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BILINGUALISM
True or False?
Learning more than one language confuses a child and lowers
his/her IQ?
A child should learn one language properly before learning a
second one.
A person cannot be a real bilingual if he learns a second
language late.
Bilinguals have to translate from their weaker to their stronger
language.
Learning two languages may cause cultural identity problems for
a child.
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BILINGUALISM
Why do we study bilingualism?
A large proportion of the world’s population knows and uses more than one
language on a regular basis. Multilingualism is the norm. More than 140
languages are spoken in Manchester. Language planning (social and
educational policy) is a political issue often based on academic research.
Topics in bilingualism
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BILINGUALISM
Approaches
Linguistics – studies the structure and development of the two
languages
Psycholinguistics – studies the psychological basis of bilingual’s
language competence and performance
Sociolinguistics – looks at how cultures/social groups affect
language performance and language choice
Neurolinguistics – studies the relationship between language and
the brain
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DEFINITIONS
Individual bilingualism vs Societal bilingualism
Bilingualism as an individual attribute: a psychological state of an
individual who has access to two language codes to serve
communication purposes.
Bilingualism as a societal attribute: two languages are used in a
community and that a number of individuals can use two
languages.
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DEFINITIONS
5 dimensions
Cognitiveorganisation of
two languages
Individual characteristics
Age of acquisition
Language proficiency
Sequence of acquisition of
two languages
Societal factors
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COMPOUND VS. COORDINATE BILINGUALS
Compound bilingual:
Has one semantic system but two linguistic codes. Usually refers
to someone whose two languages are learnt at the same time,
often in the same context.
Coordinate bilingual:
Has two semantic systems and two linguistic codes. Usually
refers to someone whose two languages are learnt in distinctively
separate contexts
Subordinate bilingual:
The weaker language is interpreted through the stronger
language
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THE MENTAL LEXICON OF
MONOLINGUALS
Semantic Has wings
Has feathers
system
Can fly
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THE MENTAL LEXICON OF BILINGUALS
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THE MENTAL LEXICON OF BILINGUALS
Semantic system
English Spanish
Subordinate bilingual
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THE MENTAL LEXICON OF BILINGUALS
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THE MENTAL LEXICON OF BILINGUALS
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EARLY VS. LATE BILINGUALS
Early bilingual:
someone who has acquired two languages early
in childhood (usually received systematic
training/learning of a second language before
age 6).
Late bilingual:
someone who has become a bilingual later than
childhood (after age 12).
Discussion: Is there a “critical period” for
second language learning?
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EARLY VS. LATE BILINGUALS
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BALANCED VS. DOMINANT BILINGUALS
Balanced bilingual:
someone whose mastery of two languages is
roughly equivalent.
Dominant bilingual:
someone with greater proficiency in one of his or
her languages and uses it significantly more than
the other language.
Semilingual:
someone with insufficient knowledge of either
language.
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SUCCESSIVE VS. SIMULTANEOUS BILINGUALS
Successive bilingualism:
Learning one language after already knowing another. This is the situation for all
those who become bilingual as adults, as well as for many who became bilingual
earlier in life. Sometimes also called consecutive bilingualism.
Simultaneous bilingualism:
Learning two languages as "first languages". That is, a person who is a
simultaneous bilingual goes from speaking no languages at all directly to
speaking two languages. Infants who are exposed to two languages from birth
will become simultaneous bilinguals.
Receptive bilingualism:
Being able to understand two languages but express oneself in only one. This is
generally not considered "true" bilingualism but is a fairly common situation.
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ADDITIVE VS. SUBTRACTIVE BILINGUALS
Additive bilingual:
The learning of a second language does not interfere with the
learning of a first language. Both languages are well developed.
Subtractive bilingual:
The learning a second language interferes with the learning of a
first language. The second language replaces the first language.
Additive or subtractive bilingualism is related to the different
status associated with the two languages in a society.
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ELITE VS. FOLK BILINGUALS
Elite bilingual:
Individuals who choose to have a bilingual home,
often in order to enhance social status.
Folk bilingual:
Individuals who develop second language
capacity under circumstances that are not often
of their own choosing, and in conditions where
the society does not value their native language.
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SUMMARY: DEFINITIONS
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LANGUAGE ACQUISITION OF BILINGUAL
CHILDREN
Bilingual acquisition is a complex phenomenon.
Monolingual children usually learn language from parents.
But bilingual children may learn languages not only from
parents but also from grandparents, playmates, babysitters,
childcare, school teachers and TV.
Their exposure to languages fluctuate over time and
situation/environment.
Childhood bilingualism is poorly understood by many and
regarded with scepticism by others.
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LANGUAGE ACQUISITION OF BILINGUAL
CHILDREN
Compared to monolingual children, bilingual children have
less exposure to each of their languages and, therefore,
they never master either language fully and never become
as proficient as monolingual children.
How do we measure language proficiency?
How do we determine if bilingual children’s language
development is normal?
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LANGUAGE ACQUISITION OF BILINGUAL
CHILDREN
Compared to monolingual children, bilingual children have
less exposure to each of their languages and, therefore,
they never master either language fully and never become
as proficient as monolingual children.
How do we measure language proficiency?
How do we determine if bilingual children’s language
development is normal?
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LANGUAGE ACQUISITION OF BILINGUAL
CHILDREN
Young bilingual children may know fewer words in one or
both of their languages in comparison with monolingual
children of the same age.
This is understandable because young children have limited
cognitive / memory capacities, and bilingual children must
store words from two languages, not just one.
Also, because bilingual children learn words in each
language from different people, they sometimes know
certain words in one language but not in the other.
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LANGUAGE ACQUISITION OF BILINGUAL
CHILDREN
When adding the vocabulary that bilingual children know in
both languages, they generally know the same number of or
even more words as their monolingual peers.
Even when differences like these occur, they are short term
and are likely to disappear by the time the children begin
school.
Bilingual children's overall proficiency in each language
reflects the amount of time they spend in each.
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WILL LEARNING TWO LANGUAGES CONFUSE
CHILDREN/
Young bilingual children often mix the two languages and
cannot keep them separate.
Language mixing is taken as evidence that learning two
languages confuses children.
Mixing: a fusion of two languages with the inability to
differentiate one language from the other.
Mixing happens most frequently during early phase of
language development, before or around age 2;0 (years;
months), whereas later on, bilingual children can easily
separate the two linguistic systems.
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WILL LEARNING TWO LANGUAGES CONFUSE
CHILDREN
Phonological mixing
Kats – Katt (swedish) & Kass (Estonia)
[both katt and kass mean ‘cat’ in English]
Lexical mixing
I want mansana
[I want apple]
Semantic mixing
I lost the bus
[lost = missed in Spanish]
Syntactic mixing
A house red
[colour adjectives follow the noun in Spanish]
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WILL LEARNING TWO LANGUAGES CONFUSE
CHILDREN
Children mix because they are confused by
learning two languages? or,
Because they lack the appropriate items in
one language but have them in the other
language?
I. the bilingual child has only one lexical system comprising words
from both languages [1.6-2.1]
II. development of two distinct lexical systems although the child
applies “the same syntactic rules to both languages” [2.5-3.3]
III. differentiation of two linguistic systems, lexical as well as
syntactic [2.9-311]
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UNITARY LANGUAGE SYSTEM HYPOTHESIS
Bilingual children first have a single fused linguistic representation.
They begin to differentiate their two native languages by age
3;0.
Implication: Young bilinguals have language delay relative to monolinguals.
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UNITARY LANGUAGE SYSTEM HYPOTHESIS
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SEPARATE LANGUAGE SYSTEM HYPOTHESIS
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SEPARATE LANGUAGE SYSTEM HYPOTHESIS
According to Genesee:
“The most proficient bilinguals mix the most and in the most
sophisticated ways without violating the rules of either language. It is
normal for children growing up in these communities to mix their
languages extensively because they are simply learning the patterns of
communication that are common in their community. It can be difficult
and unnatural, if not impossible, to keep the languages completely
separate. If most people in the children's wider community use only one
language, the children will eventual learn the monolingual patterns.”
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SEPARATE LANGUAGE SYSTEM HYPOTHESIS
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