Fundamentals of Chemistry: Topic 1

(Introduction to Chemistry)

Introduction to Chemistry
CHEM 1: Chemistry
Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

Bicol University
College of Agriculture and Forestry
Guinobatan, Albay
Engr. Mary Angeline O. Napay, MSAEn
Subject-in-Charge

MEASUREMENTS AND CALCULATIONS

The disciplines of chemistry and engineering
are both quantitative in nature.
• That is, they deal primarily with numerical measurements of the
amount of a material or its properties.

Chemists search for relationships between the physical and chemical properties of a
material to determine the molecular basis for the observed results.

Recording the measurements of any physical property requires both a number and
a unit.
This involves working with a variety of different units and a wide range of
numerical values.

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Scientific Notation
In order to more easily perform calculations involving
very large or very small numbers, scientist,
mathematicians, and engineers use a compact standard
format called scientific notation.

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Scientific Notation
• expresses the numbers as powers of 10.
• simplifies the calculations, makes it easier to estimate the
magnitude of the result and decreases the chance of errors in
transcribing very large or very small decimal numbers.
• is also more specific than other numerical formats as to the
number of significant figures in a measurement of value.

Any number written in scientific notation is expressed as a

number from 1 to less than 10 multiplied by a power of 10.

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To write any number in scientific notation:
1. shift the decimal point so that there is only one nonzero digit to the
left of the decimal point,
2. multiply the number by a power of 10 that is equal to the number
of places the decimal point has been moved,
3. use a positive power of 10 of the decimal point is moved to the left
and a negative power of ten is the decimal point is moved to the right.

For example, the number 1246 is expressed as 1.246 x 103 and the
number of 0.00046 is expressed as 4.6 x 10-4 in scientific notation.

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Accuracy and Precision
• Measurements of physical and chemical properties are not
exact. They are subject to uncertainties, which are caused by
errors inherent to the methods of measurements used.

• These measurement uncertainties are described by the

accuracy and precision of the measurement method.

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Accuracy
Accuracy of a measurement - is the degree of closeness of the
measurements to the actual or true value.
Large deviations from the true value are described as a low degree of
measurement accuracy. This is caused by systematic errors in the
measurement method.

Systematic errors - are constant and always of the same sign. They
result in a constant offset, either positive or negative, from the true
value.

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Accuracy
• The measurement accuracy is determined by calibration of the
measurement method through comparison of the measured result
obtained on a known standard to its certified true value.

• Calibration of a balance would involve recording the measurement

of a sample of known mass, such as a calibrated weight.
• Once this comparison is made, the systemic error can be corrected
and the accuracy of the results improved by either electronically or
manually subtracting or adding the offset value from the
measurement.

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Precision
Precision of a measurement - is the degree to which
repeated measurements give the same value whether
or not that value is true.

It is often called as reproducibility and is an indicator of the scatter in as

series of measured values made on the same sample. Large differences in
the values of repeated measurements are describe as a low degree of
measurement precision.

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Precision
• This is caused by random errors in the measurement
method.

Random error - is one that produces both positive and

negative variations from an average value.
They are caused by unpredictable fluctuations in the
measurement apparatus, in the environmental conditions, or
in the operator's interpretation of the instrumental reading.

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Precision
Examples of some causes of random errors are:
the electric noise in an electrical instrument, the effect
of temperature changes, vibrations and air movement
on balances, and using volumetric glassware with poor
resolution to measure volumes.

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Precision
• The measurement precision can be determined by repeating
the measurement several times on the same sample and
recording the variation in the values.
• Since random errors produce both positive and negative
variations in the measurement, the measurement precision
can be improved by reporting the average of a series of
measurements made on the same sample.

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Precision
• When the result of a measurement is recorded, the precision of the
measurement is indicated in the number of significant figures used in the
numerical value.
• The number of significant figures given in a reported measurement is
simply the number of digits in the value that are known with some degree
of reliability.
• The last significant digit reported in the measured value is the one that is
uncertain. All other reported digits are known with a high level of
certainty.

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Precision
For example:
The length of the steel bar is reported to be 25.34 cm.
This has four significant figures, which implies a value of
25.3 to be known with certainty and the last digit 25.34
to be uncertain.

MEASUREMENTS AND CALCULATIONS

Example: Determining Significant Figures
Determine the number of significant figures in the following measurements
of length:
a. 1000 m
b. 124.50 km
c. 200.4 m
d. 3450 mm
e. 0.5 m

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Determining Significant Figures
Step 1. Convert all measurements to scientific notation:
a. 1000 m = 1 x 103 m
b. 124.50 km = 1.2450 x 102 km
c. 200.4 m = 2.004 x 102 m
d. 3450 mm = 3.45 x 103 mm
e. 0.5 m =5 x 10-1 m

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Determining Significant Figures
Step 2. Determine the number of significant figures by counting the
number of digits used in the scientific notation:
a. 1000 m = 1 x 103 m - 1 significant figure
b. 124.50 km = 1.2450 x 102 km - 5 significant figures
c. 200.4 m = 2.004 x 102 m - 4 significant figures
d. 3450 mm = 3.45 x 103 mm - 3 significant figures
e. 0.5 m =5 x 10-1 m - 1 significant figure

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 Remember:
• that trailing zeros are only kept in scientific notation if a
decimal point is present in decimal notation.
• If a decimal point is not used in decimal notation, the
trailing zeros are assumed not to be significant.

MEASUREMENTS AND CALCULATIONS

 Remember:
• that trailing zeros are only kept in scientific notation if a
decimal point is present in decimal notation.
• If a decimal point is not used in decimal notation, the
trailing zeros are assumed not to be significant.

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Determining Significant Figures in Addition
and Subtraction of Measurement
• The results of a calculation based on measurements are only as
certain as the least certain measurement used in the calculation.
• When adding and subtracting measurements, the uncertainty of the
result is determined by the uncertainty of the least precise
measurement.
• The least precise measurement is the one with the LEAST
SIGNIFICANT DECIMAL PLACE.

MEASUREMENTS AND CALCULATIONS

For example:
• addition of the measurements: 0.132 + 1.25 + 1.0 gives a result of 2.4
(rounded up from 2.38).
• The least precise measurement is 1.0, with at least significant
decimal place of tenths.
• So the result contains one decimal place (rounded to the tenths
place).

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Example
• Addition of the measurements: 240 +100 +1.10 gives a a
result of 300 (rounded up from 341.1).
• In this case, the least precise measurement is 100, with a
least significant decimal place of hundreds.

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Determining Significant Figures in
Multiplication and Division of Measurement
• When multiplying and dividing measurements, the result must
contain the same number of significant figures as the measurement
with the least number of significant figures.
• Thus, (1.3 x 10-3) x (1.25 x 102) = 1.6 x 10-1 (rounded from 1.625 x 10-
1).

• Since 1.3 x 10-3 has two significant figures and 1.25 x 102 has three
significant figures, the result should have two significant figures.

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• Determine the number of significant figures in 2000/115
• Convert to scientific notation
2000/115 = (2 x 103 ) /(1.15 x 102 )
• Determine the result of each calculation in scientific
notation.
(2 x 103 ) /(1.15 x 102 ) = 1.7 x 101
Or 2 x 101

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Since significant figures are used to express the experimental
uncertainties, only experimentally measured numbers or
results of calculations that use experimentally measured
numbers or results of calculations that use experimentally
measured numbers use significant figures.

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• Numbers that are defined to be a specific value, such as conversion
factors, or the result of a count are exact numbers. Since they do not
have measurement uncertainties associated with them, they are
considered to have an infinite number of significant figures.
• When used in calculations with numbers generated from
measurements, they do not affect the number of significant figures in
the result.

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International System of Units
• The global standard and most widely used system of
measurement units in both science and engineering is the
International System of Units, abbreviated SI from the French
"Le Systeme International d'Unites."
• These SI units are based on seven "base units," which are
defined in an absolute way without referring to any other
units.

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 • All other SI units, called SI "derived units", can be defined
algebraically in terms of the fundamental base units,
although their definitions based on other derived units are
more commonly used.
• Currently, there are 22 accepted SI derived units for a total of
29 base and derived units.

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• Other SI derived units not included in Table 1.2 are simple
mathematical combinations of the base units that do not have special
names attached to them.
• For example, the SI unit of area is m2, arising directly from the
algebraic formula for area: length (m) x width (m) = area (m x m =
m2).
• In a similar manner, the unit for volume is m3, the unit for velocity is
m/s, and the unit for density is kg/m3.

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SI Units Prefixes
• The SI units use a set of prefixes that precede the basic unit
of measure which act as decimal-based multipliers of the
unit.
• Each prefix name has an associated symbol which can be
used in combination with the symbols for the units of
measure.

MEASUREMENTS AND CALCULATIONS

For example,
• the prefix "milli" is used to indicate that the unit of
measurement is multiplied by a factor of 10-3. Thus, 1 mm is
equal to 1 x 10-3 m = 0.001 m.
• Since the symbol for meter is "m" and the symbol for the
prefix "milli" is "m", the symbol for millimeter is "mm" (0.001
m = 1 mm).

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 • Although, the SI system of units can be used to make any
physical measurement, some non-SI units are still widely
used in science and engineering.
• These units have been used for so long that they most likely
will be continued to be used for the foreseeable future.

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Reference:
• Gafney & Marley (2018) General Chemistry for Engineers

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Next topic:

• Physical States of Matter

• Classification of Matter
• Separation of Mixtures
Thank you for listening.
Prepared by: M.A.N 1ST semester, AY 2019-20