MATRIX ACIDIZING - WELL STIMULATION TECHNIQUES

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

Understand the fundamental of matrix acidizing
treatment Differentiate acid fracturing and matrix
acidizing

LECTURE CONTENTS

 Matrix Acidizing Treatments

 Carbonate Acid Fracturing

MATRIX ACIDIZING TREATMENT

Matrix acidizing is a near-wellbore treatment, with all of the

acid reacting within about a foot of the wellbore in sandstone
formations, and within a few to perhaps as much as 10 ft of
the wellbore in carbonates.

Carbonate Acid Fracturing


Viscous Fingering (pad acid)
 The formation is first hydraulically fractured with a
nonreactive, high-viscosity gel, normally crosslinked
gelled water (to create desired fracture geometry and
to cool the formation to slow subsequent reaction of
the acid injected).
 Next, lower-viscosity acid (HCl or an HCl-organic acid
blend) is pumped into the created fracture.
 The acid presumably fingers through the higher
viscosity pad because of the viscosity contrast and
consequent mobility difference. This phenomenon is
called viscous fingering.
 If the viscosity difference is at least about 50 cp,
sufficient viscous fingering occurs
Viscous Fingering (pad acid)
 The most commonly used acid is 15% HCl.
 Higher concentrations, such as 20% or 28% HCl, can
also be used (advantage of being more viscous than
15% HCl.
 Alternatively, HCl-organic acid blends and totally
organic acid blends can be used in place of HCl.
 Common viscous acid systems : acid-oil emulsion,
foamed acid, and gelled acid (polymer gelled and
surfactant gelled).
 However, viscosity contrast between the acid and the
pad must be significant.
 The pad fluid is typically gelled water containing 20-40
pounds per thousand gallons (pptg) of guar or
modified-guar polymer.
Viscous Acid Fracturing
 More common acid fracturing system.
 Uses viscous acid systems such as gelled, emulsified,
and foamed acid or chemically retarded acids.
 These systems are used both to create the fractures
and to differentially etch the fracture faces.
 Applicable in heterogeneous carbonates (e.g.
dolomites, impure limestone).
The basic viscous acid fracturing treatment design includes :
 Preflush
 Viscous acid stage
 Overflush
Viscous Acid Fracturing
Preflush
 To initiate a fracture and lower the temperature
around the fracture. Typically use slightly gelled (slick)
water.
Viscous Acid Stage
 To simultaneously propagate the fracture and
differentially etch its well. Typically use gelled,
emulsified, or foamed acid.
 15% HCl is the most common. Higher strength HCl,
organic acids, and HCl-organic acid blends are also
used.
Overflush :
 To displace acid from the wellbore and push the acid
volume forward, hence increasing the penetration
distance.
 When viscous acid is used, a large overflush can
effectively increase the etched fracture length.
Viscous Acid Fracturing
 More complex method of viscous acid fracturing
include alternating-stages and alternating-acids.
 In alternating-stage technique, acid and gelled water
are alternately pumped. The alternating gelled-water
stages serve three purposes:
 Gelled-water stages create greater fracture width,
because of higher viscosity.
 Gelled-water stages cool the fracture, thereby
increasing depth of acid penetration. (Acid reaction is
exothermic; therefore localized temperatures in the
fracture can become high).
 Alternating pumping increases penetration distance if
the acid is retarded, because the gelled water reduces
acid leak-off from the fracture to the matrix.
 With the alternating-acid technique, 2 acids with
opposite characteristics can be pumped alternately.
One acid mixture typically contains reaction-retarding
additives. The other acid mixture is nonretarded and
will react faster.
 The idea is to enhance differential etching and to
increase dissolution of rock near the wellbore.
MATRIX ACIDIZING - PART 2 Acid Velocity

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:  Increased velocity increases live acid penetration.
Depends on injection rate, geometry of fracture
 Understand basic acid chemistry
/channels, etc.
 Use of dissolving power concept to estimate the
amount of acid required to remove damage around a Formation Composition
wellbore
 Acid spends very rapidly in highly reactive (>95%)
LECTURE CONTENTS carbonates.
 Acid spending time can be much slower in formations
 Dissolving Power Concept
with lower HCl reactivity (65% - 85%).
 Acid Chemistry
 The reaction rate of acid in limestone is about twice
that in dolomites (at lower temperatures).
 Formation physical composition is key to acid
response.

Surface-Area-to-Volume Ratio

 The spending rate of acid is proportional to the surface

area of rock that comes in contact with a given volume
of acid.
 In matrix acidizing, the ratio of surface area to acid
volume is very high, and acid spends rapidly. Hence,
very difficult to achieve deeper penetration.
ACID REACTION RATE
 In natural fractures, the ratio of surface area to acid
Acid reaction rate is important, in which, together with volume is much less, and deeper treatment is possible.
formation characteristics, it determines the acid type and  In fracture acidizing, the ratio of rock surface area to
volume required. acid volume is even lower. Very deep stimulation in
fracturing applications is therefore possible.
Acid reaction rate is governed by

Temperature - Acid reaction rate increases directly with

temperature. At about 150oF, the reaction rate of HCl and
limestone is about twice that of 80oF.

Pressure - Pressure greater than 500 psi has little effect on

reaction rates. Below 500 psi, increased pressure accelerates
reaction rate.

Acid Type - Acid strength varies with acid type. Acid strength
is defined by ionization strength, or the degree to which acid
ionizes to hydrogen ion (H+), the reactive species with
carbonate minerals.

HCl is the strongest acid, as it nearly completely dissociated to

H+, and Cl- , in water.

Acetic and formic acids are weakly ionizing, as they do not

completely dissociate to H+ and the corresponding anion in
water.

Acid Concentration

 Rate increases with acid concentration up to 20% wt

HCl, after which the rate decreases due to retarding
effects of dissolved reaction products (CaCl2 and
CO2).
DISSOLVING POWER CONCEPT

 More convenient way to express reaction

stoichiometry.
 Represent the amount of mineral consumed by a
given amount of acid on mass or volume basis.
 Complex reaction.

WELL STIMULATION TECHNIQUES
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
 Understand sandstone matrix acidizing treatment
design process
 Understand the selection of the acids for matrix
acidizing treatment
 Describe the various acid placement techniques
LECTURE CONTENTS
 Sandstone Matrix Acidizing Treatment Design Process
 The Selection of The Acids for Matrix Acidizing
Treatment
 Various Acid Placement Techniques
SANDSTONE MATRIX ACIDIZING DESIGN
 Matrix acidizing is used primarily in sandstone formations to
dissolve unwanted materials that have invaded the rock pores
during drilling, cementing and completions operations
Due to high friction pressure, matrix acidizing must be
conducted at low injection rate so that the acids penetrates
into the pore spaces of the rock without fracturing the
formation.
INTRODUCTION
Analysis of the cause(s) of impaired well performance.
Well skin effect measurement.
Well history should be studied to determine whether the
damage is amenable to removal with acid.
Acidizing treatment design can begin.
 Selection of the type and concentration of acid to be
used.
 Determine the volume of preflush, HF/HCl mixture,
and postflush required, and desired injection rate.
 Acid placement.
 Additives to be added.
ACID SELECTION
Based primarily on field experience.
Standard treatment : 15 wt% HCl pre-flush followed with 3
wt% HF + 12 wt% HCl mixture (mud acid).
Recent trend has been toward the use of lower-strength HF
solutions to:
 Reduce damaging precipitates.
 Reduce risk of unconsolidation of formation around
wellbore.
MIXTURE OF HF & HCL (MUD ACID)
Due to insolubility of some fluorite salts, mud acid should :
 Never be diluted with seawater
 Never be used to acidize carbonate formation
 Always be used with preflush of HCl
 Always be used with postflush with HCl or NH4Cl

ACID SELECTION
Laboratory Test to select Optimal Acid
 Particularly useful when many wells will be treated in
the same formation.
 Flow acid through a small core and monitor
permeability response from pressure drop.
 Compare “Acid Response Curve” – a plot of the
permeability of the core as a function of acid
 throughput in pore volumes.
 Should only be used as guideline for field treatment.
SANDSTONE MATRIX ACIDIZING DESIGN
Permeability initially decrease, reaches a minimum, then
increases.
Smith et al (1965) reasoning:
 Initial permeability decrease due to partial
disintegration of the sandstone matrix, and the
downstream migration of fine that plug flow channels.
Continual exposure to acid resulting in dissolution of
fines.
 Subsequent increase in permeability due to clearing of
pore channels plugged by fines and the enlargement
of other pore channels by the acid.
Shaughnessy & Kunze (1980) reasoning:
 Permeability damage to Berea cores will also result if
HCl is used without HF.
 The observed reduction in permeability is not due to
fines migration but is a result of the CO2 produced by
the reaction of acid with the carbonates present in
Berea appearing as a separate CO2 – rich phase within
the pore spaces.
 If this is the case, the rock is not at all damaged, but
the relative permeability to acid is simply decreased
by the presence of the additional fluid phase.
 This phase will, however, be readily removed when
the well is put on production since CO2 has a
substantial solubility in both oil and water.
1. PREFLUSH
 Important - to remove formation materials that would
react to a significant extent with HCl.
 Usually 5 – 15 wt% of HCl, containing corrosion
inhibitors and other additives (as required).
 Displace connate water from the near-wellbore
region, minimizing direct contact between sodium and
potassium ions in the formation brine and the HF or
fluosilicate reaction products.
 Reduce the possible redamaging of the formation by
precipitation of insoluble sodium or potassium
fluorides or fluosilicates.
 Reduce reaction between HF & CaCO3 , avoid waste of
more expensive HF, prevents precipitation of calcium
fluoride (CaF2 ).
 Serves to precool formation.
P/s : use dissolving power concept to estimate the volume of
preflush needed.
2. ACID MIXTURE HF
 HCl mixture (usually 3 wt% HF and 12 wt% HCl).
 HF reacts with clays, sand, drilling mud or cement to
improve permeability near the wellbore.
 HCl will not react with these materials but is needed
to keep the pH low, reducing the precipitation of HF
reaction products.
3. POSTFLUSH
 To isolate reacted HF from brine that may be used to
flush the tubing.
 To displace spent acid into the formation.
 To restore water wettability of the formation.
 Moves precipitates farther from wellbore, so the
precipitations that may form will be less damaging.
  Minimum volume : tubing volume plus twice the
volume of wellbore below the tubing (due to gravity
segregation effects as mentioned by Hong and
Millhone (1977).
Types :
 Oil Wells – diesel oil or 15 wt% HCl
 Water Injection Wells – HCl
 Gas Wells – acid or gas (nitrogen or natural gas
ACID PLACEMENT TECHNIQUES
Acid will usually follow the path of least resistance – lesser
damaged intervals.
Allowing acid to choose its own path may not achieve the
design coverage.
Therefore, acid placement or diversion is to ensure uniform
distribution of acid across the treatment intervals. 2 main
categories :
 Mechanical
 Chemical
MECHANICAL ACID PLACEMENT
Isolate individual zones mechanically and treat all zones
successively.
Accomplished with (as described by McLeod) :
 Opposed cup packer (Perforation wash tool)
 Combination of a squeeze packer and a retrievable
bridge plug
 Inflatable straddle packers
Requires the removal of tubulars from well, adding significant
cost to treatment. However, the cost may often be justified by
the improved placement, particularly in horizontal well.
Best method for obtaining uniform placement.
BALL SEALERS
 Rubber-coated balls that are designed to seat in the
perforations in the casing, thereby diverting injected
fluid to other perforations.
 Added to injected acid in stages, so that after a
number of perforations have received acid, they are
blocked, diverting acid to other stages.
 Usually denser than fluid, so that after treatment, the
ball sealers will fall into the rathole.
 Erbstoesser (1980) showed that ball sealers that are
slightly buoyant in the carrying fluid seat more
efficiently than dense ball sealers, but require ball trap
to be added to flow line as it will be produced back at
surface after treatment
 General guideline to use twice as many ball sealers as
perforations & 50% excess for buoyant sealers.
 Their efficiency depends on the relative density
between the balls and the injection rate.
 The higher the rate, the better ball sealers will work,
i.e. Seating efficiency increases as injection rate
increases.
 Not recommended for low rates.
 Not effective in deviated or horizontal wells.
CHEMICAL ACID PLACEMENT – PARTICULATE DIVERTING
AGENTS
Fine particles that form a relatively low-permeability filter
cake on formation face. The pressure drop through this filter
cake increases the flow resistance, diverting the acid to other
parts of the formation where less diverting agent has been
deposited.
Added to acid continuously or in batches between acid stages.
Must form a low-permeability filter cake that is easily removed
by choosing agents that are :
 Small particles with wide ranges of sizes
 Soluble in oil, gas or water
Creates temporary plug in high permeability zones so that the
treatment fluids are diverted to the low permeability zone.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
  At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:  Flow geometry
 Understand carbonate matrix acidizing treatment  Injection rate
process  Reaction kinetics
 Mass transfer rates
LECTURE CONTENTS
Carbonate matric acidizing is all about wormholes : acid-
 Carbonate Matrix Acidizing Treatment Process
created channels that are orders of magnitude larger than
CARBONATE MATRIX ACIDIZING matrix pores.

CARBONATE FORMATION STIMULATION

In matrix acidizing, wormholes are good.
Physically and chemically different from sandstone
Propagation of wormholes through the damaged zone yields
 Very fine grains exhibiting vugular or fracture porosity negative skin.
compared to sandstone (intergranular porosity)
Only a small fraction of the matrix must be dissolved.
 React much faster with HCl than sandstones
 Often, a few large channels, called wormholes, are
created, caused by the nonuniform dissolution of
limestone by HCl in a linear core flood.

Carbonates normally

 Massive deposits of chalk, limestone or dolomite

 Smaller particles than sand grains
 Undergo large porosity & permeability reduction
(burial & diagenesis)
 Also include Fe, clays, Si materials

CARBONATE MATRIX ACIDIZING

MECHANISM OF DISSOLUTION

Surface reaction rates are relatively high, hence mass transfer

limits reaction, leading to highly nonuniform dissolution
patterns

A few large channels called wormholes form

Structure of wormholes depends on many factors including:

 1. ACID TYPE AND CONCENTRATION

HCl acid is the most common acid used in carbonate matrix

acidizing.

Weak acids are suggested for perforation cleanup and

perforating fluid, but otherwise, strong solutions of HCl are
recommended.
CARBONATE DISSOLUTION PATTERN
All models of wormhole propagation predict deeper
 At A, high Damkohler number, acid is consumed at the penetration for higher acid concentrations, so high
inlet flow face of the core, permeability increase is concentration of HCl is preferable.
negligible, acidizing is inefficient. In carbonates, there are no precipitation reactions to limit the
 At B, low Damkohler number, acid can penetrate into acid concentrations used, as in the case in sandstones.
the porous matrix and enlarge flow channels, a
wormhole is formed. The wormholes increase the
permeability significantly making the acidizing
efficient.

2. ACID VOLUME AND INJECTION RATE

 Determine the acid volume and injection rate

schedule for carbonate acidizing, similar to the
approach used in sandstone acidizing.
 Determine the maximum volume needed based on a
model of the acidizing process and then adjusting the
injection rate and volume actually pumped based on
real-time monitoring of the treatment.
 The acid volume is calculated with a model of
wormhole propagation (Daccord’s model or the
volumetric model) for a desired penetration of
wormholes.
 Current models of wormhole propagation predict that
wormhole velocity increases with injection rate to the
power of ½ to 1.
  Thus, to propagate wormholes at a given distance
most rapidly, the maximum injection rate is
preferable.
 In general, sufficient acid volumes are available, so
that injection at the maximum rate is recommended
for limestone formations.
 Therefore, by increasing the reaction rate, acid will
penetrate farther into the formation.
3. MONITORING THE ACIDIZING PROCESS
Injection rate and injection pressure should be closely
monitored, similar to the approach as in the case in
sandstones acidizing treatment.
Because the wormholes created in carbonates are such large
channels, it is generally assumed that the pressure drop
through the wormholed region is negligible, so that the effect
of the wormholes on the well skin effect is the same as
enlarging the wellbore.
The skin evolution in a carbonate matrix acidizing treatment
can be predicted with the models of wormhole propagation.
4. FLUID DIVERSION
 Adequate placement of acid into all zones to be
stimulated is as important in acidizing carbonates as it
is in sandstones. The same fluid placement techniques
are applicable.
 One exception is in carbonate formations that are
vugular or contain large natural fractures.
 In these types of formations, larger particle diverting
agents are needed.
 For a vuggy or fractured carbonate, diverting agents
such as Unibeads or benzoic acid flakes are
recommended.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Identify potential hazards in acidizing treatments
 Understand well stimulation economics
 Describe what is a good matrix acidizing candidate
LECTURE CONTENTS
 Well Stimulation
 Economics Potential Hazards in Acidizing Treatments
 Matrix Acidizing Candidate Selection
MATRIX ACIDIZING CANDIDATE SELECTION
The criteria (stated in the Table) determine whether a well has
minimum of :
 Remaining reserve to justify well stimulation
 Well inflow productivity
 Capacity in facilities to process extra fluid production
1. Does the well show sand production? Are sand control
measures in place?
Matrix stimulation treatments of gravel packed completions
have historically shown a lower success rate than when
perforated completions are treated.
2. Is the cause of formation damage known (or at least
suspected)?
Identification of the cause of the formation damage greatly
increases the chance of matrix treatment success since a
treatment fluid which efficiently removes that specific form of
formation damage can be selected.
Could other inflow improving measures (e.g. re-perforation)
be a more economical approach to increase well production?
3. Is the stimulation feasible?
The final stage of stimulation candidate selection is to
evaluate the practical aspects of the stimulation.
e.g. What is the mechanical condition of the well?
Are there any logistical, scheduling, or other overriding
considerations, which prevent the well being taken out of
production?
TREATMENT TIMING
To correct formation permeability impairment caused by
drilling mud :
 Immediately after drilling/completion
Routine field production surveillance, well produced less than
surrounding wells with comparable reservoir
quality/permeability-thickness
 After routine surveillance
THE STIMULATION CYCLE
WELL STIMULATION ECONOMICS
WELL STIMULATION ECONOMICS
Line with steeper slope corresponds to a greater, annual, net
HC production decline rate.
Extra oil reserves created by producing the well above the
economic limit for a longer period of time.
The expected, net HC production gain needs to be estimated
first if :
 The well’s skin value is known or Use Hawkins formula
if the extent and depth of formation damage are
known (or guesstimated).
 Experience with comparable stimulations in the same
field.
Field experience has shown that :
 Gain in production will normally be followed by an
increased production decline rate.
 In time, well’s production rate will often revert to its
predicted, original value or even below this
extrapolated value. The latter occurs if the well’s
reserves have undergone an accelerated depletion
resulting from the increased well production following
the well stimulation.
Estimate of the length of time, during which the stimulated
well stimulation will increase in production is also required,
consider :
 The well inflow i.e. whether the well has sufficient
inflow capacity and remaining reserves
 The well (tubing) outflow capacity
 Whether the production facilities have sufficient
capacity to process the extra fluid volumes.
Compare the increased revenue with cost of stimulation which
include the :
Cost of mobilization, equipment rental (pumps, tanks etc.) and
personnel
Cost of returning the well to production e.g. initiate
production by lifting with nitrogen gas.
Cost of consumables e.g. chemicals etc. The stimulation
treatment :
That yields the highest (discounted) rate of return, and
That is operationally feasible Should be carried out first if
several stimulation candidate wells have been identified.
Payback Time
The production time required for the increased, net HC
production to pay back the costs of the stimulation treatment.
A simpler calculation method.  The most profitable candidate
is the stimulation treatment yielding the most rapid payback
Most companies require a very high rate of return from this
type of well treatment, leading to pay back times of between
6 and 12 months.
Leaks and handling of acid.
 Leaks on surface endanger service personnel. Contact
with acids can cause severe burns and should be
avoided
 Subsurface leaks corrode tubing & casing
Most additives used in acid are toxic to varying degree.
Chemicals contacting the skin should be removed immediately
by washing with soap and water.
Potential Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) may be produced when acid
react with sulfide scale
 H2S smells like rotten eggs at low concentrations
 Effects depends on concentrations and duration of
exposure Immediate death when concentrations are
over 500-1000 ppm
Arsenic Inhibitor (poisonous if swallowed)
 Arsenic contact with aluminium or magnesium may
produce arsine gas
 Arsine gas - an inhalation hazard, very deadly
 Generally do not use Arsenic inhibitors due to their
toxicity and environmental protection problems
Environment Protection
 Proper handling & disposal of acid and spent acid
products
 Follow regulatory guidelines
HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
 Identify the hydraulic fracture treatment selection
guidelines
 Analyse the fracture stimulated well inflow
performance
 Understand the fundamental of fracturing
LECTURE CONTENTS
 Fundamental of Fracturing
 The Hydraulic Fracture Treatment Selection
Guidelines
 The Fracture Stimulated Well Inflow Performance
FUNDAMENTAL OF FRACTURING
 Propped Hydraulic Fracturing consists of pumping a
viscous fluid at a sufficiently high pressure into the
completion interval so that a two winged, hydraulic
fracture is formed.
 This fracture is then filled with a high conductivity,
proppant which holds the fracture open (maintains a
high conductivity path to the wellbore) after the
treatment is finished.
 The propped fracture can have a width between 5 mm
and 35 mm and a length of 100 m or more
 An alternative is to pump acid at a wellbore pressure
greater than the fracture propagation pressure for a
inhomogeneous carbonate formation.
 Both types of fracturing treatments create highly
conductive paths from deep in the reservoir to the
wellbore.
The radial well inflow equation shows that the well production
rate (Q) can be increased by :
 Increasing the formation flow capacity (k.h) {the
fracture may increase the effective formation height
(h) or connect with a formation zone with a higher
permeability (k)}
 Bypassing flow effects that increase the skin, S (near
wellbore formation damage)
 Increasing the wellbore radius (𝑟𝑤) to an effective
wellbore radius (𝑟𝑤 ′ ), which is itself is a function of
the conductive fracture length, 𝐿𝑓
Hydraulic Fracturing is beneficial in following three cases :
1. If the reservoir is composed of a low-permeability,
homogeneous rock, fracturing is similar in effect to
increasing the size of the hole. (i.e., fluid formerly
flowed through the low-permeability rock becomes
able to move into the high capacity fracture at some
distance from the well.)
2. Fracturing will eliminate formation damage by
bypassing it.
3. Fracture radiating from the well bore act as a
gathering lines connecting permeable and porous
systems that are otherwise isolated from the well by
impermeable barriers.
TREATMENT SELECTION GUIDELINES
 Hydraulic fracture stimulation is required for the
economic development of low permeability
reservoirs.
 This is because a highly conductive fracture results in
a negative skin with the wellbore flowing pressure,
(P1) having been increased, at a given flow rate,
compared to an unimpaired (P2) or impaired (P3)
flowing pressure.
 FRACTURE STIMULATED WELL INFLOW PERFORMANCE

The fracture conductivity is increased by:

 An increased fracture width (w),

 An increased proppant permeability (large, more
spherical, proppant grains have a higher permeability)
 Minimising the permeability damage to the proppant
pack from the fracturing fluid.

Propped hydraulic fracture well stimulation should only be

considered when the:

 Well is connected to adequate produce able reserves;

 Reservoir pressure is high enough to maintain flow
when producing these reserves (or it is economically
justifiable to install artificial lift);
 Production system can process the extra production.

TREATMENT SELECTION GUIDELINES

 These minimum criteria are equivalent to those used

for matrix treatments and are summarized in the
table. There is, however, one extra and unique
requirement for propped hydraulic fracturing:
 Professional, experienced personnel are available for
treatment design, execution and supervision along
together with high quality pumping, mixing and
blending equipment
 The last requirement arises because a propped
hydraulic fracturing treatment is more complex
compared to matrix or acid fracturing treatments.
The above correlations and equations can be used to quantify
the relationship between the increased production (FOI) as a
function of the fracture length ( 𝐿𝑓 ), formation permeability
(k) and the fracture conductivity (𝑘𝑓 ∗ 𝑤). The figure shows
that for wells in low permeability (0.1 mD) formations :

High values of the FOI are possible;

FOI is related to fracture half length, while the fracture

conductivity has a limited effect, providing its value is greater
than a certain minimum.

The (low) formation permeability is controlling the well inflow

and increased fracture conductivity does not improve well
inflow performance. An increase in the formation permeability
to 10 mD results in:
  A fracture with a low conductivity (100 mD.ft) has
essentially no effect on the well production;
 Increasing the fracture conductivity by a factor of 10
(to 1,000 mD.ft) increases the well production (or FOI),
but the FOI is still independent of fracture
A further increase to 10,000 mD.ft is required before the
inflow performance becomes sensitive to created fracture
length i.e. the fracture conductivity is no longer the only
limiting factor in well inflow performance.
he split will be in the direction of least resistance, i.e. will
propagate most easily in the direction perpendicular to the
minimum in-situ stress.
Thus, in tectonically relaxed environments, we can assume
that a hydraulic fracture will have a vertical orientation and
will propagate in the direction of the intermediate (or
maximum horizontal) of the in-situ stress i.e. at right angles to
the minimum in-situ stress.

Inflow from the formation into the fracture is no longer the

controlling factor for this higher permeability reservoir.

The above considerations will control the hydraulic fracture

treatment design process since long and highly conductive
fractures are more difficult to make and have a greater cost.

LECTURE CONTENTS

 In-situ Stress
 Effective Stress
 Fracture Initiation and Perforation
 Programme Data Gathering

IN-SITU STRESS

It is known that there are three principle earth stresses

orientated to one another.

 𝜎1 is the vertical stress

 𝜎2 is the minimum horizontal stress
 𝜎3 is the maximum horizontal stress
The vertical stress (𝜎𝑥) can be measured, or assumed, with
reasonable accuracy. The important rock property for
predicting the other two stresses from the vertical stress is
called Poisson’s Ratio (v), the ratio between Lateral Strain (𝜀𝑦)
and the Longitudinal Strain (𝜀𝑥)

The negative sign is included because (convention) states that

expansion should be treated as negative and we wish Poisson’
Ratio to be a positive number

Below about 500m, in a relaxed tectonic environment, the

vertical stress is normally the greatest

𝝈𝑽 > 𝝈𝑯 > 𝝈𝒉

The overburden stress can be computed with density log data.

Normally, the value for overburden stress is approximately 1
psi/ft of depth, though lower values are encountered in
shallow, particularly offshore environments subject to rapid
deposition.

Propagation of a hydraulic fracture, requires the actual

splitting apart of the fabric of the formation. T
 Figure 3 explains how subjecting a rock sample to a vertical
(the overburden) stress results in it shortening in the vertical
direction and expansion in the horizontal direction.
A similar effect occurs in a reservoir rock deposited in a
sedimentary basin.
The magnitude of the vertical stress at any depth is related to
the weight of the overlying rock mass. This can often be
estimated by integrating the density log from the depth under
study to the surface (a default value of 1.0 – 1.1 psi/ft can be
used if this log is not available).
EFFECTIVE STRESS
 The pore fluids present within the rock matrix will
support a proportion of the total applied stress. This
means that effective stress (s’) carried by the rock
matrix grains is smaller than the total stress. This was
quantified by Terzaghi as: 𝝈 , = 𝝈 − 𝑷 Where 𝜎 is the
total stress, P is the pore pressure, and 𝜎 , is the
effective stress.
 It was later recognized by Handin that the intergrain
cementation does not allow the pore pressure to
completely counteract the applied load. A correction
factor, the pore-elastic constant, 𝛼, was introduced: 𝝈
, = 𝝈𝜶 – 𝑷

 From these equations, it is concluded that the values
of the stresses which control fracture propagation can
change as the reservoir pressure depletes during the
life of a petroleum reservoir. Hence the stress profile
measured early in a field’s lifetime may become
invalid as the field matures.
 For example, a hydraulic fracture created later in the
life of a field will tend to be more confined to the pay
zone than a similar treatment carried out early in field
life. This occurs because the pay zone reservoir
pressure will have decreased due to oil or gas
production, while the pressure and hence the in-situ
stress in the bounding shale will be unchanged.
FRACTURE INITIATION AND PERFORATION PROGRAMME
As discussed, the induced hydraulic fracture propagates at
right angles to the minimum in-situ stress.
From a conceptual point of view, it can be seen that the:
Fracture Initiation Pressure (FIP)
 The pressure needed to start the fracture propagating
Fracture Propagation Pressure (FPP)
 Pressure needed to continue fracture propagation =
minimum rock in-situ stress + fracture toughness :
Since the propagating fracture has to overcome the forces that
are preventing further splitting of the rock, the minimum rock
in-situ stress and its fracture toughness are included in the
calculation of FPP.
The Fracture Initiation Pressure (FIP) - the pressure needed to
start the fracture propagating from the perforation will
normally be greater than the FPP.
This is because fracture initiation requires additional energy to
overcome the tensile stresses present around the borehole
plus any extra pressure required to overcome the fact that the
perforation is not orientated in the preferred direction for
fracture propagation. Inefficient perforating can increase the
FIP.
This illustrates how it is unlikely that inline (O o phasing)
perforations will be aligned with this preferred direction of
fracture propagation (In the case illustrated the perforation is
orientated at right angles to the preferred fracture criteria).
Field experience indicates that the FIP can be minimized by
perforating the well with 60 o phasing – the maximum
difference between the perforation and induced fracture
orientation will now be reduced to 30.
Figure shows how the fracture has to initiate from the
perforation and then travel around the well until it achieves
the preferred orientation, after which it will propagate away
from the well. The width of the induced fracture is related to
the difference between the fluid pressure in the fracture and
the in-situ stress.
The fracture will be much narrower at the point of initiation
since the maximum rather than the minimum, horizontal
stress is acting on the fracture. This area of restricted width
may not be wide enough to allow the passage of proppant
grains during the later stages of the fracturing treatment –
resulting in a premature screen out
DATA GATHERING
 Prior to carrying out the hydraulic fracturing
treatment it is advisable to carry out a smaller data
gathering called minifrac, to measure the formation
and fluid properties.
 Fluid is pumped at a constant rate and small volume;
e.g. : 2 barrel for the required time and the treatment
pressure measured.
 Proppant is not used.
 The bottom hole pressure begins to rise until FIP, after
which it drops rapidly to FPP.
 The pumps are stopped when the desired fluid volume
has been pumped and fracture propagation ceases.
 This pressure drops rapidly to ISIP.
The fracture is still open at the ISIP. Leak off continues,
pressure drops until FCP. The FCP is recognized as a change in
slope in the pressure decay curve.
Fluid is leaking off into the formation from the whole fracture
surface when the fracture is open.
The fluid loss rate decreases to a low value after the fracture
closes. Due time, pressure will be equalized to reservoir
pressure.
Fracture Re-opening Pressure, FRP have lower value than FIP.
Valuable information from minifrac:
 The longer the fracture takes to close after the
cessation of pumping, the lower the leak off and the
greater the fracture volume. A volume balance can be
performed to quantify this fluid loss to be used as
input to fracture treatment design programs.
 Fracture height can be measured after the well is
fractured: A temperature log is run across the
perforated interval before and after the minifrac
treatment. This production log will record a
(cool/lower temperature) zone across the created
fracture due to the injection of the cold fracturing
fluid.
HYDRAULIC FRACTURING - PART 3
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
 Understand the importance of knowing the fracture
size, containment and growth, and the shape of the
induced fracture
LECTURE CONTENTS
 Fracture Height Measurement
 Fracture Size, Containment, and Growth
FRACTURE SIZE
 Greater volumes of fracturing fluid will create larger
fractures. However, often uncontrolled growth of
fractures is not desirable from a production point of
view e.g. when the target oil zone is overlain by gas
with water underneath.
 It assumes that: The fracture is initiated from
perforations at the midpoint of the oil zone and the
fracture propagates radially. The resulting maximum
allowable fracture half length (𝐿𝑓) is slightly less than
half the height of the oil column.
 The hydraulic fracture should thus be designed so that
it does not contact unwanted fluids within a single
formation layer.
 It must also consider whether the hydraulic fracture is
contained within the pay zone i.e. whether upward
and / or downward fracture growth is retarded by
changes in the formation property contrast between
the two layers.
 (Minimum) in-situ stress: permeable formations e.g.
sand typically have a lower Poisson’s Ratio compared
to the bounding shale layers. The resulting lower in-
situ stress will aid hydraulic fracture containment.
 Fracture toughness: increased values of the fracture
toughness imply that it is more difficult for the
fracture to propagate in that zone.
 Leak off: high fluid loss rates will retard fracture
propagation through the zone.
HIGH IN-SITU STRESS CONTRASTS AND FRACTURE SHAPES
FRACTURE GROWTH INTO BOUNDARIES
 Figure 3 shows a case where a massive, homogeneous,
gas bearing sandstone is overlain by a (sodium
chloride) salt zone (the cap rock). The well is
perforated near the top of the pay zone.
 There is thus a very large in-situ stress contrast
(estimated as 10 Mpa) at the salt/sandstone boundary
resulting in upward fracture growth being
immediately halted. Due to the homogeneous nature
of the sandstone, it is expected that there is a constant
stress gradient.
 The effect on fracture shape and containment of
differing values of the stress gradient is illustrated.
 (i) Constant stress (or zero stress gradient) : The
fracture grows downwards due to the density of the
fracturing fluid giving rise to an increased pressure at
the bottom surface of the fracture compared to the
top surface.
 (ii) Hydrostatic stress gradient (0.45 psi/ft) : The stress
gradient in the formation is now the same as that of
the fracturing fluid – resulting in radial propagation of
the fracture, apart from the top surface where upward
growth is stopped due to large (10 Mpa) stress
contrast at the salt/sandstone boundary.
 (iii) Extensional stress gradient (0.7 psi/ft) is
commonly found in relaxed tectonic environments. A
longer fracture results since the fracture downward
growth becoming limited due to the minimum in-situ
stress increasing at a greater rate (0.7 psi/ft) than the
hydrostatic head of the fracturing fluid (0.45 psi/ft).
 (iv) Overburden (or maximum) stress gradient (1.1
psi/ft). This scenario yields the longest fracture with
the least downward growth. In fact, the fracture is
trying to grow upwards, the reverse of the first
scenario. This upwards growth constrained by the high
stress contrast of the salt/sand boundary.
  Whether a pay zone boundary is capable of containing
a fracture will depend on the magnitude of the
fracture containment; e.g. the minimum in-situ stress
contrast and the thickness of the boundary.
 Figure 4 illustrates fracture containment for three
different values of the stress contrast. Initially the
fracture propagates radially in the pay zone until the
boundary layer is reached; after which it becomes
more elongated - with greater stress contrasts giving
rise to the more elongated shapes.
 The fracture lines growing with the increasing times /
volume of hydraulic fracturing fluid pumped.
Whether a pay zone boundary is capable of containing a
fracture will depend on the magnitude of the fracture
containment, e.g. the minimum in-situ stress contrast and the
thickness of the boundary.
Figure 4 illustrates fracture containment for three different
values of the stress contrast. Initially the fracture propagates
radially in the pay zone until the boundary layer is reached;
after which it becomes more elongated - with greater stress
contrasts giving rise to the more elongated shapes.
The fracture lines growing with the increasing times / volume
of hydraulic fracturing fluid pumped.
The stress contrast at the upper and lower boundary cause
upward and downward fracture growth to be retarded.
Upward fracture growth is somewhat easier as the stress
contrast in this direction is less. The effect of this partial
fracture containment is to increase the FPP (Times 4, 5, and 6).
At time 7, the upward growth allows the fracture to break
through into the upper water bearing zone. Since this has a
very low, constant fracture gradient, the fracture will grow
rapidly upwards, resulting in a drop in the FPP.
Note that the fracture length in the pay zone has actually
decreased due to the fracture’s rapid expansion into the
upper, water sand. Real time measurement of the FPP thus
allows monitoring of fracture containment.
FRACTURE HEIGHT MEASUREMENT
There are a number of possible measurement techniques
which can be used to measure fracture height :
1. Run a temperature log immediately after the fracture
treatment to measure cooled zone denoting fracture
fluid entry.
2. The depth at which fluid is entering into the well from
the fracture can be measured by running a production
log across the perforated interval to measure the flow
profile (spinner a flow meter log) or the flow induced
noise (noise log) or temperature changes.
3. The proppant can be given a lightly radioactive
coating. Running a gamma ray log after the excess
proppant has been cleaned out of the well will
measure the propped fracture height.
4. The fracture can be physically observed in open hole
completions using borehole camera generating a
picture of the borehole wall using video.
 5. Making seismic measurements. These seismic
monitoring are installed at the surface or in an
observation well.

MODELLING THE SHAPE OF THE INDUCED FRACTURE

Several (commercial) programs are available to predict the

shape (height, length and width) of the induced hydraulic
fracture. They fall into one of three classes:

2D : These models use two dimensional, analytical equations

where the fracture height is required as input.

P3D : or pseudo three dimensional programs. These programs

combine analytical and numerical routines that can predict the
fracture height and width somewhat independently

Fully 3D : Complex numerical modelling programs with

extensive input data and high-end computing requirements

The complexity of hydraulic fracturing models derives from

the need to simultaneously satisfy two sets of laws:

Conservation of momentum, mass and energy.

A fracture propagation criteria that controls the advance of

the fracture tip