by:
ni0 V̇ 1 1
Ti = = :
ni0 V̇ 1 + niH V̇ 2 niH V̇ 2
1+
ni0 V̇ 1
In this equation V̇ 2 = V̇ 1 can be substituted by:
Fig. 5. Separation models of turbulent cross-flow hydro-classification (Schubert, 1989,
2003b; Schubert et al., 1986): a) suspension tapping model; b) suspension partition
model; V̇, V̇1, V̇2 volume flow rate of feed, coarse and fine product suspension,
respectively; F force field.
where RS1 is the suspension volume recovery in the coarse product,
and niH/ni0 is given by Eq. (4c). In this way one obtains the separation
function T(d) of the tapping model according to Eq. (A1) in Table 1.
Here, the term
vs ðdÞH
≡ ClðdÞ ð7Þ
Dt
ð5Þ
vs(d) terminal settling rate of particle size d can be called as
classification number Cl(d) of the particle size d in cross-flow
separation. The classification number of the cut size dT can be used
as scale-up criterion:

V̇ 2 1 vsT H
= −1; ð6Þ ClðdT Þ = : ð8Þ
V̇ 1 RS1 Dt

Because T = 0.5 is valid for the cut size, it follows from Eq. (A1) in
Table 1:

 
Dt 1
vsT = ln −1 : ð9Þ
H RS1

In case of the partition model, the concentration profile ni(z) of the

suspension flow is separated by a cut in the height H1. Therefore, it
results from Fig. 5 for the separation function:

V̇ 1 ni1 n
Ti = = RS1 i1 : ð10Þ
V̇ niA niA

Considering the interval limits (Fig. 5), the mean concentrations

Fig. 4. Action modes of hydro-classification (Schubert, 1989, 2003b; Schubert et al.,
1986): a) laminar cross-flow classification; b) turbulent cross-flow classification
(suspension tapping); c) counter-flow classification. A feed; F force field; K1 coarse
product; K2 fine product; Fl fluid.
̅ in the feed suspension and in the coarse product n il̅ can be
niA
calculated by means of the concentration profiles according to
Eq. (4c). From that one obtains the separation function T(d) according
to Eq. (A2) in Table 1. For the cut size an approximate solution can be
developed according to Eq. (B2) in Table 1 (Schubert et al., 1986).
18 H. Schubert / International Journal of Mineral Processing 96 (2010) 14–26

Table 1
Comparison of the models of turbulent cross-flow classification regarding the separation function T(d), the cut size dT, the reduced separation function T(d/dT) and the sharpness
of separation T′(d/dT = 1) (Schubert, 1989, 2003a; Schubert et al., 1986).

 a1
C in Eqs. (B2), (C2) and (D2) is a function of RS1: C = a0 1
2RS1 −1 , wherein a0 = 2.113 and a1 = 0.85.

Tapping and partition models can be compared for equal Cl and adequately wide particle size range around dT can be determined
RS1. The ratio of their cut sizes follows with Eqs. (B1) and (B2) in using the proportionality:
Table 1:
α
 a vs ∝ d ð12Þ
1
a0 1 −1
dT;part: 2R where the exponent α can take values between 0.5 (Newton) and 2
=  S1  ð11Þ
dT;tap: (Stokes). One obtains the reduced separation functions T(d/dT) accord-
ln 1 −1 ing to Eq. (C1) for the tapping model and Eq. (C2) for the partition model
RS1
in Table 1. The first derivation T' (i.e. the slope) of the reduced separation
with a0 = 2.113; a1 = 0.856. curve at d/dT = 1 provides an appropriate measure of the sharpness of
This ratio is represented in Fig. 6. Under the prerequisites given, separation (Schubert et al., 1986). The respective relationships for both
one can clearly identify that the tapping model yields lower cut sizes. models are represented by the Eqs. (D1) and (D2) in Table 1. It is clearly
In order to carry out a comparison between the sharpnesses of to be seen that, above all, the suspension volume recovery of the coarse
separation, it is effective to use the reduced separation function T(d/ product RS1 controls the sharpness of separation so that values as
dT). For that it is assumed that the terminal settling rate vs of an small as possible should be aimed at. In Fig. 6 the sharpnesses of
separation T′(d/dT = 1) = f(RS1) of both models are shown.
The conclusion can be drawn that in turbulent cross-flow
classification the realization of the tapping model should be aimed
at. For example it can be realized in mechanical classifiers (rake and
spiral classifiers) with high approximation (Neeße, 1978; Neeße and
Schubert, 1975 ; Schubert and Neeße, 1974).
Now the question arises, which separation model can best reflect the
real process in hydrocyclones? It can be assumed that despite the very
short retention times of the particles in the operation space (fractions of
a second to few seconds (Wang et al., 2008), the radial concentration
profiles of the particle sizes according to Eq. (4c) can approximately
form at least in dilute flow separations and continuously regenerate
(Neeße, 1978; Neeße and Schubert, 1975; Neeße et al., 1984b; Schubert,
1989, 2003a; Schubert and Neeße, 1974; Schubert et al., 1986) (Fig. 1a).
Furthermore, from the schematic representation in Fig. 1b one can
conclude that it really concerns a cross-flow separation because the
centrifugal field is effective at right angles to the flow through the
hydrocyclone. If one finally takes into account the existence of the outer
helical downstream and the inner helical upstream, then it would be
obvious to accept the realization of the partition model. But for a lot of
Fig. 6. Comparison of the cut sizes dT and the sharpness of separation T′(d/dT) of the
dilute flow classifications in hydrocyclones it has been found out that
tapping and the partition model at Cl(dT) = const. (Stokes range, α = 2) (Schubert, combinations of the tapping and the partition model would be more
1989, 2003b; Schubert et al., 1986). likely to reproduce the real conditions, or even that a realization by the
 H. Schubert / International Journal of Mineral Processing 96 (2010) 14–26
tapping model is dominant (see e.g. Schubert et al., 1986; Neeße et al.,
1984b). In the latter case the high axial velocities in the vicinity of the air
core (see e.g. Averous and Fuentes, 1997; Concha, 2007; Delgadillo and
Rajamani, 2005a, 2005b) as well as the rapid sedimentation of the
coarser particles into the peripheral flow (Fig. 1a) probably achieve that
a strong tapping mechanism superimposes the suspension partition.
3.2. Indispensable simplifications in model development
Analysing the international state of process modelling in hydro-
classification, it must be realized that the models partly contain far-
reaching but unavoidable simplifications, at which nothing important
can be changed in the foreseeable future. This is already valid for the
motion of irregular particles in a fluid. Their motions consist of
translation and rotation components, for whose description no
general theory is available. If at all, then one makes an attempt to
describe these facts approximately by a size parameter (e.g. diameter
of the sphere having equal volume) in combination with a shape
parameter (Schubert, 1989, 2003b).
Further problems follow from the fact that in separation processes
single particles do not move but particle swarms (hindered settling),
whose solid concentrations are usually even local dependent. Models
for the prediction of the hindered settling velocities are available up to
now, above all, for monodisperse particle collectives, which must be
moreover completely dispersed. From that a very limited applicability
arises. The few models which have become known for polydisperse
particle collectives are neither validated by experimental data nor
usable for the integration into a separation model because of their
complexity (Majumder, 2007; Schubert, 2003b). Furthermore, in
particular for the finest particles in the micron range the attractive
(flocculating) and/or repulsive (dispersing) interactions between the
particles must be taken into account. They influence the particle
motion by means of the rheological properties of the suspension
(viscosity or apparent viscosity, yield point).
In modelling separations in centrifugal fields, one normally
disregards the local dependence of the field force and in this context
the particle accelerations by using the mean field forces.
Also the quantitative description of the turbulent diffusion causes
considerable problems because of the damping effects (see e.g.
Bischofberger, 1986; Neeße et al., 1977, 1979; Weiß, 1988; Weiß and
Schubert, 1988). In case of dilute suspensions having low and
dispersed solids percentages, the turbulent diffusion coefficient
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
Fig. 7. Local RMS-value u′2 as function of solids volume fraction φs of aqueous
suspension in an agitation tank of 54 L with double-finger impeller; measuring position
level of impeller disk at distance of 60 mm from the impeller (Weiß, 1988; Weiß and
Schubert, 1988); solids: glass spheres 100–200 μm; Suprasil: 31.5% b 1 μm, 38.4% 1–
4 μm; kaolin: 28% b 1 μm, 30% 1–4 μm.
19
Table 2
Radii of smallest turbulent and laminar eddies in dependence on the energy dissipation
rate  (Liepe, 2003).
Energy dissipation Radii of
rate, ε (W/kg)
Smallest turbulent eddies Smallest laminar eddies
(10–15) lD (μm) (4–6) lD (μm)
a) In water, νF = 10− 6 m²/s
1 320–470 130–150
5 210–320 80–120
50 120–180 50–70
b) In an aqueous suspension, νF = 10− 5 m²/s
1 1780–2670 710–1070
5 1190–1780 480–710
50 670–1000 270–400
approximately corresponds to that of the pure liquid. The turbulence
damping increases with growing solids fractions, and this effect is the
more distinct the higher the proportion of the finest particles and the
stronger the attracting interactions between these particles. Investi-
gations about these phenomena are available from suspensions in
agitation tanks. Their findings can be transferred to other systems. As
an example, Fig. 7 demonstrates the influence of the volume fraction
φs of pdifferent fine solids on a respective local root–mean–square
ffiffiffiffiffiffi
value u′2 of the turbulent velocity fluctuations in the rotor stream of
an agitation tank. The finer the solid material, the sharper is the
decrease of the RMS-value, i.e. the stronger is the turbulence damping.
In case of the glass spheres 100–200 μm, the size of which is in the
order of the smallest eddies (see Table 2), the turbulence damping in
the liquid phase can be explained by the additional energy dissipation
caused by the relative motions between the particles and their
surrounding liquid elements. However, this two-phase model cannot
explain the experimental results obtained with kaolin and Suprasil,
because their particles are much smaller than the smallest eddies so
that they follow the fluid velocity fluctuations almost non-slippingly.
In this case one has to interpret these suspensions as continua, whose
rheological properties are changed by the presence of the finest
particles. From that the conclusion can be drawn at least qualitatively
that the increased apparent viscosities of these suspensions result in
faster decreases of the turbulence in a time interval or along the
distance covered in this time, respectively. In this context the
interaction forces between the finest particles of the suspension, i.e.
their state of coagulation or dispersion, play an important role for the
turbulence damping. The results represented in Fig. 8 confirm this
idea on the basis of a comparison of suspensions without and with
addition of a dispersant. A relevant reduction of the turbulence
damping can be achieved with dispersants in the case of kaolin and
Suprasil, whereas for a suspension containing the glass spheres
understandably no significant influence can be observed, because the
interaction forces between these larger particles play a minor role for
the rheological behaviour. According to Eq. (3),pffiffiffiffiffiffi the turbulence
damping and thus the decrease of the RMS-value u′2 result also in
a reduction of the turbulent diffusion coefficient Dt. Compared with
this, no significant change of the macroscale of turbulence could be
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
Fig. 8. Influence of dispersants on the local RMS-value u′2 of different suspensions
(Weiß, 1988; Weiß and Schubert, 1988): W water; G glass spheres; K kaolin; S
Suprasile; S + D Suprasil + 0.015 g/g quebracho; K + D kaolin + 0.003 g/g tetra sodium
pyrophosphate (TSPP); G + D glass spheres + 0.003 g/g TSPP; φP = 0.1 in all suspen-
sions; other conditions as for Fig. 7.
20 H. Schubert / International Journal of Mineral Processing 96 (2010) 14–26
ascertained by means of appropriate investigations (Bischofberger,
1986; Neeße et al., 1979; Weiß, 1989).
In addition it must be emphasized in this connection that also in
hydrocyclone flows the interactions between the particles influence the
flow properties (viscosity) of the suspension and thus the settling velocity
of the particles in the centrifugal field on the one hand, and further the
turbulence damping and in that way the mixing effect on the other hand.
From that a very complicated situation arises for model predictions.
The mentioned examples, which could be broadened, make clear the
difficult prerequisites that are given for the physically based process
modelling in hydrocyclone classification. The described complex effects
as well as the stochastic character of the turbulence phenomena, which
the particles are subjected and can be analytically only described by
approximate formulas (if there is any chance at all), exclude a roughly
correct calculation of particle trajectories. Therefore, this situation
necessitates a statistical procedure for the description of the separation
process, for which the developing concentration profiles of the particle
sizes in the operation space are applied. Not least this way is also claimed
by the transport phenomena caused by the macroturbulence. From these
points of view and by utilization of indispensably essential simplifica-
tions, process modelling should aim at the integration as well as the at
least qualitatively correct reproduction of the decisive process para-
meters and their relations which are relevant for design of the
equipment, operation and optimization of the process. In general,
quantitative model predictions will necessitate additional adjustments.
At present and in a foreseeable future these are only available empirically
(experimentally). Therefore, it is an illusion to expect more from the
developed models. In order to ensure a sufficient reliability of the model
predictions, it should be aimed at that the adjustments are carried out
with material systems having an adequate similarity with regard to their
composition and properties (solids volume fraction, particle size
distribution, solution concentrations, pH etc.) on the one hand, and
related hydrocyclone designs (cylindrical–conical shape, inlet shape,
cone angle etc.) on the other hand.
3.3. Adaptation of modelling to given material, geometrical and
hydrodynamical conditions
Starting from the variety of materials which are met in applications of
hydrocyclone classification, it has been realized already some decades ago
and underlined by newer tests that a subdivision of modelling regarding
solids percentage in the feed suspension is indispensable (see e.g. Neeße
et al., 1984b, 1985, 1986, 1991a; Schubert, 1989, 2003b). In this con-
Fig. 9. Hydrocyclone operation modes concerning the coarse product discharge (Neesse et al., 2004a): a) dense flow classification with rope discharge; b) transition between dilute
flow and dense flow classification; c) dilute flow classification with spray discharge.
Fig. 10. Dense flow classification in hydrocyclone.
nection one simplifying speaks of dilute flow and dense flow classification.
However, it must be taken into account that the boundary between these
two does not only depend on the solids fraction in the feed. In addition the
particle size distribution, the particle interactions (attractive or repulsive)
and the ratio of the suspension volume flow rates V1̇ /V2̇ also influence the
position of the boundary. From this situation consequences arise for the
separation conditions, which not only concern the settling velocity of the
particles in the centrifugal field but also the intensity of the turbulence
phenomena (turbulence damping; see Section 3.2).
In dilute flow hydrocyclone classification, it is to be supposed that
the particles are in suspension state over the total operation space.
Consequently, the concentration profiles of the particle sizes can form
according to Eq. (4c) from the hydrocyclone wall up to the air core
(Fig. 1). Furthermore, these conditions are characterized by the fact that
the air core exists over the total length of the process space, and the
coarse product suspension leaves the cyclone by spray discharge, i.e. the
leaving outer helical flow has an adequate kinetic energy yet (Fig. 9c).
In dense flow classification, a sediment layer forms on the
hydrocyclone wall, and the lower conical part of the cyclone volume
is even fully filled with sediment, which flows to the underflow
discharge (Figs. 9a and 10). Consequently, the operation space must be
subdivided into two subspaces whose process phenomena funda-
mentally differ. The suspension state is only existent in the inner
subspace, and the radial concentration profiles according to Eq. (4c)
can form there under the effects of sedimentation flux and turbulent
diffusion flux. In the sediment subspace, the kinetic energy of the outer
helical flow is largely consumed so that the air core can no more form
up to the underflow discharge. The coarse product leaves the
hydrocyclone in the shape of a rope (Fig. 9a). But it is to be supposed
that the sediment is at least partly still in a dynamic exchange with the
 H. Schubert / International Journal of Mineral Processing 96 (2010) 14–26
suspension in the inner subspace. Therefore, the rheological properties
of the feed suspension as well as of the sediment have strong
influences on the process phenomena. They depend on the volume
fraction and the particle size distribution of the solids as well as the
interactions between the particles. Consequently, among others it can
be supposed that by means of a high dispersion state in the suspension
(strong repulsive forces between the particles) the dilute flow
classification can be carried out with higher solids fractions than at
lower repulsive or even attractive particle interactions.
The transition between dilute flow and dense flow classifications and
with that between spray and rope discharges is characterized by
instabilities and thus by continuous fluctuations between both
discharge types (Dueck et al., 2003; Neesse et al., 2004b, 2004c). But it
has turned out that, in general, the optimum separation conditions
(sharpness of separation) are given at this transition, because the
sediment formation is largely restrained there, and an optimum ratio of
the volume flow rates V̇ 1/V̇ 2 can be achieved (Neesse et al., 2007).
As far as an assessment of the rheological properties of the feed
suspension is concerned, so these have only been considered up to now
in research and modelling – if at all – by the viscosity of the suspensions
or their yield point, respectively (see e.g. Cilliers et al., 2004; Honacker et
al., 2007; Horsley et al., 1992; Kawatra et al., 1996). In fine particle
classification, it predominantly concerns non-Newtonian fluids. If
necessary, their yield point could be reduced by addition of a suitable
dispersant as far as possible or even removed (Horsley et al., 1992).
Moreover, it must be supplemented that in connection with the
rheological properties of the suspensions the phenomena of turbulence
damping have been largely ignored in modelling and application.
3.4. Present state of modelling hydrocyclone classification of dilute slurries
Looking at the present state of modelling hydrocyclone classification,
then some empirical models have been available for years (e.g. Chen
et al., 2000; Coelho and Medronho, 1992, 2001; Flintoff and Plitt, 1987;
Heiskanen, 1987; Kraipech et al., 2006; Lynch, 1977; Nageswararao
et al., 2004; Plitt, 1976; Silva et al., 2009; Svarovsky, 1984). They can be
used for an assessment of the separation effectiveness as well as for the
selection of optimum parameters. However, none of these models takes
into account the intensive turbulence of the flow and thus the mixing
effect caused by it. Consequently, their general validity is restricted.
In the last years a considerable number of publications have aimed at
the achievement of essential progress in the description of the complex
flow structures of cyclones (hydro- and aerocyclones) by application of
the so-called Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). In this context, the
inclusion of turbulence terms plays an important role (e.g. Brennan et al.,
2007; Cullivan et al., 2004; Concha, 2007; Delgadillo and Rajamani, 2005a,
2005b); Dwivedi and Sinha, 2008; Nowakowski et al., 2004; Pericleous
and Rhodes, 1986; Wang and Yu, 2006). In several publications it has been
tried to calculate the trajectories which single particles cover from the
feed inlet up to the discharges under the effect of the existing forces (e.g.
Brennan et al., 2007; Delgadillo et al., 2005a, 2005b); Wang and Yu, 2006).
By statistical evaluation of a large number of trajectories, the graphical
curve trace of the separation function has been determined and compared
with experimental results. Quite often the reader of such publications has
the problem to re-examine these simulations, because this obviously
requires the knowledge of undisclosed parameter adaptations. But above
all, it is disadvantageous that the efforts for this procedure are very high
on the one hand, and that no physically based, mathematically formulated
separation function, as mentioned above, can be obtained on the other
hand. Therefore, according to the author's opinion, high efforts are faced
with relatively few findings which can be utilized in technology. The
essential reason for this situation may be the fact that in modelling
hydrocyclone classification it is not practical to fall back on the motion of
single particles in the operation space, i.e. “not to see the wood for the
trees”. Compared with this, the stationary concentration profiles of the
particle sizes in the operation space should form the basis for process
21
modelling, and in this way the methods of statistical mechanics.
“Stationary” is here meant in the sense of stationary turbulent flows. By
integration of a discharge model (see above) the mathematical separation
function can be obtained.
The first approach to apply the radial profiles of the particle sizes
for modelling was suggested by Neesse (see also Fig. 1) (Neeße,
1968). In this case suspension partition was supposed for the product
discharges. Shortly after, the tapping model of hydrocyclone classi-
fication was developed in cooperation with the author of this
contribution. Their first international presentation happened on the
11. International Mineral Processing Congress, London 1973 (Schu-
bert and Neeße, 1974). In the following years a larger number of
common publications have come out, partly assisted by co-workers
(see e.g. Neeße and Schubert, 1975–1977; Neeße et al., 1984a, 1984b,
1985, 1986, 1991a). But soon also other colleagues realized the
efficiency of the new modelling strategy and achieved further
adaptations to respectively given conditions (see e.g. Bragin, 1981;
Hilligardt and Werther, 1987; Pilov, 1976, 1981). Although further
improvements of the model adjustments are to be seen, investigations
in this field have been missed in the last time.
An approach to apply the particle distribution state calculated with
CFD simulations as basis for modelling has been recently published by
Neeße and Dück (2007a, 2007b). But also on this way it is not possible
to derive a mathematical separation function, so that only a graphical
function can be obtained.
3.5. Adaptation of the tapping model to the geometrical and hydrodynamical
conditions of dilute flow classification in hydrocyclones
As explained above, the conditions of dilute flow classification exist, if
the particles are in suspension state over the total operation space and the
coarse product leaves the hydrocyclone by spray discharge. In general,
this is the case if the following requirements are met: solids volume
percentage in the feed suspension φs ≲5 to 10%; median value of the
particle size distribution d50;3 ≲20 μm; range of the cut sizes dT ≲ 20 μm in
hydrocyclones having diameters Dc ≲50 to 80 mm; adequate dispersion
of the suspension (Neeße, 1986; Neeße et al., 1984b, 1985).
Eq. (A1) in Table 1 is the basis for adaptation, i.e.:
1
TðdÞ = h i ð13Þ
V̇
1 + 2 exp − vs ðDdÞH :
V̇ 1 t
It illustrates that the following process parameters mainly
determine the curve trace of the separation function (see also Fig. 1):
• ratio of the suspension volume flow rates V̇ 1/V̇ 2;
• hindered settling velocities of the particles in the centrifugal field of
the operation space, which are simplistically replaced for each
particle size by the mean value of the terminal settling rate in the
centrifugal field of the hydocyclone flow;
• radial settling ways of the particles, which are described by a
characteristic mean value H ̅r for which is valid H ̅r ∝ Dc;
• turbulent diffusion coefficients of the particles, which can also only
be described by a mean value D ̅t over the process space.
In accordance with practical separation results, Eq. (13) correctly
reflects the curve trace for d → 0, as the curve turns in a parallel line to
the abscissa and meets the ordinate at T(d) → V̇ 1/(V̇ 1 + V̇ 2) = V̇ 1/V̇
(Fig. 1). As already discussed in Section 3.3, in dilute flow classification
optimum separation conditions exist at the transition between spray
and rope discharge, because the optimum small ratio of the volume
flow rates V̇ 1/V̇ 2 can be achieved there.
On the assumption that typical dilute flow conditions can be
mainly realized with fine particle materials, whose settling rates can
be described with the STOKES formula (Re b 0,5 bzw. Ar b 9), it can be
22 H. Schubert / International Journal of Mineral Processing 96 (2010) 14–26

written considering hindered settling and neglecting the influence of the following type have proved to be suitable (Plitt, 1976; Povarov,
non-spherical particle shapes: 1978):
m
4;65 ðρP −ρF Þd2 az V̇ 1 = V̇ 2 ≅ CðDa =Do Þ ð18Þ
vsφ = kφ vs = ð1−φP Þ : ð14Þ
18η
m exponent, above all between 3 and 4,
Here, the model by Richardson and Zaki has been used for the C constant (in the magnitude of 1).
formulation of the hindered settling factor kφ. So one obtains the
particle size which belongs to a value of the separation function T(d) Therefore, considering Eq. (18) it results from Eq. (17):
after conversion of Eq. (13): sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
m
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi η Dc lnðDo =Da Þ
u " #ffi dT = K pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi : ð19Þ
u 1 18η D T ð d Þ V̇ ð1−φP Þ ðρP −ρF Þ pi = ρS
4;65
d=t t
ln 2
ð15Þ
ð1−φP Þ4;65 ðρP −ρF Þaz H r 1−TðdÞ V̇ 1
The constant K contains all numerical values which directly appear
and because of T(dT) = 0.5 for the cut size dT: within the scope of model development, but also those which result
from the knowledge of substituted proportionalities. For the latter,
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
however, further research is required. Because of this situation as well as
1 18η Dt V̇
dT = ln 2 : ð16Þ the problems discussed in Section 3.2 and above, the constant K must
ð1−φP Þ4;65 ðρP −ρF Þaz H r V̇ 1
also contain adjustments to the respective conditions, which are only
obtainable in an empirical way. By means of an evaluation of a large
Analysing the last form of the model equation for a given solid number of experimental results, it turned out that in dilute flow
material as well as V̇ 2/V̇ 1 = const. and φP = const., then for example a classification the constant K takes values between about 0.10 and 0.15
refinement of the solids would effect an increase of the suspension (Neeße, 1986). As an example, for a 40 mm-hydrocyclone, type FIA
viscosity η and thus also of the cut size dT on the one hand; and the Freiberg, K was determined with m = 4 as 0.12 (Neeße et al., 1984b,
increase of turbulence damping (i.e. decrease of the turbulent diffusion 1985, 1986). As hydrocyclones can widely vary with regard to the shape
coefficient D t̅ ) would result in a reduction of dT on the other hand. In of the operation space (cylindrical–conical design, inlet shape, cone
addition, a further increase of dT would be effected by a decrease of the angle etc.), additional adaptations to the hydrocyclone type must be
mean centrifugal acceleration a̅z. If eventually also the solids volume carried out in case of higher demands on the accuracy of the predictions.
fraction is varied, so further influences on dT are to be expected by On the conditions made for dilute flow classification, the reduced
alterations of hindered settling and of the density difference (ρP − ρF). If separation function T(d/dT) of the tapping model is obtained, if α = 2 is
finally changes of the interactions between the particles are possible applied in Eq. (C1) of Table 1. The theoretical sharpness of separation
(attractive or repulsive), then conditions exist for further effects on η can be calculated either according to Eq. (D1) in Table 1 or as particle
and D t̅ and by that on dT again, which complicate the assessment of the dispersion ϰ:
model quantities even more. This preceding analysis, made as an
2  31 = a
example, confirms the findings in Section 3.2 that a sufficient reliability ln 3 V̇ 2 = V̇ 1
d75 4
of the quantitative results of model calculations can only be expected if ϰ= =  5 ð20Þ
d25 ln V̇ 2 =3V̇ 1
the empirical model adjustments are carried out with material systems
having adequate similarities regarding their properties.
For the further model development the following relationships can A comparison with experimentally determined particle disper-
be substituted without neglecting the physically based model sions ϰexp. revealed that under optimum circumstances relative values
character (Schubert, 1989, 2003b; Neeße et al., 1985): ϰrel. = ϰexp./ϰtheor. → 1.15 are achievable (Neeße et al., 1985; Schubert
et al., 1986). This indicates the fact that in practice the tapping model
• az ∝ u2tg = Dc ; can only be approximately realized (see Section 3.1).
If the solids volume fraction is higher and/or the particle size
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffi distribution is coarser than the conditions underlying the derivation
• u ∝ Δp ≈ pi ; of the models of dilute flow classification, so both gain a distinct
tg
ρS ρS influence on the separation process and thus also on the cut size,
namely above all by their effect on turbulence damping (see
Section 3.2). A quantitative determination of this influence (reduc-
where: Δp effective pressure drop of the hydrocyclone flow;
tion of the turbulence diffusion coefficient) is an open problem in the
ρS suspension density;
theory of turbulent multi-phase flows at present. But with the aim of
applying the tapping model of turbulent cross-flow classification to
• Dt ∝ utg Dc (on the basis of Eq. (3)); estimations of the cut size in the transition range between dilute
• H r ∝Dc : flow and dense flow classification, it has been successful to describe
By insertion of these relationships into Eq. (16), it follows that the the effect of the particle sizes by the following numerical value
cut size is given by: equation (Müller et al., 1975; Neeße et al., 1985; Schubert, 1989,
2003a; Schubert and Neeße, 1980):
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
  ffi
u    b
u η D ln V̇ = V̇
t c 2 1 ρ −ρF 0;5
dT = K pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi : ð17Þ kd = 220d50;3 P
ð1−φP Þ4;65 ðρP −ρF Þ pi = ρS Dc
( ð21Þ
5Dc for Dc b0:1 m
A number of empirical relationships are available for predictions where : b =
of the ratio of suspension volume flow rates V̇ 1/V̇ 2 (e.g. Flintoff and 0:5 for Dc ≥0:1 m:
Plitt, 1987; Lynch, 1977; Plitt, 1976; Povarov, 1978; Svarovsky, 1984).
In case of dilute flow separations this ratio is mainly controlled by the d50;3; Dc in m
ratio of the orifice diameters Da/Do. For that appropriate relations of ρP; ρF in kg/m³
 H. Schubert / International Journal of Mineral Processing 96 (2010) 14–26
For typical dilute flow separation, it is valid kd → 1. At the classi-
fication of coarser materials in larger hydrocyclones (Dc ≳ 100 mm)
and higher solids fractions, kd takes values in the range 0.2 ≲ kd ≲ 5.
Here, the particle size effect is dominant. As well-known, for otherwise
constant conditions turbulence damping increases with increasing
fineness of the particles, i.e. Dt is reduced. So this finding qualitatively
agrees with the physical reality.
For an extensive regression analysis the following formulation of
the cut size equation was taken as the basis:
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u 3.6. Modelling dense flow classification in hydrocyclones
u η Dc lnðDo =Da Þ
3
dT = K*kd t pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð1−φP Þ ðρP −ρF Þ pi = ρS
3
In this equation the coarsening of particles is also considered by
the hindered settling factor in the form kφ = (1 − φP)3 (Schubert,
2003a). The adjustment constant was determined as K* = 0.27 by
evaluation of about 300 practical results with Dc between 15 and
1400 mm, φP ≲ 30% in the feed as well as median values of the particle
distributions d50;3 ≲ 200 μm (Müller et al., 1975; Neeße et al., 1985;
Schubert, 1989; Schubert and Neeße, 1980). Because of the width of
the application range, over which the regression analysis was carried
out, the cut size dT determined by Eq. (22) can only be regarded as
rough estimate. Furthermore, it must be taken into account that in the
evaluation the range of validity of Eq. (14) could not strictly be met.
The cone angle α of the hydrocyclone belongs to the variables
which are not included in Eqs. (17), (19) and (22). At a given Dc, the
cone angle has an effect on the mean retention time τm of the
suspension and the mean turbulent diffusion coefficient D ̅t, namely τm
increases with decreasing α, but D t̅ decreases (D t̅ ∝ tan α/2 (Neeße,
1978). Therefore, small cut sizes dT require not only small Dc but also
small α.
Although the models of dilute classification mentioned above were
already developed more than two decades ago, their international
attention has remained limited. This can be attributed to the following
reasons. Although also in English a satisfactory number of publications
are available, it seems that there is a lack of a comprehensive, all
aspects and phenomena containing description as it has been tried by
the author in this article. Furthermore, it must be realized that the
willingness is not much displayed in modelling particle processes to
claim the methods of the statistical mechanics including the statistical
theory of turbulence. Besides working teams in the former USSR
(Bragin, 1981; Pilov, 1976, 1981), above all Svarovsky et al. (Ortega-
Rivas and Svarovsky, 1992; Svarovsky, 1984, 1996), Werther et al.
(Hilligardt, 1986; Hilligardt and Werther, 1987) as well as Doheim
et al. (1995) must be mentioned as those that already early realized
the importance of the new modelling strategy and its efficiency
with regard to the reflection of the essential process phenomena.
Svarovsky and Ortega-Rivas emphasize that the physically based
derivation supplies the effect of the role of hydrocyclone diameter as
well as of the ratio of suspension volume flow rates V̇2/V1̇ . They expect
further improvements of the models particularly by progress in the
description of the effects which are contributed by the solids volume
fraction and its particle size distribution on turbulence damping as
well as by consideration of the rheological properties of the
suspensions. Within the scope of extensive investigations of proces-
sing dredged sludges, Werther and Hilligardt have found out that the
model of dilute flow classification represents a sound basis for the
description of the separation of fine sands contaminated with organic
substances, if the material properties of these slimes are taken into
consideration (viscosity measurements). Doheim et al. carried out 50
classification tests in a 50 mm-hydrocyclone with a phosphate ore by
application of different orifice combinations. The solids fraction in the
feed slurries was varied between 5 and 30 mass-%. They have found a
satisfactory accordance between the cut sizes predicted by Eq. (22)
and the experimental values. In 2000 a publication by Chen et al. has
23
come out in which the efficiency of models of several authors has been
assessed on the basis of 12 classification tests in hydrocyclones (Dc
between 10 and 100 mm) with different feed materials (Chen et al.,
2000). In 11 tests the conditions of dilute flow classification were
obviously given. But from the reference list of this article, it must be
drawn the conclusion that from the models of turbulent cross-flow
classification only the model of dense flow separation (Neeße et al.,
1991b) has been included in the evaluation. Therefore, these results
have no use for the evaluation of Eqs. (17), (19) and (22).
ð22Þ
At the development of a model of pronounced dense flow
classification (φP ≳ 25%), one should start from the following facts
(see also Section 3.3):
a) The operation space in the hydrocyclone must be subdivided into
two subspaces in which the process phenomena fundamentally
differ, namely:
• sediment subspace and
• inner suspension subspace, in which the radial concentration
profiles can form according to Eq. (4c).
b) The flow rate of the coarse product discharge is limited to the
discharge capacity of the underflow orifice, and a solids congestion
forms in the lower conical part of the hydrocyclone.
The only model development on this basis, which has become
known up to now, has been formulated by Neeße et al. (1984a,b, 1985,
1986, 1991a). Understandably for this far-reaching simplifications are
imperative. These are mainly caused by the variety of the rheological
properties of concentrated suspensions. Furthermore, the following
problems have to be taken into account: increased turbulence damping,
the formation conditions of the sediment and last not least the
description of the exchange events between the two subspaces.
Because of the size of the problems which have to be discussed, it is
not possible to describe this model development in this article in
detail. Furthermore, it must be mentioned that up to now there is a
lack of adequate comparisons between model predictions and
practical results. But if one wants to make further progress in the
development of a physically based model of dense flow classification,
it should be inevitable to continue the way briefly discussed.
4. Origin of the fishhook effect
In the introduction, it has been pointed out that the phenomenon
of the fishhook effect has been left aside in the subsequent discussion
of the separation models of hydrocyclone separation. But in dilute
flow classification of feeds b100 μm in small-diameter cyclones,
several authors have found shapes of the separation curves that show
a minimum in the range of about 10 μm or below and a rising again
towards the finest end (Fig. 11). In previous publications, the author
of this article has argued against the explanations of this effect by
other authors and has developed an own physically based model. It is
founded on a fluid-mechanical effect of settling particles (Schubert,
2003a, 2004) and based on the flow forces having a drag effect on fine
particles which are in the zones of the shear gradients (boundary
layers) around settling coarser particles. These forces have an
attractive component so that “swarms” enriched by fine particles
can form around coarser ones. As a first approximation, the Reynolds
range of the settling coarser particles, where swarm formation can
occur, is suggested as ReP ≈ 0.5 to 25. The upper limit is given by
beginning separation of the flow around the coarser particles, the
lower limit by the requirement of inertial effects. Such a swarm is a
dynamic association, which is in continuous exchange with its vicinity
by particle motions (directed and diffusive motions). Which fine
particles can be entrained into the swarms (i.e. can be dragged)
depends on the boundary layer thickness of the particle capable of
24 H. Schubert / International Journal of Mineral Processing 96 (2010) 14–26
Fig. 11. Left part of the separation curves obtained with quartzite materials of different fineness in a 25 mm-hydrocyclone (Gerhart, 2001); solids content in feed suspension:
cs = 100 g/L; inlet pressure: pi = 1.5 bar.
Quartzite d5
in μm
QM5 – –
QM14 0.6
QM5 0.8
QM60 1 16
dragging. In detail these necessary conditions for the fishhook effect
are described in the mentioned publications (Schubert, 2003a, 2004).
The outlined concept about the drag effect can be verified by
experimental classification results. Particularly the results achieved by
Gerhart are suitable for that, because they are not only very extensive
and carefully compiled but also due to the fact that the relevant
separation parameters are mentioned (Gerhart, 2001). As an example,
Fig. 11 reflects the results obtained in a 25 mm-hydrocyclone with
nine different quartzite materials. In this figure only those parts of the
separation curves are represented which are important for their
comparison. The coarsest material, QM60, shows the most pro-
nounced fishhook, because it has the highest fraction of particles that
can drag (≈50%). The finest material, QM5, did not give rise to a
fishhook effect because the particle sizes that can drag are more or less
completely absent. Furthermore, the shape of this curve is significant
as d → 0 as it becomes a line parallel to the abscissa, whose position is
given by the ratio of the volume flow rates V̇1/V̇ ≅ 0.24(see also Fig. 4c)
(Gerhart, 2001). Already for the material QM14 the fishhook is
noticeable, and its development increases with further coarsening of
the quartzite material. The minima of the separation curves of QM14
to QM60 lie clearly above the ratio of the volume flow rates V̇1/V̇.
5. Conclusions
a) A separation model for particle materials should largely comprise
the essential physical phenomena of the respective process and
reflect their effects by appropriate process parameters as well as
should be mathematically formulated as separation function. In
comparison with other models known up to now for dilute flow
separations in hydrocyclones, only the models of turbulent cross-
flow separation can meet these requirements. They start from the
indisputable fact that in the operation space the separation effect,
caused by the centrifugal field of the hydrocyclone flow, is
superimposed by an intensive and rapid mixing effect, mainly
caused by the macroturbulence of the flow. The stochastic process
character resulting from this situation is reflected in the
circumstances that the concentration profiles of the particle
d50 d95
5
3 14
11 50
60
sizes, which develop radially to the cyclone axis, become the
basis of modelling.
b) Regarding the realization of turbulent cross-flow separations, the
suspension partition model and the suspension tapping model
must be distinguished. Under comparable circumstances, the
tapping model yields the lower cut sizes and, above all, sharper
separations than the partition model. Therefore, also in hydro-
cylones the realization of the tapping model should be aimed at as
far as possible.
c) The following process parameters mainly determine the curve
trace of the separation function in dilute flow classification (see
Eq. (13):
• ratio of the suspension volume flow rates V̇2/V1̇ ;
• hindered settling velocities of the particles in the centrifugal
field of the hydrocyclone flow;
• radial settling ways of the particles;
• turbulent diffusion coefficients of the particles in the hydro-
cyclone flow.
Despite the locus-dependence of the three last-named process
parameters, only mean values can be substituted into the model
equations. In addition, it must be taken into account that the
hindered settling velocities and the turbulent diffusion coefficients
depend on the rheological properties of the suspension. Therefore,
not only the solids volume fraction but also the particle size
distribution and the interactions between the particles (attractive
or repulsive) have an effect on the quantities of the process
parameters. Moreover, the latter are mostly not accessible to an
exactly quantitative determination. Summarizing, it follows from
this complex situation that, in general, far-reaching simplifications
are unavoidable at the determination of the process parameters. On
utilization of such essential simplifications, process modelling
must aim at the integration as well as at least qualitatively correct
reproduction of the decisive process parameters and their relations
which are relevant for design of the equipment, operation and
optimization of the process. In general, quantitative model
 H. Schubert / International Journal of Mineral Processing 96 (2010) 14–26 25

predictions will necessitate additional adjustments. At present and ϰ Particle dispersion

in a foreseeable future these are only available empirically Λ Macroscale of turbulence
(experimentally). Therefore, it is an illusion to expect more from ν Kinematic viscosity
the model predictions. In order to ensure an adequate reliability of ρF Fluid density
the predictions, the adjustment corrections should be determined ρP Solid or particle density, respectively
using similar material systems and related hydrocyclone types. ρS Suspension density
τ Retention time
d) The first and up to now only known model development for
φ Volume content
pronounced dense flow classifications in hydrocyclones starts
φP; φs Volume fraction of particles or solids, respectively
from the fact that the operation space must be subdivided into two
subspaces and thus also two subprocesses, namely the formation
of the radial concentration profiles of the particle sizes in the inner
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