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Assignment No: 01

Submitted by: Adil khan

Reg. No: 2k18- MS-FT-Str-15

Subject: Properties of Concrete and its Constituents

Submitted to: Prof. Dr. Ayub Elahi

Dated: 08 Nov, 2019

MS Structural Engineering, Civil Department, University of Engineering and Technology,

Taxil

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Summary of failure and deterioration of structure:

Concrete structures are constructed to provide a service during a limited time period and,
in some cases, the need for maintenance is foreseen. However, recently durability of
concrete has been a social concern due to the poor performance of concrete caused by
various environmental, physical, and chemical factors such as corrosion of reinforcement
bars due to carbonation or chloride ingress, freezing-thawing action, sulfate attack, alkali
aggregate reaction, and so forth. The resistance against these chemical erosions and
physical deteriorations depends on the chemical composition and the microstructure of
hardened cement matrix and on the environmental conditions.

Deterioration of structures caused by physical and chemical damage results in the

decrease in performance with time, physical damage occurs due to fire, abrasion or
expansion and contraction stresses while chemical damage occurs due to harsh
environment. Lack of durability of concrete structures or initiation of cracking has been
caused mainly due to exposure to harsh environment, which results in degradation of
structures as shown in the figure.

Fig: Deterioration of structure

Deterioration of infrastructure systems is a serious concern because it might decrease
the lifespan and reliability of the systems. In addition, the prediction of structural
deterioration can be helpful in optimizing design of infrastructure systems accounting for
their life cycle.

The cause for deterioration of the concrete structure located in severe environment has
been explored both in field and in laboratory. Serious cracking and spalling appeared
upon surface of the concrete structure soon after the structure was put into service. Both

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alkali- aggregate reaction and freeze-thaw cycles may result in similar macro visible
cracking and

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spalling. The possibility of alkali-aggregate reaction was excluded by both field survey
and lab examination such as chemical analysis, petrographic analysis, and determination
of alkali reactivity of aggregates. According to results of freeze-thaw cycles,
impermeability testing, and microstructure analysis, it is deduced that the severe
environmental conditions plus the relatively inferior frost resistance cause the
deterioration of concrete.

The object of study is to deepen the understanding of the structural effects of

deterioration with special attention to the bond between deformed bars and concrete. A
growing concern for better assessment of existing concrete structures has revealed a
need for improved understanding of the structural effects of deterioration. The effects of
freezing on the material properties of concrete and the bond behavior of bars were
investigated through experiments. A significant influence of frost damage was observed
on the stress-strain response of concrete in compression, tensile stress-crack opening
relation, and bond-slip behavior. The methodology was applied to frost damaged beams
using non-linear finite element analysis at the structural level. The results indicated that
the changes in failure mode and the effect on failure load caused by internal frost
damage can be predicted by modelling at the structural level.

Basic causes of deterioration:

The common causes of deterioration in concrete structures are as follow;

a. Freezing of the concrete.

b. Alkali-aggregate reaction or Alkali silica reaction
c. Corrosion of the reinforcement etc.

a. Freezing of the concrete

Freeze damage occurs in concrete when the water molecules in concrete freeze and
expand beyond the volume constraints of the concrete. When the >91% of the pores of
concrete are filled with water, the concrete is known to be saturated. The freeze can
cause the bonds in cement around the aggregate to break and the concrete can crack in
those places. Thus, the higher the water/cement ratio in the concrete, the higher risk it is
for freeze/thaw damage. As the seasons pass, concrete goes through the process of
freezing and thawing, wearing out over time. As winters come and go from year to year,
the concrete deteriorates. This problem is avoided by using high air entrained concrete

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b. Alkali-aggregate reaction or Alkali silica reaction

Alkali–aggregate reaction is a term mainly referring to a reaction which occurs over time in
concrete between the highly alkaline cement paste and non-crystalline silicon dioxide, which
is found in many common aggregates. This reaction can cause expansion of the altered
aggregate, leading to spalling and loss of strength of the concrete.

Fig: Spalling of concrete due to Alkali Reaction

c. Corrosion of Steel

Corrosion of reinforcing steel and other embedded metal is the leading cause of
deterioration in concrete.

Corrosion of reinforcement leads to volume expansion of the steel, which can cause
cover cracking and spalling; this weakens the bond of the reinforcement. The bond slip
model was extended to include corroded reinforcement. Analysis of corroded beams
using the methodology gave results which are on the safe side. However, for large
corrosion penetrations that lead to extensive cover cracking, more detailed modelling of
the surrounding concrete and stirrups is required. Under such conditions, when wide
cracks develop, the favorable effect of rust flowing through the cracks becomes
significant; this decreases the splitting stress around the bar. A previously developed
corrosion model was extended to include this phenomenon. The volume flow of rust
through a crack was assumed to depend on the splitting stress and the crack width.

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Tests for carrying out investigation of existing structure:

Material assessment of the existing structures can be done by performing the following
tests

1) Visual inspection for Defects

2) Rebar Assessment Test
3) Structural member dimension assessment
4) Non-destructive Schmidt Rebound Hammer Test
5) Sub soil investigation
a. Test pit logging
b. Soil Compaction Compaction Tests
c. Sampling
d. Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCP)
e. Chemical Test
I. Sulphate tests
II. PH test etc..

f. Trial Pits

1. Visual inspection for Defects

Visual inspection was also done to check for any concrete surface defects.
Some honey combed surfaces were observed and sufficient concrete cover was
observed to be provided to the reinforcement. Visual inspections were made on
the different walling and concrete surfaces at different random points.

2. Rebar Assessment Test

This was carried out with the help of hand tools and equipment e.g. chisels
mallets, micrometer screw gauge, and a Vernier caliper. Since the buildings
under investigation were found complete, a few members were chosen from
each of the buildings, such that they can be chiseled to expose the
reinforcement for analysis and assessment. After exposure, some of the
exposed reinforcements were assessed to check for defects and measured to

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obtain their individual sizes. The chiseled points were later filled and finished back to
original surface finish

3. Structural member dimension assessment

This activity involved ascertaining the dimensions of the different structural members
i.e.; the beams, slabs, and foundation footings. A calibrated tape measure was
used, and were possible, a Vernier caliper came into play.

4. Non-destructive Schmidt Rebound Hammer Test

This test was carried out with an N-type Schmidt mechanical rebound
hammer. The concrete surface to be tested was first prepared by smoothening
with a carborundum stone. Care was taken to avoid honeycombed regions and wet
surfaced concrete. At least ten shots of the hammer were taken on each
chosen member, and the mean rebound reading of each member was
recorded, corrected and used to obtain the average compressive strength. In the
case of this building, no chiseling or hacking was required to remove plaster, since
most of the members were exposed.

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5. Sub soil/ Geotechnical investigation
The output of the sub-soil investigation is detailed in the geotechnical
investigation findings including all activities undertaken by the laboratory to
ascertain the geotechnical conditions. For this purpose various tests have to be
performed, as given below

a. Test pit logging

Test pit layer details were also examined recorded as profiles and are shown in detail
in the appendix. The stratigraphy revealed by each pit was carefully logged with
special note taken to the thicknesses and conditions of the various layers. The
soil descriptions and classifications discussed in this report and shown on the
attached test pit logs are generally based on visual observation and should be
considered approximate.

b. Soil compaction Tests

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In situ Density Determination

In this the Core cutter method was used. This was done to determine the dry density
(mass of dry soil per cubic meter) of natural or compacted soil in situ, since density is
also an important parameter of strength and a measure of the Degree of Compaction.
The core cutter is a cylindrical metal of known dimension (volume) and weight, and
has a cutting sharp edge. The core cutter was driven into the floor of the excavated pit
at a suitable depth using a steel dolly. The core cutter was then later carefully
extracted out of the pit, and it contained a core of soil. A small portion of soil was
also taken and placed in an air tight container for relative moisture content
determination. The weight of the core cutter and the sample in it was taken.
Calculations were done to obtain the field / insitu density

c. Sampling
Bulk samples were taken from each of the test pits at 1.0 – 1.5m depth
intervals for laboratory testing. Representative soil samples obtained throughout
the exploration program were placed in air tight containers and transported to
the laboratory. In the laboratory, the soil samples were classified in general
accordance with techniques outlined in the visual-manual identification procedure
(ASTM D 2488) and the Unified Soil Classification System.

d. Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCP)

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) tests were conducted through the ground
belowsurfacing to provide an estimate of the in-situ bearing capacities of the layers
underneath.DCP tests at this stage were performed in the test pits at depth
intervals of 1.50m,commencing from ground level as presented in the appendix
on the site layout. Theprogram of dynamic cone penetrometer testing was carried
out, using the TRL model conepenetrometer with 8kg hammer falling through a shaft
of drop height 575mm, which internforces a 20mm diameter/60 degree cone into the
encountered strata.The TRL DCP is an instrument designed for the rapid in-situ
measurement of the structural

properties of existing sub soil structure. Correlations have been established

between measurements with the DCP, CBR (California Bearing Ratio) and
allowable bearing capacity, so that results can be interpreted and presented
appropriately for foundation design.

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e. Chemical Test

Chemical tests were also conducted on the extracted soil samples, the sand material
found on site and also ground concrete samples from hardened concrete specimens.

I. Sulphate tests :
In this test, we use gravimetric method w. It involved obtaining 50gms of air dried
samples were placed in extraction bottles and 100ml of distilled water added to
each before covering tightly. These were then mounted onto shakers and
agitated for 16 hours. The soil suspensions were then filtered into clean and dry
flasks. 50ml of the soil suspensions were dissolved in distilled water, after
which Barium chloride solution was added to each, to form a precipitate of
Barium sulphate, which was collected, dried and weighed. The Sulphate content
was then calculated from the mass of water used in the analysis and the mass of
Barium sulphate precipitated.

f. Trial pits

Two trial pits were sunk at approximate nominal distribution as presented on the
site layout plan, each pit attaining a target depth of about 2.5 - 3.0m. Two of the test
pits were located at foundation points. The test pitting operations were carried out
manually with aid of hand tools such as hoes, spades and pick axes. The test pits were
located in alternate positions of the site as requested by the design team. The aim of the
excavation of trial pits was to determine the structure of existing sub soils, the type of
underlying soils, including extraction of both disturbed and undisturbed samples.
In-situ density tests to determine the actual density of the underlying strata where
carried out with aid of the core cutter method.

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Basic Repair and maintenance methods/techniques

The following method is used for repairing and maintenance to prevent failure

1. Routing and Sealing

2. Stitching
3. Applying External Stress
4. Cement slurry Grouting/Epoxy-injection Grouting
5. Surface Overlay/ shotcrete or guniting
6. Removing buckled and yielded Reinforcement and adding new reinforcement

1. Routing And Sealing

i. This method involves enlarging the crack along its exposed face and sealing it
with a suitable joint sealant or rich mixed mortar.
ii. It can be used for both fine and larger isolated cracks.
iii. This techniques is mostly used for floors and pavements.

Fig: Crack repairs by Routing and sealing

Reason

I. This method is simplest, most common, inexpensive method.

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Advantages

I. In this method the crack is enlarged along its exposed face to form a V-shaped
groove up to a minimum width of 6 mm and a depth of 6 to 25 mm.
II. This method is commonly used for both fine pattern cracks and large isolated

Disadvantage

I. Routing and sealing of cracks in concrete can be used for dormant cracks not
involving the restoration of tensile strength
II. Cement grouts are avoided due to the chances of future cracking
III. One of the defect of this method is swelling with time.

2. Stitching

Stitching may be used when tensile strength must be re-established across major
cracks.

Stitching involves

i. Drilling holes on both sides of the crack

ii. Grouting in U-shaped metal units with short legs called staples or stitching dogs
or bolting with steel strips on both sides of crack

Fig: stitching of crack

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Reason
I. Crack stitching is a permanent and very successful method of structural
repairing for properties suffering with cracks in the masonry and in the mortar
bed joints.

Advantage

The advantage of crack stitching include;

I. Easy fixed, even in weak materials

II. Invisible when installed
III. Once installed provides flexibility to the mortar.

Disadvantage

I. it is tedious method to prevent failure

II. An expert person require for performing this job
III. Due to use of steel rebar the dead load of structure increases

3. Applying External Stress

i. The development of cracking is due to the tensile stress ,thus can be arrested by
suppressing this stress
ii. Cracks can be closed by inducing a compression force to overcome the tensile
stresses.
iii. The compressive force is applied by
iv. Pre-stressing wires or rods
v. Wedging – by opening the cracks and filling with expanding mortar, by jacking
and grouting or by actual driving wedges

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Fig: To correct cracking of slab Fig: To correct cracking of beam

Reason

I. In this method we use the process just like post tensioning

Advantage

II. It give high strength to deform structure

III. It induce stresses due to post tensioning of rebars

Disadvantage

I. It is not economical process

II. It is very tedious method
III. It will take more time

4. Epoxy Injection Grouting

In case of minor cracking - the RC member can be repaired by injecting suitable grout as
follows:

i. In case of minor cracking - the RC member can be repaired by injecting

suitable grout as follows;
ii. Remove plaster and any loose material in the vicinity of crack;
iii. Fix the grouting nipples in the cracks at spacing of 6 – 8 inch (150-200 mm) c/c;
iv. Inject water through the nipple so that the dust inside the cracks is washed off
and the concrete is saturated with water;

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v. Inject the grout till it comes out from the next nipple and then move to next nipple;
vi. After injection of grout through all the nipples is completed, re-plaster the surface
and finish as required.

Fig: Nipple Fixing for Grouting

Reason

I. Epoxy injection ia an economical method of repairing non-moving cracks in

concrete wall, slab,Column and piers.
II. The repair method using epoxy is able to sustain at least 80% to 85% of total
strength achieved.

Advantage

I. Weld strength is stronger than concrete.

II. Work best on dry surfaces
III. Can be applied on most interior and exterior surfaces

Disadvantage

I. More expansive than urethanes.

II. Does not work well on wet surfaces, bond strength is significantly decreased
III. It foundation is still moving, cracks can reform in epoxy and concrete.

5. Surface Overlay/ shotcrete or guniting

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i. Chisel out the crack to create a backward-angled cut, using a cold chisel and a
hammer.
ii. Clean loose material from the crack using a wire brush, or a portable drill with a
wire wheel attachment.
iii. Apply at thin layer of rich cement slurry for bonding between old and new
concrete
iv. apply rich screed over the prepared surface

Fig: Slab repaired by concrete overlay

Reason

I. It is a cheap method of repairing cracks to prevent from failure

II. It is not to much tedious

Advantage

I. Increased flooring thickness

II. Clean new concrete surface that will hide flaws evident in original concrete
III. Strengthen the weak and fragile concrete

Disadvantage

I. Concrete overlays are thin and do not last as long as the slab beneath them.
II. Some overlays show durability problems within several years
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III. Acid etching and other types of concrete color work tend to fade aeay over time
unless the floor is consistently sealed

6. Removing buckled and yielded Reinforcement and adding new reinforcement

Fig: Spalling of concrete with buckling of bar

Reason

I. It is very technical method of repairing the crack in structural component of RCC

structure

Advantage

I. It recover the original strength after repairing

II. It give a good architecture look after repairing
III. I become useable

Disadvantage

I. It cost more than other method of repairing the cracks mean that it is
uneconomical method
II. A technical expert man is acquired to this job
III. It is to tedious method of repairing

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