Computer Science Lecture notes Dr.

Israa Yheaa

Computer Science

1. Introduction

Before learning about evolution of computers, first let us know the definition of a computer.

A computer is an electronic device used for storing and processing data and carrying out sequence of
operations. In short, it is a device which is invented to simplify the complicated tasks.

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations of
computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development
that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more
powerful, more efficient and reliable devices.

1.1.First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often
enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great
deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.

First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language
understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time.
Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was
the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

1.2.Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor
was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s. The transistor
was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more
energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still
generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over
the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for
output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly,
languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming
languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These
were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a
magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

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1.3.Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically
increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through
keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many
different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for
the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their
predecessors.

1.4.Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits
were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in
the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the
computer—from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls—on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of
life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks,
which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the
development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

1.5.Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development

though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of
parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum
computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to
come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language
input and are capable of learning and self-organization

2.Classification of Computers

Since the first computer, there are different types of computers. Some are to do specific task and
some for general purpose – do everything a program can make it to do. Some computers work
with continuous signals of the physical quantities such as pressure, temperature, speed, current
etc. and some with discrete data or the digital signals. Some computers are really huge in size

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while others are as tiny that fit in our pockets and palm. There are computers from different
companies that work totally different and some work similar to others. So, in this class we’ll try
to identify the classes on which each computer can be grouped into – the classification of
computers.

2.1Classification of computers based on application

We can identify three different classes if we look upon how a computer works or what they are
applied for – Analog, Digital and Hybrid computers.

2.1.1.Analog Computer
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously-changeable aspects of
physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem
being solved. These computers are used in Hospitals, Air-crafts and so on.

An analog computer can be mechanical analog computer or electronic analog computer. (There
can be a confusion that electronic computers are digital but note that there are electronic analog
computers too!)

Mechanical analog computers have existed for thousands of years, with the oldest known
example being the Antikythera. This is a Greek machine, thought to have been made around 100
BC, designed for calculating astronomical positions. A more recent and common mechanical
analog computer is the slide rule.
2.1.2. Digital computers

This kind are the most common class of computers for us because we are using them every day.
Digital Computers can be defined as a computer that performs calculations and logical
operations with quantities represented as digits, usually in the binary number system of “0” and
“1”, “. Computer capable of solving problems by processing information expressed in discrete
form. from manipulation of the combinations of the binary digits, it can perform mathematical
calculations, organize and analyze data, control industrial and other processes, and simulate
dynamic systems such as global weather patterns.

A computer system is subdivided into two functional entities: Hardware and Software.

The hardware consists of all the electronic components and electromechanical devices that
comprise the physical entity of the device.

The software of the computer consists of the instructions and data that the computer
manipulates to perform various data-processing tasks.

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 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) contains an arithmetic and logic unit for manipulating
data, a number of registers for storing data, and a control circuit for fetching and
executing instructions.
 The memory unit of a digital computer contains storage for instructions and data.
 The Random Access Memory (RAM) for real-time processing of the data.
 The Input-Output devices for generating inputs from the user and displaying the final
results to the user.
 The Input-Output devices connected to the computer include the keyboard, mouse,
terminals, magnetic disk drives, and other communication devices.

2.1.3 Hybrid Computers

Analog computers worked purely measuring the physical quantities whereas digital computers counted
and manipulated the numbers to produce results. There is another class of computers that can take benefit
of features of both these two classes, so, known as hybrid compute

Hybrid computers are computers with combined features of both digital and analog type. Desirable
features of analog and digital machines can be combined to create a Hybrid Computer. This type of
computer operates by counting as well as by measuring. In other words, the output can be either in the
form of numbers or required units of measurement, e.g., an analog device measures patient’s heart beat
(ECG). These measures will be converted into digital form and a digital device checks for any
abnormality. Further, we can also input digital data like your marks and get digital results like the result
of your class. Another example is a Modem. (which converts the digital signals into analog,
carryitalongthelineandatthereceivingendagainchangesitbackintodigitalsignal).

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3.Classification of computers based on size

We’ve already seen how large the computers were and these days we are using very small computers,
some even embedded in wrist watch. So, another interesting aspect to classify computers is based on size.
If we look at the computers from this perspective, we can group them into three major classes –
Mainframe, Mini and Microcomputers.

3.1.Mainframe Computers

Mainframe Computer

These are very huge computers. It is interesting how the word ‘mainframe’ came into use. In fact, because
the different units of computer were installed in a frame, it started to be called a computer in main frame
and today classes of computers are called Mainframe computers.

Mainframe computers are very powerful computers with large memory and processing capabilities. It can
support hundreds of users simultaneously.

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3.2.Mini Computers

DEC PDP 12

Mini computers are medium sized computers – much larger than the personal computers we are using and
smaller compared to the mainframe computers. These computers can support multiple users
simultaneously and is less powerful than mainframe computers.

A Minicomputer was typically a standalone device that was ideal for use by small and medium sized
businesses who needed more power and memory than could be obtained with microcomputers, but did
not have a need for the resources provided by mainframes. More recently, a minicomputer is thought of in
terms of being a server that is part of a larger network.

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3.3.Micro Computers(Personal Computer)

Those computers that use microprocessor as their central processing unit and are the smallest of the types
are the microcomputers. Microcomputers are often called personal computers (PCs) because they are
intended to be used by a single person at a time. While mainframe and mini computers can support
multiple users simultaneously, it can support only one user at a time.

Micro computers can further be classified into desktop computers (that can fit within the top of a desk),
laptops (portable computers that can be operated on your lap) and palmtops (hand held computers).

3.4.Super Computers
There is another class of computers too! But I always feel it uncomfortable to list it as a class based on
size. Oh! It does not fit anywhere?But there are a group of powerful computers known as Super
Computers.

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Super Computer - Cray I

Super Computers are the fastest type of computer and can be the largest too! Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical
calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers
include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum
exploration.

The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels
all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its
power to execute many programs concurrently.

Characteristics of Computer

 SPEED : In general, no human being can compete to solving the complex computation,
faster than computer.

 ACCURACY : Since Computer is programmed, so what ever input we give it gives result
with accuratly.

 STORAGE : Computer can store mass storage of data with appropriate formate.

 DILIGENCE : Computer can work for hours without any break and creating error.

 VERSATILITY : We can use computer to perform completely different type of work at

the same time.

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 POWER OF REMEMBERING : It can remember data for us.

 NO IQ : Computer does not work without instruction.

 NO FEELING : Computer does not have emotions, knowledge, experience, feeling.