Sludge Treatment and Disposal PDF

EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
PROCESS DESIGN MANUAL

FOR
SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL
U .S . ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory

Office of Research and Development
Center for Environmental Research Information

Technology Transfer
September 1979
NOTICE
The mention of trade names or commercial

products in this publication is for
illustrative purposes only and does not
constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use by the USEPA.
11
FOREWORD
The formation of the United States Environmental Protection

Agency marked a new era of environmental awareness in America.
This Agency's goals are national in scope and encompass broad
responsibility in the areas of air and water pollution, solid
wastes , pesticides , and radiation , A vital part of EPA ' s
national pollution control effort is the constant development
and dissemination of new technology.
It is now clear that only the most effective design and operation
of pollution control facilities using the latest available
techniques will be adequate to ensure continued protection of
the nation's waters. It is essential that this new technology be
incorporated into the contemporary design of pollution control
facilities to achieve maximum benefit of our expenditures.
The purpose of this manual is to provide the engineering
community and related industry with a new source of information
to be used in the planning , design , and operation of present
and future wastewater pollution control facilities , It is
recognized that there are a number of design manuals and manuals
of standard practice , such as those published by the Water
Pollution Control Federation , available in the field , and
that each of these adequately describes and interprets current
engineering practices as related to traditional plant design.
It is the intent of this manual to supplement this existing
body of knowledge by describing new treatment methods and by
discussing the application of new techniques for more effectively
removing a broad spectrum of contaminants from wastewater.
Much of the information presented is based on the evaluation and
operation of pilot, demonstration, and full-scale plants , The
design criteria thus generated represent typical values , These
values should be used as a guide and should be tempered with
sound engineering judgment based on a complete analysis of the
specific application.
This manual is one of several available from Technology Transfer

to describe technological advances and new information , Future
editions will be issued as warranted by advancing state- of -the-
art to include new data as they become available and to revise
design criteria as additional full-scale operational information
as generated .
111
ABSTRACT
T h e purpose of this manual is to present a contemporary review

of s l u d g e processing technology , with particular e m p h a s i s o n
design methodology , This is a revision of a manual originally
published in October 1974.
The revised edition incorporates chapters on design approach,
disinfection, composting , transport , s t o r a g e , sidestream
t r e a t m e n t , and instrumentation. O t h e r sections h a v e b e e n
considerably expanded.
D e s i g n e x a m p l e s a r e used t h r o u g h o u t t h e manual t o illustrate

design principles.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD , ill
ABSTRACT ... IV
LIST OF TABLES .. * * # * XXV
LIST OF FIGURES * * » * XXXVI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS * » # * * #
* * * xlix
CHAPTER 1. PURPOSE AND SCOPE ... 1- 1
. ......... .
--
1.1 Purpose . .. 1 1
1.2 Scope * * » * * * •
# # '
* i * + 1 2
1.3 Process Classification ** * * * 1- 2
1.4 References . # p f * * « 4 # #
* p « # # #
* « * « « 1- 2
CHAPTER 2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 2 - 1
2.1 Introduction and Scope . . ............... ... .
. . -2-
2 1
2.2 Legal and Regulatory Considerations 1
2.2.1 Effect of Effluent Discharge Limitations
on Wastewater Solids Management . m • •• . 2- 1
2.2.2 Restrictions on Wastewater
Solids Treatment 2- 2
--
2.2.2.1 Air Emissions Limits . ... ... 2 2
2.2.2.2 Nuisances 2 3
2.2.2.3 State and Local Requirements « + + + # # # # 2- 3
2.2.3 Laws and Regulations Governing Wastewater
Solids Utilization and Disposal » » » « « » * « 2- 3
2.2.3.1 Federal Water Pollution Control Act ... 2- 3
2.2.3.2 Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act 2- 4
2.2.3.3 Toxic Substances Control Act ...
2.2.3.4 Marine Protection, Research and
2- 3
Sanctuaries Act * * * + « * » * « * « *
i 4 # tt 2- 5
2.2 . 3.5 Environmental Policy Acts * * * * * * • • * * # # # 2- 5
2.2.3.6 State and Local Reuse and
Disposal Requirements ... 2- 5
2.2.4 The Comprehensive Nature of Section 405
of the Clean Water Act ... 2- 5
2.3 Other Non-Technical Factors Affecting
Wastewater Solids Management .. . . ... . . . ... ... 2 - 6
2.3 .1 Availability of Construction Funds .... 2- 6
2.3 .2 Special Funding Requirements 2- 7
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
2.3.3 Time Span of Decisions 2- 7

2.3.4
2.3.5
Uncertainties , * h i ft * * * 2- 8
2.3.6
The Design Team
Public Involvement
*
* *
ft
*
ft
ft ft ft # ft
2-
2- 9
8
2.3.7 Social and Political Factors Affecting
Waste Export « « « * * # # 2- 10
2.4 References 2- 11
CHAPTER 3. DESIGN APPROACH 3- 1

3.1 Introduction * • « » * * #
* * * •*
# • > « « * 3- 1
3.2 Systems Approach . 3- 1
3.3 The Logic of Process Selection 3- 2
3.3.1 Identification of Relevant Criteria 3- 2
3.3.2 Identification of System Options .... * m 3- 4
3.3.3 System Selection Procedure » 3- 6
3.3 .3.1 Base and Secondary Alternatives * * « ft # t * * 3- 6
3.3 .3.2 Choosing a Base Alternative:
First Cut . » *
* * ** * * * * # # # & * * * » • 3- 7
3.3.3.3 Choosing a Base Alternative:
Second Cut *
ftftfftftftftftftftftftft ftftftft # # # # 3- 10
3.3.3.4 Third Cut * * • * * * ft ft* ft ft: ft 3- 11
3.3.3.5 Subsequent Cuts 3- 12
3.3.4 Parallel Elements . * ** v i f t f t f t A f t ft 3- 12
3.3.5 Process Selection at Eugene , Oregon . 3- 13
3.4 The Quantitative Flow Diagram 3- 18
3.4.1 Example: QFD for a Chemically Assisted
Primary Treatment Plant • ft ft • *• * ft ft ft # # ft ft * * ft * 3- 18
3.4.2 Example: QFD for Secondary Plant
With Filtration 3- 24
3.5 Sizing of Equipment r ft ft ft 3- 27
3.6 Contingency Planning 3- 29
3.6.1 Example of Contingency Planning
for Breakdowns 3- 29
3.7 Other General Design Considerations * * « ** * * * * * #
• # # m 3- 34
3.7.1 Site Variations ft ** 3- 34
3.7.2 Energy Conservation ... 3- 35
3.7.3 Cost-Effective Analyses « * 3- 36
3.7.4 Checklists * « ft ft ft 3- 38
3.8 References .... . 3- 39
CHAPTER 4. WASTEWATER SOLIDS PRODUCTION AND

CHARACTERIZATION ... 4- 1
4.1 Introduction .................. 4- 1
4.2 Primary Sludge 4- 1
4.2.1 Primary Sludge Production 4- 1
4.2.1.1 Basic Procedures for Estimating
Primary Sludge Production .. ft ft ft : ft ft ft ft ft # ft ft ft 4- 1
4.2.1.2 Industrial Waste Effect .... 4- 2
4.2.1.3 Ground Garbage Effect ...... 4- 3
4.2.1.4 Other Sludges and Sidestreams 4- 3
vi
Page
4.2.1.5 Chemical Precipitation and

Coagulation 4- 3
4.2.1.6 Peak Loads * * • * * * * « * » * * •• * • • « *
# # 4- 3
4.2 .2 Concentration Properties 4- 6
4.2.3 Composition and Characteristics - * « * m 4- 7
4.3 Biological Sludges ........... * * •* 4- 9
4.3 .1 General Characteristics 4- 9
4.3 .2 Activated Sludge . . .. ... 4- 9
4.3.2.1 Processes Included 4- 9
4.3 . 2.2 Computing Activated Sludge
Production - Dry Weight Basis * * * • * * * # 4- 9
4.3.2.3 Example: Determination of
Biological Sludge Production .... 4- 19
4.3.2.4 Interaction of Yield Calculations and
the Quantitative Flow Diagram ( QFD ) .• • 4- 24
4.3.2.5 Concentration of Waste - Activated
Sludge » * * * * * *i * * *
# # 9 9 **9 9 * * ** * * *
9 9 # # # # 9 4- 25
4.3.2.6 Other Properties of Activated Sludge ... 4- 27
.
4.3 3 Trickling Filters * * 1 4- 29
4.3.3.1 Computing Trickling Filter Sludge
Production - Dry Weight Basis a 9 9 » » * « W 9 9 4- 29
4.3.3.2 Concentration of Trickling Filter
Sludge !* * « » * * ** « * * « •* # 4- 33
4.3.3.3 Properties - Trickling Filter Sludge ... 4- 34
.
4.3 4 Sludge from Rotating Biological Reactors . .... 4- 34
4.3.5 Coupled Attached - Suspended Growth Sludges .. .. 4- 35
4.3.6 Denitrification Sludge * m *• 4- 36
4.4 Chemical Sludges .. « «* * * * * * * * * *
#
- +
* ** * ** ft 4- 36
4.4.1 Introduction • * * * * -* « * * * * * • * * * • * * * * » * « * • * *
« # 4- 36
4.4.2 Computing Chemical Sludge
Production - Dry Weight Basis 4- 37
4.4.3 Properties of Chemical Sludges 4- 38
4.4 .4 Handling Chemical Sludges .. * .. k 4- 38
.
4.4.4.1 Stabilization * * * * * * * * * * * #
*•* *
# « * # # # # # 4- 39
4.4.4.2 Chemical and By-Product Recovery » 9 4- 39
4.5 Elemental Analysis of Various Sludges ....... 4- 39
4.5.1 Controlling Trace Elements 4- 39
4.5.2 Site-Specific Analysis . * * * * 9 4- 41
4.5.3 Cadmium ... • * •* #
* **+ « * * » « **
# #
* * * * * * * ¥ # 9 9 9 9 4- 42
4.5.4 Increased Concentration During Processing ... 4- 43
4.6 Trace Organic Compounds in Sludge .... . .. 4- 44
4.7 Miscellaneous Wastewater Solids 4- 45
4.7.1 Screenings 4- 46
4.7.1.1 Quantity of Coarse Screenings 4- 46
4.7.1.2 Quantity of Fine Screenings I # 4- 48
4.7.1.3 Properties of Screenings ,, 4- 48
4.7.1.4 Handling Screenings * * « « * * 9 # # «
* 4- 48
4.7.1.5 Screenings From Miscellaneous
Locations 4- 49
4.7.2 Grit * * * *•* 4- 50
VI 1
Page
4.7.2.1 Quantity of Grit » * ft » » ft • # # #
* #
* 4- 51
4.7. 2.2 Properties of Grit 4- 52
4.7.2.3 Handling Grit ,. . . 4- 53
4.7.3 Scum « i * < • 4- 45
4.7.3.1Quantities of Scum * f * # ft 4- 55
4.7.3.2 Properties of Scum 4- 56
4.7. 3.3 Handling Scum . * * * # # 4- 57
4.7.4 Septage . ** * » * * » » • » 4- 59
4.7.4.1 Quantities of Septage . . . 4- 59
4.7.4.2 Properties of Septage .. • « * « * t * . i
* # v ft 4- 59
4.7.4.3 Treating Septage in Wastewater
Treatment Plants .» * * * * * * w # ft ft ft » * 4- 60
4.7.5 Backwash * * • * * •* « ft ft # ftft 4- 61
4.7.6 Solids From Treatment of Combined
Sewer Overflows , . 4- 62
4.8 References .......... .... . . . . . .... ..... 4- 63
CHAPTER 5 . THICKENING . * * * « * * * * m * ft ft # 5- 1
5.1 Introduction ..... 5- 1
5.1.1 Definition . * * « *• * ft ft 5- 1
.
5.1 2 Purpose ..
5.1.3 Process Evaluation
.. 5- 1
5- 1
.
5.1 4 Types and Occurrence of Thickening
Processes * * * * *
f t f t f t f t H» •«
f t f t t ft < 5- 2
5.2 Sedimentation Basins * ft ft 5- 2
5.2.1 Primary Sedimentation . 5- 2
5.2.2 Secondary Sedimentation 5- 3
5.3 Gravity Thickeners * * * * * * * * 5- 3
5.3.1 Introduction * * m u * * * * * * * * ^ * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
m a ** * * 5- 3
5.3 .2 Theory . * m m m r * * * * m m * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
w w * ** * 5- 3
5.3.3 System Design Considerations * * * 5- 5
5.3.3.1 Minimum Surface Area Requirements 5- 6
5.3.3.2 Hydraulic Loading 5- 8
5.3.3.3 Drive Torque Requirements 5- 8
5.3.3.4
Total Tank Depth .. . 5- 9
5.3.3.5 Floor Slope 5- 10
5.3.3.6 Other Considerations 5- 11
5.3.4 Design Example « ft 5- 12
.
5.3 5 Cost . 5- 15
5.3.5.1 Capital Cost 5- 15
5.3.5.2 Operating and Maintenance Cost 5- 15
5.4 Flotation Thickening ft ft * « « * . '
f t f t f t f t a f t
ft ft v f t # ft '
ft 5- 16
5.4.1 Dissolved Air Flotation ( DAF ) * « * • « f t f t f t f t f t f t f t f t f t f t f t 5 -18
5.4.1.1 Theory 5- 19
5.4.1.2 System Design Considerations 5- 19
5.4 .2 Design Example 5- 33
5.4 .3 Cost * * * * « * « * ft ftft ftft ft 5- 35
5.4. 3.1 Capital Cost 5- 35
5.4.3.2 Operating and Maintenance Costs f c f t f t f t f t * * * 5- 36
5.5 Centrifugal Thickening * ft 5- 36
V I11
Page
5.5.1 Introduction 5- 36
5.5.2 Theory • • * * * * * * • * * « >
* # 5- 38
5.5.3 System Design Considerations * * * * . # # * * ** 5- 39
5.5.3.1 Disc Nozzles * * # # 5- 39
5.5.3.2 Imperforate Basket # # 5- 45
..
5.5 3 3 Solid Bowl Decanter 5- 49
5.5.4 Case History • 5- 53
.
5.5.5 Cost * * * «...« *.* .. . A ..... ... # # # .
** **
5- 55
5.5.5.1 Capital Cost .. .
* * • » « « 9 4 9 # » » * * * * 5- 55
5.5.5.2 Operating and Maintenance Cost 9 9
* 5- 56
5.6 Miscellaneous Thickening Methods 5- 59
.
5.6 1 Elutriation Basin
5.6.2 Secondary Anaerobic Digesters
........... 5- 59
5- 60
5.6.3 Facultative Sludge Lagoons 5- 60
5.6.4 Ultrafiltration .* . #• # 5 -60
5.7 References * •. * * * * * * * . 9 5 -60
CHAPTER 6 . STABILIZATION
.
6.1 Introduction » * * * * *
6
6
-- 1
1
6.2 Anaerobic Digestion . * * * * • « * * « + * +
# #
* * * « * * ft .. .. # ! > 6 - 2
6.2.1 Process Description 6 -2
6.2.1.1 History and Current Status . 6 -2
6.2.1.2 Applicability 6- 3
6.2.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages 6 -4
6.2.1.4 Microbiology .. . 6- 5
6.2.2 Process Variations ... » •
6 . 2 . 2 . 1 Low- Rate Digestion * • »
* « * *
'
* « * * * »
** « 4* » ** + * * * * * # #
#
#
# #
#
6
6
-- 7
7
6.2 . 2.2 High- Rate Digestion 6- 7
6.2 . 2.3 Anaerobic Contact Process 6- 15
6.2 . 2.4 Phase Separation ...... 6- 16
6.2.3 Sizing of Anaerobic Digesters • • * V # 6- 18
6.2.3.1 Loading Criteria . . * * . .. ' 6- 18
6.2.3.2 Solids Retention Time . * * • * * * • » * * * * # # 6- 18
6.2.3.3 Recommended Sizing Procedure
6.2.4 Process Performance
6 20-
6- 23
6.2.4.1 Solids Reduction ... 6- 26
6.2.4.2 Gas Production 6 - 29
6.2.4.3 Supernatant Quality 6- 31
6.2.5 Operational Considerations * •* * * * * * # # # # » 6- 34
6.2.5.1 pH **** * 6- 34
6.2.5.2 Toxicity ... ........ 6- 36
6.2.6 System Component Design ,, 6- 42
6.2.6.1 Tank Design . . ...... m < 6- 42
6.2.6.2 Heating . * * *** * * V i m a m
4 # 4 # 4 # 6- 46
6.2.6.3 Mixing « « « # * * < 4 4 6- 52
6.2 . 6.4 Covers * * * m * * # # 6- 62
6.2.6.5 Piping . 6- 66
6.2.6.6 Cleaning 6- 67
6.2.7 Energy Usage .
* # > 6- 72
6.2.8 Costs ... * * *• * * » * « * « * * ¥ •# 9 6- 74
IX
Page
6.2.9 Design Example .....
..... 6- 74
6.2.9.1 Design Loadings ... * *' * * « * * * t i B f e 4 a a a 6- 74
6.2.9.2 System Description . 6- 75
6.2.9.3 Component Sizing .. . 6 - 77
6.3 Aerobic Digestion ....... . 6- 82
6.3.1 Process Description 6- 82
6.3.1.1 History .. .... . 6- 82
6.3.1.2 Current Status * * * * * « * # # a 6- 82
6.3.1.3 Applicability . * * * * * * * * * « * • * # # # 6- 82
6.3.1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages * a a 6- 82
6.3.1.5 Microbiology ... * • a a 6- 83
6.3.2 Process Variations ... 6- 84
6.3.2.1 Conventional Semi -Batch Operation * * a 6- 84
6.3.2.2 Conventional Continuous Operation .* * 6- 84
6.3.2.3 Auto-Heated Mode of Operation . « a • • * 6- 85
6.3.3 Design Considerations ... --
6 86
6.3.3.1 Temperature . 6 86
6.3.3.2 Solids Reduction . . -
6 86
6.3.3.3 Oxygen Requirements I < « « I I t • • * t t »
6.3.3.4 Mixing , * * * « # a
* * * •*
f
* * •• * *
f 4
#
#
-
6 88
6- 89
6.3.3.5 pH Reduction . 6 - 90
6.3.3.6 Dewatering I P * * * " S * S * * « « » 4 |
|# |
||( 6- 91
.
6.3 4 Process Performance , « » • I » 4
* • * •* * * •* *
» » I I i ! 6- 92
.
6.3 4.1 Total Volatile Solids Reduction ... 6- 92
6.3.4.2 Supernatant Quality 6- 93
6.3.5 Design Example 6- 93
6.3.6 Cost * * * * ft 6- 99
6.3.6.1 Capital Cost a a* * * *• * a # # # # i n 6- 99
6.3.6.2 Operation and Maintenance Cost * * * « i # 6 - 99
6.4 Lime Stabilization .....
. 6-100
6.4.1 Process Description * * 4 6-101
6.4.1.1 History * * * * * a a a a a a 4 a a # 6-101
6.4 . 1.2 Current Status * a * * « » « « * *
a a w a a a # #
* 6-102
6.4.1.3 Applicability ....... « * 4 * « * 6-102
6.4.1.4 Theory of the Process * a > i 6-103
6.4 . 2 Design Criteria * a 6-103
6.4.2.1 pH and Contact Time 6 -104
6.4.2.2 Lime Dosage . * * * * * * * * * a a 6-104
6.4.3 Process Performance ... * a a » * * * * * * * * * *
B
"4 f « 4 6 -107
6.4.3.1 Odor Control 6-108
6.4.3.2 Pathogen Reduction « i 6-109
6.4.3.3 Dewatering and Settling
Characteristics . * * * « a w w * * * * * * « « * * * * 6-110
6.4.3.4 Chemical Characteristics * * *** * * ** * 6-110
6.4.4 Process Design * * * * * * # #« a ** * a a i i # # 6-112
6.4.4.1 Design of Lime Handling Facilities 6-112
6.4.4.2 Mixing Tank Design * * * * * * • * • » * # 4 6-118
6.4.5 Costs and Energy Usage . 6-121
6.4.5.1 Capital and Operating Costs 6-121
6.4.5.2 Energy Usage . ** .
** * **•
4 4 4 # # * * 6-122
X
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued )
Page
6.4.6 Design Example 6-124
6.4 . 6.1 Design Loading •• * i i 6 -124
6.4.6.2 System Description . 4 » ** * 6-124
6.4.6.3 Component Sizing * i * 4 6 -127
126
6.5 Chlorine Stabilization » 4 6-128
6.5.1 Process Description . » * * 4 4 # 4 4 6--131
6.5.2 Uses , Advantages, and Disadvantages . . »
*** 6
6.5.3 Chlorine Requirements 6- 132
6.5.4 Characteristics of Chlorine Stabilized -
Materials . « *# # # #
* * # «
• # 6-133
6.5.4.1 Stabilized Slude •• * « * * #
* 4 > *
| 6-133
6.5.4.2 Supernatant/Filtrate/Subnatant
Quality
6.5.5 Costs ...• * * « *
6-134
134
* **
6.5.5.1 Operating Costs * *
* 4» 4•* 4 4 4 4 # « # • 4 * * * 6-135
* 4 4 #
* 6-136
6.5.5.2 Capital Costs * »
6.6 References * * • 4 a • »
#
a a a # # 4
. 4 4 4 4 4 * * 4 4 «
6
6
--138
CHAPTER 7. DISINFECTION 7-- 1
7.1 Introduction * * * * » + * * * « v * * « * * * * * * * * * * • *
a t l Ht t 4 4 » > 7 1
7.2 Pathogenic Organisms
7.2.1 Pathogen Sources ......
4 a
...
7- 1
7 - 2
7.2.2 Pathogen Characteristics .
7.2.2.1 Viruses
7
7-
- 2
2
7 . 2 . 2 . 2 Bacteria ., 7-- 3
7.2.2.3 Parasites , 7 4
7.2.2.4 Fungi .. * * * * *
7.2.3 Pathogen Occurrence in the United States
* • * a # ' a # # # # # # 4 4 4 # 7 - 6
4 4 4 4 4
: 7 - 6
7.3 Pathogen Survival During Sludge Stabilization
Processes 7- 7
7.3.1 Pathogen Reduction During Digestion . .. . 7 - 7
7.3.1.1 Viruses * * 7 - 7
7.3.1.2 Bacteria * -
7.3.1.3 Parasites + * *
4 # 4
A A *
7
7
-- 8
9
7.3.2 Long Term Storage ...
7.3.3 Chemical Disinfection
# ( 7
7 -
- 10
10
7.3.3.1 Lime ** -
4 v #
* 4 4 4 * * * •» * * •* • *
4 4 B 4 « i a »: # #
* » 7 - 10
7.3.3.2 Chlorine ** 7 - 10
7.3.3.3 Other Chemicals ..
7.4 Pathogen Survival in the Soil .• * * *
*
*
»
»
m » •
m
4 t
4
t V
4 # 4
i f 4
4
4 # l
# # # 4 #
4 4 i 4 #
* * 4
7
7
-- 11
li
7.4.1 Viruses ... * a # 4 4 4 #
< 7 - 11
7.4.2 Bacteria 7 - 11
7.4.3 Parasites
7.5 Potential Human Exposure to Pathogens
7
7
-- 12
12
7.6 Heat Disinfection Processes . « # # # # # 4 # 7 - 13
7.6.1 Sludge Pasteurization + * « * * ••• *
7.6.1.1 Process Description *
* #
4 4
» « « # 4 4 7
7
-- 14
15
7.6.1.2 Current Status .. 7 - 16
7.6.1.3 Design Criteria . 7 - 16
XI
Page
7.6.1.4 Instrumentation and Operational
Considerations ... 7- 17
7.6.1.5 Energy Impacts ... • m < » * * » * 7- 17
7.6.1.6 Cost Information . « • #
* 7- 17
7.6.1.7 Design Example 7- 20
7.6.2 Other Heat Processes ** 7- 24
7.6.2.1 Heat - Conditioning 7- 25
7.6 . 2.2 Heat-Drying . m « a 7- 25
7.6.2.3 High Temperature Processes * P * * 7- 25
7.6.2.4 Composting 7- 25
7.7 Pathogen Reduction With High-Energy Radiation 7- 26
.
7.7 1 Reduction of Pathogens in Sludge With
Electron Irradiation 7- 26
7.7.1.1 Process Descritpion , 7- 27
7.7.1.2 Status ..« * *** « • # 7- 28
7.7.1.3 Design Considerations ... *** # # # # # 7- 28
Considerations 7- 30
7.7.1.5 Energy Impacts 7- 30
7.7.1.6 Performance Data 7- 30
7.7.1.7 Production Production and Properties ... 7- 31
7.7.1.8 Cost Information . 7- 31
7.7. 2 Disinfection With Gammer Irradiation .... 7- 32
7.7.2.1 Process Description 7- 33
1 . 1 . 2 . 2 Current Status - Liquid Sludge .... 7- 33
7.7.2.3 Current Status - Dried or Composted
Sludge #
* * * * *• + * * * * * *
# # 7- 34
7.7.2.4 Design Criteria * * * • * * #• # < 7- 35
7.7. 2.5 Instrumentation and Operational
Considerations .... * * * « « » # « » # * » 7- 35
7.7.2.6 Energy Impacts .... « 7- 36
.
K
1.1.2.1 Performance Data . w * 9

* » 4 * * 7- 37
7.7.2.8 Cost Information » * # * + * * *** 4 « i
* v 7- 38
7.8 References ... ••• < » » * # # * # # * * * 7- 44
CHAPTER 8. CONDITIONING 8- 1
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Selecting a Conditioning Process
--
8
8
1
1
8.3 Factors Affecting Wastewater Solids Conditioning ... 8- 1
8.3.1 General Wastewater Solids Properties * » * « * * * « 4 8- 1
8.3.1.1 Particle Size and Distribution ... 8- 3
8.3.1.2 Surface Charge and Degree of
Hydration ..... .......
.... .. . 8- 4
8.3.1.3 Particle Interaction 8- 4
8.3.2 Physical Factors » ** » * «
4 ' 4 8- 4
8.3.2.1 Effect of Processing Prior to
Conditioning « a * 8- 5
8.3.2.2 Conditioner Application 8- 5
.
--
8.4 Inorganic Chemical Conditioning . . # # A 8 6
8.4.1 Introduction ..........
...... 8 6
XI 1
Page
8.4.2 Dosage Requirements * -
8 6
.. **
1
8.4.3 Availability ... . 8- 7

8.4 .4 Storage, Preparation, and Application
Equipment .* « * * *- #> » * • * ** A i i 4
-
8 8
8.4.5 Design Example ..« * * » V * » « # # 4j
-
8 8
8.4.6 Cost * # 8- 9
8.4.6.1 Capital Cost . ** 8- 9
8.4 . 6.2 Operation and Maintenance Cost * * i
-
8 10
8.5 Chemical Conditioning With Polyelectrolytes 8- 14
8.5 .1 Introduction * m * *•
m w m + 8- 14
8.5. 2 Background on Polyelectrolytes « # # 8- 14
8.5.2.1 Composition and Physical Form 8- 14
8.5 . 2.2 Structure in Solution .. * » » •• * * f # 8- 17
8.5.2.3 How Polyelectrolyte Conditioning
Works .. » * • * * 8- 17
8.5.3 Conditioning for Thickening . .. . ........ 8- 18
8.5.3.1 Gravity Thickening 8- 18
8.5.3.2 Dissolved Air Flotation Thickening * * « * # 8- 18
8.5.3.3 Centrifugal Thickening . . » ... ... 1'
--
8 20
8.5.4 Conditioning for Dewatering 8 20
8.5.4.1 Drying Beds ** ** * * « * * * » #
-
8 21
.
8.5 4.2 Vacuum Filters
8.5.4.3 Recessed Plate Pressure Filters » * * * # t # #
8
8
-- 21
22
8.5 . 4.4 Belt Filter Presses 8- 23
8.5 . 4.5 Centrifuges * *• 8- 24
8.5.5 Storage, Preparation, and Application
Equipment 8- 25
8.5.6 Case History •* 8- 25
8.5.7 Cost « # 8- 27
8.5.7.1 Capital Cost 8- 27
8.5.7.2 Operation and Maintenance Cost 8- 29
8.6 Non-Chemical Additions » » * * « * « » * • * * * # # # 8- 29
8.7 Thermal Conditioning * * 4 * * * * * * * * » «
# * #• # a « * 8- 31
8.7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 8- 33
8.7.2 Process Sidestreams * A 8- 34
8.7.2.1 Gaseous Sidestreams .. 8- 34
8.7.2.2 Liquid Sidestreams 8- 35
8.7.3 Operations and Cost * * « * ! - 8- 36
8.7.3.1 General Considerations 8- 36
8.7.3.2 USEPA Survey Results * * * * * * *•**•* * A A # 8- 38
8.8 Elutriation r # * 4 8- 39
8.9 Freeze-Thaw 8- 40
8.9.1 Indirect Mechanical Freezing * * * * * * * * * • 8- 40
8.9.2 Direct Mechanical Freezing . 8- 41
8.9.3 Natural Freezing * » * * • « # # • > 8- 41
8.10 Mechanical Screening and Grinding 8- 41
8.11 Miscellaneous Processes .... . ... . 8- 42
8.11.1 Bacteria 8- 42
8.11.2 Electricity 8- 42
8.11.3 Solvent Extraction . ...... . 8- 43
XI11
Page
8.11.4 Ultrasonic 8- 43
8.12 References * • * •# < # #
* # * « 8- 43
CHAPTER 9 . DEWATERING * * .* •* *
V #
* * * * *, * » ** + * *
B n a » # I # a # 9- 1
9.1 Introduction * « * * * * • * « * » « * * * * * •* « * * # i l l l< i # a a ) 9- 1
........
>
9.1.1 Process Evaluation i # 9- 1

9.1.2 Methods of Dewatering ..... * # 9- 3
9.2 Natural Sludge Dewatering Systems 9- 3
9.2.1 Drying Beds .. * » « * » * * « *• » * * » * « # 9- 3
9.2.1.1 Basic Components and Operation . * « » * * • w 9- 4
9.2.1.2 Types of Drying Beds * * • * * * • * * • * « * « * * • 9- 5
9.2.1.3 Process Design Criteria 9- 9
9.2.1.4 Costs 9- 12
9.2.2 Drying Lagoons . « * * * « * * * * « • * « « * « * * * * * * • a # # # 9- 14
9.2.2.1 Basic Concept * * * * * * « * * » * » * * »
# 4 4 4 4 # 9 - 15
9.2.2.2 Design Criteria * « « * « * * 9 - 15
9.2.2.3 Costs * * * * * « * * * « * * * * » * * * * * + + » * + *•
# # # # 9- 16
9.3 Centrifugal Dewatering Systems 9 - 17
9.3.1 Introduction * « * * i 9- 17
9.3.2 Imperforate Basket * * * * » * « « * » • * •* * » *
* » »# # # # 9- 18
9.3.2.1 Principles of Operation . * * « • « * * « * * * # # # # 9- 18
9.3.2.2 Application * * * • 9 - 19
9.3.2.3 Performance , 9 - 19
9.3.2.4 Case History , 9- 19
9.3.3 Solid Bowl Decanters 9 - 23
9.3.3.1 Application . * * * * . ** « *** * « i t 9- 23
9.3.3.2 Performance * « •* * * « » # * * * *• « *** # # # # # # 9 - 24
9.3.3.3 Other Considerations * * * * * * * * * * * * 9 - 24
9.4 Filtration Dewatering Systems .. 9- 25
9.4.1 Introduction 9- 25
9.4.2 Basic Theory 9- 26
9.4.3 Filter Aids .. » * * * i 9- 26
9.4.4 Vacuum Filters . » * « * * *** « « *
i < « # 9- 27
9.4.4.1 Principles of Operation * M 9- 28
9.4.4.2 Application 9- 32
9.4.4.3 Performance 9- 33
9.4.4.4 Other Considerations * 4 9- 33
9.4.4.5 Case History . * * * * * * * * * * * * * 9- 39
9.4.4.6 Costs * * * * * * * a # ** # 4 v 9- 41
9.4.5 Belt Filter Press ** *** * 9- 43
9.4.5.1 Principles of Operation * • « * * * * * * * * ** 9- 45
9.4.5.2 Application .. . . .... 9- 46
9.4.5.3 Performance 9- 46
9.4.5.4 Other Considerations « * * * w * * * » « * * * * « » a # # 9- 47
9.4.5.5 Design Example ...• • * * * • * * * * * * * * * » * » * -# 9- 49
9.4.5.6 Costs * *• # 9- 51
9.4.6 Recessed Plate Pressure Filters **** # 9- 52
9.4.6.1 Principles of Operation . 9- 52
9.4.6.2 Application ... ** # 9- 55
9.4.6.3 Performance ...• * • « * * * * * * * « * « * * • # # # # # 9- 56
XIV
Page
9.4.6.4 Other Considerations ... • 9 - 56
9.4.6.5 Case History * * * * * * * * * « * * * * ** * * 9- 59
9.4.6.6 Cost , A n a * * * * * •* » #
* * 9- 60
.
9.4 7 Screw and Roll Press « * « * »
* * * * * # # 9- 63
9.4.7.1 Screw Press . t « * .. 9- 63
9.4.7.2 Twin- Roll Press 9 - 66
9.4.8 Dual Cell Gravity ( DCG ) Filter .. * • * * * * « « • 9- 67
9.4.9 Tube Filters .. ...
9.4.9.1 Pressure Type
. 9- 68
« * * • * * * * * * ••• * # » « 9- 68
9.4.9.2 Gravity Type * * + * * * * * * * « * * * ** * 9- 68
9.5 Other Dewatering Systems * * * « *• #
* * * * ****** ** 9- 69
.
9.5 1 Cyclones 9- 69
9.5.2 Screens 9- 70
9.5.3 Electro-Osmosis * * « « 4 4 9- 70
9.6 References * * * * * » « * * *
# #
* • •* * * •* * * • # # # » 9- 70
CHAPTER 10. HEAT DRYING * * 10- 1

10.1 Introduction # i 10 - 1
10.2 Heat-Drying Principles . « * * *
10.2.1 Drying Periods ... ** *
10
10
-- 1
1
10.2.2 Humidity and Mass Transfer ... * * 10 - 2
10.2.3 Temperature and Heat Transfer a i 10- 3
10.3 Energy Impacts * « 10 - 5
10.3.1 Design Example 10- 6
10.3.2 Energy Cost of Heat-Dried Sludges Used
for Fertilizers 10- 11
10.4 Environmental Impacts .. . 10- 12
10.4. 1 Air Pollution * » * * * • *
# * * * « * * • * * • * *
# # # # # # # 10- 12
10.4.2 Safety .... .......... 10- 13
10.4.3 Sidestream Production 10- 13
10.5 General Design Criteria . 10- 13
10.5.1 Drying Capacity « * * * » * * * * • •* * * + « * « «
#
*
# # # # # # 10- 13
10.5.2 Storage Requirements .. * * * • • * * * * * « «• - *
# # # # # # # # 10- 14
10.5.3 Heat Source . ....... . # # # 10- 14
10.5.4 Air Flow * # 10- 14
10.5.5 Equipment Maintenance 10- 15
10.5.6 Special Considerations . * * * * » « • » * # % # # # # 10- 15
10.6 Conventional Heat Dryers . 10- 15
10.6.1 Flash-Drying 10- 16
10.6.1.2 Case Study: Houston, Texas 10 - 18
10.6.2 Rotary Dryers 10- 19
10.6 . 2.1 Direct Rotary Dryers 10- 19
10.6.2.2 Indirect Drying ... * * * « » • 4- » •• « » • • « » » * # ! 10- 22
10.6.2.3 Direct-Indirect Rotary Dryers 10 - 24
10.6.3 Incinerators * * 10- 25
10.6.4 Toroidal Dryer .. .
.. ..... 10- 25
10.6.4.2 Current Status * . K # : # 10- 27
10.6.5 Spray- Drying . * * * • #* #* * * * •
# # * #» 10- 27
XV
Page
10.6.5.1
Process Description , * i 10- 27
10.6.5.2
Current Status .* « • * * * * * * # # # 10- 27
10.7 Other Heat-Drying Systems ,, * * * * * * * * * * * * * • # # # a # 10- 28
10.7.1 Solvent Extraction--BEST Process
10.7.1.1 Process Description
. 10- 28
» « * •« # a f 10- 28
10.7.1.2 Current Status .
10.7.1.3 Operating Experience *
* *
... # ft ft ft
10- 29
ft 10- 30
10.7.2 Multiple- Effect Evaporation--Carver
Greenfield Process m a * * a a
* * * * * * a a a a a m m m m m * a 10- 30
10.7.2.1 Process Description ,..* * * « • « * * * * » * # # # 10- 31
10.7.2.2 Current Status 10- 31
10.8 References « l # 10- 32
CHAPTER 11. HIGH TEMPERATURE PROCESSES f t f t a a f t f t f t f t f t f t a f t a f t f t a 11-- 1
.
11.1 Introduction * a • * * « *- » * *•* * * * *• *• a 11 1
11.2 Principles of High Temperature Operations » * * . a a a 11 - 2
11.2.1 Combustion Factors H * # ft # 11- 3
.
11.2 1.1 Sludge Fuel Values 11- 3
11.2.1.2 Oxygen Requirements for Complete
Combustion
11.2.1.3 Factors Affecting the Heat Balance .• a
* » 11-
11- 7
6
.
--
11.2.2 Incineration Design Example . * a * * » * » a f t « « 11 10
.
11.2 2.1 Problem Statement .. * • * ... . ft # i 11 10
11.2.2.2 Approximate Calculation Method 11- 13
11.2.2.3 Theoretical Calculation Method
11.2.2.4 Comparison of Approximate and
-
11 20
Theoretical Calculation Methods * * * * * # 11- 24

11.2.3 Pyrolysis and Starved - Air Combustion
Calculations 11- 25
11.2.4 Heat and Material Balances .......... 11- 28
11.3 Incineration * • i ft 4 # i 11- 29
11.3.1 Multiple-Hearth Furnace .. ft
* 11- 31
11.3.2 Fluid Bed Furnace . a f t i W i' V 11- 42
11.3.3 .
Electric Furnace . - * * * * * * " * * * * * " " * a i 11- 49
11.3.4Single Hearth Cyclonic Furnace **** R »** f t a 4 # 9 11- 55
11.3.5Design Example: New Sludge Incineration
Process I t I I I « « « > 4 11- 59
11.3.5.1 Approach . * ft * • * * • * »
i * •* * * # # • # 11- 61
11.3.5.2 Preliminary Design * 4 * ft # 4 4 11- 62
11.4 Starved - Air Combustion ft ft 11- 65
11.4.1 Development and Application
11.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of SAC
» m i 11-
11-
68
71
11.4.3 Conversion of Existing Multiple-Hearth
Incineration Units to SAC » « « * * « * * • # a 4 1 1- 7 5
11.4.4 Design Example: Retrofit of an Existing
Multiple- Hearth Sludge Incinerator to a
Starved-Air Combustion Reactor . . . . ..... 1 1- 7 6
11.4.4.1 Approach 1 1- 7 7
11.4.4.2 Preliminary Design * « * * * « * * • « * R « * * * 9 f a * 1 1- 7 8
XVI
Page
11.4 Starved - Air Combustion « # 11- 65
11.4.1 Development and Application ... *
11.4. 2 Advantages and Disadvantages of SAC * * • ••
.... i 11 68-
# 9 11- 71
11.4.3 Conversion of Existing Multiple-Hearth
Incineration Units to SAC
11- 75
Multiple-Hearth Sludge Incinerator to a
Starved - Air Combustion Reactor 11- 76
11.4.4.1 Approach
11.4.4.2 Preliminary Design .
»• 11-
11-
77
78
11.5 Co- Combustion of Sludge and Other Material
11.5.1 Co-Combustion with Coal and Other
11- 81
Residuals * *
11.5.2 Co- Combustion with Mixed Municipal Refuse
11- 81
( MMR ) . # # * ¥ * * #
* * !» » i # * * * * *•*
> » 11- 83
11.5.2.1 Refuse Combustion Technology 11- 84
11.5.2.2 Sludge Combustion Technology ...... 11- 87
11.5.3 Institutional Constraints ... ... . . . . .. ... 11- 92
11.5.4 Conclusions about Co-Combustion . . ...... . # 11- 94
11.6 Related Combustion Processes Used in Wastewater
Treatment , ** # #
* * » * * • *• ** it 11- 94
11.6.1 Screenings , Grit , and Scum Reduction 11- 94
11.6.2 Lime Recalcination
.
11.6 3 Activated Carbon Regeneration
*
..... #
-
11 96
11- 98
11.6.3.1 Granular Carbon Systems ( GAC ) * » » * * « * k # 11- 99
11.6.3.2 Powdered Activated Carbon ( PAC ) * ** ¥ # # # 11-100
11.6.3.3 Jet Propulsion Laboratory Activated -
Carbon Treatment System ( JPL- ACTS ) • • . 11-100
11.7 Other High Temperature Processes 11-102
11.7.1 High Pressure/High Temperature Wet Air
Oxidation * ** 11-102
11.7.2 REACT-0-THERMtm * * * * * ** 11-109
11.7.3 Modular Starved - Air Incinerators * * # # 11-110
11.7.4 Pyro- Soltm Process . . . 11- 110
11.7.5 Bailie Process ..... » .. # 11- 113
11.7.6 Wright- Malta Process . 11-113
11.7.7 Molten Salt Pyrolysis 11-115
11.8 Air Pollution Considerations 4 * * * * * < a i # 4 11- 115
11.8.1 National Ambient Air Quality Standards
( NAAQS )-State Implementation Plans ( SIP ) ... 11- 116
11.8.2 National Emission Standards for Hazardous
Air Pollutants ( NESHAPS ) 11- 177
11.8.3 Standards of Performance for New
Stationary Sources ( NSPS ) . * « « « » • » . 11-118
11.8.4 New Source Review Standards ( NSR ) . » * * 11-119
11.8.5 Prevention of Significant Deterioration
( PSD ) 11- 119
11.8.6
11.8.7
The Permit Process
Air Emissions Test Procedures . ........ -
11 120
11- 120
11.8.8 Design Example * i * *• * * #
* # * # « * • * 11-120
XVI1
Page
11.8 . 8.1 Identify Applicable State and Local
Regulations * * #
11.8 . 8.2 Establish Air Pollution Abatement

•* * * »• -
11 121
Procedures * * » 11-123
11.9 Residue Disposal « » •* • • •
» » # # # 11- 132
.. » # # # # # # #
11.10 References , , 11-136

CHAPTER 12. COMPOSTING .. . * * * » « * * » « # 12- 1
12.1
12.2
Introduction * *
The Composting Process »
# > 12-
12-
1
2
* » » «• #
* » *
# # #
* # # ' > m 4 « * * •»
12.2.1 Moisture .. M I I « M * * v « «
I f « # I i t i < t t t < t « « * # 12- 3
12.2.2 Temperature 12- 4
12.2.3 pH ** 12- 5
12.2.4 Nutrient Concentration ..* * * • » • * * * # # # #
* l i * 12- 5
12.2.5 Oxygen Supply . m m ft # * * * •
* * 12- 5
12.2.6 Design Criteria and Procedures ... * + » # * * # # 12- 5
12.3 Unconfined Composting Systems . ... ... . .. -
12 11
12.3.1 Windrow Process 12- 12
12.3.1.1 Energy Requirements . .. ........ 12- 16
12.3.1.2 Public Health and Environmental
Impacts . « 12- 16•

12.3.2 Aerated Static Pile Process .. 12- 22
12.3.2.1 Individual Aerated Piles 12- 23
12.3.2.2 Extended Aerated Piles . » » * * » •* * » • * #
* * * 12- 24
12.3.2.3 Current Status .i i i * * * * * * i # » * * i* « * i f * « * 12- 25
12.3.2.4 Oxygen Supply » i 12- 26
12.3.2.5 Bulking Agent 12- 26
12.3.2.6 Energy Requirements 12- 27
12.3.2.7 Public Health and Environmental
Impacts * » » 12- 27
12.3.2.8Design Example * * * * ft « * « * * » » » . ft # 12- 29
12.3.3 Case Studies ( Unconfined Systems ) * 12- 36
12.3.3.1 Joint Water Pollution Control Plant ,
Carson, California .« * * # 12- 36
12.3. 3.2 Beltsville, Maryland * # 12- 38
12.3.3.3 Bangor , Maine . ..... 12- 42
12.3.3.4 Durham , New Hampshire . * ** * * « * ** # # 12- 46
12.3 . 3.5 Cost Analysis • * * # # # # # 12- 49
12.4 Confined Composting System . * * » « * * * * < # 12- 51
12.4.1 Description of Process * > i 12- 51
12.4.2 Metro-Waste Aerobic Thermophilic
Bio-Reactor * * * 12- 51
12.4.3 Dano Bio- Stabilizer Plant 12- 51
12.4.4 BAV Bio-Reactor , ... .... 4 12- 53
12.5 European Composting Experience » » *a « « « ft # # # # 12- 53
12.6 References * # 12- 57
CHAPTER 13. MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES 13- 1

13.1 Introduction . 13- 1
X V I 11
Page
13.2 Chemical Fixation Process * # * * « « « 13- 1
13.3 Encapsulation Process * I 13- 3
13.3.1 Polyethylene Process 13- 3
13.3.2 Asphalt Process . * « 13- 4
13.4 Earthworm Conversion Process * * 13- 4
13.4.1 Process Arrangement 13- 4
13.4.2 Advantages of the Earthworm Conversion
Process .• * * * 13- 6
13.4.3 Possible Operating Difficulties 13- 7
13.4.4 Limitations t i « # 13- 7
13.5 References •* * * ** * # 13- 9
CHAPTER 14. TRANSPORTATION 14- 1
14.1 Pumping and Pipelines * * * « * * * 14- 1
14.1.1 Simplified Head -Loss Calculations * * * 14- 1
14.1. 2 Application of Rheology to Sludge
Pumping Problems •* F 14- 3
14.1.2.1 Solution of Pressure Drop Equation .. • • 14- 4
14.1.2.3 Thixotropy and Other
Time - Dependent Effects ... 14- 12
14.1.2.4 Obtaining the Coefficients 14- 14
14.1.2.5 Additional Information ... 14- 17
14.1.3 Types of Sludge Pumps . 14- 17
14.1.3.1 Centrifugal Pumps 14- 17
14.1.3.2 Torque Flow Pumps t * • » * * * * < » # # 14- 18
14.1.3.3 Plunger Pumps ... 14- 19
14.1.3.4 Piston Pumps ... * .* * # i 14- 21
14.1.3.5 Progressive Cavity Pumps 14- 22
14.1.3.6 Diaphragm Pump ... 14- 24
14.1.3.7 Rotary Pumps 14- 26
14.1.3.8 Ejector Pumps .... * * * + « « « # 14- 27
14.1. 3.9 Gas Lift Pumps ... * ** # 14- 27
14.1.3.10 Water Eductors * « *•* » * « > 14- 28
14.1.4 Application of Sludge Pumps 14- 29
14.1.5 Pipe, Fittings, and Valves 14- 29
14.1.6 Long Distance Pumping ..... 14- 31
14.1.6.1 Experience . * * 14- 31
14.1.6.2 Design Guidance .* * « * • *
4 a a a 14- 32
14.1.7 In- Line Grinding . •* * * * 14- 36
14.2 Dewatered Wastewater Solids Conveyance * t 14- 37
.
14.2 1 Manual Transport of Screenings and Grit * * • * * 14- 37
14.2.2 Belt Conveyors * * # 14- 37
14.2.3 Screw Conveyors 14- 40
14.2.4 Positive Displacement Type Conveyors . * * » * * # # 14- 43
14.2.5 Pneumatic Conveyors ... » * * »
* a 4 4 # # # # # ) 14- 43
14.2.6 Chutes and Inclined Planes ... ..... 14- 44
.
14.2 7 Odors 14- 46
14.3 Long Distance Wastewater Solids Hauling . 14- 46
14.3.1 Truck Transportation * •* * * m 14- 47
XIX
Page
14.3.1.1
14.3.1.2
Types of Trucks
Owned Equipment vs. Contract
# i 14- 47
Hauling .. .. 14- 48
14.3.1.3 Haul Scheduling .* * * * * * • • * * « # i # 9 # * ••••• 14- 49
14.3.1.4 Trucking Costs .. 14- 49
14.3.2 Rail Transport 14- 49
14.3.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages
of Rail Transport * * * * 4
* * * « r * 14- 49
14.3.2.2 Routes . * * * * * * * * * * « » * * *
# #
• « # # » * t 14- 50
14.3.2.3 Haul Contracts ... * * * * * * «
---
•
t * * * « i i i i * i t 14 50
14.3.2.4 Railcar Supply ... 14 51
14.3.2.5 Ancillary Facilities 14 53
14.3.2.6 Manpower and Energy Requirements -- 54
14 53
14.3.3 Barge Transportation 14
14.3.3.1 Routes and Transit Times ....... m * -- 54
14
14.3.3.2 Haul or System Contracting .... 14 55
14.3.3.3 Barge Selection and Acquisition
14.3.3.4 Ancillary Facilities
14 -
- 57
14
56
14.3.3.5 Spill Prevention and Cleanup .. » * » # # » * 14- 57
14.4 References * m * * * *• 14- 57
CHAPTER 15. STORAGE 15- 1
15.1 Introduction • ..» * * * • « * * * * * + *
# # # #
• '
* « * ** » « * # # # # 15- 1
15.1.1 Need for Storage 15- 1
15.1.2 Risks and Benefits of Solids Storage Within
Wastewater Treatment System » * * * # » < 15- 1
15.1.3 Storage Within Wastewater Sludge Treatment
Processes . * * » * * * * * * * * • -» « « *
- » « 15- 2
15.1.4 Effects of Storage on Wastewater Solids 15- 2
.
15.1 5 Types of Storage 15- 4
15.2 Wastewater Treatment Storage 15- 5
15.2.1 Storage Within Wastewater Treatment
Processes ... * « * « • « « » ** » * *• # # 15- 5
15.2.1.1 Grit Removal .* * * * * * * . *• •* 15- 6
15.2.1.2 Primary Sedimentation
15.2.1.3 Aeration Reactors and Secondary
15- 7
Sedimentation . 15- 9
15.2.1.4 Imhoff and Community Septic Tanks .. 15- 10
15.2.1.5 Wastewater Stabilization Ponds ..... 15- 11
15.2.2 Storage Within Wastewater Sludge Treatment
Processes * (• 15- 11
15.2.2.1 Gravity Thickeners 15- 12
15.2.2.2 Anaerobic Digesters * * * * * * * * « * * •• * * • 4 # 15- 12
15.2.2.3 Aerobic Digesters
15.2. 2.4 Composting .......
* * *• ! 15- 18
* * * * * * •
» 15- 18
15.2.2.5 Drying Beds 15- 18
15.3 Dedicated Storage Facilities . * * * * ** * ** ****
# # •
# # # # # 15- 18
15.3.1 Facilities Provided Primarily for Storage
of Liquid Sludge 15- 19
15.3.1.1 Holding Tanks 15- 19
xx
Page
.
15.3 1.2 Facultative Sludge Lagoons 15- 23
.
15.3 1.3 Anaerobic Liquid Sludge Lagoons . .. * *
15 - 41
15.3.1.4 Aerated Storage Basins 15- 43
15.3.2 Facilities Provided Primarily for Storage
of Dewatered Sludge 15- 46
15.3.2.1 Drying Sludge Lagoons ... ..... ..... 15- 47
15.3.2.2 Confined Hoppers or Bins ..
15.3.2.3 Unconfined Stockpiles
... ..... 15 - 51
15- 56
15.4 References * * B 15 - 58
CHAPTER 16. SIDESTREAMS FROM SOLIDS TREATMENT

PROCESSES 16 - 1
16.1 Sidestream Production 16 - 1
16.2 Sidestream Quality and Potential Problems 16 - 2
16.3 General Approaches to Sidestream Problems * # ** 16- 3
16.3.1 Elimination of Sidestream .... ..... 16 - 4
16.3.2 Modification of Upstream Solids Processing
Steps 16 - 4
16.3.3 Change in Timing , Return Rate, or Return
Point 16 - 5
16.3.4
Modification of Wastewater Treatment
Facilities 16 - 5
16.3.5 Separate Treatment of Sidestreams , * « * * 4 16 - 7
16.3.5.1 Anaerobic Digester Supernatant 16 - 8
16.3.5.2 Thermal Conditioning Liquor .. 16 - 10
16.4 Refe rences 16 - 17
CHAPTER 17. INSTRUMENTATION 17- 1

17.1 Introduction 17 - 1
17.1.1 Purposes of Instrumentation ..... 17- 1
17.1.2 Instrumentation Justification and
Design Considerations 17 - 1
17.2 Measureme nts 17 - 41
17.2.1 Level Measurements ........
... 17 - 41
17.2.1.1 Bubblers 17 - 41
17.2.1.2 Diaphragms 17- 41
17.2.1.3 Capacitance Transmitters » V 17 - 44
17.2.1.4 Ultrasonic Transmitters 17- 44
17.2.1.5 Tape-Supported Floats 17- 45
17.2.2 Flow Measurements . .... # I 17 - 45
17.2.2.1 Venturi Tubes . .. 17 - 46
17.2.2.2 Nozzles 17- 46
17.2.2.3 Magnetic Meters . 17 - 46
17.2.2.4 Ultrasonic Meters 17- 47
17.2.2.5 Doppler Meters .. 17 - 47
17.2.2.6 Rotameters ..... . 17- 48
17.2.2.7 Propeller Meters 17- 48
17.2.2.8 Pitot Tubes 17- 48
17.2.2.9 Weirs and Flumes 17- 49
17.2.2.10 Orifice Plates 17- 49
xxi
Page
17.2.2.11 Turbine Meters 17- 49
17.2.2.12 Vortex Meters 17- 50
17.2.2.13 Positive Displacement 17- 50
17.2.2.14Pump and Transport Displacement
Systems 17- 50
.
17.2 3 Pressure Measurement 17- 50
17.2.3.1 Bourdons or Bellows 17- 51
17.2.3.2 Diaphragms 17- 52
17.2.4 Temperature Measurements ....... .
. ... 17- 52
17.2.4.1 Resistance Temperature
Detectors ( RTDs ) 17- 53
17.2.4.2 Thermocouples 17- 53
17.2.5 Weight Measurements 17- 54
17.2.5.1 Static .. 17- 54
17.2.5.2 Mass Flow *i 17- 54
17.2.6 Density and Suspended Solids Measurements ... 17- 55
17.2.6.1 Density 17- 55
17.2.6.2 Suspended Solids Measurements 17- 56
17.2.7 Time Measurements 17- 57
17.2.8 Speed Measurements 17 - 57
17.2.9 Moisture Content Measurements 17- 57
17.2.10 Dissolved Oxygen Measurements 17- 58
17.2.11 pH Measurements 17- 58
17.2.12 Chemical Oxygen Demand Measurements ......... 17- 59
17.2.13 Ammonia Measurements 17- 59
17.2.14 Gas Measurement and Analysis 17- 59
17.2.14.1 Composition Analyzer 17- 59
17.2.14.2 Calorimeter 17- 60
17.2.15 Stack Gas Measurements and Analysis 17- 60
17.2.16 Odor Measurements 17- 61
17.2.17 Aerobic Condition Measurements 17 - 61
17.2.18 Blanket Level Measurements 17- 61
17.2.19 Hydrocarbons and Flammable Gas Detectors .... 17- 63
17.2.20 Radiation Monitoring ... ....................
. 17- 63
17.2.21 Machinery Protection ........................
17.2.21.1 Empty Pipe Detectors
17 - 64
17- 64
17.2.21.2 Vibration - Acceleration and
Displacement Systems 17 - 64
17.2.21.3 Flow Loss Monitors 17- 65
17.2.21.4 Overload Devices 17- 65
17.2.21.5 Flame Safeguard Equipment .. .. . ..
.. . .. 17 - 65
. ..
17.3 Sampling Systems . . 17- 66
17.4 Operator Interface . .. 17- 67
17.4.1 Location * 17- 67
17.4.2 Indicator Boards ****** 17- 68
17.5 References ... .... ..
. . * ** H 17 - 68
CHAPTER 18. UTILIZATION 18- 1

18.1 Introduction .... ......
. 18- 1
18.2 Sludge as a Soil Ambient 18 - 2
xxi 1
Page
18.2.1 Perspective 18- 2
18.2.2 Principles and Design Criteria for
Applying Wastewater Sludge to Land 18- 3
18.2.2.1 Preliminary Planning . . ..... 18 - 5
18.2.2.2 Site Selection « # 18 - 5
18.2.2.3 Process Design . . 18 - 5
18.2.2.4 Facilities Design * •* « « «•» «# i 18- 6
18.2.2.5 Facility Management , Operations ,
and Monitoring . « *** . t k k 18 - 7
18.3 Sludge as an Energy Source 18 - 8
18.3.1 Perspective . * 4' 18 - 8
18.3.2 Recovery of Energy From Sludge 18- 9
18.3.2.1 Treatment of Digester Gas 18- 9
18.3.2.2 Gas- Burning Equipment ... 18- 11
18.3.3.3 Generators « * • * 4 4 * • # . 18 - 15
18.3.3 Examples of Energy Recovery 18 - 15
18.3.3.1 Energy Recovery From Digester Gas . 18 - 15
18.3.3.2 Recovery of Energy From Incinerator
Flue Gas * 1 18 - 25
18.3.4 Other Factors Affecting Heat Recovery 18- 34
18.4 Other Uses of Wastewater Solids and Solid
By-Products 18 - .35
18.5 References > * 18- 36
CHAPTER 19. DISPOSAL TO LAND 19 - 1

19.1 Introduction . . 19 - 1
19.1.1 Regulatory Agency Guidance .. 19 - 1
19.2 Sludge Landfill 19 - 1
19.2.1 Definition 19 - 1
19.2.2 Sludge Landfill Methods ... . . 19 - 2
19.2.2.1 Sludge-Only Trench Fill * * * * * « * * « * * *
< # ! 19 - 2
19.2.2.2 Sludge-Only Area Fill . * * * # W # 19 - 3
19.2.2.3 Co-Disposal with Refuse 19 - 5
19.2.2.4 Suitability of Sludge for
Landfilling 19 - 6
19.2.3 Preliminary Planning * < 19 - 6
19.2.3.1 Sludge Characterization • * * * * * *
#
* * *# # # 19 - 6
19.2.3.2 Selection of a Landfilling Method 19 - 8
19.2.3.3 Site Selection .... 19 - 8
19.2.4 Facility Design . * i 19 - 12
19.2.4.1 Regulations and Standards 19- 12
19.2.4.2 Site Characteristics . . .. 19 - 13
19.2.4.3 Landfill Type and Design , «. * * * * « *
# 4 k # k k 19 - 14
19.2.4.4 Ancillary Facilities * * « * * • * *k k k # > > > 19 - 15
19.2.4.5 Landfill Equipment 19 - 18
19.2.4.6 Flexibility and Reliability 19 - 18
19.2.4.7 Expected Performance * « * * * « * * * * * * * *
# # 4 4 19 - 19
19.2.4.8 Environmental Impacts 19- 20
19.2.5 Operations and Maintenance 19- 20
19.2.5.1 Operations Plan . » ii * * • * * « * * * » * * * • *
< # 19 - 20
XXI11
Page
19.2.5.2 Operating Schedule * * 19- 21

19.2.5.3 Equipment Selection and Maintenance ... 19 - 21
19.2.5.4 Management and Reporting « • • « * * * * » * • . # 19 - 22
19.2.5.5 Safety * * * 19 - 22
19.2.5.6 Environmental Controls , 19- 23
19.2.6 Site Closure 19 - 24
19.2.6.1 Ultimate Use , 19 - 24
19.2.6.2 Grading at Completion of Filling , * * * * * 19 - 24
.
19.2.6.3 Final Grading + * * * * « « « « « * # 4 19 - 25
19.2.6.4 Landscaping , .. 19 - 25
19.2.6.5 Continued Leachate and Gas Control . • • • 19 - 25
19.2.7 Landfilling of Screenings , Grit, and Ash ... 19 - 25
19.3 Dedicated Land Disposal 19 - 25
19.3 .1 Defintion * « * * * * * * * * * »
# # # #
** « * *
# #
* * # [ # '# # # # # '# # 19- 25
19.3.2 Background * »
|
* 4
|M < * l « * » • ***
t « f t I I I # i I 19 - 26
19.3.3 Site Selection 19 - 27
19.3.3.1 Ownership by Wastewater Treamtent
Authority 19 - 27
19.3.3.2 Groundwater Patterns * * « « • * * * •* * * * * # # # # 19- 27
19.3.3.3 Topography • * * * « * * « * * « * * * * * * * * * « • *
> # # # # # 19 - 28
19.3.3.4 Soil Types *• 19 - 28
19.3.3.5 Availability of Suffient Land » * * • * * • * < # 19- 28
19.3.4 Storage . .... ............. ........
. 19- 28
19.3.4.1 Climatic Influences 19 - 28
19.3.4.2 Operational Storage .... .. . 19- 29
19.3 .5 Operational Methods and Equipment * * * 19 - 29
19.3.5.1 Liquid Sludge * v * i * • * « « * » » * •• « * » * * *
# 4 ' # # 19 - 29
19.3.5.2 Dewatered Sludge « « w » * « * * • » • « « * # # 19 - 34
.
19.3 5.3 Sludge Application Rates .. 19- 35
.
19.3 6 Environmental Controls and Monitoring 19- 37
19.3.6.1 Site Layout + * * * * * * » * » * « * « « * * * « « *
•
19 - 37
19.3.6.2. Groundwater Controls * * » * * * 4 4 4 4 •
19- 38
19.3.6.3 Surface Water Runoff Controls ... 19 - 38
19.3.6.4 Air Pollution Control . * « * * * * * * * * 4 # # 4 4 19- 39
19.3.6.5 Site Monitoring * y 19 - 39
19.3.7 Costs * * * i 19- 39
19.3.8 Case Examples * * * * V * * « * » * * «
4 •• •* « * 19 - 39
19.3.8.1 Colorado Springs , Colorado , ** 19 - 40
19.3.8.2 Sacramento, California ..... 19 - 50
19.4 References * # 19- 58
XXIV
LIST OF TABLES
Number Page
CHAPTER 3
-
3 1 Example of Initial Screening Matrix for Base
Sludge Disposal Options
. -
3 8
-
3 2 Example of Process Compatibility Matrix ,, -
3 9
-
3 3 Example of Treatment/Disposal Compatibility
Matrix ... * * » * * * *
# # #
-
3 9
3- 4 Example of Numerical Rating System for
3- 5
Alternatives Analysis
Estimated Costs of Alternatives for
3- 10
-
Eugene Springfield 3- 17
3-6 Mass Balance Equations for Flowsheet of
3- 7
Figure 3 7 - » « » » * « « * « * » * « « *•
Mass Balance Equations for Flowsheet of
3 - 21
Figure 3 9 - * *•
. ..
i t a v a 3 - 26
3- 8
3- 9
Solid Properties Checklist .
Process Design Checklist . . .... **
3
3
-- 37
37
3-10 Public Health and Environmental
Impact Checklist * 3 - 38
CHAPTER 4
4 - 1 Predicted Quantities of Suspended Solids and

Chemical Solids Removed in a Hypothetical
4- 2
Primary Sedimentation Tank
Primary Sludge Characteristics .............
4
4
- 84
-
4- 3 Alternate Names and Symbols for
4- 11
4- 4
-
Equation ( 4 1 ) * * « * « * * » + » * * * »
#
Values of Yield and Decay Coefficients for

#«
•* # > # # # i
-
Computing Waste Activated Sludge 4- 12
4- 5 Design Data for Sludge Production Example .... 4- 21
4- 6 Activated Sludge Characteristics 4- 28
4- 7 Trickling Filter Solids Production 4- 30
-8
4 Daily Variations in Trickling Filter Effluent,
Stockton , California 4- 33
-
4 9 Description of Sloughing Events * f 4- 33
-
4 10 Concentration of Trickling Filter Sludge
Withdrawn from Final Clarifiers 4- 34
--
4 11 Trickling Filter Sludge Composition ... . * * 4- 35
4 12 Sludge from Combined Attached Suspended
Growth Processes
- 4- 36
4 13- Metals in Ferric Chloride Solutions .... 4- 40
XXV
LIST OF TABLES ( continued )
Number Page
4-14 Progress in Source Control of Toxic
Pollutants 4- 41
4- 15 Cadmium in Sludge 4- 42
4- 16 Increased Metals Concentration
During Processing 4- 43
4-17 Aroclor ( PCB ) 1254 Measurements in Sludge k * 4- 44
4-18 Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides in
Sludge 4- 45
4-19 Screening Experience 4- 47
4- 20 Analyses of Screenings 4- 49
4- 21
4-22
Methods of Handling Screenings
Grit Quantities
.....
..... 4- 50
4- 52
4-23 Sieve Analysis of Grit 4- 53
4-24 Scum Production and Properties .......... 4- 57
4- 2 5 . .. ...........
Methods of Handling Scum . . 4- 58
4- 26
4-27
Characteristics of Domestic Septage .... .
Metals Concentrations in Solids From Treatment
* 4 * 4- 60
of Combined Sewer Overflows 4- 62

CHAPTER 5
5- 1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Gravity
Thickeners 5- 3
5- 2 Typical Gravity Thickener Surface Area
Design Criteria 5- 7
5- 3 Reported Operating Results at Various Overflow
5- 4
.
Rates for Gravity Thickeners ..... .... ...... ...
. 5- 8
Typical Uniform Load ( W ) Values 5- 9
5- 5 Definition of Torques Applicable to Circular
Gravity Thickeners 5- 10
5- 6 Types of Municipal Wastewater Sludges Being
Thickened by DAF Thickeners 5- 18
5- 7 Advantages and Disadvantages of DAF
. ... . . .
Thickening . ... . .. .. .. ..
. .. .. .... ... . . . ... 5- 19
5- 8 Typical DAF Thickener Solids Loading Rates
Necessary to Produce a Minimum 4 Percent
Solids Concentration 5- 23
5- 9 Field Operation Results From Rectangular DAF
Thickeners 5- 24
5-10 Reported DAF Thickener Hydraulic Loading
Rates 5- 27
5-11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Disc Nozzle
Centrifuges 5- 40
5-12 Typical Performance of Disc Nozzle Centrifuge
'
... 5- 43
5- 13 Advantages and Disadvantages of Imperforate
Basket Centrifuge 5- 45
5-14 Typical Thickening Results Using Imperforate
5-15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Solid Bowl
Decanter Centrifuges 5- 50
XXVI
Number Page
5 -1 6 Typical Characteristics of the New Type
5 -1 7
Thickening Decanter Centrifuge WAS ....... ..
Estimated Capital and O& M Cost for Various
. 5 - 52
Centrifuges for Thickening of Waste Activated -

Sludge at Village Creek -
For .- Worth , Texas . 5 - 55
CHAPTER 6
6 - 1 Type and Reference of Full Scale Studies on

High Rate Anaerobic Digestion of Municipal
-
6 - 2
Wastewater Sludge
Results of Recirculating Digested Sludge to
6 - 3
the Thickener at Bowery Bay Plant , New York * » * * * 6 - 11

6 - 3 Operating and Performance Characteristics for
- -
the Bench Scale, Two Phase Anaerobic Digestion
-
of Waste Activated Sludge 6- 17
6- 4 Typical Design Criteria for Sizing
Mesophilic Anaerobic Sludge Digesters . * * * * * * * a, # # 6- 19
6- 5 Solids Retention Time Design Criteria for
High Rate Digestion . . 6- 24
6 - 6 Average Physical and Chemical Characteristics
-
of Sludge From Two Stage Digester System « « « « * * . 6- 25
6 - 7 Materials Entering and Leaving Two Stage
Digester System » * * * * * « * * * *
# # #
- 6- 25
6- 8 Gas Production for Several Compounds in
6- 9
Sewage Sludge a * * * * * * * a »
#
Characteristics of Sludge Gas

#* *#
** * * * * * ** * <
- # # # 6- 2 9
6 31-
6 10- Supernatant, Characteristics of High Rate , -
-
Two Stage, Mesophilic , Anaerobic Digestion
at Various Plants 6 - 33
6-11 Effect of Ammonia Nitrogen on Anaerobic
Digestion ..m A a A * M
*
# A a a A
a a a a a * w i * a * » -
A A a # # # A A 6- 3 7
6-12 Influent Concentrations and Expected
Removals of Some Heavy Metals in Wastewater
6 -1 3
Treatment Systems 6 - 38
Total Concentration of Individual Metals
Required to Severely Inhibit Anaerobic
Digestion 6- 3 9
6 -1 4 Total and Soluble Heavy Metal Content of
6 -1 5
Digesters
Stimulating and Inhibitory Concentrations
6- 40
of Light Metal Cations 6- 40

6 -1 6 Synergistic and Antagonistic Cation
Combinations .. a a A a A a * * A *4*
a a # A # B A A * a A * 6- 41
6 -1 7 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Hot Water
Coils in Anaerobic Digesters ........... 6- 47
6 -1 8 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Various
Anaerobic Digestion Tank Materials * . a a 6- 52
XXVI1
Number Page
6 -19 Relationship Between the Velocity Gradient

and Unit Gas Flow . * « * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
# 6- 63
-
6 20 Design Loading Assumptions .... ..... . 6- 79
6 -21 Selected Aerobic Digestion Studies on
Various Municipal Wastewater Sludges * * » * « * « * • 4 4 # 6- 83
6-22 Characteristics of Mesophilic Aerobic
Digester Supernatant ...... ... . .
. . . .. 6- 93
6 -23 Summary of Current Aerobic Digester
Design Criteria 6- 94
6- 24 Aerobic Digestion Labor Requirements * * 6-100
6-25 Lime Requirement to Attain pH 12 for
30 Minutes at Lebanon, Ohio . . .....
.. 6-105
6 - 26 Lime Doses Required to Keep pH Above
11.0 at Least 14 Days .. ... . . . . ....
.. 6-105
6 - 27 Bacteria in Raw , Anaerobically Digested , and
Lime Stabilized Sludges at Lebanon, Ohio .. . 6- 109
6-28 Chemical Composition of Sludges at Lebanon,
Ohio, Before and After Lime Stabilization .. 6-111
6- 29 Chemical Composition of Sludge and
Supernatant Before and After Lime
Stabilization 6- 113
6 -30 Characteristics of Quicklime and
Hydrated Lime * p 6-114
6-31 Mechanical Mixer Specifications for
Sludge Slurries 6-122
6-32 Estimated Average Annual Costs for Lime
.
Stabilization Facilities * * * « * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 6 - 123
6 - 33 Estimated Chlorine Requirements for
Sludge and Sidestream Processing 6- 133
6-34 Actual Operating Costs for Chlorine
Stabilization System 6- 135
6 -35 Chlorine Stabilization Capital Costs, 1979 6-137
CHAPTER 7
7- 1 Pathogenic Human Viruses Potentially in

Wastewater Sludge .. » '
•** « ** #
* # #
* * » » 7- 3
7- 2 Pathogenic Human Bacteria Potentially in
Wastewater Sludge , » « * * * '
# 7- 4
7- 3 Pathogenic Human and Animal Parasites
Potentially in Wastewater Sludge .... 7- 5
7- 4 Pathogenic Fungi Potentially in
Wastewater Sludge . » * * * # # > # # 7- 6
7- 5 Pathogen Occurrence in Liquid Wastewater
Sludges * * * * * * * * * * * * » • 7- 8
7- 6 Pathogen Survival in Soils * * 7- 12
7- 7 Time and Temperature Tolerance for
Pathogens in Sludge * 7- 14
X X V I1 1
Number Page
CHAPTER 8
8- 1 Effects of Either Polyelectrolyte Conditioning
or Thermal Conditioning Versus No Conditioning
on a Mixture of Primary and Waste- Activated
Sludge Prior to Gravity Thickening 8- 2
8- 2 Typical Conditioning Dosages of Ferric
Chloride ( FeClg ) and Lime ( CaO ) for
Municipal Wastewater Sludges ..... m m « * ** * * # 8- 7
8- 3 Suppliers of Polyelectrolytes .... * « * # # 9 9 9 8- 14
8- 4 Representative Dry Powder Cationic
Polyelectrolytes 8- 16
8- 5 Representative Liquid Cationic
Polyelectrolytes * * * *
9 9 * « 9 a
*• # 8- 16
8- 6 Typical Polyelectrolyte Additions for
Various Sludges « * * * * * « * * *
# 9 # 9 # 9 H H 8- 21
8- 7 Typical Levels of Dry Polyelectrolyte Addition
for Belt Filter Presses 8- 23
8-8 Typical Levels of Dry Polyelectrolyte Addition
for Solid Bowl Decanter Centrifuges
Conditioning Various Sludges * • » ** * 9 » 8- 25
8- 9 Performance of Solids Handling System at
Bissell Point , St. Louis STP 1972-1976 « * * * 9 4 9 9 8- 26
-
8 10 Performance of Solids Handling System at
Bissell Point , St. Louis STP 1977-1978 ..... 8- 28
8-11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ash Addition
to Sludge for Conditioning . * * .
* * * * « * •* *•9 <
# 8 - 33
8-12 General Characteristics of Separated Liquor
From Thermal Conditioned Sludge . * * * ** *
# 9 # # 8- 36
8-13 Filtrate and /or Centrate Characteristics From
Dewatering Thermal Conditioned Sludge ....... 8- 38
8-14 USEPA July 1979 Survey of Existing Municipal
Wastewater Thermal Conditioning ..... * » * v * i a 9 9 « 9 8- 39
8-15 Comparison of Sewage Sludge Handling and
Conditioning Processes 8- 41
CHAPTER 9
9- 1 Pilot-Scale Sludge Dewatering Studies 9- 2

9- 2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using
Sludge Drying Beds 9- 3
9- 3 Advantages of a Wedge-Wire Drying Bed ..... 9- 7
9- 4 Characterization of Sand Bed Drainage 9- 9
9- 5 A Summary of Recognized Published Sand Bed
Sizing Criteria for Anaerobically Digested ,
Non- Conditioned Sludge 9 - 10
9- 5 B Summary of Recognized Published State Bed
Sizing Criteria for Sand Beds by USEPA
Regions Square Feet/Capita * * 9 9 9 9 9- 11
9- 6 Wedge- Wire System Performance Data » 9 * 9 9 - 12
XXIX
Number Page
--
9 7 Sludge Drying Beds , Labor Requirements ..... 9 - 13
9 8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Sludge
9- 9
Drying Lagoons
Sludge Drying Lagoons, Labor
9 - 14
9-1 0
Requirements
Advantages and Disadvantages of Basket
9 - 17
9 -1 1
Centrifuges
Typical Performance Data for an Imperforate
9- 18
9 -1 2 Specific Operating Results for Imperforate
Basket 9- 20
9 -1 3 Operating Results for Basket Centrifuge
Dewatering of Aerobically Digested
9 -1 4
Sludge at Burlington, Wisconsin
Advantages and Disadvantages of Solid Bowl
9 - 22
9 -1 5
Decanter Centrifuges
Typical Performance Data for a Solid Bowl
9 - 23
9 -1 6
Decanter Centrifuge
Precoat Process Performance on Fine
9 - 24
9 -1 7
Particulate Sludges
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Rotary
9 - 27
9 -1 8
Drum Vacuum Filters I *
Typical Dewatering Performance Data for
9 - 28
9 -1 9
Rotary Vacuum Filters - Cloth Media
Typical Dewatering Performance Data for
9- 34
Rotary Vacuum Filters - Coil Media 9- 35

9-20 Specific Operating Results of Rotary Vacuum
9-2 1
Filters Cloth Media
Specific Operating Results of Rotary Vacuum
9 - 35
9- 2 2
Filters Coil Media
Operational Cost for Lakewood , Ohio Vacuum
9- 36
Filter Operations 9- 41
9-2 3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Belt
9 -2 4
Filter Presses
Typical Dewatering Performance of Belt Filter
9- 45
Presses .. 9- 48
9-25 Labor Requirements for Belt Filter
9- 26
Presses
Advantages and Disadvantages of Recessed Plate
9 - 51
9- 2 7
Pressure Filters
Expected Dewatering Performance for a Typical
9- 52
Fixed Volume Recessed Plate Pressure Filter.. 9- 56

9-28 Specific Operating Results of Fixed Volume
Recessed Plate Pressure Filters 9- 57
9 -2 9 Typical Dewatering Performance of a Variable
9-30
Volume Recessed Plate Pressure Filter .
Pressure Filtration and Incineration
9 - 57
Operational Cost.. 9 - 61
9- 3 1 Performance Results From a Screw Press 9 - 65
XXX
LIST OF TABLES (continued )
Number Page
9 32 - Summary of Performance Results For a Dual
Cell Gravity Filter -
Mentor , Ohio *
•
9- 68
CHAPTER 10
10 - 1 Estimated 1977 Costs for Dewatering , Drying

and Bagging at Largo, Florida .. . . .. .... . . . -
10 22
CHAPTER 11
11 - 1 Chemical Reactions Occurring During
......... ..... .
1 1- 2
Combustion . .
Representative Heating Values of Some
-
11 4
Sludges * * « « # 4 #
* * * *• 11- 5
11 - 3 Theoretical Air and Oxygen Requirements
for Complete Combustion . 11- 7
11 - 4 Approximate Combustion Calculation
Supplemental Fuel Requirements .. ... ..-. 11- 18
11 - 5 -
Combustion Calculations Molal Basis . . . 11- 21
11 - 6 -
Combustion Calculations Molal Basis , , . 11- 23
11 - 7 Comparison Between an Approximate and a
Theoretical Calculation of Furnace
Combustion . 11- 25
11-8 Hypothetical Wastewater Treatment Plant
Design Data . • # 11- 31
11- 9 Heat and Material Balance for Sludge
11-10
Incineration in a Multiple Hearth Furnace
Typical Hearth Loading Rates for a
- i
* 11 - 39
11 -11
-
Multiple Hearth Furnace * *
Heat and Material Balance for Sludge
i 11 - 48
11-12
Incineration in a Fluid Bed Furnace
Heat and Material Balance for Sludge
11 - 51
Incineration in an Electric Infrared
Furnace . * # 11 - 57
11 13- Heat and Material Balance for Sludge
Incineation in a Cyclonic Furnace .. 11- 60
11 14- Design Example: Wastewater Treatment Plant
Operating Data 11- 61
11 15- Design Example: Sludge Furnace Design
Criteria .. * * V « 11- 62
* fl
11 16- Design Example: Heat and Material Balance

for a Fluid Bed Furnace ................. 11- 63
11 17- Heat and Material Balance for Starved Air -
Combustion of Sludge in a Multiple Hearth
Furnace .
- 11- 70
* » * * * * •m # i
11 18- Heat and Material Balance Comparison of

Starved Air Combustion and Incineration .
- # # # # « « » » 11- 72
11 19- Design Example: Wastewater Treatment Plant
Operating Data .* * * # 11 - 77
XXXI
Number Page
11-20 Design Example: Heat and Material Balances

for Multiple-Hearth Furnaces * * # # # 11- 79
11- 21 Conventional Approaches to Co- Combustion
of Wastewater Sludge and Mixed Municipal
Refuse * • a 11- 83
11-22 Heat and Material Balance for Co-Combustion
by Starved - Air Combustion in a Multiple-Hearth
Furnace ..* * 11- 91
11- 23 Carbon Regeneration Methods * » * * 11- 99
11- 24 Basic Types of Pyrolysis, Thermal Gasification,
and Liquefaction Reactors - New , Demonstrated ,
or Under Development 11- 103
11- 25 Health Effects of Air Pollutants 11- 118
11- 26 San Francisco Bay Area - Maximum Allowable
Pollutant Concentrations * * * * * * * * « * * * * * * #
* * # # # « 11- 124
11- 27 Uncontrolled Emission Rates from
Multiple-Hearth Furnaces . 11- 125
11- 28 Design Example: Exhaust Gas Data from a
Multiple-Hearth Furnace 11- 130
11- 29 Design Example: Auxiliary Fuel Correction
for a Multiple- Hearth Furnace 11- 130
11- 30 Design Example: Multiple- Hearth Furnace
Pollutant Concentrations After Scrubbing * * 11- 131
11- 31 Description of Solid and Liquid Waste
Classifications 11-133
11- 32 Classification of Waste Disposal Sites 11-134
CHAPTER 12
12 -1 Suggested Monitoring Program for a Municipal

. ..
1 2- 2
Wastewater Sludge Composting Facility . . .
Densities of Various Compost Bulking
12- 6
Agents * * * * * « ’
** « » 12- 12
12- 3 Beltsville Equipment **** 12- 41
12- 4 Beltsville Actual and Projected Operating
Costs 12- 43
12- 5 Estimated Annual Labor and Equipment
Requirements, Bangor, Maine 12- 45
12 - 6 Bangor Equipment
Bangor Materials Requirements for 2 ,170 Wet Ton
12- 46
12 - 7
Annual Sludge Input 12- 46
12 - 8 Facility Processing 10 Dry Tons of Sludge per
Day 12- 50
12- 9 European Wastewater Sludge Composting
Processes * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * • • * * • * * * * • * * *
# # # # # # # 12- 57
CHAPTER 13
13- 1 Partial List of Fixation Processes 13- 2

1 3- 2 Parameters for Earthworm Conversion 13- 6
XXXI1
Number Page
13- 3 Possible Operating Difficulties in

Earthworm Conversion ... 13- 8
CHAPTER 14
14- 1 Summarized Calculations for Non-Newtonian
Flow Example Problem 14- 11
14- 2 Pressure Required to Exceed Yield Stress -
Example Problem . - - vv* *
B a « » * * 14- 12
14- 3 Applications for Sludge Pumps 14- 30
14- 4 Typical Long Pipelines Carrying Unstabilized
Sludged 14- 32
14- 5 Typical Long Pipelines Carrying Digested
Sludge m ® 14- 32
14- 6 Long Pipelines for Unstabilized Sludge :
Additional Locations * * « * * * * * *' ••
# • 14- 34
14- 7 Long Pipelines for Digested Sludge:
Additional Locations 14- 34
14- 8 Typical Minimum Tank Car Requirements 14- 52
14- 9 Typical Transit Times for Railroad
Transportation **• * « * » * * * *
# » * * * * # # i a 14- 53
14-10 Manpower Requirements for Railroad
Transport 14- 54
14-11 Tug Costs for Various Barge Capacities * * 14- 55
14- 12 Typical Barge Sizes and Costs 14- 56
CHAPTER 15
15- 1 Wastewater Solids Storage Applicability 15 - 5
15 - 2 Calculations for Digester Effluent Mass
Flow Rate from Equation 15-1 .......... 15 - 16
15 - 3 Advantages and Limitations of Using Facultative
Sludge Lagoons for Long-Term Storage . •* * * « 15- 24
15- 4 Sacramento Central Wastewater Treatment
Plant Volatile Reductions , Digested Sludge
Quantities and FSL Area Loadings ..... . ... 15- 33
Plant FSL Design Data 15- 35
Plant FSL Sludge Inventory , Dry Tons 15- 35
Plant Recycled FSL Supernatant Quality ..... 15 - 36
Plant Comparison of Digested FSL and
Removed Sludge Analytical Data 15- 37
Plant Odor Risk for 40 Acres of FSLs , Annual
Events ( Days ) 15- 39
15-10 Sacramento Regional Wastewater Treatment
Plant Ultimate Odor Risk for 124 Acres
of FSL , Annual Events ( Days ) » * m « m *
# # i " 15- 41
XXXI11
Number Page
15 11- 1978 Removed Sludge Prairie Plan Land-
Reclamation Project, The Metropolitan Sanitary
District of Greater Chicago » * # # # # # # a
* 15 - 44
15 12- 1973/1974 Supernatant Praire Plan Reclamation
Project, The Metropolitan Sanitary District of
-
Greater Chicago 15 - 45
CHAPTER 16
16 - 1 Effect of Polymer on Elutriation . 16 - 5
--
16
16
2
3
Effect of Supernatant Return
Estimated Increase in Wastewater Stream
* 16 - 6
Biological Treatment Capacity Required to
Handle Sidestreams From Various Solids
Treatment Processes * * » * « * *# * * » » » » * « *m f # # # # * * 16 - 7
16 - 4 Possible Digester Supernatant Treatment
Processes * fl < « 16 10-
16- 5
16- 6
Chlorine Treatment of Digester Supernatant
Aerobic Digestion of Heat Treatment Liquor
16 11-
16- 13
16- 7 Activated Sludge Treatment of Thermal
Conditioning Liquor * * * « »•
it # •« « * i # # t # # # # # i t * 16- 14
16 - 8 Aerobic Biological Filtration of Thermal
Condition Liquor • * * «. * *
# # # #« • * * » # # # # # # # * # # 16- 15
16- 9 Chlorine Oxidation Treatment of Thermal
Conditioning Liquor » « * * * » * * « * # # * « # # « * 16 - 16
CHAPTER 17
17 1 - Thickening .
, t » # * * 17- 3
17 2 - Stabilization 17 - 5
17 3
17 4
-- Disinfection
Conditioning * « * * *# #
* * * *
# . # # # # # # f # # # 4l
* f # #
*» ' #
**
17-
17-
8
10
17 5
17 6
-- Dewatering ..
Heat Drying ... • « i i t t 4 i t I t * I # 4 » • t * i t
17
17
-- 13
17
17 7 -- High Temperature Process # # * 17 - 22
17 8
17 9 -
Composting
Miscellaneous Conversion Processes * •
17
17-
- 27
30
17 10
17 11
-
-
Transportation * * * « * » «
Storage * * ••* • * *•
# # » *
#
• *
I
» * » * * * •*
1 4
*
17
17-
- 32
31
17 12 - Sidestreams * * * • » • > •• 17- 36
CHAPTER 18
18 -1 Comparison of Current and Potential Sludge

Utilization to Commercial Fertilizer
Consumption in the United States * » * • • 4* # # 41 # * #
* # 18 - 3
18 - 2 Examples of Communities Practicing Land
.
Utilization # #
* # #
* * #
* * #
* * 44 '
* #
* #
* # # # •* 18 - 4
X X X IV
Number Page
CHAPTER 19
19 -
19 -
1
2
Suitability of Sludges for Landfilling
Sludge and Site Conditions • . - #
19 - 7
19 - 9
19 - 3 Landfill Design Criteria . .. . .... ..... . . 19- 15
19 - 4 Leachate Quality From Sludge-Only Landfill , * * * + m 19 - 16
19 - 5 Landfill Equipment Performance
Characteristics # » # 19 - 19
19 - 6 Typical Equipment Type and Number as a Function
of Landfill Method and Site Loading .. .. * * . ...... 19 - 21
19 - 7 Potential Environmental Problems and Control
Practices 19 - 23
19 - 8 Surface Application Methods and Equipment for
Liquid Sludges * * * * « * * » « *' t *
9 ft 4 # < # 19 - 30
19 - 9 Subsurface Application Methods and Equipment
for Liquid Sludges ............... ...... ..
. . 19 - 31
19 -10 Furrow Slope Evaluation 19 - 33
19-11 Methods and Equipment for Application of
Dewatered Sludges * # # # 19 - 35
19 -12 Colorado Springs Population and Wastewater Flow
.
Projections . * * 19 - 40
19 -13 Colorado Springs Projected Cost of Sludge
Management System * » ** *t*** » *** **» * «
4 i l #
* > * # t f t l l 19 - 43
19 -14 Colorado Springs Climatic Conditions Affecting
Sludge Disposal 19 - 44
19-15 Colorado Springs Dedicated Land Disposal/
Subsurface Injection System Design Data ...... 19 - 49
19 -16 Sacramento Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant
Projected 1985 Wastewater Flow and Loadings . * * * # 19 - 51
Projected Digested Sludge Production 19- 54
19 -18 Sacramento Test DLD Runoff Water Analysis .... 19 - 55
Projected 1985 DLD Staffing Requirements * * * « + * « * 19 - 58
Projected Costs of Sludge Management System
Following Anaerobic Digestion , * * * * # # 19 - 59
XXXV
saw
LIST OF FIGURES
Number Page
CHAPTER 1
-
1 1 Classification of Treatment Disposal Options .... 1- 3
CHAPTER 3
3- 1 Criteria for System Selection 3- 3
3- 2
3- 3
Components for System Synthesis .. ... .........
Flowsheet Developed From Components for
... 3- 4
System Synthesis 3- 5
3- 4 Parallel Elements 3- 12
3- 5 Candidate Base Alternatives for Eugene-
Springfield 3- 14
3- 6 Flowsheet for the Eugene-Springfield Sludge
Management System 3- 17
3- 7 31 ank QFD for Chemically- Assisted Primary
Plant 3- 19
3- 8
3- 9
QFD for Chemically- Assisted Primary Plant
QFD for Secondary Plant with Filtration
....... 3-
3-
22
25
3-10 Contingency Planning Example 3- 30
CHAPTER 4
4- 1 Typical Relationship Between Peak Solids
Loading and Duration of Peak for Some Large
American Cities ........... . ... . . . .
. . . . . . .... 4- 5
4- 2 .
Peak Sludge Loads , St. Louis Study ... ..... 4- 6
4- 3 Net Growth Rate Curves . 4- 18
4 4 Schematic for Sludge Quantity Example ....... 4- 20
4- 5 Sludge Wasting Methods 4- 26
4- 6 VSS Production Data for Three Trickling Media
Designs 4- 32
CHAPTER 5
5- 1 Typical Concentration Profile of Muncipal
Wastewater Sludge in a Continuously Operating
Gravity Thickener 5- 4
5- 2 Typical Gravity Thickener Installation ...... 5- 5
5- 3 Cross Sectional View of a Typical Circular
Gravity Thickener 5- 6
5- 4 Annual O& M Man- Hour Requirements - Gravity
Thickeners 5- 16
5- 5 Annual Power Consumption - Continuous
Operating Gravity Thickeners 5- 17
XXXVI
LIST OF FIGURES ( continued )
Number Page
5- 6 Estimated June 1975 Maintenance Material Cost

For Circular Gravity Thickeners m * ' * * * 5- 18
5- 7 Typical Rectangular, Steel Tank , Recycle
Pressurization Dissolved Air Flotation
Thickener . .. 5- 21
5- 8 Float Concentration and Subnatant Suspended
Solids Versus Solids Loading of a Waste- Activated
Sludge - Without Polymers * » 5- 25
5- 9 Float Concentration and Subnatant Suspended
Solids Versus Solids Loading of a Waste- Activated
Sludge - With Polymers 5- 26
5-10 Effect of Hydraulic Loading on Performance in
Thickening Waste- Activated Sludge 5- 28
5-11 Float Concentration and Subnatant Suspended
Solids Versus Air-Solids Ratio With Polymer For
a Waste- Activated Sludge **« > 5- 29
5-12 Float Concentration and Subnatant Suspended
Solids Versus Air-Solids Ratio Without Polymer
For a Waste- Activated Sludge .. . . . . . . . .. . . . ... 5- 30
5-13 Annual O& M Man-Hour Requirements - DAF
Thickeners , * * * * * * * * * * * * « * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
4 4 5- 37
5-14 Annual Power Consumption - Continuous Operating
DAF Thickeners * ** * # # 5- 38
5-15 Estimated June 1975 Maintenance Material Cost For
DAF Thickeners , 5- 39
5-16 Typical Disc Nozzle Centrifuge in the Field . ... . 5- 40
5-17 Schematic of a Disc Nozzle Centrifuge ... 5- 41
5-18 Typical Disc Nozzle Pretreatment System » « • » * * * . # 5- 43
5- 19 Effect of Activated Sludge Settleability on
Capture and Thickening . . ... . . ....
.. . . 5- 44
5- 20 General Schematic of Imperforate Basket
Centrifuge 5- 46
5- 21 Relative Influence of One Pocess Variable as a
Function of Feed Solids Content for Imperforate
Basket Centrifuge Holding All Other Process
Variables Constant 5- 48
5- 22 Schematic of Typical Solid Bowl Decanter
Centrifuge * a * * * « * * * * * * * * , * * *
# # ; 5- 50
5- 23 Solid Bowl Decanter Centrifuge Installation . * 5- 51
5- 24 Estimated June 1975 Solid Bowl Decanter
Installation Capital Cost « «‘ * * * 4 * ** 4 * • 4
w i i i i i t # 5- 56
5-25 Annual O & M Requirements - Solid Bowl Decanter
Centrifuge * V 5- 58
5-26 Estimated June 1975 Maintenance Material Cost for
Solid Bowl Decanter Centrifuge 5- 59
CHAPTER 6
6
6
-- 21 Summary of the Anaerobic Digestion Process
Low - Rate Anaerobic Digestion System * * * * * * *
* *** **
** * * * *
6-
-
6
5
8
XXXVI1
Number Page
6- 3 Single-Stage, High- Rate Anaerobic Digestion
System . * • ***« «*« • « i 6- 9
6- 4
6- 5
Flow Diagram for the Torpey Process s
Two-Stage , High - Rate Anaerobic Digester
* * * * # # # i » « 6 10-
System * # * * *** * * * * » » » * «• * # 6 - 12
6 - 6 Carbon and Nitrogen Balance for a Two-Stage,
High - Rate Digestion System » > 6- 14
6- 7 Effect of Recycling Digester Supernatant on the
Suspended Solids Flow Through an Activated
Sludge Plant * * • * « # ** ** # « « # # # # < 6- 15
6 8
6- 9
- Anaerobic Contact Process *
Two-Phase Anaerobic Digestion Process
* « * ** * « * *
#
.
# # # #
...
# # i 6- 15
6- 16
6-10 Effect of SRT on the Relative Breakdown of
Degradable Waste Components and Methane
6-11
Production . * a » 9 V 9 * « «
* •9 B B
Effect of Temperature and SRT on the Pattern

* +9 #* * » # #
* * » ** 9 9 # # 6 - 21
of Methane Production and Volatile Solids
Breakdown ........................ -
6 22
6 12 - Effect of Solids Retention Time and Temperature
on Volatile Solids Reduction in a Laboratory-
Scale Anaerobic Digester » * * « t » * * * * * * a |l * * * i 4 i # f
| # 6- 27
6-13 Volatile Solids Reduction vs Temperature x SRT
for Three Types of Feed Sludges * * * * « ** « » * # # # # # # # 6- 28
6-14 Effect of Temperature on Gas Production . * • * 6- 30
6-15 Relationship Between pH and Bicarbonate
Concentration Near 95° F ( 35°C ) ...... 6- 35
6- 16 Cylindrical Anaerobic Digestion Tanks * * * « * * « * * # # 6- 43
6-17 Rectangular Anaerobic Digestion Tank 6- 44
6-18 Egg- Shaped Anaerobic Digestion Tank at Terminal
Island Treatment Plant, Los Angeles 6- 45
6-19 Schematic of the Heat Reservoir System for a
Jacketed Pipe or Spiral Heat Exchanger *• « * * * . # 6 - 48
6 20- Spiral Heat Exchanger Operating Off Secondary
Heat Loop at Sunnyvale, California * « • * 9 * * * * * # # 9 # 6- 49
6- 21 Effect of Solids Concentration on the Raw Sludge
Heating Requirement ,, . . 6- 51
6 22- Circulation Patterns Produced by Draft Tube and
Free Gas Lift Mixers . * * * « m ft 6- 56
6- 23 Draft Tube and Free Gas Lift Pumping Rate .. 6- 57
6-24 Comparison of Lance and Draft Tube Mixing in
Clean Water ... * » * • «•« * » « » *
# # # 6- 58
6-25 Effect of Temperature on the Viscosity of
Water * * * # 6 - 60
6-26 Effect of Solids Concentration and Volatile
Content on the Viscosity of Digesting Sludge .... 6 - 61
6 - 27 Types of Digester Covers . * * * * * * « * * * * * * * # # # # # # 9 9 9 6- 64
6-28 Overall View of Four Digesters With Downes
Floating Covers at Sunnyvale, California . 6- 65
6- 29 Typical Digester Supernatant Collection
System * * 9 *«******9**
# # i 6 - 68
X X X V I1 1
Number Page
6-30 Digester Drain System

Digester Washwater Cleaning by Cyclonic
... 6- 71
6-31
Separators , Grit Dewaterers , and Static Screens
at Los Angeles County Carson Plant 6- 72
6- 32 Energy Flow Through an Anaerobic Sludge Digestion
System 6- 73
6-33 Construction Costs for Anaerobic Digestion
Systems * * * » * « • * « » « * * « * * *
# # # # # # # 6- 75
6-34 Operating , Maintenance, and Energy Costs for
Anaerobic Sludge Digestion Systems 6- 76
6-35 Conceptual Design of an Anaerobic Sludge
Digestion System 6- 80
6-36 Process Flow Diagram for a Conventional
Continuously Operated Aerobic Digester 6 - 85
6-37 Reaction Rate Versus Anaerobic Digester
Liquid Temperatures 6- 87
6-38 Effect of Solids Concentration on Reaction
6-39
Rate » I *
Influence of Sludge Age and Liquid Temperatures
# 6 - 88
on the Oxygen Uptake Rates in Aerobic
Digesters * * * » * * * *• * *
'
* * * * *
# # # #' # 6- 89
6-40 Design Chart for Low Speed Mechanical Aerators
in Non- Circular Aeration Basins to Calculate
Energy Requirements for Meeting Oxygen
Requirements * i 6- 90
6-41 Effect of Sludge Age on pH During Aerobic
Digestion « 4 6 - 91
6- 42 Volatile Solids Reduction as a Function of
Digester Liquid Temperature and Digester Sludge
Age 6- 92
6-43 Summary of Results for Aerobic Digestion Design
Example |
#«f I
| « * » «
1 * * * * *
#
** A m m * a 6 - 98
6-44 Lime Doses Required to Raise pH of a Mixture of
Primary Sludge and Trickling Filter Humes at
Different Solids Concentrations 6 -106
6-45 Change in pH During Storage of Primary Sludge
Using Different Lime Dosages 6 -107
6-46 Effect of pH on Hydrogen Sulfide- Sulfide
Equilibrium . * •* « * # » *- * * #
* * » •• * • * * *
# # » *
# * * * # 6- 108
6- 47 Conceptual Design for a Lime Stabilization
Facility 6-125
6- 48 Schematic Diagram of a Chlorine Oxidation
System # l 6-129
CHAPTER 7
7- 1 Potential Pathogen Pathways to Man ....... 7- 13

7- 2 Flow Scheme for Sludge Pasteurization With
Single- Stage Heat Recuperation 7- 15
XXXIX
Number Page
7- 3 Energy Requirements for Sludge
Pasteurization Systems 7- 18
7- 4 Construction Costs for Sludge Pasteurization
Systems Without Heat Recovery « 7- 19
7- 5 Construction Costs for Sludge Pasteurization
Systems With Heat Recovery i W 7- 20
7- 6 Labor Requirements for Sludge
Pasteurization Systems * * - * * # # # # # # 7- 21
7- 7 Maintenance Material Costs for Sludge
With Heat Recovery * * » * * * * • m « < m > m a 7- 24
7- 9 Equipment Layout for Electron Beam Facility * * * * 7- 28
7-10 Electron Beam Scanner and Sludge Spreader . 7- 29
7-11 Schematic Representation of Cobalt -60 Irradiation
Facility at Geiselbullach, West Germany * * * * * # » 7- 34
7-12 Gamma Radiation Treatment of Liquid Sludge Power
Requirements t i i i < I v v I H I 9 * M * i I # « i v « « t I i « m m 7- 36
7-13 Radiation Treatment of Dewatered Sludge - Power
Requirements » * * 7- 37
7-14 Gamma Radiation Treatment of Liquid Sludge -
Capital Costs . 7- 39
7-15 Gamma Radiation Treatment of Liquid Sludge Labor
Requirements • * * * « » a t
* 7- 40
7-16 Gamma Radiation Treatment of Liquid Sludge
Maintenance Material Supplies and Costs ... ... . 7- 41
7-17 Gamma Radiation Treatment Facility for Handling
25 Tons per Day or More of Dewatered Sludge * * * # 7- 41
7-18 Gamma Radiation Treatment of Dewatered Sludge
Capital Cost 7- 42
7-19 Gamma Radiation Treatment of Dewatered Sludge-
Labor Requirements 7- 43
7-20 Gamma Radiation Treatment of Dewatered
Maintenance Materials and Supplies Cost . .... . 7- 44
CHAPTER 8
8 - 1 Basic Parameters for Evaluation of a Sludge.

Conditioning System * -
8 2
8 -2 Particle Size Distribution of Common
Materials * - m m m * *
m r m 9 m m * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 4 W 9 9 8- 3
8- 3 Typical Concentration Profile of Municipal
Wastewater Sludge in a Continuously Operating
Gravity Thickener ....
.... ... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. 8- 5
8- 4 Capital Cost of Ferric Chloride Storage and
8- 5
Feeding Facilities
Capital Cost of Lime Storage and Feeding
- 10
8
Facilities • * • * * « « * * • » * * * » * * * « « * * * *
$ #
* # # # # # # # # 8- 11
8 - 6 Ferric Chloride Storage and Feeding Operating and
Maintenance Work-Hour Requirements ..... ..... . ... 8- 11
8- 7 Electrical Energy Requirements for a Ferric
Chloride Chemical Feed System * * * * * « • * * * » * • > 4 v « + # # i
-
8 12
Xl
LIST OF FIGURES (continued )
Number Page
8-8 Lime Storage and Feeding Operation and
...... .....
8- 9
-
Maintenance Work Hour Requirements
Electrical Energy Requirements for a Lime Feed
- 12
8
System . 8- 13
8-10 Polyacrylamide Molecule -
Backbone of the
8-
Synthetic Organic Polyelectrolytes 15
8-11 Typical Configuration of a Cationic
Polyelectrolyte in Solution * • * i 8- 17
8-12 Schematic Representation of the Bridging Model
for the Destabilization of Colloids by
Polymers 8- 19
-
8 13 Effect of Biological Solids on Polymer
Requirements in Belt Press Dewatering , * * * * « » # # h 8- 24
8-14 Relative Influence of Polymer Addition on
Imperforate Basket Centrifuge Process
Variables 8- 28
-
8 15 Polymer Storage and Feeding Operation and
-
Maintenance Work Hour Requirements ......... 8- 29
8-16 Electrical Energy Requirements for a Polymer
Feed System * m m 8- 30
8-17 General Thermal Sludge Conditioning Flow Scheme
-
for a Non Oxidative System 8- 32
8 18- General Thermal Sludge Conditioning Flow Scheme
............ . ... ....
for an Oxidative System .. . 8 - 33
CHAPTER 9
9 - 1 Schematic of Sludge Dewatering in a Drying Bed

System 9 - 4
9
9
-- 32 Typical Sand Drying Bed Construction
Typical Paved Drying Bed Construction ........
9
9
-
--
6
6
9 - 4 -
Cross Section of a Wedge Wire Drying Bed ..... 9 7
9-5 Estimated June 1975 Maintenance Material Cost
for Open Sand Drying Beds * * * * 9 - 13
9- 6 1977 Flow Diagram of Burlington, Wisconsin
9- 7
Wastewater Treatment Plant
Flow Diagram of a Filtration System . ...... ..
9
9
-- 2125
9- 8
Vacuum Filter ..
-
Cutaway View of a Drum or Scraper Type Rotary
9- 29
29
9- 9 Operating Zones of a Rotary Vacuum Filter ..... 9-
9-10 Cross Sectional View of a Coil Spring - Belt
Type - Rotary Vacuum Filter 9- 30
9-11 Typical Coil Spring
Filter Installation
- Belt Type
« * * * * *
# #
- Rotary Vacuum
* * * * * • •• * * * •
# # 9- 31
9-12 Cross Sectional View of a Fiber Cloth Belt
Type - Rotary Vacuum Filter 9- 32
9 13- Typical Fiber Cloth
Filter
- Belt Type - Rotary Vacuum
9 - 36
33
9 14- Rotary Vacuum Filter System ................... 9 -
xli
Number Page
9-15 Rotary Vacuum Filter Productivity as a Function

of Feed Sludge Suspended Solids Concentration .• • 9- 38
9-16 Sludge Cake Total Solids Concentration as a
Function of the Feed Sludge Suspended Solids
Concentration » * * * * > * » * * * « * * + * * # # 9- 39
9-17 Lakewood, Ohio Wastewater Treatment Plant Flow
Diagram 9- 40
9-18 Estimated June 1975 Capital Cost for Rotary Drum
Vacuum Filters .. * • *** * * * *> * * * * *« # * * * * * *
• # # 9- 42
9-19 Annual O& M Man-Hour Requirements - Rotary Drum
Vacuum Filters * #
* * * * * * * * « •* * » * * * »
# #
* » « * >
* * * • < # # # 9- 42
9-20 Power Consumed by Rotary Drum Vacuum Filtration
Process 9- 43
9-21 Estimated June 1975 Annual Maintenance Material
Cost - Rotary Drum Vacuum Filter 9- 44
9-22 The Three Basic Stages of a Belt Press * * 9- 46
9-23 Alternative Designs for Obtaining Water Releases
with Belt Filter Presses . . .. ... 9- 47
9- 24 Typical Dewatering Performance of Belt Filter
Presses *** # 9- 48
9-25 Schematic Side View of a Recessed Plate Pressure
Filter . * • * * * » * * * * * + * * + * * « » * * + + * *
» » # # # 9- 5 3
9-26 Cross Section of a Fixed -Volume Recessed Plate
Filter Assembly 9- 53
9- 27 Typical Recessed Plate Pressure Filter
Installation at Wassau , Wisconsin + * * « * * « * * * * * * # # 9- 54
9-28 Cross Section of a Variable Volume Recessed Plate
Filter Assembly .......... . . . . . .
. . . . . . .. 9- 55
9-29 Schematic of an In-Line Conditioning System For
Recessed Plate Pressure Filter 9- 58
9-30 Brookfield, Wisconsin Wastewater Treatment Plant
Flow Diagram 9- 60
9-31 Performance Data for a Pressure Filter
Brookfield , Wisconsin , * * * * * ** ** * *
# 9- 61
9- 32 Estimated June 1975 Costs for Fixed Volume
Recessed Plate Pressure Filters 9- 62
9- 33 Annual O & M Man-Hour Requirements - Fixed Volume
Recessed Plate Pressure Filter 9- 63
9-34 Fixed Volume Recessed Plate Pressure Filter
Power Consumption * * # 9- 64
9-35 Estimated June 1975 Annual Maintenance Material
Cost-Fixed Volume, Recessed Plate Pressure
Filter ... m m * « « * * • *- * • » * * * * « » * « *
’
# f f 9- 64
9-3 6 System Schematic for One Type of Screw Press
System . * * * * * * * * *
#
** •
# # # <i 9- 65
9-37 Cross Section View of a Twin- Roll Vari-Nip
Press w * » * 9- 66
- 9-3 8 Cross Section View of a Dual Cell Gravity
Filter ... « * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * # # * » * * 9- 67
xlii
Number Page
10- 1 Estimate of Energy Required to Dry Wastewater
Sludge as a Function of Dryer Feed Solids
10- 2
Content * * ****
# # '
Schematic for Sludge Drying Example

* * « l 9 # ft 10
10- 7
- 6
10- 3 Flash Dryer System ( Courtesy of C.E. Raymond ) ... 10- 17
10-
10-
4
5
Schematic for a Rotary Dryer
Jacketed Hollow- Flight Dryer ( Courtesy Bethlehem
10 20-
Corporation ) ... ******* * # B 10- 23
-
10 6
10- 7
Toroidal Drying System
Schematic of BEST Process
10- 26
10- 29
CHAPTER 11
11
11
-- 12 Basic Elements of High Temperature Processes ....
Effect of Excess Air and Excess Temperature
11- 3
11- 3
on Supplemental Fuel Requirements ..........
Effect of Dry Solids Heating Value and Sludge
. -
11 8
Moisture on Capability for Autogenous

11- 4
Combustion
Effect of Sludge Moisture Content and
-
11 11
Combustible Solids Content on Supplemental
11- 5
Fuel Consumption
Hypothetical Wastewater Treatment Plant
#
-
11 12
Flowsheet 11- 30
-
11 6
11- 7
Cross Section of a Multiple-Hearth Furnace . * * *
Shaft Cooling Air Arrangement in a
4 4 11- 33
Multiple-Hearth Furnace .. .
* * * * * ** n i a 11- 34
11- 8 Process Zones in a Multiple-Hearth Furnace 11- 35
11- 9 Flowsheet for Sludge Incineration in a
Multiple-Hearth Furnace * 4 4 4 4 11- 37
11-10 Multiple-Hearth Furnace Start-Up Fuel
Requirements . * * * * * i * « * 4
# i # * ** * ** * *
4 f # 4 4 # # 4 # 4 a B f t. 11- 41
11-11 Multiple-Hearth Furnace Construction
Cost ** « ***
# # # » 4 »
# 4 11- 42
11-12 Multiple- Hearth Furnace Operating and
Maintenance Labor Requirements ...... 11- 44
11-13 Multiple-Hearth Furnace Fuel
Requirements * *
B' K * * **
B B B B
**« *« 4
# # # * * 4*# # # # # 4 4 4 4 11- 45
11 -14 Multiple-Hearth Furnace Electrical Power
Requirments * » * » ** «* m m 11- 46
11-15 Multiple-Hearth Furnace Maintenance Material
Costs 11- 47
11-16 Heat Balance for the Recycle Concept
in a Multiple- Hearth Furnace 11- 49
11-17 Cross Section of a Fluid .Bed Furnace ....... 11- 50
11-18 Flowsheet for Sludge Incineration in a Fluid
Bed Furnace 11- 52
11-19 Fluid Bed Furnace Fuel Requirements * « * * * • • * * # # # 11- 53
11 - 20 Fluid Bed Furnace Electrical Power
Requirements * * *• 4 4 * **** » *
# *• * *
# # # # # # # 11- 54
xliii
Number Page
11- 21 Cross Section of an Electric Infrared Furnace ... 11- 55
11- 22 Flowsheet for Sludge Incineration in an
11- 23
Electric Infrared Furnace . . .... * » » »
Cross Section of a Cyclonic Furnace
... i 11- 56
* * » •* 11- 58
11- 24 Flowsheet for Sludge Incineration in a
Cyclonic Furnace 11- 59
11- 25 Design Example: Heat and Material Balance
in a Fluid Bed Furnace * » » # i 11- 64
11 - 26 Comparison of Excess Air Requirements:
Incineration vs. Starved - Air Combustion ... « ft ft ft f t : ft 11 - 66
11- 27 Flowsheet for Starved - Air Combustion in a
Multiple-Hearth Furnace 11- 69
11- 28 Design Example: Starved - Air Combustion
in a Multiple- Hearth Furnace . 11- 82
11- 29 Typical Grate- Fired Waterwalled Combustion
Unit » + * * * »
# # # # # 11- 84
11- 30 Vertical Shaft Reactors ....... .... ... 11- 87
11 - 31 Autogenous Combustion Requirements for
11- 32
Co-Disposal
Flowsheet for Co- Combustion Full Scale Test
* # i # # # » * 11- 88
at the Central Contra Costa Sanitary District,

California 11- 90
11-33 Flowsheet for Co- Combustion at the Western
Lake Superior Sanitary District, Duluth,
Minnesota * * * # i 11- 93
11- 34 Cross Section of the Watergate Furnace for
Scum Incineration « « * 9 # 4 11- 97
11-35 JPL Activated Carbon Treatment System ...... » « * t 11-101
11- 36 Volatile Solids and COD Content of Heat
Treated Sludge ....... .
High
. ..... ..
. .... ....... . 11-105
11-37 Flowsheet for High Pressure/ Temperature
Wet Air Oxidation « * 11- 106
11- 38 Wet Air Oxidation - Electrical Energy
Requirements » » « « «
# # # # # i » « •* **** + » * # # # 11- 108
11- 39 React-O-Thermtm on sludge/Liquid Waste
Destruction 11-109
11- 40 Modular Controlled - Air Incinerator
Configurations . 11- 111
11- 41 Pyro-Sol Limited Pyrolysis System , • * « » « 4 # 11-112
11-42 Bailie Process Flowsheet * » * * * * # # # 11- 113
11- 43 Wright- Malta Process Flowshee ..... 11-114
11-44 Air Emissions 11- 115
11- 45 San Francisco Bay Area Quality Management
District: Auxiliary Fuel and Oxygen
Correction ... * » * * « * + * * * * * * * * » • ••
# # 11- 126
CHAPTER 12
12 -1 Effect of Solids Content on the Ratio of Wood

Chips to Sludge by Volume 12- 4
xli v
Number Page
14- 2 Comparison of Behaviors of Wastewater Sludge and
Water Flowing in Circular Pipelines * • « * • * # # # 14- 6
14- 3 Friction Factor for Sludge , Analyzed as a Bingham
Plastic • * * * «
# #» • * » * * » » * •• ,
* • * # 14- 7
14- 4 Friction Factors for Example Problem . 14- 12
14- 5 Pressure Drops for Example Problem . 14- 13
14- 6 Viscometer Test of Sewage Sludge 14- 16
14- 7 Centrifugal Pump * • ! « # 14- 18
14- 8 Torque Flow Pump * * * * * * * * * * * * # # # # 14- 19
14-12 Progressive Cavity Pump * * #
** ** 14- 23
14-13 Diaphragm Pump ... i
* * < i 14- 25
14- 14 Rotary Pump , 14- 27
14-15 Ejector Pump 14- 28
14-16 Belt Conveyor * * * * ft i * * * * a * * # # 14- 38
14- 17 Inclined Belt Conveyor Features . m. - * 4 14- 41
14-18 Flexible Flat Belt Conveyor * • * * « * * > # 14- 42
14-19 Screw Conveyor . * * * * « * * * * * * * * *
# # 4 4 14- 42
14- 20 Tabular Conveyor 14- 43
14- 21 Bucket Elevator * * M 4r• «I I < < I t i t 1 t 14- 44
14- 22 Pneumatic Ejector .. * * » « * « * * • « * # # # # # # 14- 45
14- 23 Pneumatic Conveyor , * * ** « » * « « * * * « * # < # # 14- 45
CHAPTER 15
15- 1 Solids Balance and Flow Diagram-Design Example

Single-Phase Concentration and Displacement
Storage .. •v * m * « * # * * * * 4 ** *** * * * # 15- 13
15- 2 Effect of Various Operating Strategies on
Dewatering Unit Feed Rates « » * * 4 4 4 15- 17
15- 3 Proposed Design for Blending Digester — Sacramento
Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant 15- 21
15- 4 26 , 000 Gallon Sludge Equalization Tank ( Typical
of Two ) Aliso Solids Stabilization Facility * * * * * 15- 22
15- 5 Schematic Representation of a Facultative Sludge
Lagoon ( FSL ) * * « * * * * •« «• # # # 4 # 15- 25
15- 6 ,
Typical Brush-Type Surface Mixer Sacramento,
California 15- 27
15- 7 Typical FSL Layout * * * • 15- 29
15- 8 Typical FSL Cross Section .• • , . -* * * * 15- 29
15- 9 Layout for 124 Acres of FSLs — Sacramento Regional
Wastewater Treatment Plant . W ' 1 5- 3 0
15-10 Sacramento Central Wastewater Treatment Plant
Surface Layer Monitoring Data for FSLs 5 to 8 ... 15 -34
1977 Fecal Coliform Populations for Various
Locations in the Solids Treatment - Disposal
Process # » « * * * * 15- 38
15-12 Typical Wind Machines and Barriers Sacramento,
California 15- 40
xlvi
Number Page
12- 2 Locations for Temperature and Oxygen
Monitoring at One End of a Windrow or
Individual Aerated Pile 12- 7
12- 3 Sludge Composting Mass Balance Diagram * * # • * * * * * 4 12- 9
12- 4 Temperature Profile of a Typical Compost
Windrow , ,,,,, 12- 14
12- 5 Turning a Windrow at Los Angeles Compost Site .... 12-15
-
12 6 Destruction of Pathogenic Organisms as a
Function of Time and Temperature During
Composting of Digested Sludge by the Windrow
Method ** 12-17
12- 7 Process Flow Diagram - Windrow Composting
Sludge - 10 MGD Activated Sludge Plant « *•* »# # # 12- 21
-
12 8
12- 9
Configuration of Individual Aerated Piles . • • * * « *
Aeration Pipe Set-Up for Individual Aerated
« 12- 22
Pile * * * * » * • « * «- 12- 23
12-10 Configuration of Extended Aerated Pile ,. 12- 25
12-11 Destruction of Pathogenic Organisms as a
Function of Time and Temperature During
Composting of Undigested Sludge by the Aerated
Pile Method .
• * :* * * * * * * * * « * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
# # # # # # # 12- 28
12-12 Odor Filter Piles at Beltsville 12- 29
12-13 Process Flow Diagram for the Extended Pile
Compost Sludge Facility - 10 MGD Activated Sludge
Plant * * * * * 12- 32
12-14 Design Example Extended Aerated Pile
Cons true tion *** *'
* * * * * *•**
# # # #
*• * # * « 12- 34
12-15 Compost Piles Being Taken Down . . ..
. .. ... . 12-35
12-16 Finished Screened Compost .............. .. 12- 37
12- 17 Composting /Drying System - County Sanitary
Districts - Los Angeles .. . * * * *•* * * « «
# # # # 12-39
12- 44
12-18 Composting Site Layout - Bangor, Maine
12-19 Cross Section of Aeration Pipe Trench Durham
Compost Pad Design . * m 12-48
12- 20 Typical Process Flow Schematic Confined
Composting System * i 12- 52
12- 21 Partial Diagram Metro - Waste System -
Resource Conversion Systems , Inc. 12- 53
12- 22 Typical Layout of a Dano Bio-Stabilizer Plant .... 12- 54
12- 23 BAV Bioreactor 12-56
CHAPTER 13
13- 1 Diagram of an Earthworm Conversion Process 13- 5
CHAPTER 14
14- 1 Approximate Friction Head - Loss for Laminar Flow

of Sludge 14- 3
xl v
Number Page
14- 2 Comparison of Behaviors of Wastewater Sludge and
Water Flowing in Circular Pipelines 14- 6
14- 3 Friction Factor for Sludge, Analyzed as a Bingham
Plastic * . * *** » ** » * a|
# i 14- 7
14- 4 Friction Factors for Example Problem ...* • « » # # a 14- 12
14- 5
14- 6
Pressure Drops for Example Problem
Viscometer Test of Sewage Sludge
... .. 14- 13
14- 16
14- 7 Centrifugal Pump ...... -
* * # f t 14- 18
14- 8
14-12
Torque Flow Pump .... .
Progressive Cavity Pump * v
. * * * * * * * *• « * #
*** * B # # a 14- 19
14- 23
14-13 Diaphragm Pump 14- 25
14-14 Rotary Pump » « 14- 27
14-15 Ejector Pump 14- 28
14-16 Belt Conveyor .. .. .. ... ¥ * 14- 38
14-17 Inclined Belt Conveyor Features 14- 41
14- 18 Flexible Flat Belt Conveyor * * * * * 14- 42
14-19 Screw Conveyor * * * * * * 14- 42
14- 20 Tabular Conveyor . * « « * * » * * * * * .* * « • * « * * • * * * • • * -» • ' 14- 43
14-21 Bucket Elevator . , 14- 44
14-22 Pneumatic Ejector .. 14- 45
14- 23 Pneumatic Conveyor . * * * * * * • • * • ** ** » •
A f t # 14- 45
CHAPTER 15
15- 1 Solids Balance and Flow Diagram-Design Example

Single-Phase Concentration and Displacement
Storage m
* •« # # # # 15- 13
15- 2 Effect of Various Operating Strategies on
Dewatering Unit Feed Rates ..... * * * « ** « * * * * ** 15- 17
15- 3 Proposed Design for Blending Digester — Sacramento
Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant 15- 21
15- 4 26 , 000 Gallon Sludge Equalization Tank ( Typical
of Two ) Aliso Solids Stabilization Facility 15- 22
15- 5 Schematic Representation of a Facultative Sludge
Lagoon ( FSL ) .. * * * * * * * *
# *
# * * « * * * « * * * * • # 15- 25
15- 6 Typical Brush-Type Surface Mixer, Sacramento,
California ....... 15 - 27
15- 7 Typical FSL Layout M • •• # « * * * # « • 15- 29
15- 8 Typical FSL Cross Section .... * « * . * # # # #
* #
* # * • 15- 29
15- 9 Layout for 124 Acres of FSLs — Sacramento Regional
Wastewater Treatment Plant 15- 30
Surface Layer Monitoring Data for FSLs 5 to 8 . .. 15 -34
15 -11 Sacramento Central Wastewater Treatment Plant
1977 Fecal Coliform Populations for Various
Locations in the Solids Treatment - Disposal
Process . * * # • « •• * * * * » * * * * *
.
» •• * ***** *
> ' 15- 38
15 -12 Typical Wind Machines and Barriers Sacramento,
California * * 15- 40
xlvi
Number Page
15- 13 Anaerobic Liquid Sludge Lagoons, Prairie Plan
Land Reclamation Project , the Metropolitan
Sanitary District of Greater Chicago * * * • * * « * # 15- 42
15-14 Plan View of Drying Sludge Lagoon Near West-
15-15
Southwest Sewage Treatment Works, Chicago
Cross Section of Draw-Off Box Area Drying Sludge
. .. .. . 15- 49
Lagoon Near West - Southwest Sewage Treatment
Works , Chicago f % 15- 50
15-16 Cross Section of Drying Sludge Lagoon With
Slackline Cable Near West- Southwest Treatment
Works, Chicago 15- 50
15-17 Isometric of Sludge Storage and Truck Loading
Station, Joint Water Pollution Control Plant ,
Los Angeles County , California . M M t »I * t
i
*M i t 15- 55
15-18 Storage Bin Discharge Control System , Joint Water
Pollution Control Plant, Los Angeles County,
California 15- 57
CHAPTER 16
16 - 1 Example of Sidestream Production ......... 16 - 2
16- 2 Possible Treatment Scheme for Anaerobic
Digester Supernatant 16 - 9
16 - 3 Aerobic Digestion of Heat Treatment , Batch
Tests ** 16 -12
16 - 4 Flow Diagram , Anaerobic Filtration of Heat
Treatment Liquor .... 16 -14
16 - 5 Schematic Diagram of Plant for Processing Heat
Treatment Liquor . 16 -16
16- 6 Chlorine Treatment of Heat Treatment
Liquor 16 -17
CHAPTER 17
17- 1 Typical Bubbler Schematic With Air Purge

Capabilities . 17 - 42
17- 2 Typical Bubbler Schematic With Diaphragm
Element * * #
* *
1 17 - 43
17 - 3 Cylindrical Chemical Seal for Sludge Pressure
Measurement 17 - 52
17- 4 Direct Reading Olfactometer ( DRO ) . . ... ...... . ... 17 - 62
17- 5 Aeration Control Graphic Panel and Console
Lights Set Manually on Graphic Panel ... ....... . . 17 - 69
17 - 6 Incinerator- Digester Control Graphic Panel Lights
Controlled by Remote Valve Limit Switches 17 - 70
CHAPTER 18
18 - 1 The Release, Conversion , Forms and Uses of

Energy From Sludge , . . 18 - 10
xlvi i
Number Page
18 - 2 Schematic of Combined Boiler/Condenser System
for Hot Water Production 18 - 12
18- 3 Process Schematic for Example of Energy Recovery
From Digester Gas .... » 18 - 16
18 - 4 Energy Flowsheet for Example of Energy Recovery
From Digester Gas 18 - 18
18- 5 Mean Molal Heat Capacities of Gases at Constant
Pressure ( Mean Values From 77° to T °F ) * * ft 18- 23
18 - 6 Flowsheet for Example of Energy Recovery From
Incinerator Flue Gas * * 18- 27
18 - 7 Steam Conditions for Example of Recovery of
Energy From Incinerator of Flue Gas . . .... .... . 18- 28
18 - 8 Energy Flowsheet for Example of Energy Recovery
From Incinerator Flue Gas * * **** 18- 32
CHAPTER 19
19 - 1 Wide Trenching Operation, North Shore
Sanitary District ., 19 - 4
19 - 2 Dewatered Sludge Landspreading , Metropolitan
Denver Sewage Disposal District No. 1 ,
Denver, Colorado 19- 36
19 - 3 Flow Diagram Sludge Management System, Colorado
Springs , Colorado 19 - 41
19 - 4 Overall Sludge Disposal Site Layout, Colorado
Springs, Colorado ... 19 - 42
* ** * » *« * * * ** * * * * * * **
# #
19 - 5 Sludge Application Rate-DLD System Colorado

Springs , Colorado . * * * * * *- * *- * * * *
i # # # # •* * • * * * 19 - 45
19 - 6 Estimated Net DLD Area Requirements Sludge
Applied at 5 Percent Solids Concentration,
Colorado Springs , Colorado 19 - 46
19 - 7 Estimated Net DLD Area Requirements at Various
Sludge Concentrations , Colorado Springs ,
Colorado ... •* * * * *** ** *# # ft 19 - 47
19- 8 Sludge Application Rates by Subsurface Injection,
Colorado Springs , Colorado . . 19 - 48
19- 9 Prototype Dredging Operation, Sacramento Regional
County Sanitation District 19 - 50
19 -10 Prototype Subsurface Injection Operations
Sacramento Regional County Sanitation
District . * •* * * 19 - 52
19-11 Flow Diagram - Projected 1992 Normal Solids
Treatment and Disposal Operation, Sacramento
Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant « 4 19 - 53
xlviii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This d e s i g n m a n u a l was p r e p a r e d a s p a r t o f t h e T e c h n o l o g y
T r a n s f e r Series of the C e n t e r f o r Environmental Research
Information , U.S. Environmental Protection Agency , Cincinnati,
Ohio. Development , coordination and preparation were carried
o u t by B r o w n and Caldwell, Consulting Engineers , Walnut Creek ,
California , with t h e assistance of Environmental T e c h n o l o g y
Consultants, I n c., of Springfield , Virginia. Technical review
and coordination were provided by the Office of Water Program
O p e r a t i o n s , U S E P A , W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. Additional technical
review and contributions were provided by Regions V and IX o f
t h e U S E P A , by t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n Sanitary District o f G r e a t e r
Chicago, and by t h e Technical Practice Committee of the Water
Pollution Control Federation. USEPA project officers on this
m a n u a l were Dr . J o s e p h B . Farrell , Municipal Environmental
R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , a n d D r. J a m e s E . Smith , J r. , C e n t e r f o r
Environmental Research Information, Cincinnati, Ohio.
xlix
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 1. Purpose and Scope


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 1
PURPOSE AND SCOPE
1.1 Purpose
T h e purpose o f this m a n u a l is t o p r e s e n t a n u p-t o- d a t e r e v i e w

of design information o n all applicable technologies available
f o r t r e a t m e n t a n d d i s p o s a l o f m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s.
Wastewater solids include g r i t , scum , s c r e e n i n g s , p r i m a r y
s l u d g e s , biological s l u d g e s, chemical s l u d g e s, and s e p t a g e.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972

( Public Law 9 2- 500 ) and the Clean W a t e r A c t Amendments o f 1 9 7 7
( P u b l i c L a w 9 5- 2 1 7 ) r e q u i r e l e v e l s o f m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r
t r e a t m e n t sufficient t o meet the c o n g r e s s i o n a l m a n d a t e o f
c l e a n i n g u p t h e n a t i o n ' s w a t e r w a y s. Through the USEPA
C o n s t r u c t i o n G r a n t s P r o g r a m , f i n a n c i a l incentives h a v e b e e n
p r o v i d e d t o a s s i s t p u b l i c l y o w n e d t r e a t m e n t w o r k s ( P O T W s ) in
m e e t i n g these r e q u i r e m e n t s , Federal a n d s t a t e r e q u i r e m e n t s
i m p a c t both e f f l u e n t q u a l i t y a n d t r e a t m e n t a l t e r n a t i v e s ,
utilization , and disposal of wastewater solids.
T h e t a s k s associated with managing municipal wastewater solids
a r e n e i t h e r s i m p l e n o r c h e a p. In providing higher levels
o r a d d i t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r s, g r e a t e r v o l u m e s o f
w a s t e w a t e r solids a r e p r o d u c e d , T h e combination o f g r e a t e r
v o l u m e s o f s l u d g e s , mixtures o f various s l u d g e s , a n d m o r e
restrictive m a n a g e m e n t requirements h a v e complicated the solids
m a n a g e m e n t options available t o the design engineer , These facts
require b o t h the d e s i g n e n g i n e e r and t h e operations p e r s o n n e l
t o g i v e s e r i o u s consideration t o t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f b o t h
the liquid and solids portions o f the treatment facility, T h e
need f o r sound w a s t e w a t e r solids m a n a g e m e n t is s i g n i f i c a n t.
Typically , solids processing and d i s p o s a l costs can a c c o u n t for
2 0 t o 4 0 p e r c e n t o f the total operating and maintenance c o s t of a
t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t y ( 1 ). T h u s , t h e r e is s t r o n g i n c e n t i v e t o
u t i l i z e t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e a n d c o s t - effective alternatives
available.
This manual s u p e r s e d e s the U S E P A Process D e s i g n Manual f o r S l u d g e
T r e a t m e n t and D i s p o s a l , EPA 1 1- 74-0 0 6 , published in 1 9 7 4. Since
1 9 7 4, n e w w a s t e w a t e r solids processing t e c h n i q u e s have d e v e l o p e d ,
existing techniques have matured , and operating experience and
d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e. Current legislation, solids management
r e q u i r e m e n t s , and a d v a n c e s in s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t and d i s p o s a l
technologies w a r r a n t this revision.
1 -1
1.2 Scope
T h i s m a n u a l h a s b e e n p r e p a r e d f o r u s e by p r o f e s s i o n a l s e n g a g e d in
t h e d e s i g n a n d a p p r o v a l o f m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r solids treatment
and d i s p o s a l s y s t e m s. D e s i g n information p r e s e n t e d includes:
• O r i g i n s, q u a n t i t i e s, a n d characteristics of municipal
wastewater treatment plant solids;
• P r o c e s s d e s c r i p t i o n s, including theory and appropriate
d e s i g n criteria ;
• Energy requirements;
• Public h e a l t h a n d environmental considerations ;
• C o s t and p e r f o r m a n c e d a t a ; a n d
• D e s i g n e x a m p l e s.
Some material is not included because it has been presented
e l s e w h e r e. A s e c t i o n o n s a n i t a r y l a n d f i l l s h a s b e e n o m i t t e d
because an EPA manual of this subject has been published recently
( 2 ). T h e t r e a t m e n t o f land utilization is abbreviated because a n
EPA D e s i g n Seminar p u b l i c a t i o n is available ( 3 ).
1.3 P r o c e s s Classification
The manual is divided into 19 chapters, with 15 chapters
d e v o t e d t o s l u d g e p r o c e s s e s. Additional c h a p t e r s cover g e n e r a l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , d e s i g n a p p r o a c h , a n d s l u d g e p r o p e r t i e s.
F i g u r e 1 - 1 d e p i c t s t h e b a s i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n b y p r o c e s s. I t
s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t p r o c e s s e s w i t h i n classifications o v e r l a p
t o s o m e e x t e n t. A s a n e x a m p l e , s t a b i l i z a t i o n , d i s i n f e c t i o n ,
and d i s p o s a l a l s o t a k e p l a c e d u r i n g h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e p r o c e s s i n g.
T h e p r o c e s s e s, as t h e y a p p e a r on F i g u r e 1 -1, should b e r e a d in
l e f t -t o-r i g h t s e q u e n c e ; t h e y d o n o t , h o w e v e r , n e c e s s a r i l y a p p e a r
in a t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m in t h e o r d e r s h o w n. F i g u r e 1-1 i s a r r a n g e d
to display sludge treatment and disposal options rather than to
s u g g e s t a n y p a r t i c u l a r o r d e r o f o p e r a t i o n s.
1.4 References
1. U S E P A. C o n s t r u c t i o n C o s t s f o r M u n i c i p a l W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t
P l a n t s 1 9 7 3 -1 9 7 7. O f f i c e o f W a t e r P r o g r a m O p e r a t i o n s.
W a s h i n g t o n, D.C. J a n u a r y 1 9 7 8.
2. U S E P A. M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e L a n d f i l l s.
P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l:
E n v i r o n m e n t a l R e s e a r c h Information C e n t e r, Office o f S o l i d
W a s t e , C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. E P A -6 2 5/1-7 8 - 0 1 0, S W - 7 0 5.
O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
3. USEPA. " P r i n c i p a l s a n d D e s i g n Criteria f o r S e w a g e S l u d g e
A p p l i c a t i o n o n Land." S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t and D i s p o s a l Part 2.
T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r , Cincinnati , Ohio 4 5 2 6 8. EPA -6 2 5/ 4- 7 8-
012 . O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
1- 2
L GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS - DESIGN APPROACH
PRODUCTION HIGH TEMPERATURE MISCELLANEOUS DISPOSAL

AND PROPERTIES THICKENING STABILIZATION DISINFECTION CONDITIONING joe WATERING I PROCESSES ORYING COMPOSTING PROCESSES UTILIZATION TO LAND
'
1 *'{ **
'
DRYING BEDS
INOHCANIC DRYING INCINERATION

ANAEROBIC
LAGOONS FLASH
DIGESTION CHEMICAL CROPLAND
PRIMARY GRAVITY THERMAL WINOROW FIXATION LANDFILL
AEROBIC CENTRIFUGE FORESTS
DIGESTION ORGANIC
SECONDARY
VACUUM ROTARY STARVED AIR
\V RECLAMATION
LAND 1
FLOTATION CHEMICAL FILTER KILN COMBUSTION AERATED PILE ENCAPSULATION
LIME
CHEMICAL TREATMENT HEAT AND
ELUTRIATION BELT
FILTER FUEL DEDICATED ]
GRIT. SCUM EARTH WORM RAW
I LAND
SCREENINGS [ CENTRIFUGE CHLORINE IRRADIATION MECHANICAL CONVERSION
MATERIAL \ DISPOSAL
FILTER TOROIDAL
TREATMENT RECOVERY
INSTRUMENTATION
INTERFACING
FIGURE 1- 1
CLASSIFICATION OF TREATMENT
AND DISPOSAL OPTIONS
1- 3
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 2. General Considerations


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 2
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 Introduction and Scope
-
Non technical factors can heavily influence the planning , design ,
construction, and operation of solids management systems , and
-
these non technical considerations must be faced from the day a
project is conceived. -
Non technical factors include legal and
regulatory considerations , as well as other issues , such as
public participation.
2.2 Legal and Regulatory Considerations
The thrust of this section is to describe the intent and effects

of federal legislation and to provide a reference list which
features the most current criteria , Where state and local
requirements may be involved , they are so noted.
2.2.1 Effect of Effluent Discharge Limitations

on Wastewater Solids Management
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 ( PL 92 500 )

established levels of treatment , deadlines for meeting these
-
levels , and penalties for violators , For plants discharging to
surface waters , effluent requirements are expressed in permits
issued by the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
( NPDES ). NPDES permits have generally mandated the upgrading of
existing treatment plants or the construction of new plants to
provide higher levels of treatment and reliability.
The law , while providing direction toward the goal of a cleaner

environment, has created problems for designers and operators of
wastewater treatment plants. Higher level treatment generally
means a greater mass and volume of solids to be managed , Solids
treatment systems not only must handle more material but must do
so more effectively. Solids not captured therein are returned to
the wastewater treatment process and can potentially degrade
effluent quality and defeat the very purpose of the law. Thus ,
stricter discharge limits have had the effect of making solids
treatment and disposal more important, more difficult, and more
expensive.
2-1
•'"ttPtHKfen
2.2 2. Restrictions on Wastewater Solids Treatment

Wastewater solids must be managed so that laws and regulations
are not violated , Air emissions l i m i t s a n d n u i s a n c e p r o h i b i-
tions are of particular importance.
2 . 2. 2 . 1 Air Emissions Limits
T h e C l e a n A i r A c t A m e n d m e n t s o f 1 9 7 0 ( P L 9 1- 6 0 4 ) a n d 1 9 7 7
-
( PL 95 95 ) contain provisions f o r r e g u l a t i n g p o i n t source
emissions , for example , emissions from incinerators , USEPA
has promulgated several regulations in response to this
legislation . The most r e s t r i c t i v e a r e t h e New S o u r c e Review
r e g u l a t i o n s ( 4 0 C F R 5 1- 1 8 ) a n d P r e v e n t i o n o f S i g n i f i c a n t
D e t e r i o r a t i o n ( 4 0 CFR 5 2- 2 1 ) r e g u l a t i o n s . New S o u r c e Review
( NSR ) r e g u l a t i o n s a p p l y i n a r e a s where a l l o w a b l e l e v e l s f o r any
pollutant are exceeded . The regulations a f f e c t any new source
which , after installation of an a i r pollution control device,
c o u l d e m i t > 5 0 t o n s p e r y e a r ( 4 5 t /y r ) o f t h e o f f e n d i n g p o l l u t a n t
( controlled emission ) or which could emit >100 tons per year
( 9 1 t /y r ) o f t h e o f f e n d i n g p o l l u t a n t w e r e t h e r e n o p o l l u t i o n
control device or were the existing device to f a i l ( uncontrolled
emission ) . These sources are prohibited unless their emissions
can be compensated for by the reduction of emissions from other
sources within the same area . This compensation clause i s known
as the Emissions Offset Policy . Relaxation of the Emissions
Offset Policy is being considered for certain categories of
resource recovery projects . Presently , few urban areas exceeding
200 , 000 population meet a l l national a i r quality standards .
T h e r e f o r e , NSR r e g u l a t i o n s w i l l a p p l y t o a l m o s t a l l u r b a n p l a n t s ,
particularly larger ones .
P r e v e n t i o n of S i g n i f i c a n t D e t e r i o r a t i o n ( PSD ) r e g u l a t i o n s apply
primarily to areas which are presently meeting a i r quality
standards . They affect 28 major stationary source categories
with potential uncontrolled emissions exceeding 100 tons per year
( 9 1 t /y r ) and any o t h e r s o u r c e w i t h p o t e n t i a l u n c o n t r o l l e d
e m i s s i o n s o f o v e r 2 5 0 t o n s p e r y e a r ( 2 2 7 t /y r ) . Such sources are
allowed provided t h e y use Best A v a i l a b l e C o n trol Technology
( BACT ) t o t r e a t g a s e o u s d i s c h a r g e s a n d p r o v i d e d t he emissions of
specified pollutants do not increase at r a t e s g r eater than set
forth by regulatory schedules .
The Clean Air Act also requires "state implementation plans "
( SIPs ) t o regulate a l l s i g n i f i c a n t point sources , including new
sources . SIPs generally limit emissions , establish emissions
offset policies, require reporting, and establish penalties and
administrative procedures , State or regional boards usually
administer the permit system .
Historically , air emissions limits have affected incinerators
more than other wastewater solids treatment processes However , .
air emission limits can affect a n y s o l i d s t r e a t m e n t system .
2-2
Examples include sludge drying processes and the burning of
g a s e s from anaerobic digesters either by flaring o r in internal
c o m b u s t i o n e n g i n e s. U S E P A h a s a l r e a d y issued N e w S o u r c e
Performance Standards for s l u d g e incineration ( 4 0 CFR -6 Q -150 ) and
" A m e n d m e n t s t o National Emission S t a n d a r d s " ( 4 0 C F R 6 1 - 5 2 ).
These establish particulate air p o l l u t i o n emission s t a n d a r d s and
limit m e r c u r y emissions from incinerators a n d d r y e r s of w a s t e w a t e r
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t solids , C h a p t e r 1 1 contains further information
o n air pollution r e g u l a t i o n s.
2.2.2.2 Nuisances
Courts have ordered municipalities to pay damages or cease
o p e r a t i o n when wastewater solids treatment processes have been
p r o v e n t o be the source o f nuisances s u c h as noise a n d o d o r.
In some cases , judgments have resulted in t h e p e r m a n e n t shutdown
of plants containing expensive equipment, Since m o s t N P D E S
permits specify that treatment p l a n t operations be nuisance free ,
t h i s is a g o a l which d e s i g n e r s a n d o p e r a t o r s m u s t s t r i v e t o
achieve.
2.2.2.3 S t a t e and L o c a l Requirements
W h e n s t a t e a n d l o c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e more s t r i n g e n t t h a n
federal regulations, the state and local conditions g o v e r n. Air
Pollution Criteria a r e the m o s t s t r i k i n g e x a m p l e o f t h i s.
The criteria are particularly restrictive in California , w h e r e
l o c a l n i t r o g e n o x i d e ( N0 X ) r e g u l a t i o n s m a y r e q u i r e t h a t n e w
s t a t i o n a r y r e c i p r o c a t i n g e n g i n e s above a certain size b e equipped
with c a t a l y t i c c o n v e r t e r s ( 1 ). A s a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e o f l o c a l
c o n t r o l s, d e e d r e s t r i c t i o n s a n d l o c a l o r d i n a n c e s e f f e c t i v e l y
p r e v e n t s l u d g e s p r o d u c e d a t t h e E a s t e r l y P l a n t in C l e v e l a n d ,
Ohio, from being processed o n t h e p l a n t site ( 2 ).
2.2.3 L a w s and Regulations Governing Wastewater

Solids Utilization and Disposal
2 . 2.3 . 1 F e d e r a l W a t e r Pollution Control Act
T h e C l e a n W a t e r A c t o f 1 9 7 7 ( P L 9 5 - 2 1 7 ) contains t w o m a j o r
p r o v i s i o n s f o r w a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s utilization a n d d i s p o s a l .
Section 405 requires U S E P A t o issue guidelines and regulations
f o r the d i s p o s a l and reuse of wastewater solids. Guidelines and
regulations t o be issued in the n e x t few y e a r s are e x p e c t e d t o
limit t h e q u a n t i t y a n d k i n d s o f t o x i c m a t e r i a l s r e a c h i n g t h e
g e n e r a l p u b l i c by s e t t i n g l i m i t s o n t h e q u a n t i t y a n d q u a l i t y
of s l u d g e distributed for p u b l i c use or applied t o lands w h e r e
c r o p s a r e g r o w n f o r h u m a n c o n s u m p t i o n. T h e m e t h o d s b y which
s l u d g e is applied t o land a r e expected t o be controlled t o m e e t
aesthetic r e q u i r e m e n t s , and g r o u n d w a t e r protection will p r o b a b l y
2- 3
be required at w a s t e w a t e r solids d i s p o s a l sites , T h e d e g r e e
of stabilization or disinfection for s l u d g e is e x p e c t e d t o be
s p e c i f i e d , a l o n g with monitoring and reporting r e q u i r e m e n t s
a n d design criteria. T h e g u i d e l i n e s and r e g u l a t i o n s will
probably rely on the fact that wastewater solids may e n d a n g e r
t h e p u b l i c a n d t h e environment if n o t p r o p e r l y m a n a g e d ,
and that r e q u i s i t e s for use m u s t be stricter t h a n t h o s e for
disposal.
T h e other major provision is intended t o encourage s l u d g e

utilization. This provision, Section 307, requires p r e t r e a t m e n t
of industrial wastes if such wastes inhibit wastewater treatment
o r sludge utilization, This should increase the p o t e n t i a l for
s l u d g e reuse.
2.2 . 3.2 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
T h e Resource Conservation and R e c o v e r y A c t ( RCRA ) o f 1 9 7 6

( P L 9 4- 580 ) requires that solid wastes be utilized or disposed o f
in a safe and e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y a c c e p t a b l e manner , W a s t e w a t e r
solids are included by definition in provisions relating t o solid
waste management. U S E P A is c u r r e n t l y developing g u i d e l i n e s
a n d criteria t o i m p l e m e n t t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s a c t . T h e s e
guidelines and criteria will fall into three general categories:
( a ) t r e a t m e n t a n d d i s p o s a l of p o t e n t i a l l y h a z a r d o u s solid
wastes ( wastewater solids are expected t o be excluded from this
category in most if not all cases ); ( b ) criteria and standards
for solid w a s t e disposal facilities ; and ( c ) criteria defining
the limits for solid w a s t e application t o agricultural lands.
U S E P A will issue t h e g u i d e l i n e s and criteria t h a t r e l a t e t o
municipal sludge m a n a g e m e n t under joint authority of RCRA and
Section 405 of the Clean Water Act.
2.2 . 3.3 Toxic Substances Control Act
The Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 ( PL 9 4- 469 ) authorizes

U S E P A t o obtain production and t e s t d a t a from i n d u s t r y o n
selected chemical substances and to regulate them where
t h e y p o s e an unreasonable r i s k t o t h e environment , This
act , in combination with o t h e r federal legislation cited
( P L 9 5 - 2 1 7 and P L 9 4- 5 8 0 ) , s h o u l d h e l p r e d u c e the a m o u n t o f
pollutants discharged t o the municipal system from manufacturing
p r o c e s s e s. O f p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e t o w a s t e w a t e r solids
utilization is the fact that the act prohibits the production of
polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) after January 1979 and the
commercial distribution of PCBs after July 1979. P C B s can be
concentrated in wastewater sludges and are a chemical constituent
of concern in meeting proposed utilization criteria. Sludge P C B
l e v e l s s h o u l d decrease once P C B s no l o n g e r e n t e r t h e w a s t e
treatment s y s t e m.
2 -4
2 . 2. 3 . 4 Marine P r o t e c t i o n, Research and
Sanctuaries Act
S e v e r a l l a r g e c i t i e s , i n c l u d i n g New York and P h i l a d e l p h i a ,

a s w e l l a s some s m a l l e r c i t i e s i n t h e New York
dispose of wastewater s o l i d s by barging them t o the ocean
The 1977 amendments to the Marine Protection , Research ,
—
New J e r s e y a r e a ,
.
and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 , as well as other laws and
regulations p r o h i b i t disposal of "sewage sludge " by barging
a f t e r December 3 1, 1 9 8 1 . In addition, no federal construction
funds are available for wastewater solids treatment and disposal
systems t h a t include any type of ocean disposal , e i t h e r by barge
or pipeline . Therefore, no further coverage of ocean disposal
w i l l be made i n t h i s manual .
2 . 2.3 . 5 Environmental Policy Acts
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 requires that

the f e d e r a l government consider environmental e f f e c t s of many
actions . Municipal wastewater treatment systems , including
solids treatment , utilization, and disposal systems are covered
by t h i s act because of their potential effect on the environment
and because they are funded by federal construction grants Most .
states have similar policy acts .
The acts , which require reports
and hearings , assure that the environmental consequences of
proposed operations are considered, and also provide the designer
with a useful forum to develop public response ( see Section
. .
2.3 6 ) They do, however , usually lengthen the f a c i l i t y planning
and design process .
.
2.2 3.6 State and Local Reuse and Disposal
Requirements
While most states and municipalities follow federal guidelines,

many may formulate more r e s t r i c t i v e measures . For example ,
localities that a p p l y s l u d g e t o l a n d o n w h i c h f o o d crops are
grown may wish t o a n a l y z e t h e i r s l u d g e s m o r e f r e q uently than
required by federal guidelines or l i m i t s l u d g e a p p l i c ation rates
more severely .
Many s t a t e and l o c a l r e g u l a t
g
o
u
r
i
y
d e
a
l
g
i
encies are
n es before
presently awaiting the issuance o f f e d e r a l
finalizing their r e q u i r e m e n t s .
2.2 4. The Comprehensive Nature of Section 405
of the Clean Water Act
As indicated , Section 405 of the Clean Water Act of 1977

( P L 9 5- 2 1 7 ) r e q u i r e s U S E P A t o p r o m u l g a t e r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g
the issuance of permits for the disposal of sewage sludge
r e l a t i v e t o S e c t i o n 402 NPDES p e r m i t s and t o d e v e l o p and p u b l i s h
from time to time regulations providing guidelines for the
disposal and utilization of sludge . These regulations are to
2 5 -
i d e n t i f y u s e s f o r s l u d g e , s p e c i f y f a c t o r s t o be t a k e n i n t o
account in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e measures a n d p r a c t i c e s a p p l i c a b l e t o
e a c h s u c h u s e o r d i s p o s a l ( including p u b l i c a t i o n o f information
on costs ) and identify concentrations of pollutants which
interfere with e a c h s u c h u s e o r d i s p o s a l.
T h i s b r o a d a u t h o r i t y t o issue r e g u l a t i o n s c o v e r i n g d i f f e r e n t
s l u d g e m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e s h a s been viewed a s a mechanism t o
allow USEPA to bring together all of the regulations that have
b e e n o r w i l l be issued u n d e r various l e g i s l a t i v e authorities f o r
c o n t r o l l i n g m u n i c i p a l s l u d g e m a n a g e m e n t a t a s i n g l e location in
t h e C o d e o f F e d e r a l R e g u l a t i o n s, u n d e r t h e j o i n t a u t h o r i t y o f
Section 4 0 5. T h e r e f o r e , r e g u l a t i o n s o n a i r emission c o n t r o l s
will be issued u n d e r t h e joint a u t h o r i t y o f S e c t i o n 4 0 5 o f the
Clean Water Act and various sections of the Clean Air Act;
regulations on land disposal and land application under joint
authority with the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act;
regulations on ocean disposal under joint authority with the
Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act , and so
f o r t h. R e g u l a t i o n s c o v e r i n g p r a c t i c e s n o t influenced b y o t h e r
authorities ( f o r e x a m p l e , h o m e u s e , g i v e-a w a y o r s a l e o f s l u d g e
d e r i v e d p r o d u c t s ) c o u l d b e issued s o l e l y u n d e r t h e b r o a d
a u t h o r i t y o f Section 4 0 5.
T h u s, a l l r e g u l a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o m a n a g e m e n t o f m u n i c i p a l
wastewater solids will be issued , administered , and enforced
u n d e r t h e u m b r e l l a o f Section 4 0 5. S l u d g e m a n a g e m e n t facilities
a n d practices will therefore be a p p r o v e d o r d i s a p p r o v e d a l o n g
with N P D E S p e r m i t s.
2.3 O t h e r N o n-Technical F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g
W a s t e w a t e r Solids M a n a g e m e n t
2 . 3.1 A v a i l a b i l i t y o f Construction F u n d s
Construction of municipal wastewater solids treatment and

d i s p o s a l f a c i l i t i e s i s u s u a l l y f i n a n c e d w i t h p u b l i c m o n e y.
Currently , federal funds are used to pay for 75 percent of
g r a n t -e l i g i b l e construction c o s t s. S t a t e contributions v a r y.
In a d d i t i o n , P L 9 5 - 2 1 7 g i v e s p r o j e c ts using innovative and
alternative t e c h n o l o g i e s , f o r e x a m p l e , s l u d g e utilization a n d
energy r e c o v e r y , a 1 5 p e r c e n t a d v a n t a g e in c o s t -effectiveness
comparisons over p r o j e c t s using conventional t e c h n o l o g y. They
a re also given a 10 percent bonus ( to 85 percent ) on federal
construction g r a n t s ( 3 ). Innovative t e c h n o l o g i e s c a n a l s o b e
replaced with 1 0 0 p e r c e n t f u n d i n g if t h e y f a i l w i t h i n t w o
y e a r s. T h u s, f e d e r a l a n d s t a t e g r a n t f u n d r e q u i r e m e n t s m a y
influence t o a considerable d e g r e e t h e s l u d g e m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m
c h o s e n a n d t h e w a y a s y s t e m is d e s i g n e d . C o s t-effective d e s i g n ,
c a r e f u l a n d conservative c o s t e s t i m a t i n g , a n d c l e a r e x p l a n a t i o n s
2-6
-
to decision makers of the rationale for selected treatment and
disposal systems will assist greatly in obtaining federal and
state construction funds.
Design engineers should refer to the USEPA Construction Grants
Manual for federal grant requirements ( 4 ). In many states
these requirements are supplemented by state regulations.
Occasionally , a governmental agency may declare certain features
of a design to be ineligible for grant funding , S ome time s
these declarations are in direct contradiction with the design
engineer 's opinion regarding their necessity , The designer
should be aware of these potential conflicts of opinion and
submit full documentation and justification along with the
request for funding. The design year for full loading , special
loading allowances, system reliability requirements, and facility
flexibility allowances are important parts of this documentation.
2.3.2 Special Funding Requirements

The designer must be aware of special conditions associated
with federal and state grant funding , such as " buy American "
provisions , "or equal " clauses , affirmative action in employment,
and special auditing and cost control requirements.
Competitive bidding is required for public works construction
contracts. Equipment specifications for these contracts must be
carefully written to assure that the resulting installation
satisfies the treatment and disposal requirements at minimum life
cycle costs. Where the designer knows of no equal to a specific
needed item , he should document the need for such equipment and
assure compliance with funding restrictions prior to putting
the specification out to public bid. USEPA has recognized the
designer ' s need to achieve better control over the equipment
to be used for wastewater treatment systems and is proposing to
issue regulations which allow prequalification of critical
equipment items . "i 1
2.3.3 Time Span of Decisions

Frequently , several years elapse from the choice of a specific
process to the operation of that process. This time is usually
spent in the necessary work of completing environmental hearings ,
detailed designs and regulatory reviews , and arranging for
funding , construction , and start up. - Furthermore , most
facilities must be operated for close to life expectancy to avoid
waste of construction funds. During this extended time span ,
technology may improve , new laws may be passed , new regulations
may be issued , and economic factors may change , The engineer
must consider these possibilities for change in decision making.
He should favor processes that are sufficiently flexible to
remain useful in the face of changing technology , regulations ,
economics , and sludge characteristics.
-
2 7
—
'
'f
- .
.WW,
2 . 3 .4 Uncertainties
T h e selection of a s p e c i f i c p r o c e s s n o r m a l l y h i n g e s o n its
c o s t in c o m p a r i s o n with t h e c o s t of c o m p e t i n g p r o c e s s e s.
U n c e r t a i n t i e s m a k e c o s t c o m p a r i s o n s difficult. F o r e x a m p l e ,
c o n s i d e r t w o c o m p e t i n g p r o c e s s e s , o n e l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e, t h e
o t h e r requiring expensive chemicals. There are uncertainties as
t o h o w m a n y man - h o u r s w i l l be n e e d e d p e r t o n o f s l u d g e , w h a t
chemical additions will be required , and what future cost trends
will be. I t is o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t w h e t h e r l a b o r o r
chemicals will be more s e v e r e l y affected by inflation. Labor
p r o d u c t i v i t y a l s o m u s t be predicted. Given these uncertainties,
it m a y b e n e c e s s a r y t o s a y t h a t " P r o c e s s A is p r o b a b l y m o r e
cost -effective, " r a t h e r than " Process A _is_ more c o s t -effective."
Cost uncertainties are u s u a l l y g r e a t e r for processes that are not
w i d e l y u s e d . T h e r e a r e a l s o uncertainties in t h e q u a l i t y o f
solids that will be p r o d u c e d. F o r instance, if incineration is
s e l e c t e d o n t h e basis o f p r e v i o u s d e w a t e r i n g u n i t p r o d u c t i o n
o f a cake with 3 5 p e r c e n t solids , but o n l y 20 p e r c e n t solids is
actually obtained, then the cost of incineration may become
excessive.
E x p e r i e n c e a t K e n o s h a , Wisconsin , w h e r e one of t h e first

filter p r e s s e s f o r s l u d g e in t h e United S t a t e s was installed ,
illustrates the difficulties of making accurate cost estimates.
Pilot t e s t i n g indicated t h a t an optimal lime dose would be e q u a l
t o 12 p e r c e n t of the s e w a g e solids fed. In addition a ferric
chloride d o s e e q u a l t o 3 p e r c e n t of the s e w a g e solids fed was
required . Full -s c a l e operating experience , however , indicates
a 1 7 p e r c e n t lime d o s e is r e q u i r e d ; therefore , lime c o s t s are
40 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r t h a n a n t i c i p a t e d. A l s o, in this p l a n t , o n l y
p a r t -t i m e o p e r a t o r attention w a s a n t i c i p a t e d , b e c a u s e t h e
units were fully automated. In practice, full time operation is
r e q u i r e d. M a i n t e n a n c e costs, a s s u m e d t o be n o m i n a l, h a v e
instead been significant , averaging about $ 3 per ton of dry
solids ( 5 ).
W h e n e v e r possible , the engineer should investigate full -s c a l e

w o r k i n g s y s t e m s t o determine a c t u a l o p e r a t i n g conditions a n d
o p e r a t i n g a n d m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s, If t h e r e is insufficient
f u l l -s c a l e o p e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e t o e s t i m a t e t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s
and c o s t s with confidence, the design engineer m u s t make liberal
allowances for uncertainties.
2.3.5 The Design Team
M a n y f a c t o r s a r e i m p o r t a n t in s e l e c t i n g a n d d e s i g n i n g s l u d g e
treatment and disposal p r o c e s s e s , for e x a m p l e c a p i t a l c o s t s,
o p e r a t i n g s t r a t e g i e s , a n d environmental e f f e c t s , Di fferent
individuals h a v e d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s o n w a s t e w a t er solids
>
-
2 8
management. These individuals should be heard . Therefore ,
a " design team " concept is helpful , The design team should
include:
• - -
Those involved in the day to day design effort ; that is ,
the design staff.
• An advisory committee composed of those who are not

- -
involved in the day to day design effort but who must
operate and administer the wastewater solids management
system or whose services are required to implement the
design ; for example , treatment plant operators , public
works directors , grant administrators , regulatory
officials , engineering reviewers including value
engineers , and special consultants. The advisory
-
committee serves in a policy making and review role.
The advisory committee should be made aware , through clear
and accurate reporting , of all aspects of sludge management
alternatives , including the design staff's evaluations and
recommendations.
The design staff should expect criticism and guidance from the
advisory committee , If a proposal or criticism appears to have
merit, it should be evaluated with respect to its effect on the
solids treatment and disposal scheme , If it does not , the
consequences of incorporating it into the design should be
clearly explained.
A better project will be achieved by an early exchange of views.
While responding to criticism may cause delays early in the
project , delays are small in terms of both time and cost compared
with those that would be experienced were dissatisfaction to
surface late in the project.
2.3.6 Public Involvement

Public involvement in environmental decision making is not
only wise , it is mandatory. The National Environmental Policy
-
Act of 1969 , the Clean Water Act of 1977 (PL 95 217 ), and the
-
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (PL 94 580 ) all
require public involvement mechanisms and activities. Acceptance
of the project by residents of the community and a working
relationship between the public and the design team is essential.
Experience has shown that programs are more easily accepted
if the public understands what they are.
The relationship between the design staff and the public is
similar in many ways to that between the design staff - and the
-
advisory committee , The public also serves in a policy making
and review role ; it should be made aware of all aspects of
sludge management alternatives and should provide criticism and
guidance to the design staff. A means of educating the public
-
2 9
and creating a dialog between the public and the design staff
must be established , Mechanisms for accomplishing this are the
mass media , bulletins , public hearings , and presentations to
interested groups.
Special efforts should be made to involve groups and individuals

who, from past experience , have demonstrated an interest in
environmental affairs or those who are likely to be directly
affected by the proposed project , Developing a list of
interested persons and organizations for formal and informal
notifications and contacts is a good way to ensure public
participation. The group might consist of :
Local elected officials.
State and local government agencies , including planning

commissions , councils of government , and individual
agencies.
State and local public works personnel.
Conservation/environmental groups.
Business and industrial groups, including Chambers of
Commerce and selected trade and industrial associations.
Property owners and users of proposed sites and

neighboring areas.
Service clubs and civic organizations , including the

League of Women Voters.
Media , including newspapers , radio, and television.
Public participation programs are discussed in detail in two

recent publications ( 6 , 7 ).
2.3.7 Social and Political Factors Affecting

Waste Export
For metropolitan areas , potential sludge disposal studies

generally include land disposal in some form by export to low
population open space. Even if these spaces are located in the
same political jurisdiction, local opposition towards accepting
the wastes of "others " is often intense. If the proposed export
is to another political jurisdiction, the opposing forces are
generally so great as to effectively preclude this option.
It is often hoped that such opposition can be overcome by public

participation and education. However, the social and political
factors at work have been demonstrated to be remarkably immune to
such efforts.
2-10
T h e s e c o m m e n t s a r e n o t intended t o p r e c l u d e e x p o r t o p t i o n s b u t a s
a caution t o d e s i g n e r s n o t t o b e s o s w a y e d b y t h e e c o n o m i c a n d
t e c h n i c a l a d v a n t a g e s of s u c h p l a n s t h a t i n a d e q u a t e attention is
g i v e n t o alternatives which h a v e a g r e a t e r p o s s i b i l i t y o f b e i n g
i m p l e m e n t e d.
2.4 References
1. R u l e 2 1 3. S o u t h C o a s t A i r Q u a l i t y M a n a g e m e n t District .
9 4 2 0 Telstar Avenue, E l M o n t e , California , 9 1 7 3 1. Effective
O c t o b e r , 1 9 7 6.
2. U n g a r , A .T . a n d D. P a t r i c k . "C l e v e l a n d P u s h e s t o M e e t
Strict Effluent Limitations." W a t e r & W a s t e s E n g i n e e r i n g.
V o l. 1 5, p. 5 7 , ( F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 8 ).
3. U S E P A. Innovative and Alternative T e c h n o l o g y Assessment

Manual, Draft C o p y . Office of W a t e r P r o g r a m O p e r a t i o n s.
W a s h i n g t o n , D.C • / 2 0 4 6 0. E P A 4 - 3 0/9- 7 8- 0 0 9.
4. U S E P A. Municipal W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t W o r k s Construction
G r a n t s P r o g r a m R e f e r e n c e s , ( w i t h u p d a t i n g s u p p l e m e n t s ).
Office of W a t e r P r o g r a m O p e r a t i o n s. W a s h i n g t o n D.C • / 2 0 4 6 0.
5. N e l s o n , O .F . "Operational Experiences with Filter
P r e s s i n g ." D e e d s and D a t a. W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l F e d e r a -
t ion. P 5 , M a r c h 1 9 7 8.
-
6. W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. Public Information
H a n d b o o k . W a s h i n g t o n , D.C • f 1 9 7 7.
7. U S E P A. P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l, M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e L a n d f i l l s.
T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r. Cincinnati, O h i o, 4 5 2 6 8. EPA - 6 2 5/
1-7 8- 0 1 0 . O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
2-11
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 3 . Design Approach


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 3
DESIGN APPROACH
3.1 Introduction and Scope

This c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s a m e t h o d o l o g y for t h e design of wastewater
s o l i d s m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m s . T o p i c s d i s c u s s e d include s y s t e m s
a p p r o a c h, process selection logic , mass balance calculations ,
c o n c e p t o f s i z i n g e q u i p m e n t, c o n t i n g e n c y p l a n n i n g , a n d o t h e r
general design considerations such a s energy conservation and
c o s t-effective a n a l y s i s.
3.2 S y s t e m s Approach
Overall w a s t e w a t e r treatment plant performance is the sum of the

combined p e r f o r m a n c e s o f t h e p l a n t ' s linked c o m p o n e n t s , T h e
actions o f o n e c o m p o n e n t a f f e c t t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f a l l t h e
o t h e r s. F o r e x a m p l e:
Materials not captured in solids treatment processes

will be returned in t h e sidestreams t o t h e wastewater
treatment s y s t e m a s a recirculating load. This load m a y
cause a degradation in effluent quality , a n increase in
wastewater treatment c o s t s, and process u p s e t s.
Failure t o remove and t o treat solids a t t h e same r a t e

a s t h e y a r e p r o d u c e d within t h e w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
s y s t e m will e v e n t u a l l y cause effluent degradation a n d
m a y increase w a s t e w a t e r treatment operating c o s t s.
Hydraulic overloads resulting from inadequate solids

thickening can cause downstream solids treatment
p r o c e s s e s ( s u c h as , anaerobic digestion ) t o o p e r a t e less
effect ively .
The addition of chemicals t o t h e wastewater treatment

process f o r purposes o f nutrient and s u s p e n d e d solids
removal will increase the quantity and alter the
characteristics of solids which must be treated and
disposed.
I t is important t o understand t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p r o c e s s

p a r a m e t e r s and t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of p r o c e s s e s, for e x a m p l e, h o w
thickener feed r a t e affects thickener performance . I t is equally
important to understand how individual p r o c e s s e s affect one
a n o t h e r w h e n c o m b i n e d into a s y s t e m , f o r i n s t a n c e , how the
3-1
performance of the thickener affects digestion and d e w a t e r i n g.
Interactions b e t w e e n t h e p r o c e s s e s in a s y s t e m a r e described i n
this c h a p t e r.
3.3 The Logic of Process Selection
W a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t a n d w a s t e w a t e r solids a n d d i s p o s a l s y s t e m s
must be put together so as to assure the most efficient
utilization o f resources s u c h a s, m o n e y , materials , e n e r g y , a n d
w o r k f o r c e in m e e t i n g t r e a t m e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s, L o g i c dictates
w h a t t h e p r o c e s s e l e m e n t s m u s t b e a n d t h e o r d e r i n which t h e y g o
t o g e t h e r.
A methodical p r o c e s s o f s e l e c t i o n m u s t b e f o l l o w e d in c h o o s i n g a
r e s o u r c e- e f f i c i e n t a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s o u n d s y s t e m f r o m t h e
m y r i a d o f t r e a t m e n t a n d d i s p o s a l o p t i o n s available , T h e basic
s e l e c t i o n m e c h a n i s m u s e d i n t h i s m a n u a l is t h e " p r i n c i p l e o f
successive elimination, " a n iterative p r o c e d u r e in w h i c h l e s s
effective options are progressively culled from the list of
candidate s y s t e m s u n t i l, o n l y t h e m o s t suitable s y s t e m o r s y s t e m s
f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r s i t e remain.
T h e c o n c e p t o f a "t r e a t m e n t t r a i n" h a s b e e n p r o p o u n d e d a s a
r e s u l t o f a s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h t o p r o b l e m s o l v i n g, H o w e v e r,
this c o n c e p t is u s e f u l o n l y if a l l c o m p o n e n t s o f the rain are
t
considered . T h i s includes n o t o n l y s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t and disposal
c o m p o n e n t s, b u t w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t o p t i o n s and o t h e r c r i t i c a l
linkages such as s l u d g e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n, s t o r a g e, a n d s i d e s t r e a m
t r e a t m e n t. The successful devlopment of a treatment train from
a collection of individual components depends on a rigorous
s y s t e m selection p r o c e d u r e, o r l o g i c, F o r l a r g e p l a n t s, s y s t e m
s e l e c t i o n i s c o m p l e x a n d a m e t h o d i c a l a p p r o a c h is r e q u i r e d .
Progressive and concurrent documentation of the procedure is
m a n d a t o r y i n t h a t it p r e v e n t s a c u r s o r y dismissal o f o p t i o n s.
F o r s m a l l e r p l a n t s ( t h a t i s, < 1 M G D ) t h e s y s t e m c h o i c e s a r e o f t e n
n e c e s s a r i l y m o r e o b v i o u s and t h e s e l e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e is u s u a l l y
s h o r t e r a n d l e s s c o m p l e x.
T h e g e n e r a l s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s in s y s t e m selection i s:
1. S e l e c t i n g r e l e v a n t c r i t e r i a.
2. I d e n t i f y i n g o p t i o n s.
3. N a r r o w i n g t h e list of candidate s y s t e m s.
4. S e l e c t i n g a s y s t e m.
3 . 3.1 Identification o f R e l e v a n t C r i t e r i a
Criteria for system selection must be pinpointed prior to system
s y n t h e s i s. A l i s t i n g o f p o t e n t i a l criteria f o r consideration is
s h o w n o n F i g u r e 3 -1. T h e list i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o m p l e t e a n d
3-2
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COMPONENTS FOR SYSTEM SYNTHESIS
3.3 2 . Identification of System Options
C a n d i d a t e systems a r e s y n t h e s i z e d from a n a r r a y o f components,

such as these shown on Figure 3 2 Wastewater and solids - .
management components are l i s t e d as a reminder that a l l
components of the train must be considered , Figure 3 3 -
i l l u s t r a t e s how Figure 3 2 can be used t o develop a s p e c i f i c flow -
sheet .
Process streams can be drawn on copies of the master
3- 4
- LV
d r a w i n g. Relevant information s u c h a s solids concentrations a n d

mass flow rates can be entered directly on the flow sheet, if
desired . T h e a d v a n t a g e s o f u s i n g a r r a y s s u c h a s F i g u r e 3 -2 a r e
that nearly all potential options are identified and process
s t r e a m s a r e c l e a r l y displayed .
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MY;
wxa w
L3£AL WASTEWATER
LAND RECLAMATION
STATE
SLUDGE
FEDERAL
OTHERS SIDESTREAMS
FIGURE 3 - 3
FLOWSHEET DEVELOPED FROM COMPONENTS FOR

SYSTEM SYNTHESIS
3 -5
3.3 3 . System Selection Procedure
The process selection procedure consists of (1) developing

t r e a t m e n t/d i s p o s a l s y s t e m s w h i c h a r e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h o n e a n o t h e r
and appear to satisfy local relevant criteria, and ( 2 ) choosing
the best system or systems by progressive elimination of weaker
candidates , Related to these are the concepts of base and
secondary alternatives .
3 . 3 . 3 .1 Base and Secondary Alternatives
A base alternative i s defined as a wastewater solids management

system which , during evaluation, appears able to provide reliable
treatment and disposal a t a l l times under a l l circumstances for
sludges .
I t therefore meets the prime criterion of reliability .
I t must also satisfy the following seven conditions:
1. I t must be legally acceptable .

2. Sites for processing and disposal operations must be
r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e.
3 . Environmental and health risks must be sufficiently low

to satisfy the public and a l l agencies having
jurisdiction .
4 . I t must be competitive with cost to other alternatives on
-
a f i r s t round analysis .
5. The necessary equipment and material must be readily
available .
6. The contractor must be able to begin construction
immediately following design and have the system
operational almost immediately after construction .
7. Financing of the system must be straightforward and
assured .
A secondary alternative is defined as a wastewater solids
management system which does not meet the prime criterion of
reliability , that is, the system cannot accept a l l of the sludge
under a l l circumstances a l l of the time
_ .
This does not mean
secondary a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e w i t h o u t v a l u e; they may i n f a c t b e
used to great advantage in tandem with base alternatives and
may i n f a c t accept a g r e a t e r q u a n t i t y of sludge than the base
alternative .
As an example, a c i t y ' s h o r t i c u l t u r a l market may be
insufficiently developed to accept all of the city ' s sludge a l l
of the time; therefore, horticulture cannot be considered a base
disposal alternative .
However, i t may cost l e s s t o release the
sludge t o horticulture than t o dispose of i t by means of city ' s
base disposal alternative, for example , landfilling The .
3- 6
city s h o u l d therefore m a k e e v e r y effort t o dispose of a s m a n y
solids a s possible via horticulture, t h e s e c o n d a r y alternative.
H o w e v e r, should t h e s e c o n d a r y alternative fail o r b e interrupted
f o r a n y reason , t h e s l u d g e going t o t h e secondary s y s t e m m u s t be
readily and quickly diverted back t o t h e base alternative, which
must remain f u l l y operational and thus immediately capable of
receiving t h e entire sludge flow.
3.3.3.2 Choosing a B a s e Alternative: First C u t

T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e f i r s t c u t is t o r a p i d l y a n d w i t h m i n i m u m
effort produce a list of candidate base alternatives which
a r e t e c h n i c a l l y f e a s i b l e a n d r e a s o n a b l y c o s t - e f f e c t i v e. T h e
alternatives must be environmentally a c c e p t a b l e and implementable
in the time frame of the project. Analyses a r e qualitative a t
this s t a g e. T h e first cut involves determination o f:
1. Practical b a s e disposal options.
2. Practical b a s e solids treatment s y s t e m s.
3. Practical treatment/disposal combinations.
Determination of Practical B a s e D i s p o s a l O p t i o n s
T h e m e t h o d o f solids disposal usually c o n t r o l s the selection o f
solids treatment s y s t e m s and n o t vice versa , T h u s, t h e s y s t e m
s e l e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e n o r m a l l y b e g i n s w h e n t h e solids d i s p o s a l
o p t i o n is specified .
I n t h e f i r s t c u t, f e a s i b l e b a s e d i s p o s a l a l t e r n a t i v e s a n d
r e l e v a n t criteria a r e s e t u p in matrix f o r m. A n e x a m p l e is s h o w n
in T a b l e 3 -1. Feasible alternatives a r e t h o s e which a p p e a r t o b e
suitable f o r t h e situation a t h a n d . O b v i o u s l y i n a p p l i c a b l e
alternatives w o u l d not be included in this matrix. Only t h o s e
criteria which t h e p l a n n e r s e e's a s critical f o r t h e s i t e a t h a n d
s h o u l d b e considered in this first c u t. O t h e r , l e s s critical
criteria can be considered in s u b s e q u e n t iterations, w h e r e more
in- d e p t h i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s n e e d e d f o r e a c h o f t h e c a n d i d a t e
p r o c e s s e s.
F o r t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i b e d i n T a b l e 3 -1 , n i n e
u t i l i z a t i o n/ d i s p o s a l o p t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d f e a s i b l e a n d a r e
s e t u p f o r evaluation. T h e criteria most important t o the s i t e
a r e j u d g e d t o b e r e l i a b i l i t y , environmental i m p a c t s , s i t e
availability and c o s t. B a s e disposal alternatives a r e judged t o
be p r a c t i c a l o n l y if t h e y s a t i s f y a l l t h e r e l e v a n t c r i t e r i a.
I n T a b l e 3 -1 , utilization o f s l u d g e o n p r i v a t e agricultural land
is a n u n a c c e p t a b l e b a s e d i s p o s a l alternative. R e a s o n s f o r t h i s
might be insufficient a c r e a g e o r a lack o f a s s u r a n c e t h a t t h e
farmers w o u l d a c c e p t a l l of t h e s l u d g e. Alternatives which would
seem t o satisfy relevant criteria f o r base disposal alternatives
a r e u t i l i z a t i o n o n p u b l i c a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d , l a n d f i l l, a n d
3 -7
dedicated land disposal , Before considering these, however, one
must determine what combinations of solids treatment processes
make sense for the site in question.
TABLE 3 - 1
EXAMPLE OF INITIAL SCREENING MATRIX FOR

BASE SLUDGE DISPOSAL OPTIONS
Relevant criteria
Acceptable
Utilization/disposal Environmental Site for base
options Reliability impacts availability Cost alternative
Ifi
-'
A COitil
'.v .
il MJMMCMSTM
-
Bag market as
fertilizer oa xb X X 0
Agricultural land
(private) o X X X o
Agricultural land
( public ) X X X X X
Forested land ( pri-
vate) o X 0 o 0
Forested land (public ) X X 0 o o
Give to citizens
( horticulture) o X X X o
Combine with commer-
cial topsoil o X X X 0
Dedicated land dis-
posal X X X X X
Landfill X X X X X
a0 unacceptable.
=
bx = acceptable.
Determine Practical Base Treatment Systems
Table 3 - 2 illustrates process compatibility matrix for treatment

alternatives. Incompatible processes and processes which are not
applicable in given locations are eliminated . The combination of
drying beds and mechanical dewatering , for example, is considered
incompatible because both dewatering and drying take place on the
drying bed ; mechanical dewatering is not needed . On the other
hand , the combination of incineration and mechanical dewatering
of unstabilized sludge is generally compatible , but for the
hypothetical case investigated is ruled out because of air
pollution considerations. After first- cut analysis , seven base
treatment options are considered feasible and are further
evaluated .
Determine Practical Base Treatment/Disposal Combinations

Practical base treatment and disposal combinations are
then combined in a matrix, which is subjected to further
3-8
culling. Table 3 -3 shows the matrix of base treatment/disposal
combinations made by bringing forward the base disposal and
treatment options from Tables 3 - 1 and 3 - 2. Incompatible
combinations and systems ruled out by local constraints are then
eliminated . For example , undewatered wastewater solids are
not generally disposed of in landfills. An example of local
constraints is the ruling out of applying lime stabilized sludge
on agricultural lands because of already high soil pH.
TABLE 3 - 2
EXAMPLE OF PROCESS COMPATIBILITY MATRIX
Digestion options Undigested sludge options

Anaerobically or Lime Thermally Wet air
aerobically digested Not stabilized stabilized conditioned oxidation
Final processing Mechanically
. 1 . tr ‘
Not
11«» «avwwfn t>
-
*
Mechanically Not Mechanically Mechanically Mechanically

step dewatered dewatered dewa tered dewatered dewatered dewatered dewatered
No further processing xa X ob 0 X 0
C
0
Drying beds 0 X o o 0 o 0
Heat dry X o 0 o 0 o 0
Pyrolysis 0 0 0 o 0 0 o
Incineration 0 o 0 o 0 0 0
Compost X o X o 0 0 0
ax = generally compatible.
bo - generally not compatible.
0= generally compatible , but ruled out by local constraints.
TABLE 3- 3
EXAMPLE OF TREATMENT / DISPOSAL COMPATIBILITY MATRIX

Treatment options
Digested sludge options Undigested sludge options
Not Lime
Mechanically Mechanically Not mechanically Mechanically stabilized ,
Viable local Mechanically dewatered , dewatered , mechanically dewatered , dewatered , mechanically
disposal options dewatered heat dry compost dewatered drying beds composted dewatered
Agricultural land
a
(public) X X X X X X 0*
Landfill X X oc o X X X
Dedicated land disposal X X 0 X X X 0
a
b
X - generally compatible ,
c
0 - generally compatible , but ruled out by local considerations.
0 - generally not compatible.
The number of candidate base treatment/disposal systems is thus

reduced. For the hypothetical case of Table 3 -3 , sixteen systems
remain for further evaluation.
3 -9
3.3.3.3 Choosing a Base Alternative: Second Cut
The purpose of second-cut analyses is to further reduce the list

of candidate systems. Analyses are more quantitative than in the
first cut , but the level of effort used to investigate each
option is not yet intensive. Information used in the second cut
is general and readily available , for instance, equipment cost
curves which are not site-specific , areawide evaluation of soils ,
geology , hydrology , topography and land use, and general energy
costs.
One approach is to set up a numerical rating system for the

remaining candidate systems , such as that shown in Table 3 -4.
The list of criteria to be considered may be expanded beyond
those critical criteria used in first cut analyses to encompass
the full range of criteria listed on Figure 3 -1, or any fraction
of it. This follows the principle that as the list of candidate
process narrows , each will be analyzed in greater detail.
TABLE 3 - 4
EXAMPLE OF NUMERICAL RATING SYSTEM FOR

ALTERNATIVES ANALYSIS
Ratings of alternatives
Alternative 1 Alternative 2 Alternative 3 Alternative 4 Alternative n

Relative
b
Categories and criteria weight3 AR WRC AR WR AR WR AR WR AR WR
Effectiveness
- Flexibility
Reliability
3
5
4
3
12
15
6
5
18
25
9
5
27
25
5
2
15
10
6
2
18
10
Sidestream effects 3 10 30 9 27 5 15 6 18 7 21
Track record 2 5 10 7 14 4 8 9 18 6 12
Compatibility
With existing land use
plans 2 8 16 8 16 8 16 7 14 4 8
With areawide wastewater ,
solid waste and air
pollution programs 3 3 9 fi 18 3 9 5 15 7 21
With existing treatment
facilities 4 5 20 20 6 24 , 8 32 3 12
Economic impacts
- Net direct costs 4 7 28 6 32 a 32 9 36 7 28
- Net indirect
costs 1 8 8 9 9 6 6 3 33 8 8
Environmental impacts
Public health 5 7 35 6 30 4 20 6 30 7 35
Administrative burdens
1 4 4 6 6 5 5 n 1 4 4
Level of effort
Marketing respons
ibilities
- 2 5 10 5 10 4 8 7 14 9 18
Resolution of juris
dictional disputes
- 1 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2
Public relations 2 4 8 2 4 5 10 5 10 3 6
Total weighted alternative

840 1,317
rating ^ 1 , 576 1,430 963
aRelative importance of criteria as perce’ ved by reviewer ; scale, 0 to 5; no importance rated zero, most important rated 5.
Alternative rating. Rates the alternatives according to their anticipated performance with respect to the various criteria;
scale 0 to 10; least favorable rated zero , most favorable rated 10.
CWeighted rating. Relative weight for each criteria multiplied by alternative rating.
dSum of weighted ratings for each alternative.
3 -10
In the s e c o n d c u t , s u b j e c t i v e j u d g m e n t s a r e combined with
technical measurements , Numerical v a l u e s are assigned t o all
criteria f o r a l l alternative s y s t e m s , T h e p l a n n e r's perception
of the relative importance of each criterion is indicated o n a
rating scale, say of 0 to 5 , with highest ratings given to
c r i t e r i a t h e p l a n n e r considers t o be o f g r e a t e s t i m p o r t a n c e ,
and the lowest to those of least important, F o r e x a m p l e,
if r e l i a b i l i t y is highly v a l u e d f o r t h e s i t e in q u e s t i o n ,
reliability m a y be assigned a relative w e i g h t of 5 .
Next , each alternative system is rated according to its

a n t i c i p a t e d p e r f o r m a n c e with r e s p e c t t o t h e various criteria ,
again by using a rating s c a l e , s a y 0 t o 1 0. A n alternative which
r a t e s f a v o r a b l y i s g i v e n h i g h s c o r e s; o n e w h i c h r a t e s l e s s
f a v o r a b l y is given l e s s e r scores , F o r e x a m p l e , a n alternative
w h i c h is n o t d e p e n d a b l e m a y b e r a t e d a t 2 w i t h r e s p e c t t o
reliability .
T h e relative w e i g h t is t h e n multiplied by t h e alternative rating

t o p r o d u c e a w e i g h t e d r a t i n g f o r e a c h c r i t e r i a/ a l t e r n a t i v e
c o m b i n a t i o n. F o r t h e e x a m p l e s d e s c r i b e d in t h e p r e v i o u s t w o
p a r a g r a p h s , t h e weighted r a t i n g f o r t h e alternative in q u e s t i o n
with r e s p e c t t o reliability is 5 x 2 = 1 0.
Finally , t h e weighted ratings are s u m m e d f o r each alternative t o
p r o d u c e a t o t a l o r o v e r a l l rating. S y s t e m s with lowest o v e r a l l
ratings are eliminated , with higher rated s y s t e m s carried forward
f o r f u r t h e r e v a l u a t i o n s. I n t h e e x a m p l e s h o w n in T a b l e 3 - 4 ,
Alternatives 3 a n d 4 a r e eliminated a n d Alternatives 1 , 2 , and n
a r e carried forward.
3.3.3.4 Third C u t
The third cut uses the same methodology as the second , but
t h e n u m b e r of alternatives remaining is more limited ; typically
t o a m a x i m u m o f 3 t o 5 -- a n d t h e a n a l y s i s is m o r e d e t a i l e d .
Information m a y include:
Analyses of potential sludge disposal sites ( soils,

geology , a n d g r o u n d w a t e r ).
Local s u r v e y s t o determine marketability o f s l u d g e and

s l u d g e by - p r o d u c t s.
Possible e f f e c t s o f i n d u s t r i a l s o u r c e c o n t r o l/
p r e t r e a t m e n t p r o g r a m s o n p r o c e s s viability a n d quality o f
s l u d g e for disposal.
D a t a oriented literature s e a r c h.
Detailed analysis of effect of candidate s y s t e m s o n t h e

environment ( a i r, w a t e r, l a n d ).
3 -1 1
• -
Information developed from s i t e specific pilot work .
• Mass balances .
• Energy analyses .
• Detailed cost analyses .
3.3 3.5 . Subsequent Cuts
Subsequent cuts are even more detailed, Analyses are repeated

.
u n t i l t h e o p t i m u m b a s e t r e a t m e n t/d i s p o s a l a l t e r n a t i v e i s d e f i n e d
3.3 4. Parallel Elements
By means of the procedure discussed above, a base a l t e r n a t i v e i s

selected . However , t h e optimum system may include more than j u s t
this base alternative .
A number of p a r a l l e l elements may be
involved which provide flexibility , reliability , and operating
advantages . For example, the base alternative for the system
-
depicted on Figure 3 4 i s thickening, anaerobic digestion,
storage in facultative sludge lagoons, and spreading of liquid
sludge on agricultural land , Parallel elements cosnsist of
the application of liquid sludge on forest land and drying
beds followed by d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r h o r t i c u l t u r a l purposes, If
horticultural and forest land outlets were each large enough to
accept a l l of the sludge under a l l circumstances and a t a l l
times, three base alternatives are then available, If not, the
f o r e s t l a n d a n d d r y i n g b e d s /h o r t i c u l t u r e a p p l i c a t i o n s w o u l d b e
considered secondary alternatives .
BASE ALTERNATIVE
’
mi TWS A
SPREAD ON
ANAEROBIC FACULTATIVE AGRICULTURAL
THICKEN LAGOON
DIGESTERS LAND
DRYING HORTI-
BEDS CULTURE
PARALLEL
SYSTEMS
APPLICATION
ON
FOREST
LAND
FIGURE 3- 4
PARALLEL ELEMENTS
-
3 12
The concept of providing for more than one base alternative may
at first seem contradictory but a given base alternative might
not always be reliable because unpredictable events might occur.
For example, new owners of farmland may decide they do not wish
to accept sludge , or a disaster or strike could interrupt one
method of transporting sludge to its ultimate destination , To
minimize risks, therefore municipalities may wish to provide more
than one base alternative. The selection procedure presented in
Section 3.3.3 has the advantage of clearly depicting which is the
second or even third most desirable base alternative.
Parallel base alternatives are more common in large systems ,

which are generally located in urban areas where land is scarce
than in small plants, which are usually located in rural areas
where land is more plentiful and temporary storage and disposal
options therefore more numerous . Large plants may maintain two
or three base alternatives to ensure solids disposal , Since this
may increase the cost of operation , it leads to the observation
that very large systems do not necessarily benefit from economies
of scale when it comes to wastewater solids disposal.
3.3.5 Process Selection at Eugene , Oregon
Eugene, a city of 100 , 000 people , is located at the southern end

of the agricultural Willamette Valley in Western Oregon. The
Metropolitan Wastewater Management Commission ( MWMC ) was formed
in 1977 to implement the findings of a facility planning effort
which called for the construction of a regional sewage treatment
plant. The plant , to be constructed on the site of the existing
Eugene plant , will serve the whole metropolitan area. This area
is composed of the cities of Eugene, Springfield , and urbanized
portions of Lane County.
Regionalization and upgrading of the plant to meet a 10/10 summer

effluent standard for BOD 5 and suspended solids prior to
discharge to the Willamette River, means that sludge quantities
are dramatically increased , The plant is to serve a population
of 277,000 by the year 2000. Design average dry weather flow is
^ ^
49 MGD ( 2.15 m /s ), wet weather flow is 70 MGD ( 3.07 m /s ), and
^ .
peak wet weather flow is 175 MGD ( 7.67 m /s )
The plant will use an activated sludge process , with flexibility

for operation in plug , step, contact stabilization , or complete
mix modes. Provision is also made for the addition of mechanical
flocculators in the secondary clarifiers and tertiary filtration
if either or both prove desirable at a later date.
It was decided early that sludge thickening would be economical ,
regardless of the sludge management system which would eventually
be used. Consequently , two existing thickeners , one gravity and
one flotation , will be retained for thickening primary sludge ,
waste -activated sludge , or a combination of the two.
3-13
A key provision in the selection of a suitable sludge management
system was t h a t the system be f u l l y operational by the time the
wastewater treatment system i s started up This seemingly .
straightforward condition was c o m p l i c a t e d b y the fact that
planning for the sludge system did not start until design of the
wastewater treatment p l a n t was already under way This meant .
that the sludge management system would be f o r c e d t o fit into
an already developed plan for the wastewater treatment facility
( which i s by no means unusual ) .
As a first cut,
sludge disposal options were immediately
developed screened for acceptability as part of a base
and
alternative, using a matrix similar to that developed in
T a b l e 3-1 .
Practical treatment systems were identified from a
p r o c e s s c o m p a t i b i l i t y m a t r i x s i m i l a r t o T a b l e 3-2 Practical .
d i s p o s a l/p r o c e s s i n g c o m b i n a t i o n s w e r e t h e n d e v e l o p e d i n a m a t r i x
f o r m ( a s i n T a b l e 3- 3 ) .
Physically incompatible or otherwise
unsuitable combinations were eliminated in this matrix A .
flowsheet was then prepared for the remaining options , with
necessary intermediate storage and transport requirements added
in .
The flowsheet of alternatives for Eugene second cut analysis
i s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 3- 5 .
THICKENED THICKENED
PRIMARY SECONDARY /
RAW RAW /
SLUDGE SLUDGE /
T sl
i
=
: i L
L . I
'1
L. r
I
* ! I
I
I
L
n L y i
n ;
I
DIGESTED RAW
DIGEST SLUDGE SLUDGE
ALTERNATIVES ALTERNATIVES
h
=
COMBINED
SLUOGES
C ! i
X
DIGEST
PRIMARY
-1 DIGEST
SECONDARY
LIME
SLUDGE SLUDGE STABILIZE
T
I
MECHANICALLY MECHANICALLY MECHANICALLY
DEWATER DEWATER DEWATER
rrs: TRUCK T*M> 1
SOLIDS SOLIDS
STORAGE STORAGE
BASINS BASINS I
1
DRYING BEOS DRYING BEOS . P *'l
k I TKOC« L
MECHANICALLY
DEWATER
COMPOST
AND STORE tfCINE RATION PYROLYSIS INCINERATION
.
TRMLF I HAIL
n:) a f r TRLCS4.1 T ft?. ’:
* KJ ITMJCK TRUCK
l ANDFILL ..
•*»» C>" LANDFILL OLD * OLD * BL a* LANDFILL LAHDMU . BCD' LAKLVML1
0 v
LANDFILL LANDFILL
V.
*
DLO * DEDICATED LAND DISPOSAL
FIGURE 3- 5
CANDIDATE BASE ALTERNATIVES FOR EUGENE- SPRINGFIELD
3-14
I t is worth noting t h a t utilization o n agricultural land could
not be considered as a base alternative despite the large
agricultural a c r e a g e n o r t h of E u g e n e a n d the fact that the new
regional p l a n t is o n t h e north side of t h e city , I t would h a v e
b e e n a r e q u i s i t e t h a t M W M C o w n sufficient f a r m l a n d ( 2 , 0 0 0 t o
3 ,0 0 0 a c r e s ) t o a c c e p t all o f the s l u d g e generated , The cost
o f p u r c h a s i n g s u c h a c r e a g e w a s d e e m e d u n a c c e p t a b l y high ;
furthermore , t h e r e w a s o p p o s i t i o n t o converting p r i v a t e land t o
public land. T h u s agricultural utilization w a s not considered
further in the s e a r c h f o r a base alternative.
T h e s e c o n d c u t analysis was m o r e quantitative. Information used
w a s g e n e r a l and readily available. F o r e x a m p l e , costs w e r e taken
f r o m c u r r e n t c o s t c u r v e s, a n d c e r t a i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s
were a s s e s s e d f r o m projects with similar d i s p o s a l s y s t e m s and
soil/g r o u n d w a t e r conditions. With numerical d a t a established
for each criterion , a rating table was produced similar t o that
of Table 3- 4. T h e d a t a were d e v e l o p e d by t h e project engineers,
but the r a t i n g s were a n a l y z e d e x tensively by the Citizens
P a r t i c i p a t i o n Committee ( CPC ) o n s l u d g e m a n a g e m e n t which had been
recruited f r o m t h e population a t large a t t h e v e r y beginning of
t h e p r o j e c t. T h e committee w a s c o m p o s e d o f v a r i o u s v e s t e d
interest g r o u p s , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c i e s a n d
private unaffiliated citizens w h o w e r e interested in t h e project.
S y s t e m s w i t h t h e l o w e s t t o t a l r a t i n g s w e r e t h e n e l i m i n a t e d.
Incineration was found to be unacceptable primarily because
it w o u l d impact t h e a l r e a d y limited dilution capacity available
d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r in t h e t r a p p e d v a l l e y airshed o f E u g e n e ;
p y r o l y s i s w a s eliminated p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e o f its p e r c e i v e d
inability t o m e e t the construction deadline f o r p l a n t s t a r t -u p;
a n d lime stabilization with d i s p o s a l t o landfill w a s e l i m i n a t e d
primarily o n a c o s t- effective basis. A t t h e end of t h e second
c u t a n a l y s i s , a l l a l t e r n a t i v e s which c o u l d a c c o m m o d a t e r a w
s l u d g e s were eliminated , since , as indicated , most raw s l u d g e
options ( incineration, pyrolysis , lime stabilization ) w e r e not
viable and there was a strong desire to make use of existing
digesters. A decision w a s m a d e t o combine primary a n d s e c o n d a r y
s l u d g e in o r d e r t o avoid t h e c o s t a n d p r o b l e m s o f constructing
and operating s e p a r a t e s y s t e m s f o r each .
T h e s a m e m e t h o d o l o g y u s e d in t h e s e c o n d c u t w a s u s e d in t h e
third ; h o w e v e r , d a t a u s e d in t h e a n a l y s i s w e r e m o r e s i t e
s p e c i f i c , s o t h a t economic a n d environmental c o m p a r i s o n s could b e
better refined . A s e x a m p l e s:
A c t u a l r o u t e s w e r e s e l e c t e d t o o f f - site facilities ;
river crossings were defined , and decisions w e r e m a d e o n
routing pipes u n d e r bridges o r jacking u n d e r f r e e w a y s.
• F o r disposal a t the l o c a l sanitary landfill , estimates

were made of ( 1 ) the contribution of the sludge to
landfill leachate production and subsequent marginal
leachate treatment costs to be passed back from the
3-1 5
Lane County Solid Waste Division t o MWMC , and ( 2 ) the
actual net volume of landfill required for sludge
disposal , allowing for s l u d g e consolidation.
• For dedicated land disposal , seasonal water tables and

detailed g r o u n d w a t e r m i g r a t i o n p a t t e r n s , a s w e l l a s
private well locations and depths were determined .
• Estimates were made of comparative nitrate loadings which

would eventually reach the Willamette River from treated
landfill leachate discharge ; from groundwater migration
from dedicated land d i s p o s a l ; and from filtrates from
mechanical s l u d g e dewatering ( w h i c h is s u b s e q u e n t l y
discharged with the effluent ).
• Transportation modes were analyzed in detail and costed

f o r various s l u d g e solids concentrations and t r a n s p o r t
routes and distances.
T h e s e detailed a n a l y s e s still left a number of viable b a s e

alternatives. A t this p o i n t , o t h e r l e s s tangible f a c t o r s
w e r e c o n s i d e r e d. These were ( 1 ) that the chosen base
alternative ( s ) be compatible with desired secondary alternatives ,
and ( 2 ) that flexibility and reliability be provided through the
u s e o f p a r a l l e l s y s t e m s. A f t e r intensive screening , it w a s
decided that two base alternatives would be used : spreading of
liquid s l u d g e o n dedicated land a n d o p e n - a i r drying f o l l o w e d
b y landfill d i s p o s a l . B o t h alternatives included force main
t r a n s p o r t of digested sludge from the regional treatment plant to
a r e m o t e s l u d g e m a n a g e m e n t site , w h e r e t h e s l u d g e w a s t o be
stored in facultative sludge lagoons. Liquid sludge would be
s p r e a d on dedicated land at the sludge management site. Dried
sludge would be trucked t o landfill. Operations associated with
disposal ( spreading , drying , and landfilling ) would be carried
o u t during dry weather. T h e s e s y s t e m s p r o v i d e t h e desired
flexibility and reliability and are compatible with preferred
secondary alternatives.
Several variations of sludge utilization on land were a d o p t e d

a s s e c o n d a r y a l t e r n a t i v e s, s i n c e there w a s a strong f e e l i n g
t h a t s l u d g e s h o u l d be used beneficially. T h e alternatives o f
p a r t i c u l a r interest t o t h e E u g e n e - SpringfieId a r e a included
a g r i c u l t u r a l use o n p r i v a t e farm land , use f o r ornamental
horticulture, in nurseries and public p a r k s, and use in a mixture
with commercial t o p s o i l s in. l a n d s c a p i n g , S l u d g e w o u l d be
provided t o these outlets a s the market d e m a n d s , Variable demand
is particularly important in Oregon's Willamette Valley , where
prolonged winter rainfall and summer harvesting schedules control
the timing of agricultural sludge use .
The flowsheet f o r the E u g e n e system is shown on Figure 3-6.
3 -16
PRIMARY GRAVITY
Pi
SLUDGE THICKEN
r
;
LONG
DISTANCE FACULTATIVE DEDICATED
’ ANAEROBIC
DIGESTERS STORAGE * LAND
WASTE -
i i PIPELINE LAGOONS * DISPOSAL *
IMUMT
ACTIVATED FLOTATION
m^ THICKENER
SLUDGE
DRYING TRUCK
BEDS * * LANDFILL
• AT SLUDGE MANAGEMENT SITE TRUCK

ON PRIVATE FARMLAND AGRICULTURE
A CITIZEN PICK - UP AT SLUDGE
MANAGEMENT SITE
f“~ — A
HORTICULTURE
FIGURE 3- 6
FLOWSHEET FOR THE EUGENE- SPRINGFIELD

SLUDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
T h e a b i l i t y t o u s e b a s e facilities a n d e q u i p m e n t f o r desired
s e c o n d a r y alternatives w a s a m a j o r consideration in selecting the
b a s e s y s t e m. I n E u g e n e , t h e f o r c e main , s l u d g e l a g o o n s , a n d
application equipment to be used for dedicated land disposal
o f t h e l i q u i d s l u d g e a r e a l s o r e q u i r e d f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l u s e.
T r u c k s t o t r a n s p o r t liquid s l u d g e from t h e s l u d g e m a n a g e m e n t site
t o agricultural sites will , h o w e v e r , be a n additional e x p e n s e f o r
t h e s e c o n d a r y alternatives.
I t is hoped that eventually all sludge can be utilized on

land . As indicated , however , in Table 3- 5 , full agricultural
utilization of s l u d g e is estimated t o be m o r e costly t h a n either
of t h e p u r e disposal options. This is because more equipment is
n e e d e d t o t r a n s p o r t s l u d g e t o a n d s p r e a d it o n t h e a g r i c u l t r a l
sites t h a n is n e e d e d f o r the p u r e d i s p o s a l options. T h u s , a s o f
1979 , a n y s y s t e m which even partially incorporates agricultural
utilization will be more costly than p u r e disposal options. This
c o u l d c h a n g e if t h e f a r m e r s c a n be p e r s u a d e d t o p a y f o r t h e
s l u d g e.
TABLE 3- 5
ESTIMATED COSTS OF ALTERNATIVES FOR EUGENE- SPRINGFIELD
Total annual cost ,

Sludge form Alternative million dollars
Liquid Dedicated land disposal only 1.03

Agricultural utilization only 1.53
Dried Landfill only 1.14
Agricultural utilization only 1.32
3-17
At the time this manual was written ( 1979 ), MWMC was involved in
public hearings aimed at selecting a suitable sludge management
site.
3.4 The Quantitative Flow Diagram
Overall system performance is the sum of the combined

performances of the system's linked processes. This is nowhere
more clearly expressed than on a Quantitative Flow Diagram ( QFD ).
The QFD is used to estimate loadings to the various wastewater
treatment , solids treatment , and solids disposal processes. The
QFD is the starting point for understanding process interactions
and is nothing more than a materials balance. Although balances
can be struck for components like nitrogen , phosphorus and
chemical oxygen demand , the most useful balances are those
for suspended solids. The QFDs to be presented here are for
suspended solids . Each flowsheet has its own unique set of
balance equations. In the following pages , mass balances for a
specific , rather simple flowsheet are derived , thus illustrating
the technique. The mass balance equations are then summarized
in tabular form. Mass balance equations for a more complex and
more common flowsheet are later presented , without derivation.
Two worked QFDs are presented as examples. The intent is to
demonstrate the usefulness of the method.
3.4.1 Example: QFD for a Chemically Assisted

Primary Treatment Plant
The flowsheet for a chemically assisted primary wastewater

treatment plant with anaerobic digestion and mechanical
dewatering of the sludge is shown on Figure 3 7. - In this
example chemicals are added to enhance the sedimentation process.
Sidestreams from the digester and dewatering units are recycled
to the primary sedimentation basin , The calculation is carried
- -
out in a step by step procedure:
1. -
Draw the flowsheet ( as on Figure 3 7 ).
2. Identify all streams , For example , stream A contains raw

sewage solids plus chemical solids generated by dosing
the sewage with chemicals. Let the mass flow rate of
solids in Stream A be equal to A lb per day.
3. For each processing unit , identify the relationship of

entering and leaving streams to one another in terms of
mass. For example , for the primary sedimentation tank ,
let the ratio of solids in the tank underflow ( E ) to
entering solids ( A + M ) be equal to Xg. Xg is actually
-
3 18
an indicator of solids separation efficiency, Th e
general form in which such relationships are
expressed i s:
mass of solids in stream 6
xe mass of solids entering the u n i t
F o r example , Xp =
P
- ,
+ g Xj = g
J - . The processing u n i t ' s
^ .
p e r f o r m a n c e i s s p e c i f i e d w h e n a v a l u e i s a s s i g n e d t o XQ
DEGRITTED SEWAGE
SOLIDS
SOLIDS
GENERATED
BY CHEMICAL
A ADDITION
M PRIMARY B
SEDIMENTATION EFFLUENT
V
SOLIDS
N J DESTROYED
DIGESTION ( CONVERTED
SUPERNATANT TO GAS AND
WATER )
P S CONDITIONING
DEWATERING CHEMICALS
FILTRATE
t
TO ULTIMATE
DISPOSAL
FIGURE 3-7
BLANK QFD FOR CHEMICALLY - ASSISTED

PRIMARY PLANT
3 -1 9
4. Combine the mass balance relationships so as to reduce
them to one equation describing a specific stream in
t e r m s o f g i v e n o r k n o w n q u a n t i t i e s. I n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
to be presented, expressions will be manipulated until E,
t h e p r i m a r y s o l i d s u n d e r f l o w r a t e, c a n b e e x p r e s s e d i n
t e r m s o f A , XE , X j, X , X p , a n d X £ , q u a n t i t i e s w h i c h t h e
^
d e s i g n e r w o u l d k n o w o r a s s u m e f r o m p l a n t i n f l u e n t s u r v e y s,
knowledge of water chemistry and an understanding of the
g e n e r a l s o l i d s s e p a r a t i o n/ destruction e f f i c i e n c i e s o f t h e
p r o c e s s i n g i n v o l v e d. T h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t a s
f o l l o w s:
a. Define M by solids balances on streams around the

p r i m a r y s e d i m e n t a t i o n t a n k:
E
XE A + M ( 3-1 )
T h e r e f o r e,
E
M A ( 3-2 )
XE
b. D e f i n e M b y b a l a n c e s o n r e c y c l e s t r e a m s:
M = N + P ( 3-3 )
N = XNE ( 3-4 )
P = Xp( S + K ) ( 3-5 )
S = XSK ( 3-6 )
T h e r e f o r e,
P = XP ( 1 + XS ) K ( 3-7 )
K + J + N = E ( 3 -8 )
T h e r e f o r e,
K = E - J - N E - XjE - XNE = E(1 - Xj - XN ) ( 3-9 )
and
P XpE ( 1 Xj - XN )( 1 + XS ) ( 3 -10 )
T h e r e f o r e,
M EIXN + XP ( 1 - Xj - XN )( 1 + XS ) ] (3 -110
-
3 20
c . E q u a t e e q u a t i o n s ( 3 - 2 ) a n d ( 3 -1 1 ) t o eliminate M :
E
A = E [ XN + Xp( l - X j - XN )( 1 + XS )]
XE
A -
(3 12)
E
i xp( 1 _ XJ
Xg “
XN “ “
XNH 1 + XS )
E is now expressed in terms of assumed or known

i n f l u e n t s o l i d s l o a d i n g s a n d s o l i d s s e p a r a t i o n/
d e s t r u c t i o n e f f i c i e n c i e s.
O n c e t h e e q u a t i o n f o r E i s derived, e q u a t i o n s f o r o t h e r s t r e a m s
f o l l o w r a p i d l y ; i n f a c t, m o s t h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n d e r i v e d , T h e s e
a r e summarized i n T a b l e 3 -6.
TABLE 3- 6
MASS BALANCE EQUATIONS FOR FLOWSHEET OF FIGURE 3 - 7
A
E 1
XE
- XN - Xp ( 1- Xj-
XN ) ( 1 + Xg )
M E A
XE
B - (1~
XE ) ( A + M)
J = XJ E
N = XnE
K E {1 _ XJ V
'
S = X„ K
S
(1 + Xg ) K
P =
XP
L = K (1 + Xg ) ( 1- Xp )
3 -2 1
DEGRITTED SEWAGE
SOLIDS
299,000 SOLIDS
GENERATED
110,000 BY CHEMICAL
A ADDITION
409,000
r
M PRIMARY
' B
SEDIMENTATION EFFLUENT
56,030 46,503
XE = 0.90
E
418,527
V
SOLIDS
N DIGESTION J DESTROYED
0 Xj = 0.25
104,632
( CONVERTED
TO GAS AND
xN = 0.0
WATER )
K
313,895
t
DEWATERING
P S CONDITIONING
Xp = 0.15
56,030 59,640 CHEMICALS
Xs = 0.19
L
317,505
TO ULTIMATE
DISPOSAL
ALL QUANTITIES ARE

EXPRESSED IN POUNDS
PER DAY
1 Ib /day = 0.454 kg/day
FIGURE 3 - 8
QFD FOR CHEMICALLY- ASSISTED

PRIMARY PLANT
3 -2 2
F i g u r e 3-8 i s a w o r k e d e x a m p l e in w h i c h a l l s o l i d s f l o w r a t e s
are calculated, F o r t h i s e x a m p l e t h e f o l l o w i n g information w a s
p r o v i d e d:
a. B a s e d o n estimates from f a c i l i t y planning studies,

average influent suspended solids loading is
2 9 9 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 1 3 6 t/d a y ). A l u m i s a d d e d t o
t h e d e g r i t t e d r a w s e w a g e t o increase c a p t u r e, The
chemical solids generated as the result of alum
a d d i t i o n i s e s t i m a t e d a t 1 1 0,000 p o u n d s p e r d a y
( 5 0 t/d a y ). T h e l a t t e r f i g u r e is derived f r o m p i l o t
w o r k a t S e a t t l e, W a s h i n g t o n, w h e r e t h e r a t i o o f new
solids g e n e r a t e d /s o l i d s in u n t r e a t e d raw s e w a g e w a s
0 . 3 7/1 w h e n a l u m ( A I 2 ( S O 4 ) 3 • 14 H 2 O ) a d d i t i o n s o f
1 1 0 t o 1 2 5 m g/ 1 w e r e a d d e d t o r a w w a s t e w a t e r ( 1 ) .
T h e r e f o r e, A 2 9 9, 0 0 0 ( 1 + 0 . 3 7 ) 4 0 9, 0 0 0 p o u n d s
p e r d a y ( 1 8 5 t/d a y ) .
b. P r i m a r y sedimentation solids c a p t u r e is 9 0 p e r c e n t o f
the sum of sewage solids, chemical solids and recycle
s o l i d s w h i c h e n t e r t h e b a s i n, Note that solids
capture as usually computed ( sewage solids basis
o n l y ) is o n l y 8 4 . 4 p e r c e n t , i.e.,
(1
e f f l u e n t s u s p e n d e d solids ) 100
influent s e w a g e solids
4 6 ,5 0 3 )
(1 ~ 100 = 84.4 percent
2 9 9, 0 0 0
c. T w e n t y- f i v e p e r c e n t o f t h e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s f e d t o
.
t h e d i g e s t i o n s y s t e m a r e d e s t r o y e d , i.e , c o n v e r t e d
t o g a s o r w a t e r ( X j = 0 , 2 5 ), The number assumed is
s o m e w h a t l e s s t h a n t h e u s u a l v a l u e u s e d ( 0 . 3 0-0 . 4 0 ) ,
s i n c e t h e b i o d e g r a d a b l e f r a c t i o n o f d i g e s t e r f e e d in
t h i s instance is l o w b e c a u s e o f t h e l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n
o f chemical solids p r e s e n t.
d. D i g e s t e r s are n o t s u p e r n a t e d ( X j = 0 . 0 ).
^
e. S o l i d s c a p t u r e i n t h e d e w a t e r i n g u n i t s is 8 5 p e r c e n t
( XP = 0 . 1 5 ) .
f. Conditioning chemicals are 19 percent by weight
of digested sludge fed to the dewatering units
( XS = 0 . 1 9 ).
When all loadings are expressed quantitatively and superimposed on

t h e f l o w s h e e t, t h e d e s i g n e r c a n b e g i n t o d e v e l o p a f e e l f o r t h e
p r o c e s s. T h e e f f e c t s o f r e c y c l e l o a d i n g a n d individual p r o c e s s
efficiencies o n o v e r a l l p r o c e s s p e r f o r m a n c e c a n b e a s s e s s e d b y
m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e variables. Calculations can be done very
3 -2 3
rapidly w h e n t h e m a s s balance e q u a t i o n s ( p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 3-6 )
are set up for solution on a computer or a programmable
c a l c u l a t o r.
T h e investigator m u s t exercise judgment in estimating t h e various

p r o c e s s e f f i c i e n c i e s ( XQ ). F o r e x a m p l e, o n e s h o u l d a s s u m e
r e d u c e d efficiencies f o r p r i m a r y sedimentation if r e c y l e s t r e a m s
contribute l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f s o l i d s t o t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n t a n k ,
since recycled solids tend to be less easily removed than fresh
s o l i d s f r o m t h e s e w e r s y s t e m. T h e i r m e r e p r e s e n c e i n t h e r e c y c l e
s t r e a m is a n indication of t h e difficulties in s e p a r a t i n g t h e m.
3 . 4.2 E x a m p l e: QFD for Secondary Plant with Filtration
T h e e x a m p l e j u s t w o r k e d w a s relatively s i m p l e. F i g u r e 3-9 s h o w s
a more comp ! —
ex sys tem secondary ae robi c _ biological treatme n t
f o l l o w e d by filtration, M a s s b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n s f o r this s y s t e m
a r e summarized i n T a b l e 3 - 7. F o r this f l o w s h e e t t h e f o l l o w i n g
i n f o r m a t i o n m u s t b e s p e c i f i e d.
a. I n f l u e n t s o l i d s ( A ).
b. E f f l u e n t s o l i d s ( Q ), t h a t is, o v e r a l l s u s p e n d e d solids
r e m o v a l m u s t b e s p e c i f i e d.
c . XEf XG , X j , X N f XR , a n d Xg a r e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d
assump tions a b o u t t h e d e g r e e o f s o l i d s r e m o v a l,
addition o r destruction.
d. XD r which describes the net solids destruction
reduction or the net solids synthesis in the
biological system, must be estimated from yield
d a t a ( s e e S e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 2 . 4 ). A p o s i t i v e XD s i g n i f i e s
n e t solids destruction. A negative XD s i g n i f i e s n e t
s o l i d s g r o w t h. I n t h i s e x a m p l e 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e
solids e n t e r i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s a r e a s s u m e d
d e s t r o y e d , i . e. , c o n v e r t e d t o g a s o r l i q u i f i e d.
N o t e t h a t alternative p r o c e s s i n g s c h e m e s c a n b e e v a l u a t e d s i m p l y
by m a n i p u l a t i n g a p p r o p r i a t e variables. F o r e x a m p l e:
a. Filtration c a n b e eliminated b y s e t t i n g XR t o z e r o.
b. T h i c k e n i n g c a n b e eliminated b y s e t t i n g XG t o z e r o.
c. Digestion c a n be eliminated by s e t t i n g X j t o z e r o.
d. D e w a t e r i n g c a n b e eliminated by s e t t i n g Xp t o z e r o.
e. A system without primary sedimentation can be
s i m u l a t e d b y s e t t i n g Xg e q u a l t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y
z e r o, e. g., 1 x 1 0 8. “
Xg c a n n o t b e s e t e q u a l
t o e x a c t l y z e r o, s i n c e d i v i s i o n by Xg p r o d u c e s
indeterminate s o l u t i o n s w h e n c o m p u t i n g E .
3 -2 4
DEGRITTED SEWAGE
SOLIDS
TREATMENT
A CHEMICALS
299,000 D SOLIDS DESTROYED
10,831 OR SYNTHESIZED
’
1
* 40,367
h
SECONDARY
PRIMARY REACTOR /
. M
77,794
SEDIMENTATION
XE = 0.65 135,
B
390
SEDIMENTATION
TANK
XD = 0.08
C
57,667
FILTRATION
XR = 0.70
Q
17,300
EFFLUENT
F
G
66,892
10,034
E
251,438 THICKENING
X „ = 0.15
G
ir
i 56, 858
N DIGESTION J SOLIDS DESTROYED

15,415 XN = 0.05 107,904
( CONVERTED TO
Xj = 0.35 GAS AND WATER )
K
184,978
f
P DEWATERING S CONDITIONING
Xp = 0.10 CHEMICALS
22,012 35,146
xs = 0.19
L
198,111 ALL QUANTITIES ARE
EXPRESSED IN POUNDS
TO ULTIMATE
PER DAY
DISPOSAL 1 Ib /day = 0.454 kg/day
FIGURE 3 - 9
QFD FOR SECONDARY PLANT WITH FILTRATION
A set of different mass balance equations must be derived

if flow p a t h s between p r o c e s s i n g units a r e altered , F o r e x a m p l e
t h e e q u a t i o n s o f T a b l e 3 - 7 d o n o t d e s c r i b e o p e r a t i o n s in
which the dilute s t r e a m f r o m thickener ( s t r e a m G ) is returned
t o t h e biological s y s t e m instead o f t h e primary sedimentation
t a n k.
3-2 5
TABLE 3- 7
MASS BALANCE EQUATIONS FOR FLOWSHEET OF FIGURE 3- 9

0
A - (
r-f-x “
V
E 1
xE a - 8 (y)
Where a
P
(1 - X
J V (1 + V + XH
8
“
XE^P XP
xE
Y X
G
+ a (1 - XG)
„
B
(1 - XE)E
XE
O
c 1 - XR
D = X_ B
D
Q
F 8E 1 - XR
G = X F _
G
H (1 - XG_ )F
J = XTJ (E + H)
K = (1 - XJ X„N)(E + H) T
L = K ( 1 + Xg) ( 1 - Xp)
E
M
X E
G - A
N = XN (E + H)
P = XP (1 + Xg)K
XR
R Q
-
1 XR
S = XgK
-
3 26
3.5 Sizing of Equipment
The QFD d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n c a n be a n i m p o r t a n t a i d
to a designer in predicting long term ( i e , average ) solids
loadings on sludge treatment components ,
- . .
This allows the
designer to establish such factors as operating costs and
quantities of sludge for ultimate disposal .
However, i t does not
establish the solids loading which each equipment item must be
capable of processing . A particular component should be sized t o
handle the most rigorous loading conditions i t i s expected to
encounter .This loading i s usually not determined by applying
- . .
s t e a d y s t a t e models ( e g , QFD c a l c u l a t i o n s ) t o peak p l a n t l o a d s .
Because of storage and plant scheduling considerations, the rate
of solids reaching any particular piece of equipment does not
usually rise and f a l l in direct proportion to the rate of solids
arriving a t the plant headworks . Consider a system similar in
configuration t o t h a t shown on Figure 3 9 - .
I f maximum s o l i d s
l o a d s a t t h e headworks ( Stream A ) a r e t w i c e t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e,
i t does not n e c e s s a r i l y follow t h a t a t t h a t i n s t a n t maximum
dewatering loads ( Stream K ) are twice the average dewatering
load .
To pursue this further , consider the design of a centrifuge
intended to dewater anaerobically digested primary and secondary
sludge at a small treatment plant .
The flow scheme i s similar t o
t h a t s h o w n o n F i g u r e 3- 9 .
The plant i s staffed on only one s h i f t
per day , seven days per week , T h e d i g e s t e r s a r e c o m p l e t e-m i x
units equipped with floating covers, Because of the floating
covers, digester volume can vary , Secondary sludge is wasted
from the activated sludge systems to a dissolved a i r flotation
thickener prior to digestion whenever operators are available to
operate the thickener .
As indicated , the average loadings t o t h e c e n t r i f u g e can be
d e f i n e d by t h e QFD , b u t c o m p u t a t i o n o f t h e n e c e s s a r y c e n t r i f u g e
capacity requires analysis of both the load dampening effect of
the storage in the digesters and the plant operating schedule .
During periods of peak plant solids loadings , loads to the
dewatering u n i t s may be attenuated by storing portions of the
peak loadings within the digester .
This can be done by e i t h e r
mechanism 1 or mechanism 2 below , acting either singly or in
concert .
1. Digester volume i s increased by allowing the digester
floating cover to rise .
2. Solids are allowed to concentrate and thus accumulate
within the digester (See Chapter 15, Section 15.2 2.2 for .
example of storage by mechanism 2 ) .
The effect of both mechanisms 1 and 2 i s storage within the
digester of part of the load which would otherwise go to the
centrifuge .
Thus peak dewatering loads will not be 2.5 times
the average when peak solids mass withdrawn from primary and
3- 2 7
s e c o n d a r y sedimentation t a n k s a r e 2 . 5 times t h e a v e r a g e , but
something less , for example, only 1.4 times the average value.
T h e degree of load dampening is a direct function of the size and
operating configuration of the digester.
Since t h e c e n t r i f u g e will o n l y o p e r a t e w h e n a t t e n d e d , t h e
" design" loading must account for this factor , T h e centrifuge
must be either capable of processing , during one shift , all the
s l u d g e which must be extracted from t h e digester during the peak
d a y ( for example, 1 . 4 times average quantity ) or the o p e r a t o r s
m u s t d e w a t e r s l u d g e for l o n g e r t h a n o n e shift p e r d a y . A
j u d g m e n t w o u l d b e n e e d e d a t this p o i n t w h e t h e r t o p a y f o r
increased equipment capacity o r o p e r a t o r overtime t o handle the
peak loads. With no o p e r a t o r overtime, the " design" centrifuge
capacity would h a v e t o be 1 . 4 x 2 4/8 = 4 . 2 times the average
daily digested sludge production t o account for both the effect
of sludge peaking , s t o r a g e volume and only one operations shift
p e r day.
Note that the dissolved air flotation thickener would need t o b e

designed for 24/8 x 2.5 7.5 times the average daily r a t e of
waste activated sludge production if it is assumed no u p s t r e a m
s t o r a g e is available f o r dampening thickener l o a d i n g s , t h e
thickener itself h a s n o s t o r a g e capacity , and t h e thickener is
only operated one shift per day .
T h e foregoing e x a m p l e s h o w s t h e influence of solids peaking ,

storage volume and operating strategy on the selection of
d e s i g n l o a d i n g s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r s l u d g e handling p r o c e s s .
Several other factors are important in selecting t h e capacity a
unit must have, including:
• Uncertainties. When systems are designed without the

benefits of pilot o r full-scale testing , actual s l u d g e
quantities and characteristics as well a s efficiencies o f
the s l u d g e handling system c o m p o n e n t s may n o t b e known
with certainty . T h e d e g r e e and potential significance
of the uncertainties must be considered when developing
design criteria , This usually has the effect of
introducing a safety factor into the design so that
reliable p e r f o r m a n c e c a n b e obtained n o m a t t e r w h a t
conditions are encountered in the full-scale application.
T h e magnitude of the safety factor must be determined by
t h e designer, based o n his judgement and experience.
• E q u i p m e n t reliability . G r e a t e r c a p a c i t y o r p a r a l l e l
units must be specified if there is reason t o believe
t h a t downtime for any particular units will be high.
• Sensitivity o f d o w n s t r e a m c o m p o n e n t s. If l o s s e s in
efficiency of a particular sludge h a n d l i ng component
a t p e a k l o a d i n g conditions w o u l d cause p roblems for
d o w n s t r e a m p r o c e s s e s, t h i s u p s t r e a m p r o c ess should
3 -28
be designed conservatively , Conversely , if reduced
efficiency could be tolerated , design need not be so
conservative.
3.6 Contingency Planning

As indicated previously , flexibility to cope with unforeseen
problems is highly desirable in any wastewater solids management
system. Such problems and possible solutions include:
• Equipment breakdowns. Downtime may be minimized by

having maintenance people on call , by advance purchase of
key spare parts , by providing parallel processing units
and by making use of storage.
• Solids disposal problems. These may include closures of

landfills , unwillingness of current users to further
utilize sludge , failure of a process to provide a sludge
suitable for utilization , strikes by sludge transporters ,
and inability to dispose of sludge due to inclement
weather. Disposal problems can be reduced by providing
-
long term storage and / or more than one disposal
alternative.
• Sludge production greater than expected. In some

instances this may be dealt with by operating for more
hours per week than normal or by using chemicals to
modify sludge characteristics , thus increasing solids
processing capacity.
Because of these factors , it is desirable to have more than one

process for sludge treatment and disposal , Often it is possible
to add considerable flexibility with modest investment , Backup
or alternative wastewater solids treatment processes often have
higher operating costs per ton of sludge processed than the
primary processes. This is acceptable if the alternative process
is not frequently needed and can be provided at minimum capital
cost.
3.6.1 Example of Contingency Planning for Breakdowns
Assume the plant is a 10 MGD activated sludge facility with

sludge thickening , anaerobic digestion , and digested sludge
-
dewatering as shown on Figure 3 10. Pertinent design details
include:
1 . The waste activated sludge ( WAS ) thickener can be
operated with or without polymers , If polymers are used ,
a more concentrated sludge can be produced , WAS can be
diverted to the headworks if the WAS thickener is removed
from service.
-
3 29
WASTE ACTIVATED SLUDGE WHEN THICKENER IS INOPERATIVE
1
PRELIMINARY PRIMARY ACTIVATED DISINFECTION,
TREATMENT SEDIMENTATION SLUDGE DISCHARGE
i
GRIT, ETC.
SIDESTREAM
1,000 Ib/day
THICKENER FEED
9,000 Ib/ day
1.0% SOLIDS
108,000 gpd
SLUDGE
THICKENER
SIDESTREAM PRIMARY UNDERFLOW
800 Ib/day PRIMARY SLUDGE ONLY . .
THICKENED W A Sr ( 8,000 Ib/day )
10,000 Ib / day NO POLYMER
- -4
* m "
“
5.0% SOLIDS 3.5% SOLIDS
24,000 gpd 27,000 gpd
PRIMARY SLUDGE + W.A.S. WITH POLYMER
18,000 Ib /day 4.5% SOLIDS
2.5% SOLIDS 21,000 gpd
86,000 gpd
T
f
DIGESTER
T 1
DIGESTER
GAS ( 7 ,000 Ib /day )
1 2
DIGESTED SLUDGE ( 11,000 Ib/day )
f
DEWATERING DEWATERING
1
UNIT UNIT
1 2
I T
D
DEWATERED CAKE ( 10,200 Ib /day )
33.9 yd 3 @ 17% SOLIDS
SLUDGE OR
26.2 ydJ3 @
STOCKPILE 22% SOLIDS
TO LANDFILL
VIA 16 yd 3 TRUCK
1 Ib/ day = 0.454 Kg /day
3
1 gpd = 0.00378 m / day
1 yd3 = 0.765 m 3
FIGURE 3 - 10
CONTINGENCY PLANNING EXAMPLE
3 -3 0
2. Two complete - mix digesters with floating covers are
provided. E a c h d i g e s t e r h a s a n e t v o l u m e of
610, 000 gallons ( 2 , 310 m 3 ) at minimum cover height.
Net volume at maximum cover height is 740 , 000 gallons
( 2 , 803 m 3 ) , t h u s t o t a l d i g e s t e r s t o r a g e v o l u m e i s
2 ( 740 , 000 - 610 , 000 ) = 260 , 000 gallons ( 984 m 3 ). The
digesters are not supernated.
3. Two dewatering units are provided. Each unit , when fed

at 90 gpm ( 40.8 m 3/hr ) can produce a 22 percent solids
cake. When the dewatering units are fed at 110 gpm
( 49.9 m 3/hr ) a 17 percent solids cake is produced. The
units are fed at 90 gpm ( 40.8 m 3/hr ) unless conditions
dictate otherwise. The bulk density of each cake is
65.5 pounds per cubic foot ( 1 ,050 kg /m 3 ).
4. The cake is trucked to ultimate disposal , Each truck

holds 16 cubic yards ( 12 m 3 ) of cake.
5. A dewatered sludge storage area of capacity 750 cubic

yards ( 574 m 3 ) is available.
6. Weekends are 2.7 days long ( from 5 p.m. Friday to 8 a.m.

Monday ).
Case A. All units available :

( 610,000 gal )
1 . Digester detention time = ( 24 ,2 000 + 27 , 000 ) gpd = 2 4 d ay s.
2. Dewatering operation :
a . Weekly sludge feed = 7 ( 24,000 + 27,000 gpd )
= 357 , 000 gallons ( 1 , 350 m 3 ).
b. Hourly throughput = 2 x ( 90 gpm ) ( 60 min/hr )

= 10 ,800 gal per hr ( 40.8 m 3/hr ).
c . 357 , 000 gal

Operation is carried out over 10 ,800 gal/hr
= 33 hours per week.
d. 26.2 c u b i c yards ( 20.0 m 3 ) of 22 percent solids

sludge cake is produced each day.
3 . If dewatering is not operated o v e r t h e weekend , then

51,000 gpd ( 2.7 days ) = 138 ,000 gal ( 522 m 3 ) of digested
sludge must be stored in the digesters d u r i n g t h i s
period. Available storage which can be obtained
by letting the floating cover r i s e is 260 , 000 gallons
( 9 8 3 m 3 ). Therefore digester storage capacity is
adequate for weekend storage, including long ( 3.7 day )
weekends.
3-31
3
4. T r u c k l o a d s r e q u i r e d t o h a u l d e w a t e r e d c a k e _ 2 6 . 2 y d /d a y
3
1 6 y d /t r u c k
= 1 . 6 t r u c k l o a d s p e r d a y (1 1 p e r w e e k ) .
In summary , the dewatering operation can be carried out in
a n o r m a l 5 - d a y , 8 - h o u r- p e r- d a y w e e k , T i m e is a v a i l a b l e f o r
s t a r t- u p a n d s h u t d o w n a n d f o r p r o v i d i n g g o o d s u p e r v i s i o n.
Digester detention time is more t h a n a d e q u a t e f o r g o o d d i g e s t i o n.
C a s e B. T h i c k e n e r i s o u t o f s e r v i c e , All other u n i t s are

a v a i l a b l e . W a s t e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e is d i v e r t e d t o t h e p l a n t
h e a d w o r k s and is s u b s e q u e n t l y r e m o v e d i n t h e p r i m a r y
s e d i m e n t a t i o n t a n k.
1. D i g e s t e r detention time 2 ( 6 1 0,0 0 0 g a l )

8 6, 0 0 0 g p d 1 4 d a y s;
s h o r t , but t o l e r a b l e.
2 . D e w a t e r i n g o p e r a t i o n:
a. Weekly sludge feed 7 ( 8 6, 0 0 0 g p d ) = 6 0 2 , 0 0 0 g a l
( 2 2 8 0 m 3 ).
b. H o u r l y t h r o u g h p u t. A t 9 0 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e,
t h r o u g h p u t i s 1 0, 8 0 0 g a l l o n s p e r h r ( 4 0 . 8 m 3/h r ). A t
1 1 0 g a l l o n s p e r minute, t h r o u g h p u t is 1 3 , 2 0 0 g a l l o n s
p e r h r ( 4 9 . 9 m 3/h r ).
c . O p e r a t i n g h o u r s required. A t 9 0 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e
6 0 2, 0 0 0 g a l
( 4 0 . 8 m 3/h r ), r e q u i r e d o p e r a t i n g h o u r s 1 0, 8 0 0 g p h
= 56 hours per week , This requires substantial
o v e r t i m e o r a s e c o n d s h i f t. At 110 gallons per
3
m i n u t e ( 4 9 . 9 m /h r ), r e q u i r e d o p e r a t i n g h o u r s =
6 0 2 ,0 0 0 g a l 4 6 h o u r s p e r w e e k. This r e d u c e s t h e
1 3,2 0 0 g p h
a m o u n t o f overtime required .
d. If the dewatering u n i t s operate at 90 gallons per
m i n u t e ( 40.8 m 3/ h r ), 2 6 . 2 c u b i c y a r d s p e r d a y
( 2 0 . 0 m J / d a y ) o f 2 2 p e r c e n t c a k e i s p r o d u c e d.
O p e r a t i o n a t 1 1 0 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e ( 4 9 . 9 m 3 /h r )
p r o d u c e s 3 3 . 9 cubic y a r d s p e r d a y ( 2 5 . 9 m 3/ d a y ) o f
a 1 7 p e r c e n t s o l i d s s l u d g e c a k e.
3. I f d e w a t e r i n g units a r e n o t r u n o n w e e k e n d s, 8 6 ,0 0 0 g a l/
d a y x 2 . 7 d a y s = 2 3 2, 0 0 0 g a l l o n s ( 8 7 8 m 3 ) m u s t b e s t o r e d
i n t h e d i g e s t e r s, D i g e s t e r s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y i s a d e q u a t e
f o r n o r m a l w e e k e n d s , b u t n o t l o n g w e e k e n d s.
4. F o r 2 2 p e r c e n t c a k e, 1 1 truckloads p e r w e e k a r e r e q u i r e d.
F o r 1 7 p e r c e n t c a k e, 1 5 t r u c k l o a d s p e r w e e k a r e r e q u i r e d .
3-3 2
In summary , loss of the thickener reduces digester detention
time , increases required dewatering unit operating time and the
amount of trucking required for disposal of cake , The operation
can be managed , but with more difficulty , This example also
illustrates the value of the thickener.
Case C. One digester is out of service. All other units are
operating:
1. 610 ,000 gal
Digester detention time
24 ,000 + 27 ,000 gpd 12 d ay s.
This is only marginally adequate. By using polymers in
the thickener , assume waste activated sludge thickness
is increased from 3.5 to 4.5 percent. Detention time is
610 ,000 gal
24 ,000 + 21 ,000 gpd = 14 days, still short,
increased to
but an improvement.
2. Dewatering operation, This is not greatly affected by
loss of the digester , It can still be operated with a
single shift and a 22 percent cake can can be produced.
3. W e e k e n d s t o r a g e. Without polymer addition to
the thickener , required storage volume is 2.7 days
x 51,000 gpd = 138,000 gallons (522 m 3 ). One digester
( 130 ,000 gallons or 4 92 m 3 ) has inadequate storage
and a d e w a t e r i n g m a c h i n e m u s t b e r u n p a r t o f t h e
weekend . I f polymer is used , required storage = 2.7
x 45 ,000 122,000 gallons ( 462 m 3 ). One digester is
marginally adequate for storage.
4. Eleven (11 ) truckloads per week are required to transport
the sludge cake.
In summary loss of a digester can be compensated for by using

polymer in the thickener.
Case D. One dewatering machine is out of service. All other
units are available.
1. Digestion is not affected.
2. Dewatering operation. Try the following alternatives:
a. F e e d r a t e 9 0 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e ( 4 0 . 8 m 3 /h r ).
51,000 gpd 9.4
Required operating time 90 gpm (60 min/hr)
-
hours per d a y , e v e r y day , e x c l u d i n g start up and
shutdown time.
b. Feed rate 110 gallons per minute.
is Required
51 ,000 gpd
operating time = 110 gpm (60 min/hr ) = 7.8 hours/day ,
-
every day , excluding start up and shutdown time.
-
3 33
c. T r y a d d i n g p o l y m e r s t o thickener a n d maintaining a
1 1 0 g a l l o n s p e r minute feed r a t e t o t h e d e w a t e r i n g
units . R e q u i r e d o p e r a t i n g time = 4 5 ,0 0 0 g p d
1 1 0 g p m ( 6 0 min/h r )
= 6 . 8 h o u r s p e r d a y , e v e r y d a y , e x c l u d i n g s t a r t- u p
a n d s h u t d o w n times.
3. W e e k e n d d i g e s t e r s t o r a g e is n o t a n issue as dewatering
u n i t s m u s t b e r u n s e v e n d a y s a w e e k.
4. Eleven ( 11 ) truckloads are required to transport
22 percent cake, 15 truckloads are required for
1 7 p e r c e n t c a k e.
I n s u m m a r y , l o s s o f o n e d e w a t e r i n g unit will r e q u i r e o p e r a t i o n o f
t h e r e m a i n i n g unit f o r s e v e n d a y s a w e e k. overtime c o s t s will b e
h igh.
C a s e E . T r u c k strike l a s t i n g a m o n t h. A s s u m i n g 2 2 p e r c e n t c a k e,
s l u d g e, a c c u m u l a t e s a t a b o u t 2 5 c u b i c y a r d s ( 1 9 ) a d a y. T h e
s l u d g e s t o r a g e area s t o c k p i l e m u s t , therefore , be a b l e t o s t o r e
^
a b o u t 2 5 ( 3 0 ) = 7 5 0 c u b i c y a r d s ( 5 7 0 m ) o f s l u d g e t o avoid m a j o r
p r o b l e m s d u e t o t h e s t r i k e. O d o r s from t h e s t o c k p i l e c o u l d be
a p r o b l e m.
C o n c l u s i o n: The system as designed should be able to handle

contingencies .
3.7 O t h e r G e n e r a l D e s i g n Considerations
3 . 7.1 Site Variations

Characteristics such as size and location of the plant and
solids disposal sites strongly influence the nature and cost of
t r e a t m e n t a n d d i s p o s a l s y s t e m s.
Disposal may often be accomplished on land, thus

eliminating expensive dewatering, provided adequately
sized s ites are within reasonable distances from the
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t , H o w e v e r, d e w a t e r i n g i s u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d
if t h e a m o u n t o f land a v a i l a b l e f o r s l u d g e d i s p o s a l i s
limited o r if t h e s l u d g e m u s t b e t r u c k e d l o n g distances
for disposal, Sufficient land a l s o p e r m i t s l o n g -t e r m
s t o r a g e i n faculative l a g o o n s, w h i c h c a n a l s o p r o v i d e
s o m e i n e x p e n s i v e disinfection.
Z o n i n g r e g u l a t i o n s a r e d i f f e r e n t f o r different s i t e s.
Locations near waterways and railroads provide

opportunities for barge and rail transportation of
s l u d g e s a n d s u p p l i e s.
3 -3 4
Structures are less costly if foundation conditions are
good. Quite often, however, wastewater treatment plants
are located in valley bottoms, tidelands , or reclaimed
landfills where expensive foundations are required.
Costs for labor, electricity , freight on chemicals , and
trucking can vary markedly from one region to another.
Because of these variations, the best alternative for one site is
often not the best at another site. Also, reported capital and
operating costs from one site must be carefully adjusted before
being used at another site.
3.7.2 Energy Conservation
As fossil fuel supplies become more scarce and more expensive,

energy conservation becomes increasingly important, The designer
should employ energy- efficient processes and recover energy from
sludges and sludge byproducts, where practical .
The following points should be considered in the design of

energy- utilization processes:
Energy from high temperature sources is generally more
useful than energy derived from low temperature sources,
since it can be put to a wider variety of uses.
The evaporation of water in dryers and furnaces, consumes
large amounts of energy. Such processes should therefore
be provided with a well - dewatered sludge , Inert
materials such as , chemicals or ash used to condition
sludge for dewatering are, however, also energy consumers.
Energy required for digestion and thermal conditioning is

minimized where thickening is used to reduce the water
content of process feed sludges.
Trucking energy can be reduced if haul distances are
short and the sludge is well-dewatered.
Energy is required for the manufacture and transportation

of chemicals. Therefore, chemicals should be added in
minimum amounts that are consistent with good operation.
Whenever possible chemicals should be employed which
require the least energy to produce and transport.
Costs saved reducing peak energy demands can be

by
subtantial. In some instances , a treatment plant ' s
electrical bills are largely determined by peak energy
loadings , as opposed to total energy consumed , The
designer should a c t i v e l y s e e k s o l u t i o n s t o r e d u ce
peak energy demand . Energy recovered from sludge and
sludge-derived fuel can be used for this purpose.
-
3 35
M o t o r s s h o u l d b e a c c u r a t e l y sized , Motors are most
efficient when o p e r a t e d near capacity . However, motors
i n wastewater treatment p l a n t s are frequently o p e r a t e d
far below capacity .
Where anaerobic digester g a s i s utilized , g a s s t o r a g e

should be p r o v i d e d t o minimize w a s t a g e.
Recycle loads from solids treatment processes should be
minimized . Recycled loads increase the power and
chemical r e q u i r e m e n t s of wastewater treatment p r o c e s s e s.
T h e d e s i g n e r s h o u l d a l w a y s k e e p in m i n d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t r u e
economy is n o t found by minimizing s p e c i f i c uses o f e n e r g y , but
by minimizing overall c o s t s.
E n e r g y recovery is discussed in C h a p t e r 18. Energy costs for

m a n y o f t h e s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t a n d d i s p o s a l o p t i o n s a r e contained
in c h a p t e r s describing t h o s e o p t i o n s. A 1978 publication ( 2 )
contains more detailed guidance on making energy-effective
analyses as w e l l a s a g r e a t deal o f information o n primary energy
consumption , t h e electricity and fuel c o n s u m e d directly a t t h e
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t and s e c o n d a r y e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n, t h e e n e r g y
required t o m a n u f a c t u r e chemicals u s e d in s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t.
3.7 3. Cost- Effective Analyses

O n e of t h e decisive factors in process selection is c o s t , Cost
analyses must be carried o u t s o t h a t a l l a l t e r n a t i v e s are
evaluated o n a n equivalent basis , E P A h a s issued guidelines for
c o s t-effective a n a l y s e s ( 3 .) M o n e t a r y c o s t s m a y be calculated in
terms of p r e s e n t worth values o r equivalent annual v a l u e s o v e r a
defined planning period . Capital and operating a n d maintenance
c o s t s m u s t b e considered in t h e evaluation. I n d i r e c t c o s t s
should b e included s u c h a s loss o f p r o p e r t y t a x e s w h e n private
land is acquired and incremental costs which the wastewater
t r e a t m e n t facility m u s t bear w h e n sidestreams a r e returned t o
t h e m . C r e d i t s f o r s u c h items a s c r o p s and r e c o v e r e d e n e r g y
should be t a k e n w h e r e appropriate, T h e discount r a t e t o b e used
in t h e analysis is established a n n u a l l y by t h e W a t e r R e s o u r c e s
Council. All construction c o s t d a t a is referenced t o a s p e c i f i c
location and year using cost indices such as the Engineering
N e w s- Record Construction C o s t Index , t h e EPA S e w a g e Treatment
Plant Index , or the E P A S e w e r Construction Cost Index , Inflation
i n c o s t s a n d w a g e s a r e n o t considered in t h e a n a l y s e s , since it
i s a s s u m e d a l l prices will tend t o c h a n g e over time by the same
p e r c e n t a g e.
C o s t- e f f e c t i v e a n a l y s i s f o r s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t a n d d i s p o s a l
s y s t e m s h a s b e e n discussed in s o m e w h a t g r e a t e r d e t a i l in a
1979 publication ( 4 ). Present worth and equivalent annual
value calculations a r e discussed in References 5 a n d 6 , a m o n g
o t h e r s.
3-3 6
a»
TABLE 3- 8
SOLID PROPERTIES CHECKLIST
1. Origin and type

2. Quantity
3. Concentrations
4. Chemical composition and biological properties including
biodegradability
5. Specific gravity
6. Rheological properties ( e.g., viscosity )
7. Settling properties
8. Dewatering properties
9. Fuel value
10. Suitability for utilization or disposal without further
processing
TABLE 3 - 9
PROCESS DESIGN CHECKLIST
1. Description of process
Details of works , schematic drawing , logical location in overall
sludge treatment flowsheet.
2. Process Theory
3. Current status
Number of suppliers; usage in USA ; good and bad experience and potential
for avoiding problems ; advantages and disadvantages with respect to
competing processes .
4. Design criteria
Process loadings (solids and hydraulic); pilot scale investigations
(when to make them , methods , costs, limitations) ; special considerations
(solids origin).
5. Instrumentation specific to the process.

6. Operational considerations: Flexibi 1 ity.
7. Energy impacts
Primary and secondary requirements.
Potential for energy recovery.
8. Actual performance data and case histories.
9. Public health and environmental impacts.
10 . Solids production and properties.
11 . Sidestream production and properties.
12 . Cost information
Construction/operation ( tie to ENR and EPA Construction Cost Indexes);
-
constraints (site specific). Break down costs by category (labor,
electricity , etc. ) so that adjustments can be made for different
conditions.
-
3 37
3.7.4 Checklists
The following checklists provide information a designer must
have to design wastewater solids treatment and disposal systems.
Three checklists are provided .
1. A Solids Properties Checklist appears in Table 3 -8. This
checklist summarizes required information concerning raw
solids entering the solids treatment system and solids
produced in the various processes and operations.
2. A Process Design Checklist appears on Table 3 -9. This

checklist describes information necessary to select and
design sludge treatment and disposal processes.
3 . A Public Health and Environmental Impact Checklist

appears in Table 3 -10. This checklist summarizes key
interactions that must be resolved between proposed
process and the surrounding environment.
TABLE 3 - 10
PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL

IMPACT CHECKLIST
1. Control of vectors (bacteria , parasites , virus, flies , rats )

2. Odor
3. Air pollution
4. Groundwater contamination
5. Surface water contamination (by run off) -
6. Soils contamination
7. Land use
8. -
Social economic
9. Utilization (sludge or byproducts used beneficially )
10. Occupational safety
11. Risk of accidents involving the public
12. Control of potentially hazardous substances
13. Effects on biota including transfer and accumulation of pollutants
in the food chain
14. Use of material resources
3 -38
Designers should refer frequently to these checklists to assure
that all relevant topics are given proper consideration during
planning stages and system design , An extensive series of
checklists dealing with wastewater solids management has also
been prepared for EPA ( 4 ). The checklists are intended to serve
as aids for the review of facility plans , for preparation of
designs and specifications and the writing of operations and
maintenance manuals.
3.8 References
1. Brown and Caldwell. West Point Pilot Plant Study: Volume

IV , Chemical Treatment. Prepared for the Municipality of
Metropolitan Seattle. Seattle, Washington 98101. December
1978.
2. USEPA. Energy Conservation in Municipal Wastewater Treatment.

Office of Water Program Operations. Washington , D.C., 20460.
EPA 4-30/9 -77-011. March 1978.
3. Federal Register. "Cost-Effectiveness Analyses." 40 CFR 35-

Appendix A. September 1975.
4. USEPA. Evaluation of Sludge Management Systems: Evaluation

Checklist and Supporting Commentary. ( in draft ). Office of
Water Program Operations. Washington , D.C. 20460. August 1,
1978.
5. .
Grant , E . L and Ireson , W.G. Principles of Engineering
Economy . .
Fourth edition New York ; Ronald Publishing Co.
1964
6. Peters, M .S. and Timmerhaus , K.D. Plant Design and Economics

for Chemical Engineers. N ew York . McGraw - Hill Book Co.
1962.
3- 39
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 4. Wastewater Solids Production

and Solids


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 4
W A S T E W A T E R S O L I D S PRODUCTION
AND CHARACTERIZATION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter principally discusses the quantities and properties
of sludges produced by primary biological and chemical wastewater
t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s, S c r e e n i n g s , g r i t, s c u m , s e p t a g e, a n d
o t h e r m i s c e l l a n e o u s w a s t e w a t e r solids , i n c l u d i n g t h e s l u d g e
p r o d u c e d in t h e t r e a t m e n t o f c o m b i n e d s e w e r o v e r f l o w s , a r e
discussed briefly .
4.2 Primary S l u d g e
M o s t wastewater t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s use primary sedimentation t o

r e m o v e r e a d i l y s e t t l e a b l e s o l i d s f r o m raw w a s t e w a t e r . I n a
typical plant with primary sedimentation and a conventional
activated s l u d g e p r o c e s s for s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t , t h e d r y weight
o f primary s l u d g e solids is roughly 5 0 p e r c e n t o f t h a t for t h e
total sludge solids . F o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s , primary s l u d g e is
usually easier t o m a n a g e t h a n biological and chemical sludges.
First, primary s l u d g e is readily thickened by gravity , either
within a primary sedimentation t a n k o r within a s e p a r a t e gravity
t h i c k e n e r. In comparison with biological and many chemical
s l u d g e s , primary s l u d g e with l o w conditioning r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n b e
mechanically d e w a t e r e d rapidly . Further, the dewatering device
will p r o d u c e a drier cake and give better solids c a p t u r e t h a n it
would f o r m o s t biological and chemical s l u d g e s.
4 . 2.1 Primary Sludge Production
4.2 . 1.1 Basic Procedures for Estimating

Primary Sludge Production
Primary s l u d g e production is typically within t h e r a n g e of 8 0 0 t o

2 , 500 p o u n d s p e r million g a l l o n s ( 100 t o 3 0 0 m g/ 1 ) o f wastewater.
A basic a p p r o a c h t o estimating primary s l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n f o r a
particular p l a n t i s by computing t h e quantity o f total s u s p e n d e d
s o l i d s ( T S S ) e n t e r i n g t h e p r i m a r y sedimentation t a n k a n d a s s u m i n g
an efficiency of removal, When s i te- specific data are not
available f o r influent T S S , estimates of 0.15 to 0.24 pound per
capita p e r d a y ( 0 . 0 7 t o 0 . 1 1 kg / capita/d a y ) are commonly used
( 1 ). R e m o v a l efficiency o f T S S in t h e primary sedimentation t a n k
4-1
i s usually in the 50 t o 65 percent range ( 2 ) An e f f i c i e n c y of .
60 percent i s frequently used for estimating purposes, subject to
t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s:
That the sludge i s produced in treatment of a domestic

wastewater without major industrial loads.
That the sludge contains no chemical coagulants or

flocculents .
That no other sludges
— for example , trickling filter
s l u d g e -- h a v e b e e n a d d e d t o t h e i n f l u e n t w a s t e w a t e r .
That the sludge contains no major sidestreams from sludge
processing .
As an example , i f a d e s i g n e r e s t i m a t e s the TSS e n t e r i n g
the primary c l a r i f i e r as 0.20 pound per capita per day
( 0 . 0 9 k g /c a p i t a/d a y , a n d t h e r e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e c l a r i f i e r
as 60 percent, the estimated primary sludge production is
0 . 1 2 p o u n d p e r c a p i t a p e r d a y ( 0 . 0 5 4 k g /c a p i t a/ d a y ) .
If relevant data are available on influent wastewater suspended
solids concentrations , such data should , of course, be used for
design purposes .
Estimates of TSS removal efficiency in primary
sedimentation tanks may be refined by use of operating records
-
from in service tanks o r by laboratory testing The "Standard .
Methods" dry weight t e s t for settleable matter estimates under
ideal conditions the amount of sludge produced in an ideal
sedimentation tank ( 3 ) .
Sludge production will be slightly lower
in actual sedimentation tanks .
4 . 2 .1 . 2 Industrial Waste Effect
Suspended solids removal efficiency in primary sedimentation

depends to a large extent on the nature of the solids It .
is difficult to generalize about the effect that industrial
suspended solids can have on removal efficiency , but an example
illustrates that the effect can sometimes be dramatic At .
North Kansas City , Missouri , a municipal plant serves residential
customers and numerous major industries , including food
processing , paint manufacturing , soft drink bottling , paper -
manufacturing , and grain storage and milling . Raw w a s t e w a t e r
e n t e r i n g t h e p l a n t h a d a 1 5- d a y a v e r a g e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 1 , 1 4 0 m g /1 t h a t w a s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e
industries . Primary sedimentation removed 90 percent of these
solids . The quantity of primary sludge was, therefore, about
8 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r m i l l i o n g a l l o n s ( 1 , 0 0 0 m g /1 ) o f w a s t e w a t e r
treated . This value i s several times the normal one for
domestic wastewater . On two of the 15 days, removal exceeded
1 4 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r m i l l i o n g a l l o n s ( 1 , 7 0 0 m g /1 ) ( 4 ) .
-
4 2
4.2.1.3 Ground Garbage Effect
Home garbage grinders can significantly increase the suspended

solids load on a wastewater treatment plant , These solids are
largely settleable. Estimates of the increased primary sludge
resulting from the use of garbage grinders range from 25 percent
to over 50 percent ( 1 ,5 ,6 ).
4.2.1.4 Other Sludges and Sidestreams
Operating experience shows clearly that the amount of sludge

withdrawn from the primary sedimentation tank is greatly
increased when sludge treatment process sidestreams such as
digester supernatant , elutriate , and filtrates or centrates
and other sludges like waste-activated are recycled to the
primary sedimentation tank. Quantifying the solids entering and
leaving the primary clarifier by all streams is an important tool
for estimating primary sludge production when recycled sludges
and sludge process sidestreams contribute large quantities of
solids.
4.2.1.5 Chemical Precipitation and Coagulation

When chemicals are added to the raw wastewater for removal
of phosphorus or coagulation of nonsettleable solids , large
quantities of chemical precipitates are formed. The quantity of
chemical solids produced in chemical treatment of wastewater
depends upon the type and amount of chemical( s ) added ,
chemical constituents in the wastewater , and performance of the
coagulation and clarification processes. It is difficult to
predict accurately the quantity of chemical solids that will
be produced . Classical jar tests are favored as a means for
estimating chemical sludge quantities , The quantities of
suspended solids and chemical solids removed in a hypothetical
primary sedimentation tank that is processing wastewater which
has been treated by lime, aluminum sulfate or ferric chloride
-
addition are estimated in Table 4 1.
4.2 . 1.6 Peak Loads

Peak rates of primary sludge production can be several times the
average . Peak solids production levels also vary from one plant
to another. Four studies of primary sludge production rates are
summarized and presented here.
At Ames , Iowa , (9 ) the wastewater is basically of domestic
origin, A university contributes about 30 percent of the
volumetric and mass loads. Storm runoff is collected and kept
separate from the domestic wastewater , For 21 years of record ,
the suspended solids loads in the peak month of each year were
divided by the yearly average. The average of these ratios
4-3
was 1.37 . The average for comparison of peak days and peak
months over ten years of record was 1.59. Thus , in a typical
year , the maximum daily flow would be about 1.37 x 1.59 , or
2.2 times the average. The maximum day ' s sludge production
was, therefore , expected to follow a similar pattern and was
estimated to be 2.2 times the average value.
TABLE 4- 1
PREDICTED QUANTITIES OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS AND CHEMICAL

SOLIDS REMOVED IN A HYPOTHETICAL PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION TANK ( 7 , 8 )
Chemical addition3
No chemical
Sludge type addition0 Lime^ Alum d Iron6
Suspended solids , lb/mg 1 ,041 1 , 562 1 ,562 1 , 562

Chemical solids , lb/mg 2 , 082 362 462
Total sludge production , lb/mg 1 ,041 3 ,644 1 ,924 2 ,024
(kg/cu m ) ( 0.13) (0.44 ) (0.23) ( 0.24)
Âssumes 10 mg/1 influent phosphorus concentration (as P) with

80 percent removed by chemical precipitation.
^sedimentation
Assumes 50 percent removal of
.
250 mg/1 influent TSS in primary
C
125 mg/1 Ca( OH)2 added to raise pH to 9.5.
^
G
154 mg/1 Al 2(S04 )3 *14 H 2O added.
84 mg/1 FeCl added.
Note:
^
Assumes no recycle streams (for example , recycle of waste-activated
sludge to primary sedimentation , digester supernatant , etc.).
Secondary solids production would be cut from 833 lb/mg without

chemical addition to 312 lb/mg with chemical addition in this
hypothetical plant.
A study conducted in 1936 used data from Chicago, Cleveland ,

Columbus, Syracuse, Rochester, and several other large American
cities ( 10 ) to show a typical relationship between peak raw
sewage solids loads entering a plant and duration of time that
these peaks persist . This relationship is shown graphically
on Figure 4 -1. The curve is appropriate for large cities with a
number of combined sewers on flat grades. The peaks occur at
least partly because solids deposited in the sewers at low flows
are flushed out by storm flows.
Data were collected over a five-year period from the West Point
plant at Seattle, Washington and used in a 1977 study ( 11 ). Peak
primary sludge loads of four- to ten- day durations were compared
with average loads. The duration of four days was selected
because it appeared to be highly significant to digester
operations at this plant, and because loads tended to drop after
about four days of heavy loading . The highest four-day primary
4- 4
sludge production was more than four times the normal production
from the plant's service area , Main contributors to the peak
load were:
• S olids deposits in the sewers . These deposits were

resuspended during high flows and carried to the
-
treatment plant , The computer operated storage system ,
which minimizes combined sewer overflows , apparently
contributed to solids deposition/reentrainment.
Storm inflow. Measurements of TSS in storm drainage

fluctuate widely but often show over 200 mg/1 suspended
solids. A large portion of the West Point service area
contains combined sewers.
• Sludge conditioning and dewatering. Problems in these

processes have caused the sidestreams to contain more
solids than usual.
Q 500
<
o
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400
<
o
LU
o
<
cc 300
LU
>
<
LL
o 200
I
z-
LU
O
cc
UJ
Q
- 100 1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
DURATION OF PEAK LOAD, days
FIGURE 4- 1
TYPICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PEAK SOLIDS LOADING

AND DURATION OF PEAK FOR SOME LARGE AMERICAN CITIES ( 10 )
The fourth study , done in 1974 , discussed two plants in

St. Louis , Missouri ( 12 ). The graphs shown on Figure 4 - 2
illustrate the variation in daily waste primary sludge production
as a fraction of the average waste primary sludge production with
duration of that production rate for the eight months that data
-
4 5
were taken .
Both of these plants have significant industrial
loads, and both serve large areas of combined storm and sanitary
sewers .
(/
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Q 2
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-<J UJCD
O CONSECUTIVE D A Y S CONSECUTIVE D A Y S
z
K E Y : A - A A V E R A G E O F RESULTS C - C RESULTS F R O M
O F E I G H T MONTHS T H E LEAST EXTREME
B — B MOST EXTREME OF T H E E I G H T M O N T H S
RESULTS RECORDED
IN ALL OF THE
E I G H T MONTHS
FIGURE 4- 2
PEAK SLUDGE LOADS , ST . LOUIS STUDY ( 12 )
4.2 2 . Concentration Properties
Most primary sludges can be concentrated readily within the

p r i m a r y s e d i m e n t a t i o n t a n k s, Several authors claim that a five
t o s i x percent solids concentration i s attainable when sludge i s
p u m p e d f r o m w e l l- d e s i g n e d p r i m a r y s e d i m e n t a t i o n t a n k s ( 2 , 1 0 ,1 3 /
14 ) . However, v a l u e s b o t h h i g h e r and l o w e r t h a n t h e f i v e t o
4-6
six p e r c e n t r a n g e are common , Conditions that influence primary
s l u d g e concentration include:
• If w a s t e w a t e r i s n o t d e g r i t t e d b e f o r e it e n t e r s t h e
sedimentation tanks, t h e grit may be removed by passing
t h e r a w p r i m a r y s l u d g e t h r o u g h c y c l o n i c s e p a r a t o r s.
H o w e v e r, t h e s e s e p a r a t o r s d o n o t function properly with
s l u d g e concentrations a b o v e one p e r c e n t ( 1 5 ).
• If t h e s l u d g e contains l a r g e a m o u n t s o f fine nonvolatile

solids , s u c h a s silt , from s t o r m inflow , a concentration
o f w e l l o v e r six p e r c e n t m a y s o m e t i m e s b e attained
( 1 1, 1 6 ).
• Industrial l o a d s m a y s t r o n g l y a f f e c t p r i m a r y s l u d g e
concentration. F o r e x a m p l e, a t a p l a n t receiving soil
discharged from a t o m a t o canning operation , a primary
s l u d g e with a 1 7 p e r c e n t solids concentration, o f which
4 0 p e r c e n t is volatile, w a s r e c o r d e d. N o r m a l primary
s l u d g e a t t h i s p l a n t had a s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
from five to six percent solids ( 60 to 70 percent
volatile ) ( 1 7 ).
• Primary s l u d g e m a y f l o a t w h e n buoyed u p by g a s bubbles

generated under anaerobic conditions, Conditions
f a v o r i n g g a s f o r m a t i o n include: w a r m t e m p e r a t u r e s;
s o l i d s d e p o s i t s w i t h i n s e w e r s; s t r o n g s e p t i c w a s t e s ;
l o n g d e t e n t i o n t i m e s f o r w a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s in t h e
sedimentation t a n k s; lack of a d e q u a t e prechlorination;
and recirculating s l u d g e liquors ( 1 8 ). T o p r e v e n t t h e
septic conditions t h a t f a v o r g a s formation , it m a y b e
necessary t o strictly limit t h e s t o r a g e time of s l u d g e in
t h e sedimentation t a n k s. This is d o n e by increasing t h e
frequency and rate of primary sludge pumping ( 19 ).
• If biological sludges are mixed with t h e w a s t e w a t e r , a

lower p r i m a r y s l u d g e concentration will g e n e r a l l y result .
4 . 2.3 Composition and Characteristics
T a b l e 4 - 2 l i s t s a n u m b e r o f p r i m a r y s l u d g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s.
In m a n y c a s e s, r a n g e s and /o r " typical " values are given, I n t h e
a b s e n c e o f recirculating s l u d g e p r o c e s s sidestreams , t h e p e r c e n t
of volatile solids in t h e primary sludge should approximate the
p e r c e n t volatile s u s p e n d e d solids in t h e influent w a s t e w a t e r.
A volatile solids content below about 70 percent usually
indicates t h e p r e s e n c e o f s t o r m w a t e r inflow , s l u d g e processing
sidestreams, a large amount of grit, sludge from a water
filtration p l a n t t h a t w a s d i s c h a r g e d t o t h e sanitary s e w e r, l o w
volatile solids from industrial waste, or wastewater solids that
h a v e a long detention time in t h e sewers.
4-7
TABLE 4- 2
PRIMARY SLUDGE CHARACTERISTICS

Typical
Characteristic Range of values value Comments Reference
PH 5 - 8 6 1
Volatile acids, mg/1 as ace
tic acid
- 200 - 2 , 000 500 1
Heating value , Btu/lb (kJ/kg) 6 ,800 - 10 ,000 Depends upon volatile content, 1
and sludge composition , re
ported values are on a dry
-
weight basis.
10 , 285 Sludge 74 percent volatile. 1
7 ,600 Sludge 65 percent volatile. 20
Specific gravity of individ
ual solid particles
- 1.4 Increases with increased grit ,
silt , etc.
1
Bulk specific gravity (wet) 1.02 Increases with sludge thickness 1

and with specific gravity of
solids.
1.07 Strong sewage from a system of 21
combined storm and sanitary
sewers .
BOD 5/VSS ratio 0.5 - 1.1 22
COD/VSS ratio 1.2 - 1.6 22
Organic N/VSS ratio 0.05 - 0.06 22
Volatile content , percent by

weight of dry solids
64 - 93 77 Value obtained with no sludge re
cycle , good degritting; 42
- 22
samples , standard deviation 5.
60 - 80 65
40 Low value caused by severe storm 11
inf low.
40 Low value caused by industrial 17
waste.
Cellulose, percent by weight

of dry solids
8 - 15 10
3.8
1
23
Hemicellulose , percent by 3.2 23

Lignin , percent by weight of 5.8 23
dry solids
Grease and fat, percent by

6
7 -- 30
35
Ether soluble
Ether extract
1
23
Protein, percent by weight 20 - 30 25 1

of dry solids 22 - 28 23
Nitrogen, percent by weight
of dry solids
1.5 - 4 2.5 Expressed as N 1
Phosphorus, percent by weight

of dry solids
0.8 - 2.8 1.6 Expressed as P 2O5. Divide
values as P 2O 5 by 2.29 to
1
obtain values as P .
Potash, percent by weight of 0

- 1 0.4 Expressed as K 2O. Divide
values as K 2O by 1.20 to
obtain values as K.
1
1 Btu/lb = 2.32 kJ/kg
Primary sludge always contains some grit , even when the

wastewater has been processed through degritting . Where
screenings are comminuted and returned to the wastewater flow ,
4- 8
t h e f r a g m e n t e d screenings a p p e a r in the primary s l u d g e , S m a l l e r
p l a s t i c a n d r u b b e r items t h a t p a s s t h r o u g h s c r e e n s a l s o a p p e a r in
t h e p r i m a r y s l u d g e.
Primary s l u d g e typically contains over 1 0 0 different anaerobic

a n d f a c u l t a t i v e s p e c i e s o f b a c t e r i a ( 2 4 ). S u l f a t e- r e d u c i n g
and oxidizing bacteria, worm and fly eggs , and pathogenic
microorganisms are typically p r e s e n t.
4.3 Biological S l u d g e s
4 . 3.1 G e n e r a l Characteristics
Biological s l u d g e s a r e p r o d u c e d by t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s s u c h a s
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e, t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r s, a n d r o t a t i n g b i o l o g i c a l
contactors. Quantities and characteristics o f biological s l u d g e s
v a r y with t h e metabolic and g r o w t h r a t e s o f the various micro-
organisms p r e s e n t in t h e s l u d g e. T h e quantity and quality o f
s l u d g e p r o d u c e d b y t h e biological p r o c e s s i s intermediate b e t w e e n
t h a t p r o d u c e d in n o- p r i m a r y s y s t e m s a n d t h a t p r o d u c e d in
f u l l- p r i m a r y s y s t e m s in c a s e s w h e n f i n e s c r e e n s o r p r i m a r y
sedimentation tanks with high overflow rates are used .
B i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e c o n t a i n i n g d e b r i s s u c h a s g r i t, p l a s t i c s ,
p a p e r, a n d f i b e r s w i l l b e p r o d u c e d a t p l a n t s l a c k i n g p r i m a r y
t r e a t m e n t. P l a n t s with primary sedimentation n o r m a l l y p r o d u c e
a f a i r l y p u r e b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e. The concentrations and ,
therefore, t h e volumes of w a s t e biological s l u d g e a r e g r e a t l y
a f f e c t e d by t h e m e t h o d o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e c l a r i f i e r s.
B i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e s a r e g e n e r a l l y m o r e difficult t o thicken a n d
d e w a t e r t h a n primary s l u d g e and m o s t chemical s l u d g e s.
4 . 3.2 Activated S l u d g e
4.3 .2 . 1 Processes Included

Activated s l u d g e h a s n u m e r o u s v a r i a t i o n s: e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n;
o x i d a t i o n d i t c h ; p u r e o x y g e n, m e c h a n i c a l a e r a t i o n, d i f f u s e d
aeration ; plug f l o w ; c o n t a c t stabilization , c o m p l e t e mix , s t e p
feed , nitrifying activated s l u d g e ; e t c ( 2 ). This manual does n o t
discuss l a g o o n s in which a l g a l g r o w t h is important o r l a g o o n s
t h a t t e n d t o accumulate w a s t e w a t e r solids o r biological solids.
T h e s e m e t h o d s , h o w e v e r, c a n b e u s e d f o r p r e d i c t i n g a c t i v a t e d
s l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n in h i g h l y l o a d e d a e r a t e d l a g o o n s w h e r e t h e
bacteria a r e maintained in solution.
4.3 . 2.2 C o m p u t i n g Activated S l u d g e Production -

D r y Weight B a s i s
T h e quantity o f w a s t e- activated s l u d g e ( W A S ) is affected b y t w o
p a r a m e t e r s: t h e d r y weight o f the s l u d g e and t h e concentration
of t h e s l u d g e. T h i s s e c t i o n describes h o w t h e d r y w e i g h t o f
activated s l u d g e production m a y b e predicted .
4-9
Basic Predictive Equations
The most important variables in predicting waste activated sludge
production are the amounts of organics removed in the process,
-
the mass of microorganisms in the system , the biologically inert
suspended solids in the influent to the biological process , and
the loss of suspended solids to the effluent.
These variables can be assembled into two simple and useful

equations:
Px = ( Y )(sr ) ( k d )( M ) -
( 4 1)
WASp — Px 4-
^- NV ~ Ep -
( 4 2)
where:
Px = net growth of biological solids (expressed as volatile

suspended solids [VSS]), lb/day or kg/day ;
Y = gross yield coefficient , lb/lb or kg/kg ;
sr = substrate
kg/day ;
( for example , BOD 5 ) removed , lb/day or
kd = decay coefficient , day”l ;
M - system inventory of microbial solids ( VSS) micro

organisms , lb or kg ;
-
WAST = -
waste activated sludge production, lb/day or kg/day ;
INV -
non volatile suspended solids fed to the process ,
lb/day or kg/day ;
Ep = effluent suspended solids , lb/day or kg/day.
These equations , as stated or with slight variations , have been

widely used . -
Equation 4 1 dates back to 1951 ( 25 ). However,
different terms and symbols have been used by various authors in
expressing Equations 4 1 and 4 2. Table 4 3 summarizes some of
the terminology that has evolved .
- - -
The technical literature
reflects some inconsistency in terminology with the term " M."
Test results reported by various authors and presented in
-
Table 4 3 were derived on the basis of " M " defined as mixed
liquor VSS only.
--
To use Equation 4 1 , it is necessary to obtain values of Y and
kd. While Table 4 4 summarizes several reported values for these
parameters, it is best to determine Y and k on an individual
waste stream whenever possible. ^
-
4 10
TABLE 4- 3
ALTERNATE NAMES AND SYMBOLS FOR EQUATION ( 4- 1 )
As used in this chapter Other common names for

Other symbols for
similar quantities similar quantities
Symbol Name Dimensions
px Biological solids Mass AX , dX/dt, A , S, Accumulation , net growth ,

production Time dM/dt, Rg excess microorganisms
production
Y Gross yield Mass a, Ks , c Yield coefficient , synthesis

coefficient3 Mass
coefficient
-
coefficient , growth yield
sr Substrate removal Mass dF/dt , S , B , Fi , R Food , utilization , load

Time
kd Decay constant 1
Time
b, Kd , Ke Endogenous respiration ,
maintenance energy ,
-
auto oxidation
M Microbial solids
inventory
Mass s, X , xv Microbial mass , solids under
aeration , solids inventory,
mixed liquor solids
aThe letter Y has also been used for the net yield coefficient Px/sr. The net yield
coefficient is quite different from the gross yield coefficient.
To u s e E q u a t i o n 4 - 2 , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e s t i m a t e 1 N V'
n o n- v o l a t i l e influent s o l i d s , a n d , e f f l u e n t s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s.
T h e f o l l o w i n g a r e g e n e r a l l y included within t h e t e r m I v :
^
N o n- volatile solids in i n f l u e n t s e w a g e, i n c l u d i n g r e c y c l e
s l u d g e l i q u o r s.
Chemical p r e c i p i t a t e s--f o r e x a m p l e, aluminum p h o s p h a t e s--

w h e n a l u m i s a d d e d t o t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s.
Stormwater solids that are not removed in previous

p r o c e s s e s ( 3 6 ).
N o r m a l n o n- v o l a t i l e c o n t e n t o f t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e .
I n t h e a b s e n c e o f s l u d g e l i q u o r s, chemical p r e c i p i t a t e s ,
a n d s t o r m w a t e r, a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e w i l l b e a b o u t 8 0 p e r c e n t
volatile ( l e s s in e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n ) a t m o s t m u n i c i p a l
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s.
To compute ET , a s m a l l v a l u e s u c h a s 1 0 m g/1 T S S s h o u l d be
u s e d.
T h e f o l l o w i n g sections discuss s e v e r a l f a c t o r s t h a t c a n i n f l u e n c e
t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f w a s t e- activated s l u d g e. S e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 2 . 3 is a
d e t a i l e d e x a m p l e o f h o w s l u d g e q u a n t i t i e s s h o u l d b e c o m p u t e d.
4-1 1
TABLE 4- 4
VALUES OF YIELD AND DECAY COEFFICIENTS FOR

COMPUTING WASTE- ACTIVATED SLUDGE
Gross yield Decay Type of Scale of Temperature , Sludqe age , BODj. removal
Reference coefficient3 coefficient wastewater plant Aeration °C days calculation
25 0. 5 0.055 Primary effluent Bench

Pilot
Air
Oxygen
19 -
22
Not stated
2 ,8
1
- 22
4
Influent
Influent minus
26 0.70 0.04 Primary effluent
effluent
26, 27 0.67 0.06 Primary effluent Full Air 18 - 27 1.2 8 Influent minus
effluent
28, 29 0.73 0.075 Primary effluent Pilot Air 10
- 16 1 - 12 Influent minus
effluent
30 0.94 0.14 Primary effluent {wastewater
includes dewatering
Pilot Air 15 - 20 0.5 - 8 Influent minus
soluble ef -
liquors) fluent
31 0.73 0.06 Primary effluent Pilot Oxygen 18 - 22 2.5 - 17 Influent minus
effluent
d
32 0.5 Not calculated Primary effluent {military Pilot Air 0 7 Long
T Influent
(negligible) base)
12 0.74 0.04 Primary effluent (much in - Pilot Oxygen 17 - 25 2.1 5 Influent minus
dustry) soluble ef
fluent
-
30 1.57 0.07 Raw degritted including de
watering liquors
- Pilot Air 15 - 20 0.6 3 Influent minus
soluble ef -
fluent
33 1.825 0.20 Raw degritted Bench Air 4 - 20 1 3 Soluble in -
fluent minus
soluble ef
fluent
-
d
34 0.65 0.043 Raw degritted Bench Air 20
- 21 11 and up Influent minus
effluent
d
34 0.70 0.048 Raw degritted Bench Air 20 - 21 Long Influent minus
effluent
d
34 0. 54 0.014 Raw degritted Full Air Not stated Long Influent minus
effluent
35 1.1 0.09 Raw Full Air Not stated 1.1 2.4- Influent minus
effluent
aGross yield coefficient Y, lb (kg) VSS/lb (kg) BOD .

b 1
Decay coefficient k , days .
^
CMean cell ^
residence time or sludge age 0m , measured as mass of mixed liquor
VSS divided by biological solids production P . Note that coefficients may be
^
somewhat different if total system inventory of VSS (mixed liquor VSS plus VSS
in clarifiers) is used rather than just mixed liquor VSS.
Êxtended aeration.
Note: All values in this table are for an equation of the type Px = Ysr - kdM -
(equation 4 1).
d
E f f e c t o f S l u d g e A g e a n d F/M R a t i o
E q u a t i o n ( 4 -1 ) c a n be rearranged to show the effect of the

s l u d g e a g e ( Gm ).
( Y ) ( sr )
Px ( 4- 3 )
1 + ( kd )( 0 m )
w h e r e 0m M s l u d g e a g e, d a y s.
'
Px
4-1 2
S i m i l a r l y , E q u a t i o n 4-1 c a n b e r e a r r a n g e d t o s h o w t h e e f f e c t o f
t h e f o o d-t o- m i c r o o r g a n i s m r a t i o ( F /M ):
U d > ( sr )
P x = ( Y )( sr ) - ( C )( F M ) ( 4- 4 )
2 /
w h e r e:
C2 = coefficient t o match units o f sr a n d " F " in F /M ? if sr

is B O D 5 r e m o v e d ( influent m i n u s e f f l u e n t ), t h e n C 2 is
B O D5 r e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c y , a b o u t 0 . 9 ?
F/M = f o o d - t o-m i c r o o r g a n i s m r a t i o;
BOPs a p p l i e d d a i l y
V S S ( m a s s ) in s y s t e m
A s 0 m i n c r e a s e s a n d F/M d e c r e a s e s , t h e b i o l o g i c a l s o l i d s
p r o d u c t i o n Px d e c r e a s e s. S l u d g e h a n d l i n g i s e x p e n s i v e , a n d c o s t s
c a n be r e d u c e d b y u s i n g high v a l u e s o f 0ra o r low v a l u e s o f F/M .
H o w e v e r, t h e r e a r e o f f s e t t i n g c o s t f a c t o r s, s u c h a s increases in
the aeration tank volume needed, oxygen requirements for the
a e r o b i c b i o l o g i c a l s y s t e m , e t c. A l s o , a s s e a s o n s c h a n g e , s o
m a y t h e o p t i m u m 6 m a n d F /M f o r m a x i m u m w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
e f f i c i e n c y. T h e r e f o r e , it is desirable t o be a b l e t o o p e r a t e
a c r o s s a r a n g e o f c o n d i t i o n s. O b v i o u s l y , t r i a l-a n d -e r r o r
calculations a r e r e q u i r e d t o determine t h e l e a s t c o s t l y s y s t e m.
Effect of Nitrification
N i t r i f i c a t i o n i s t h e b i o-o x i d a t i o n o f a m m o n i a n i t r o g e n a n d
o r g a n i c nitrogen t o t h e nitrite a n d nitrate f o r m s. C o m p a r e d w i t h
p r o c e s s e s t h a t a r e d e s i g n e d f o r c a r b o n a c e o u s ( B O D 5 , C O D ) oxida-
t i o n o n l y , s t a b l e nitrification p r o c e s s e s o p e r a t e a t l o n g s l u d g e
a g e s ( 8 m ) a n d l o w f o o d - t o- m i c r o o r g a n i s m r a t i o s ( F / M ). A l s o ,
nitrification p r o c e s s e s a r e o f t e n p r e c e d e d by o t h e r p r o c e s s e s
t h a t r e m o v e m u c h o f t h e B O D 5 a n d S S. A s a r e s u l t , a c t i v a t e d
s l u d g e in a nitrification m o d e g e n e r a l l y p r o d u c e s l e s s w a s t e-
activated s l u d g e t h a n conventional activated s l u d g e p r o c e s s e s.
However, there is an additional component to nitrification
s l u d g e , t h e n e t y i e l d o f nitrifying bacteria, Yfg. T h i s m a y b e
estimated a t 0 . 1 5 p o u n d s S S p e r p o u n d o f t o t a l K j e l d a h l n i t r o g e n
( o r g a n i c p l u s ammonia ) r e m o v e d ( 3 7 ). Y varies with t e m p e r a t u r e,
^
p H , dissolved o x y g e n , a n d c e l l residence time. H o w e v e r, detailed
measurements of Y are not ordinarily required for sludge
facility d e s i g n ^
because the yield of nitrifying bacteria is
s m a l l. F o r e x a m p l e , if Y i s 0 . 1 5 a n d if t h e n i t r i f y i n g p r o c e s s
^
r e m o v e s a n a m m o n i a n i t r o g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 20 m g /1 a n d a n
o r g a n i c n i t r o g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 10 m g /1 t h e n n i t r i f i c a t i o n
w o u l d a d d 0 . 1 5 x ( 2 0 + 1 0 ) = 4 . 5 m i l l i g r a m s o f nitrifying bacteria
p e r liter o f w a s t e w a t e r ( 3 8 p o u n d s p e r million g a l l o n s ). T h e s e
4-1 3
quantities are small compared to other sludges , In single- stage
nitrification processes, the sludge production figures must also
include the solids produced from the carbonaceous oxidation ,
computed at the and F/M of the nitrifying system .
Effect of Feed Composition
The type of wastewater that is fed to the activated sludge

process has a major influence on the gross yield ( Y ) and
decay ( k ) coefficients , Many industrial wastes contain
^
large amounts of soluble BOD 5 but small amounts of suspended
or colloidal solids . These wastes normally have lower Y
coefficients than are obtained with domestic primary effluent.
On the other hand , wastes with large amounts of solids , relative
to BOD5 , either have higher Y coefficients or require adjustments
to reflect the influent inert solids. Even among soluble wastes,
different compositions will cause different yields.
Effect of Dissolved Oxygen Concentration
Various dissolved oxygen ( DO ) levels have been maintained in

investigations of activated sludge processes. Very low DO
concentrations--for example , 0.5 mg/l--in conventional activated
sludge systems do appear to cause increased solids production ,
even when other factors are held constant ( 38 ). However ,
there is vigorous disagreement concerning solids production at
higher DO levels. Some investigators state that use of pure
oxygen instead of air reduces sludge production . This is
attributed to the high DO levels attained through the use of pure
oxygen ( 39 , 40 ). Other investigators in recent well-controlled
investigations have concluded that if at least 2.0 mg/1 DO is
maintained in air- activated sludge systems , then air and oxygen
systems produce the same yield at equivalent conditions ( such as
food -to-microorganism ratio ) ( 41 , 42 ).
Effect of Temperature
The coefficients Y ( gross yield ) and k <j ( decay ) are related to

biological activity and , therefore, may vary due to temperature
of the wastewater. This variation has not been well documented
in pilot studies and process investigations. One study obtained
no significant difference due to temperature over the range
39 ° to 6 8° F ( 4 ° to 20 ° C )( 33 ). However , others have observed
significant differences within the same temperature range.
Sometimes a simple exponential ( " Arrhenius" ) equation is used for
temperature corrections to Y and k . For instance, it has been
^
stated that chemical and biochemical rates double with an 18° F
( 10 ° C ) rise in temperature. Exponential equations have been
found to be accurate for pure cultures of bacteria , but are quite
inaccurate when applied to Y and k for the mixed cultures
found in real activated sludges ( 43 , 44 ).^
4-14
For the design engineer , the following guidelines are recommended
until such time as process investigations and research efforts in
this area provide more consistent and reliable information:
• Wastewater temperatures in the range of from 59° to 72° F

( 15° to 22° C ) may be considered to be a base case , Most
of the available data are from this range , Within this
range, there is no need to make temperature corrections .
Any variations in process coefficients across this
temperature range are likely to be small in comparison to
uncertainties caused by other factors.
• If wastewater temperatures are in the range of from 50°

to 59° F ( 10 ° to 15° C ) , the same kd value as for 59° to
75° F ( 15° to 22° C ) should be used , but the Y value should
be increased by 26 percent. This is based on experiments
that compared systems at 52° F ( 11°C ) and 70° F ( 21 ° C ). In
these tests , kd was the same , but Y was 26 percent
higher. ( On a COD basis, Y was found to be 0.48 at 38 ° F
[ 11° C ] and 0.38 at 56 ° F [ 21° C ] ) ( 45 ).
• If wastewater temperatures are below 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) ,

increased sludge production should be expected ( 46 ) , but
the amount of increase cannot be accurately predicted
from available data. Under such conditions, there is a
need for pilot-scale process investigations.
• If wastewater temperatures are above 72° F ( 22°C ) values

of the process coefficients from the range 59° to 7 2° F
( 15° to 22 ° C ) may be used for design, The resulting
design may be somewhat conservative.
Effect of Feed Pattern
Various feed patterns for the activated sludge process include

contact stabilization, step feeding , conventional plug - flow , and
complete- mix . For design purposes, it appears to be best to
ignore the feed pattern when estimating solids production.
Computing Peak Rate of Waste- Activated
_
--
^ ^ — .
- -- iirnrT "r / WOP
Sludge Production
Peak solids production occurs because of unfavorable combinations

of the elements in Equations 4 - 1, 4 - 3 , and 4 - 4 , presented
previously :
Px = ( Y )( sr ) - ( kd ) ( M ) ( 4 -1 )
Px =
sr
( Y )( )
( 4- 3 )
«
1 + ( kd )( m )
4- 15
Px = ( Y )(sr )
sr
( kd )( )
-
( 4 4)
( C 2 )( F/M )
All of these equations predict that solids production ( Px )

increases with increases in sr and F/M and decreases with
increases in the mass of organisms and Qm. Also Px increases
if the gross yield coefficient ( Y ) increases or if the decay
coefficient ( kd ) decreases. Each of these factors that tend to
increase Px will occur , within limits , in practice. To compute
peak solids production , the following conditions should be
assumed :
Peak substrate removal ( ). sr

If high efficiency of
biological wastewater treatment is maintained at peak
pollutant loading , then sr represents organics removal
at maximum load . If sr is computed on a BOD5 removal
basis , then the maximum BOD 5 removal should be used .
The duration of peak solids production will match the
duration of the peak load . Data have been published
for several plants showing variations in BOD 5 loads
( 12 ,47 ,48 ,49 ).
Minimum value of 0 m or maximum F/M . This allows the
operator to select 0m or F/M to obtain the best possible
effluent. The design average condition may be F/M = 0.3 ,
but an operator may obtain better results at F/M 0.5
for some specific conditions at a particular treatment
plant.
Maximum likely value of Y.
• Minimum likely value of kd .

Also , a temperature allowance should be made if wastewater
temperatures below 59°F ( 15°C ) may occur during peak loads.
Solids inventory reductions are an additional type of non-steady

state condition that the designer should anticipate , It is
occasionally necessary for treatment plant operators to reduce
the mass of microorganisms ( M ) in the liquid treatment process by
wasting activated sludge , Wasting activated sludges helps the
operator to maintain a constant F/M in the face of reduced BOD5
loadings . -
The wastewater B0D 5 load can drop rapidly if a
treatment plant serves vacation areas or industries , Wasting
activated sludge also allows the operator to take aeration tanks,
clarifiers , etc. , out of service to limit solids on clarifiers ,
and to prevent major loss of solids to the effluent and to
inhibit the growth of undesirable microorganisms such as
-
scum causing actinomycetes ( 50 ) .
Further , by reducing M , the
operator can more readily optimize biofloccu 1 ation , thereby
minimizing effluent solids , and can control air or oxygen
requirements.
4-16
To accomplish the desired inventory reduction , solids handling
facilities must have the capacity to accept the wasted solids.
For wastewater treatment plants without major known BOD5 and SS
loading variations, allowance should be made in designing solids
processing facilities for the wasting of an additional two percent
of M per day and lasting up to two weeks , Such plants include
those serving stable domestic populations , Industrial loads
would be either small or unusually stable.
For plants with major seasonal variations in loads , allowance

should be made for wasting an additional five percent of M per
day and lasting for up to two weeks. Such plants serve resort
areas, college towns , etc. A similar allowance should be made
for plants that practice nitrification during only part of
the year. Lastly , for plants with major weekday - to- weekend
variations of over 2 to 1 in BOD5 load , and medium or high
food -to-microorganism ratios of over 0.3 during the high loads ,
allowance should be made for a one- day sludge wasting of up to
25 percent of M . The plant should also be able to handle wasting
of five percent of M per day and lasting for two weeks. Plants
in this category serve major industrial systems , large office
complexes, schools , and ski areas.
Since inventory reductions are not generally practiced during

peak loading periods , these above-discussed capacity allowances
should be added to average solids production. The maximum rate
of waste- activated sludge production is determined by whichever
is greater: production during peak loading or the sum of average
production plus inventory reduction allowances.
Occasionally , sludge is wasted in a pattern so that M increases

at some times and decreases at others . An example of such a
pattern is the withdrawal of WAS only during the daytime. The
Tapia, California , Water Reclamation Plant uses this pattern to
obtain good process control ( 51 ). Use of such patterns will, of
course, increase the maximum rate at which WAS must be removed .
Measurements of Sludge Yield Coefficients
Pilot studies and full-scale operating records can provide

better data for establishing sludge production design criteria
than any general compilation of data from other locations .
Measurements of the sludge yield coefficients are of two basic
types .First, both the gross yield Y and the decay k may be
^
determined . Second , observed net yields alone may be used .
Equations 4 - 1 , 4 - 3 , and 4 - 4 are used when the food - to -

microorganism ratio F/ M and the sludge age , 9 m > may be expected
to vary in the prototype plant , To use these equations , it is
necessary to determine the two sludge yield coefficients , Y
4 -17
and .
k To establish these two coefficients, solids production
m u s t ^b e m e a s u r e d u n d e r a t l e a s t t w o d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s o f F/ M
a n d 0m . E q u a t i o n 4 -1 c a n b e r e a r r a n g e d s l i g h t l y t o E q u a t i o n 4 - 5 :
Px S
M =
Y 1( —
M '
) - kd -
( 4 5)
w h e r e:
P x /M = net growth rate = l/0m d a y s 1,
l b ( k g ) B O D5 r e m o v e d p e r d a y
s f/ M = l b ( kg ) VSS
This equation provides a basic straight line relationship between -

P x/ M a n d s r/ M .
F o r e a c h c o n d i t i o n o f o p e r a t i o n , P x/M a n d s r/M
are calculated and plotted , and a straight line i s drawn through
the points .
The slope of the line i s the yield coefficient ( Y ) ,
and the i n t e r cept represents the decay coefficient ( k d ) ( See .
Figure 4 3 ) - .
1.00
BOD BASIS
.80
ff
M
= 0.67 ( if
M
) - 0.06
*
Y = 0.67, kd = 0.06
.60 r
>
~u 00
C/5
a >
00
CO
COD BASIS
> 2 .40
co m £>L = 0.34 ( *L ) - 0.06
M M
m Y = 0.34 , kd = 0.06
.20
i i
-. 20
0 .50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50
sr LB SUBSTRATE REMOVED / day

M LB MLVSS
FIGURE il- 3
NET GROWTH RATE CURVES ( 27)
-
4 18
If t h e d e s i g n conditions o f sr/ M o r 0m are k n o w n and if solids
production can be measured under these conditions, then it is not
n e c e s s a r y t o determine b o t h Y a n d kd . I n s t e a d , a s i m p l e observed
n e t y i e l d m a y b e c a l c u l a t e d . E q u a t i o n s 4-1 and 4-3 a r e e a s i l y
r e a r r a n g e d t o s h o w:
Px Y - k d /( s r/M )
Y
( 4- 6 )
Yobs “
sr 1 + ( kd )( 0 m )
w h e r e:
Y0 bs = net yield coefficient ,
l b( k g ) V S S p r o d u c e d
l b ( k g ) s u b s t r a t e ( for e x a m p l e , B O D 5 ) r e m o v e d
N e t y i e l d c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e o f t e n r e p o r t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e.
T h e y a r e d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e o n l y u n d e r t h e conditions o f sr/M
a n d 0m t h a t o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t s; t h e y a r e m e a n i n g l e s s
u n l e s s sr/ M o r a r e m e a s u r e d a l s o, F o r gathering d a t a from
p i l o t p l a n t s o r e x i s t i n g p l a n t s f o r use in establishing s l u d g e
y i e l d c o e f f i c i e n t s, s e v e r a l p r e c a u t i o n s s h o u l d b e e x e r c i s e d.
Either a u t o m a t i c dissolved o x y g e n ( D O ) c o n t r o l should b e used in
t h e t e s t o r a m p l e a i r o r o x y g e n s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d t o e n s u r e t h a t
t h e mixed l i q u o r D O concentration is o v e r 2 mg /1 a t a l l times.
D a t a f r o m w i d e l y d i f f e r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s s h o u l d n o t be p l o t t e d o n
t h e same g r a p h t o determine Y a n d kd . Instead , data from each
t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e s h o u l d be u s e d t o determine Y a n d kd f o r t h a t
r a n g e. Each condition of sr/ M o r should be maintained l o n g
e n o u g h t o o b t a i n s t a b l e o p e r a t i o n, T o assure s y s t e m s t a b i l i t y,
a period of time equal to three times the sludge age should
e l a p s e b e t w e e n t e s t s. The d e s i g n e r should use the t e r m I v in
E q u a t i o n 4- 2 t o c o r r e c t t h e effect of sidestreams , ^
The percent
volatile c o n t e n t o f t h e solids p r o d u c e d s h o u l d b e r e c o r d e d , This
will b e u s e f u l in c o m p u t i n g t h e t o t a l solids in t h e s l u d g e.
4 . 3 .2 . 3 E x a m p l e: Determination o f B i o l o g i c a l
S l u d g e Production
T h i s e x a m p l e i l l u s t r a t e s t h e u s e of y i e l d f a c t o r s a n d d e c a y
f a c t o r s. F i g u r e 4 - 4 s h o w s a f l o w d i a g r a m f o r a h y p o t h e t i c a l
p l a n t. T h e p r o b l e m i s t o p r e p a r e a n i n i t i a l e s t i m a t e o f t h e
l o a d i n g t o t h e w a s t e - activated s l u d g e t h i c k e n e r , T a b l e 4- 5
contains information required for this calculation, including
average and maximum d a y loadings and activated s l u d g e operating
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s. I t is a s s u m e d t h a t t h e t h i c k e n e r in this
e x a m p l e will h a v e t o h a n d l e t h e m a x i m u m - d a y w a s t e - a c t i v a t e d
sludge production, P e a k loadings o f shorter duration than the
m a x i m u m d a y p r o d u c t i o n will be h a n d l e d b y s t o r i n g t h e a d d e d
s u s p e n d e d solids in the aeration basins , For the purposes of
this e x a m p l e , the s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s such as digestion ,
4-1 9
dewatering , disinfection, thermal conditioning , and chemical
c o n d i t i o n i n g h a v e n o t b e e n i d e n t i f i e d. Depending upon the
s e l e c t i o n a n d d e s i g n o f t h e s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s, t h e
r e c y c l e l o a d s from s u c h p r o c e s s e s c o u l d h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t
u p o n t h e q u a n t i t i e s o f w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e a n d p r i m a r y
sludge that must be processed , When they are known, the
d e g r a d a b l e o r g a n i c s ( B O D ) a n d n o n- v o l a t i l e f r a c t i o n s o f t h e
recycle streams should be added to the substrate removal ( )
a n d n o n- v o l a t i l e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s ( I y ) f a c t o r s. S u b s e q u e n t
sr
^
calculations in E q u a t i o n s 4 -1 a n d 4- 2 a r e f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f
o b t a i n i n g a s l u d g e m a s s b a l a n c e, which i n c l u d e s t h e e f f e c t o f
r e c y c l e s t r e a m s.
DOMESTIC AND MWIM
COMMERCIAL WASTE DISINFECTION

* PRIMARY AND DISCHARGE
PRELIMINARY
TREATMENT
SEDIMEN-
TATION
AERATION
TANKS
FINAL
CLARIFIERS -
*
u
O
_
cc
UJ RETURN ACTIVATED SLUDGE LU
GRIT o a
o HI Z
15
CJ
CO
>-
tr
>
CJ
LU
GC
LU _
U
cc
< WASTE - ACTIVATED SLUDGE - CC
5 TO BE CALCULATED <
CC a
a.
r
1
SLUDGE THICKENER
{
!>,
i'
THICKENED SLUDGE
RECYCLE
SLUDGE TREATMENT
'
SLUDGE FOR REUSE
OR DISPOSAL .
FIGURE 4- 4
SCHEMATIC FOR SLUDGE QUANTITY EXAMPLE
S t e p 1. D e t e r m i n e B O D 5 l o a d t o t h e activated s l u d g e p r o c e s s .
A v e r a g e d a y B O D 5 load :
8 . 3 4 l b/ M G
5.0 MG D x x 1 9 0 m g/1 x ( 1 - 0 . 3 5 ) = 5 ,1 5 0 l b/ d a y
1 m g/1
4- 2 0
Maximum day BOD5 load ( similar calculation ):
8.34 lb/ MG
9.5 MGD x x 160 mg/1 x ( 1 - 0.25 ) = 9 , 510 lb/day
1 mg/1
TABLE 4- 5
DESIGN DATA FOR SLUDGE PRODUCTION EXAMPLE
Description Value Description Value
Average day ^
Influent flow , mgd (m /day )
5.0 (18 ,900)
Sludge thickener capture
efficiency
Maximum day 9.5 (36 ,000) Average , percent 95
Maximum day , percent 85
Influent BOD 5 , mg/1
Average day
Maximum day
190
160
- -
Food to microorganism
ratioa
Average 0.3
Influent suspended solids , Maximum 0.5
mg/1
Average day 240 Temperature of wastewater
Maximum day 190 Average , degrees F
(degrees C) 65 ( 18)
BOD5 removal in primary Minimum , degrees F
sedimentation , percent (degrees C) 50 ( 10)
Average day 35
Maximum day 25 Dissolved oxygen in aera
tion tanks
-
Suspended solids removal in Average , mg/1 2.5
primary sedimentation Minimum , mg/1 2.0
Average day 65 Control: automatic
Maximum day 50
Effluent limitations, 30
day average
-
BOD5 , mg/1 30
Suspended solids , mg/1 30
Usable test data for

b
solids production None
XT
. 'V'‘V’lhtimis
dHWiraiiHJMflMiiyji
aib (kg) BQD 5 applied daily

lb (kg ) mixed liquor VSS
^Data from other plants must be used.
1 mgd = ^
3, 785 m /day
Note: Maximum day influent BOD and suspended solids concentrations
^
reflect a dilution from average day data due to the higher
flow.
Step 2. Determine M , the mass of microorganisms.

BOD5 applied /day
Ave rage: F/ M = 0.3
VSS in system
5 ,150 = 17 , 170 pounds VSS

M 0.3
4- 21
Maximum day: F/M = 0 . 5
10 = 19 ,020 pounds VSS

H -
^ 0.5
Step 3 . Determine Y , the gross yield coefficient , and kd ,

the decay coefficient .
No test data are available for this
waste , so estimates must be made from tests on other wastes .
For average conditions , use Los Angeles data from Table 4-4 ( 27 ):
Y = 0.67 pound ( kg ) VSS formed per pound ( kg ) BOD 5 removed ;
k = 0.06 day .
^
For maximum conditions , use minimum temperature of 36° F ( 10 ° C ),
which produces the maximum Y value. Use the correction from
Section 4.3.2.2 , which increases Y by 26 percent.
0.67 x 1.26 0.84; do not adjust kd

^max “
Step 4 . Determine sr ( substrate removal ) in units to match Y.
Average daily substrate removal:
BOD5 applied 5 ,150 lb/day

Effluent BOD5 ( assume 10 mg/1* - 420 lb/day
BOD5 in effluent ) 4 ,730 lb BOD5 removed/day
Maximum daily substrate removal:

BOD5 applied 9,510 lb/day
Effluent BOD5 ( assume 10 mg/1* - 790 lb/day
BOD5 in effluent ) 8,720 lb/BOD5 removed/day
Step 5. Determine P X r the biological solids production . Use

Equation 4 -1 from 4.3 .2.2:
Px = ( Y )( s r ) ( kd )( M )
Average:
lb VSS produced lb BOD5 removed

0.67 lb BOD removed 4,730 day
5
- ( 0.06 day-1 ) ( 17,170 lb VSS ) = 2 , 140 lb VSS produced/day
* Allow 10 mg / 1 for effluent BOD , even though the plant is

5
permitted to discharge 30 mg/1. Activated sludge plants can
often attain 10 mg/ 1 effluent BOD5 . Sludge capacity should be
provided for the sludge produced under such conditions.
4-22
Maximum day , similar calculation:
( 0.84 )( 8 ,720 ) ( 0.06 )( 19 , 020 ) - 6 ,184 lb VSS produced /day
Step 6. Compute INy ( nonvolatile suspended solids fed to the

activated sludge process ).
Average daily input of nonvolatile suspended solids:
8.34 lb/ MG
5.0 MGD x
1 mg/ 1
x 240 mg/1 x ( 1 - 0.65 )( 0.25 * )
= 880 lb/day
Maximum daily input of nonvolatile suspended solids:
8.34 lb/ MG
9.5 MGD x 1 mg/ 1
x 190 mg/ 1 x ( 1 - 0.50 ) ( 0.25* )
= 1 ,800 lb/day
Step 7. Compute ET ( effluent suspended solids ) .
Average:
8.34 lb/ MG
5.0 MGD x
1 mg/1
x 10 mg/1 = 420 lb/ day
Maximum day:
8.34 lb/ MG x 10 mg/1 = 790 lb/day

9.5 MGD x
1 mg/1
Step 8 . Compute waste- activated sludge ( WASp ) production :
From Equation ( 4- 2 ) ;
WASp = Px + IJSJV — Ep
WASp — 2 ,140 + 880 420 = 2 ,600 lb TSS/day

( 1 ,180 kg /day )
4- 23
M a x i m u m d a y:
WAST 6 , 1 8 4 + 1 ,8 8 0 - 7 9 0 = 7 , 2 7 4 l b T S S/d a y
( 3 , 3 0 2 k g /d a y )
Step 9 . C o m p u t e i n v e n t o r y r e d u c t i o n a l l o w a n c e.
I n v e n t o r y reduction a l l o w a n c e = ( 0 . 0 2 )( 1 7 ,1 7 0 ) = 3 4 3 l b/ d a y
( 1 5 6 k g /d a y )
In the present c a s e, t h e inventory reduction allowance c a n be

s m a l l. A l l o w t w o p e r c e n t o f M p e r d a y. T h e 3 4 3 l b/d a y c o m p u t e d
h e r e is m u c h s m a l l e r t h a n t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e a v e r a g e a n d
maximum w a s t e-activated s l u d g e r p r o d u c t i o n ( S t e p 8 ) ; t h e r e f o r e , if
c a p a c i t y i s p r o v i d e d f o r m a x i m u m solids p r o d u c t i o n, t h e n t h e r e
will be ample capacity for inventory reduction , It is not
n e c e s s a r y t o r e d u c e i n v e n t o r y d u r i n g p e a k l o a d s.
4 . 3.2 . 4 Interaction of Yield Calculations and

t h e Q u a n t i t a t i v e F l o w D i a g r a m ( Q F D)
The example just presented demonstrates a technique for

c a l c u l a t i n g solids p r o d u c t i o n o n a o n c e- t h r o u g h basis ; t h a t is ,
a n y solids associated w i t h r e c y c l e streams w e r e n o t considered i n
the calculation , The QFD considers the effects of recycle
s t r e a m s. Before the QFD can be constructed for biological
t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s, a n e s t i m a t e o f n e t s o l i d s d e s t r u c t i o n o r
s y n t h e s i s m u s t first b e m a d e, The relationship between solids
entering a n d l e a v i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l unit is established v i a t h e
p a r a m e t e r XD , w h i c h i s d e f i n e d a s n e t s o l i d s d e s t r u c t i o n p e r
unit of solids entering the biological unit, The data and
calculations from t h e p r e v i o u s d e s i g n e x a m p l e allow a n initial
e s t i m a t e o f XD t o b e m a d e.
F o r t h e a v e r a g e f l o w:
1. Solids leaving the biological unit Px + PNV 2 ,1 4 0

+ 880 3 ,0 2 0 p o u n d s p e r d a y '
2. Solids entering the biological unit are equal to solids

i n t h e p r i m a r y effluent , which c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e
d a t a o n T a b l e 4- 4. P r i m a r y e f f l u e n t solids = ( 1 0.65 )
( 2 4 0 ) ( 8 . 3 4 )( 5 . 0 ) = 3 , 5 0 3 p o u n d s p e r d a y .
3. Net solids destruction s o l i d s in solids out 3 ,5 0 3

- 3 ,0 2 0 = 4 8 3 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 2 1 9 k g /d a y ) .
483
4. XD = 0.138
3 ,5 0 3
4-2 4
For maximum day flows:
1. Solids leaving the biological unit 6 ,1 8 4 + 1,880

= 8 , 0 6 4 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 3 ,6 6 1 k g /d a y ).
2. S o l i d s e n t e r i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l unit (1 0 . 5 0 )( 1 9 0 )
( 8 . 3 4 )( 9 . 5 ) = 7 , 5 2 7 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 3 , 1 4 7 k g /d a y ).
3. Net solids destruction 8 ,0 6 4 - 7 , 5 2 7 537 pounds per

d a y ( 2 4 4 k g /d a y ).
537
4. XD m a x 7,527
0.07
Once XD is known , the QFD calculation can be undertaken , Af t e r

the QFD calculation is completed , the designer may wish to make
new estimates of Px and INy, based on information derived from
the QFD calculation. F o r e x a m p l e , if t h e Q F D c a l c u l a t i o n s h o w s
t h a t r e c y c l e l o a d s a r e s u b s t a n t i a l, t h e n t h e d e s i g n e r m a y w i s h t o
m o d i f y e s t i m a t e s o f sr a n d I v a n d c a l c u l a t e new v a l u e s o f Px
a n d I N V a s indicated in S e c t i o n 3 . 4.
'
^
4 . 3 .2 . 5 Concentration o f W a s t e- Activated S l u d g e
The volume of sludge produced by the process is directly
p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e d r y w e i g h t a n d inversely p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e
t h i c k n e s s o r s o l i d s concentration in t h e w a s t e s l u d g e s t r e a m.
V a l u e s f o r w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a n v a r y , i n
p r a c t i c e, a c r o s s a r a n g e f r o m 1 ,0 0 0 t o 3 0 ,0 0 0 m g/1 S S ( 0 . 1 t o
3 p e r c e n t S S ).
A n i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e t h a t c a n a f f e c t w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s t h e m e t h o d o f s l u d g e w a s t i n g. A n u m b e r o f
different m e t h o d s a r e illustrated in F i g u r e 4 - 5. S l u d g e solids
m a y b e w a s t e d f r o m t h e c l a r i f i e r u n d e r f l o w. I t h a s b e e n a r g u e d
that wasting solids from the mixed liquor should improve control
o f t h e p r o c e s s ( 2 , 3 5 ). I n this c a s e, w a s t e s l u d g e i s r e m o v e d
f r o m t h e activated s l u d g e p r o c e s s a t t h e s a m e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a s
t h e m i x e d l i q u o r s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s , a b o u t 0 . 1 t o 0 . 4 p e r c e n t.
This low concentration can be a disadvantage because a large
volume of mixed liquor must be removed to obtain a given wastage
o n a d r y w e i g h t b a s i s. T h e m o s t c o m m o n a r r a n g e m e n t i n v o l v e s
sludge wasting from the clarifier underflow , because the
concentration o f s l u d g e t h e r e i s h i g h e r t h a n in t h e m i x e d l i q u o r.
Subsequent discussions in this section are based on sludge
w a s t i n g f r o m t h e c l a r i f i e r u n d e r f l o w.
Estimating Waste- Activated Sludge Concentration
The two primary f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e

concentration are t h e s e t t l e a b i l i t y o f t h e s l u d g e a n d t h e solids
l o a d i n g r a t e t o t h e sedimentation t a n k. T h e s e t w o f a c t o r s h a v e
4- 2 5
( a). WASTING FROM CLARIFIER UNDERFLOW lb ). WASTING FROM REAERATION TANK
FEED PROCESS FEED PROCESS

AERATION EFFLUENT CONTACT EFFLUENT
CLARIFIER TANK
( CLARIFIER
TANK
o a
LU
.
Rh<AvtaJMW
X UJ
-
f
< <
> > 5
LU 5 LU cc O
H a EH
LU QI -
f C3 LU
o
< D LU Ll
-_ O Q
< 3 LL LL
CC CC
2
J cc z cc LU
LU CO
<
cc
3 u
5 Q
Z
CC
3
u
Q
Z
H
UJ
3 h-
UJ
3
cr cr REAERATION
TANK
ir
WASTE SLUDGE
*
WASTE SLUDGE
( c ) . WASTING BY BATCH SETTLING
DURING FEED: DURING WITHDRAWAL :
TANK NOT
FEED NO EFFLUENT AERATED, PROCESS EFFLUENT
AERATION
* NO SLUDGE REMOVAL
NO FEED OPERATED
AS BATCH
CLARIFIER
WASTE SLUDGE
( d). WASTING FROM MIXED LIQUOR
FEED
* AERATION TANK
MIXED LIQUOR
•IHCLARIFIEK
PROCESS EFFLUENT
O
LU
h-
<
> LU 5
CC
H UJ O
U
< 3 LL LL
c CC
Z CO LU
a
3 5
O
Q
Z
3
UJ REAERATION TANK
^
j
cc
, ( IF USED ) |
J
' '
WASTE SLUDGE
FIGURE 4- 5
SLUDGE WASTING METHODS
4 -2 6
been considered in detail in the development of solids flux
procedures for predicting the clarifier underflow concentration
of activated sludge ( 52 ).
Factors Affecting Underflow Concentration
Various factors that affect sludge settleability and the

clarifier sludge loading rate include:
• Biological characteristics of the sludge . These

characteristics may be partially controlled by mainte-
nance of a particular mean sludge age or F / M . High
concentrations of filamentous organisms can sometimes
occur in activated sludge. Reduction of these organisms
through sludge age or F/M control helps to produce more
concentrated clarifier underflow .
• Temperature . As wastewater temperatures are reduced , the

maximum attainable clarifier underflow sludge concentra-
tion ( cu ) is also reduced as a result of increased
water density. Also, temperature can affect the setting
properties of the sludge .
Solids flux . The solids flux is the solids load from the
mixed liquor divided by the clarifier area ( for example ,
pounds per day per square foot ). Higher rates of solids
flux require that clarifiers be operated at lower solids
concentration.
• Limits of sludge collection equipment. Because of the

pseudoplastic and viscous nature of waste - activated
sludge , some of the available sludge collectors and pumps
are not capable of smooth ,
exceeds about 5 , 000 mg/1.
reliable operation when cu
• Heavy suspended solids in the sludge . If raw wastewater ,
instead of primary sedimentation tank effluent , is fed to
the activated sludge process , higher cu values usually
result. Chemicals added to the wastewater for phosphorus
and suspended solids removal may similarly affect . cu
However , such additional solids will also increase the
solids load to the clarifiers.
4.3 . 2.6 Other Properties of Activated Sludge
Table 4 - 6 contains several reported measurements of the

composition and properties of activated sludge solids. Comparing
Table 4 - 6 with that of Table 4- 2 for primary sludge , activated
sludge contains higher amounts of nitrogen , phosphorus , and
protein ; the grease, fats , and cellulose amounts, and specific
gravity are lower.
4 -27
TABLE 4- 6
ACTIVATED SLUDGE CHARACTERISTICS

Range of
Characteristic values Typical value Comments Reference
PH 6.5 - 8 Can be less in high puritv oxygen 53 , 54

systems or if anaerobic decom
position begins. -
5.5 Baltimore , Maryland 55
Heating value, Btu/lb (kJ/kg) 6 ,540 Increases with percent volatile 56
(15 ,200) content
Specific gravity of individ
ual solid particles
- 1.08
Bulk specific gravity 1.0 + 7 x 10 8 x C

'
C is suspended solids concentra
tion , in mg/1.
- 57
Color Brown Some grayish sludge has been

noted. Activated sludge becomes
black upon anaerobic decomposi
tion.
-
COD/VSS ratio 2.17 58
Carbon/nitrogen ratio 12.9 Baltimore, Maryland 55
6.6 Jasper , Indiana 55
14.6 Richmond , Indiana 55
5.7 Southwest plant, Chicago , Illinois 55
3.5 Milwaukee , Wisconsin (heat dried ) 55
Organic carbon , percent by 17 - 41 Zurich , Switzerland 28
weight of dry solids 23 - 44 Four plants 55
Nitrogen, percent by weight
of dry solids (expressed
4.7 - 6.7
5.6
Zurich , Switzerland
Chicago , Illinois
28
59
as N) 2.4 - 5.0
6.0
Four plants
Milwaukee , Wisconsin
55
59
Phosphorus, percent by weight 3.0 - 3.7 Zurich, Switzerland 28
of dry solids as P2O5 7.0 Chicago, Illinois 59
(divide by 2.29 to obtain 2.8 - 11 Four plants 55
phosphorus as P) 4.0 Milwaukee, Wisconsin 59
Potassium , percent by weight
of dry solids as K 20
0.5 - 0.7
0.56
Zurich , Switzerland
Chicago , Illinois
28
59
(divide by 1.20 to obtain 0.41 Milwaukee, Wisconsin 59
potassium as K)
Volatile solids, percent by
weight of dry solids (per -
61
- 75
63
Zurich , Switzerland 28
58
cent ash is 100 minus
percent volatile)
62
59
-- 70
75
Four plants
60
55
76 Renton, Washington (Seattle Metro),
1976 average
88 San Ramon, California (Valley Com
munity Services District), 1975
-
average
Volatile solids (continued) 81 Central plant, Sacramento County ,
California, July 1977
1978 average
-June
Grease and fat , percent by

5 - 12 Ether extract 61
Cellulose, percent by weight 7 Includes lignin 60

of dry solids
Protein, percent by weight
of dry solids
32 - 41 61
Several types of microorganisms are present in large numbers

in activated sludge .
Floc- forming ( zoogleal ) bacteria include
species of Zoogloea, Pseudomonas , Arthrobacter , and Alcaligenes.
4-28
Activated s l u d g e a l s o c o n t a i n s f i l a m e n t o u s m i c r o o r g a n i s m s s u c h a s
S p h a e r o t i l u s , T h i o t h r i x , Bacillus , a n d B e g g i a t o a ( 6 2 ). Various
p r o t o z o a a r e p r e s e n t , including ciliates a n d f l a g e l l a t e s.
4 . 3.3 T r i c k l i n g Filters
Trickling filters are widely used in municipal wastewater
t r e a t m e n t. T h i s s e c t i o n c o v e r s t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r s t h a t a r e u s e d
w i t h clarifiers. W h e n a clarifier is n o t u s e d , t h e trickling
f i l t e r e f f l u e n t i s u s u a l l y f e d t o a n activated s l u d g e p r o c e s s.
R e f e r t o S e c t i o n 4 . 3.5 f o r s u c h combinations.
4 . 3 .3 . 1 C o m p u t i n g T r i c k l i n g Filter S l u d g e
Production - Dry Weight Basis
Trickling filter microorganisms are biochemically similar to
m i c r o o r g a n i s m s t h a t p r e d o m i n a t e i n a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e s y s t e m s.
Consequently, solids production from trickling filters and from
activated sludge systems is roughly similar when compared on
the basis of pounds of solids produced per pound of substrate
r e m o v e d . T h e r e a r e differences b e t w e e n t h e t w o s y s t e m s , h o w e v e r ,
with respect to solids production prediction methodology and the
pattern of sludge wasting , Attempts have been made to develop
solids production models consistent with biological theory
( 4 7,6 3 ,6 4 ). H o w e v e r, p r e s e n t l y ( 1 9 7 9 ) , e m p i r i c a l m e t h o d s a r e
u s u a l l y u s e d f o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s, T a b l e 4-7 p r e s e n t s s l u d g e
yields observed at several treatment plants and from one
l o n g - t e r m p i l o t s t u d y , T h e s e d a t a a r e p r i m a r i l y b a s e d o n heavily
l o a d e d f i l t e r s.
Equations t h a t r e l a t e t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s u s p e n d e d material in a
t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r c a n b e d e v e l o p e d i n a f o r m similar t o t h a t used
in p r e d i c t i n g activated s l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n , T h e main difference
lies in t h e t e r m u s e d t o d e f i n e t h e q u a n t i t y o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s
in the system. I n l o n g -t e r m s t u d i e s o f t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r
p e r f o r m a n c e , M e r r i l l ( 6 4 ) a s s u m e d t h a t t h e t o t a l m a s s o f m i c r o-
o r g a n i s m s p r e s e n t in t h e s y s t e m w a s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e media
surface area, The resulting equation for volatile solids
production w a s:
Px - Y'( sr )- K ^( Am ) ( 4 -7 )
w h e r e:
Px = net growth o f b i o l o g i c a l solids ( V S S ) , p o u n d s p e r d a y o r

kg per day ;
Y' = g r o s s y i e l d coefficient , p o u n d p e r p o u n d o r kg /k g ;
coefficient , day-!
k
^ = decay ;
4-2 9
sr substrate ( for example , BOD5 ) removed , pounds per day
or kg/day = BOD5 in minus soluble effluent BOD5 ;
Am ~ total media surface area in reactor , square feet or

sq m.
TABLE 4- 7
TRICKLING FILTER SOLIDS PRODUCTION
Unit solids production3
Total
BOD5.
0
-
IT ES
BOD5
C
-
IT ES
C0D
d
SS VSS Solids percent BOD5
Plant basis basis basis basis6 basis volatile load9 Media Reference
Stockton , California 2 3
Plastic , 27 ft /ft 65
Average of 13 months 0.74 0.67 0.43 1.00 0.94 77 27
Highest month 1.01 0.92 0.60 1.17 1.08 86 73
( 5/76) (5/76, (7/76) (6/76, (10/76) (8/76 , 11/76) (8/76)
7/76) 1/77)
Lowest month 0.49 0.48 0.30 0.61 0.60 64 15

(1/77) (1/77) (1/77) (3/76) (3/77) (3/76, 6/76) (6/76)
Sacramento , California Plastic 66

9 noncanning months
Average 1.01 1.00 78
Highest month 1.09 1.09 93
3 canning months
Average 1.20 1.24 76
Dallas, Texas 0.42 Rock 67
Dallas , Texas 0.65. Rock 67
Livermore, California 1.101 1.39 1.51 84 57 Rock 2 to 4 in. 68
San Pablo, California 1.39 199 Plastic, 29 ft 2/ft3 37
Seattle , Washington -1 -
0.8 0.9 1.0 -
30 250 Plastic , various 64
aSolids production includes both waste sludge (clarifier underflow) and clarifier effluent solids.
^Pounds volatile suspended solids (VSS) per pound BOD5 removed (same as kg/kg).
on total (suspended plus dissolved) measurements.
BOD
^
removal based
CPcunds VSS per pound BOD5 removed. BOD5 removal based on influent total minus effluent soluble (IT-ES)
measurements.
^Pounds per pound chemical oxygen demand (COD) removed

VSS
minus effluent soluble measurements.
, COD removal based on influent total
Pounds total suspended solids (SS) produced per pounds SS applied.

^Pounds VSS produced per pound VSS applied
g
,
Pounds total BOD5 applied per day per 1,000 cubic feet of media.
Stockton and Sacramento plants have heavy industrial loads about August to October from fruit and
vegetable canneries.
^Roughing filter . For BOD5 basis , BOD 5 removal was computed by

B0D5,out > • 1971 average data.
6005,
^ minus
(0.5 times unsettled
)
Pilot studies. SS basis was found to describe data well over a wide range of loadings. Wastewater
included some industrial load and recycle liquors from dewatering digested sludge.
The production of trickling filter sludge requiring subsequent

sludge handling may be expressed :
WTFS Px + JNV ET ( 4-8 )
where:
WTFS waste trickling filter sludge production, pounds per

day or kg/day ;
-
4 30
XNV = n o n- v o l a t i l e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s f e d t o t h e p r o c e s s ,
p o u n d s p e r d a y o r k g/d a y ;
Erp = e f f l u e n t s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s , p o u n d s p e r d a y o r k g /d a y .
The coefficients Y
line of best f i t through plotted data points for

^
a n d k j f o r E q u a t i o n 4-7 a r e o b t a i n e d f o r
a particular system by computing the slope and intercept of a
P
vs
s
VSS —Am Am
production data for three different trickling f i l t e r media designs
a r e g i v e n o n F i g u r e 4-6 .
Nitrification in trickling filters causes a synthesis of
nitrifying bacteria .
As in activated sludge , however , the
quantity is small .
A value of 25 pounds per million gallons
( 3 m g /1 ) h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d f o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s ( 6 7 ) This .
quantity must be added t o the other solids produced by the
trickling filter .
I t i s known that temperature and loading r a t e a f f e c t sludge
production: "The q u a n t i t y o f e x c e s s s l u d g e produced i n a
-
low r a t e trickling f i l t e r i s much lower than that reported f o r
h i g h- r a t e f i l t e r s o r f o r t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s . The lower
rate of solids accumulation m a y b e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e grazing
activities of protozoa . The a c t i v i t y o f t h e p r o t o z o a i s reduced
considerably at l o w t e m p e r a t u r e s ( 47 " ) . H o w e v e r , t h e r e a re few
data t o q u a n t i f y t h e s e v a r i a t i o n s .
P e a k s l u d g e l o a d s a r e p r o d u c e d b y t r i c k l i n g' f i l t e r s .
These may
be due to variations in influent l o a d , r a p i d c l i m a t i c changes,
a n d/o r b i o c h e m i c a l f a c t o r s t h a t c a u s e u n u s u a l l y l a r g e a m o u n t s o f
biomass to peel off from the media .
T h e t e r m "s l o u g h i n g" i s u s e d
by some authorities t o include steady s t a t e as well as peak
solids discharges .Others restrict the term "sloughing" to
unusually large discharges .
In any case, peak solids loads must
be considered . T a b l e 4-8 s h o w s s o m e v a r i a t i o n s d u e t o b o t h
unusual biomass discharges and t o variations in influent load .
T a b l e 4-9 , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s h o w s t h e b i o m a s s d i s c h a r g e a l o n e .
Each of the three events in Table 4 9 "occurred during periods of -
l i g h t o r g a n i c l o a d i n g s ( 30 t o 50 p o u n d s BOD p e r 1, 000 c u b i c
^ ^
f e e t p e r d a y [ 0 . 4 9 t o 0 . 8 1 k g/m / d a y ] ) w h i c h h a d b e e n p r e c e d e d
by periods in which exceptionally heavy organic loadings
( 2 1 5 t o 2 3 5 p o u n d s B O D5 p e r 1, 0 0 0 c u b i c f e e t p e r d a y [ 3 . 4 8 t o
3 . 8 1 k g / m 3 / d a y ] ) h a d b e e n a p p l i e d o n a s u s t a i n e d b a s i s ( 4 -1 4
days) " ( 6 4 ) .T a b l e 4 -9 s h o w s t h a t e f f l u e n t s o l i d s w e r e m u c h
greater than i n f l u e n t solids .
This is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from
average conditions, under which effluent solids were about equal
to the influent solids .
-
In low rate f i l t e r s especially, there are seasonal variations in
solids production, "S l i m e t e n d s t o a c c u m u l a t e i n t h e t r i c k l i n g
f i l t e r during winter operation and the f i l t e r tends to unload
the slime in the spring when the a c t i v i t y of the microorganisms
i s once again increased " ( 4 7 ) .
4 31-
6
4 Y = 0.83
#
> k'd = 0.20

03
T3
3
>
03
ST T3 2 MEDIA TYPE - PLASTIC SHEET
CN
MEDIA SURFACE DENSITY - 27 sq ft / cu ft
§ E
1 MEDIA DEPTH - 22 ft
"
1
Q 0
LU
CJ CO
3 CO
Q > 5
O C7>
DC
.
CL CO
« 4 Y ' = 0.80
co
CO
> k'd = 0.03
II
CO 3
Q i?
z
5 £
o
Q.
^5T 2 MEDIA TYPE - PLASTIC SHEET
MEDIA SURFACE DENSITY - 27 sq ft / cu ft
1 MEDIA DEPTH - 11 ft
o
h-
I
o 0
3
Q %
° >_
DC
CL
Q
5
8
S3 4 Y ' = 0.89
Q MEDIA TYPE - PLASTIC SURFACE
3 k 'd * 0.32 MEDIA SURFACE DENSITY -
3 3
V) 4 ft — 25 sq ft / cu ft
4 ft — 31 sq ft / cu ft
2 4 ft — 37 sq ft /cu ft
4 ft — 40 sq ft /cu ft
5 ft — 43 sq ft /cu ft
1 - MEDIA DEPTH - 21 ft
0 J
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ORGANIC REMOVAL , POUNDS BOD 6 REMOVED / 1000 sq ft /day

2
( 1.00 lb
BODB / 1000 sq ft/day = 4.88 kg BOD 6 / 1000 m /day )
( 1.00 ft = 0.30m )
( 1.00 sq ft / cu ft = 3.28 m 2 / m 3 )
FIGURE 4- 6
VSS PRODUCTION DATA FOR THREE TRICKLING

MEDIA DESIGNS ( 64 )
4-3 2
TABLE 4- 8
DAILY VARIATIONS IN TRICKLING FILTER EFFLUENT ,

STOCKTON , CALIFORNIA ( 65 )
Five
Number of Average TSS , Coef ficient percent
Period samplesa mg/1 of variation ^ ratio0
-
March July 1976 57 144 0 .28 1.5
August- September 1976u
November 1976 March -
^ 26 187 0 .33 1.6
1977 51 149 0.31 1.7
aSamples are trickling filter effluent {before sedimentation ) ,

-
total suspended solids, 24 hour refrigerated composites. Flow
variations within each sample population were small ; that is ,
ratios in this table represent mass variations as well as con
centration variations.
-
Standard deviation divided by average.
c
Ratio of individual sample concentration to average concentration
'
that is exceeded by 5 percent of the samples.

^ Heavy industrial load in August and September from fruit and
vegetable canneries.
TABLE 4- 9
DESCRIPTION OF SLOUGHING EVENTS ( 65 )

Suspended solids , Flow, gpm/sq ft Appliedc
mg/1 loading , Media
Duration , lb BOD 5/1 ,000 specific surface ,
3
Recycle*
3
Period days Influent Effluent Influent cu ft/day sq ft/cu ft
--
October 22 26, 1976 5 114 256 0.44 2.06 33 27
d
August 5 6, 1977 2 132 289 0.63 1.56 50 27
July 31- August 5,
1977 6 147 222 0.63 1.56 50 Graded6
aInfluent wastewater flow divided by plan area of filter.

ârea of filter.
Recycle flow (from trickling filter effluent) divided by plan
Q
Based on influent flow.
êPlastic
Plastic sheet , 22 ft deep.
media
sheet media , 22 ft deep specific surface ranged from
;
25 sq ft/cu ft at the top of the filter to 43 sq ft/cu ft at
the bottom.
1 gpm/sq ft = 2.46 m 3/hr/m 2

1 lb BOD 5/1,000 cu ft/day = 0.0162 kg/m /day ^
The amount of solids requiring sludge treatment depends on

s e d i m e n t a t i o n p e r f o r m a n c e , w h i c h is u s u a l l y 5 0 t o 9 0 p e r c e n t
r e m o v a l of s u s p e n d e d solids , Sedimentation p e r f o r m a n c e i s
i m p r o v e d b y c a r e f u l d e s i g n, l i g h t l o a d s , t u b e s e t t l e r s , a n d
coagulation a n d flocculation ( 1 9 , 6 4 ).
4 . 3.3 . 2 Concentration of T r i c k l i n g Filter S l u d g e

Trickling filter s l u d g e l o a d i n g s on t h e s e c o n d a r y sedimentation
t a n k a r e t y p i c a l l y low — 5 t o 1 0 p e r c e n t o f o b s e r v e d solids l o a d s
4-3 3
to activated sludge sedimentation tanks . T r i c k l i n g filter s l u d g e
also has better thickening properties than activated sludge .
C o n s e q u e n t l y , t r i c k l i n g filter s l u d g e c a n b e withdrawn a t a m u c h
h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n t h a n w a s t e- activated s l u d g e , C o n c e n t r a t i o n
d a t a a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 4-1 0 .
TABLE 4- 10
CONCENTRATION OF TRICKLING FILTER SLUDGE

WITHDRAWN FROM FINAL CLARIFIERS
Percent dry
Type of sludge solids Comments Reference
Trickling filter ,
alone
5 -7 10 Depends on solids residence time
in trickling filter
69
13
7 -
Low rate trickling filter 70
3
3
-- 74 -
High rate trickling filter 70
71
4 2
Trickling filter , com

bined with raw primary
- 3 - 6 2 , 69
T h e solids flux m e t h o d f o r p r e d i c t i n g s l u d g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n m a y b e
u s e d w i t h t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r s l u d g e ( 5 2 ). This method requires
m e a s u r e m e n t o f initial solids s e t t l i n g velocity v e r s u s solids
c o n c e n t r a t i o n. S u c h r e l a t i o n s h i p s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d f o r a t
l e a s t o n e t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r p r o c e s s ( 6 4 ).
4 .3 . 3.3 Properties - Trickling Filter Sludge
T a b l e 4 -1 1 c o n t a i n s a f e w a n a l y s e s o f t r i c k l i n g filter s l u d g e
p r o p e r t i e s. T h e microbial p o p u l a t i o n t h a t inhabits a t r i c k l i n g
f i l t e r i s c o m p l e x a n d includes m a n y s p e c i e s o f a l g a e , b a c t e r i a,
f u n g i , p r o t o z o a, w o r m s , s n a i l s , a n d insects , Filter flies and
t h e i r l a r v a e a r e o f t e n p r e s e n t in l a r g e n u m b e r s a r o u n d t r i c k l i n g
f i l t e r s.
4 . 3.4 Sludge from Rotating Biological Reactors
R o t a t i n g b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r s ( R B R s ) a r e u s e d f o r t h e s a m e basic
p u r p o s e s a s activated s l u d g e a n d t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r s: to remove
B O D5 a n d s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s a n d , w h e r e n e c e s s a r y , t o n i t r i f y .
T h e R B R p r o c e s s u s e s a t a n k in w h i c h w a s t e w a t e r , t y p i c a l l y
p r i m a r y e f f l u e n t , c o n t a c t s p l a s t i c m e d i a in t h e s h a p e o f l a r g e
d i s c s. B a c t e r i a g r o w o n t h e d i s c s, T h e d i s c s r o t a t e s l o w l y o n
h o r i z o n t a l s h a f t s; t h e bacteria a r e a l t e r n a t e l y s u b m e r g e d in t h e
w a s t e w a t e r a n d e x p o s e d t o a i r. E x c e s s bacteria s l o u g h f r o m t h e
d i s c s i n t o t h e w a s t e w a t e r. A f t e r c o n t a c t i n g t h e b a c t e r i a, t h e
wastewater flows to a sedimentation tank, where the excess
b a c t e r i a a n d o t h e r w a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s a r e r e m o v e d. T h e s e r e m o v e d
4-3 4
solids are RBR sludge. RBR sludge is roughly similar in quantity
by dry weight , nutrient content , and other characteristics, to
trickling filter sludge.
TABLE 4- 11
TRICKLING FILTER SLUDGE COMPOSITION
Property Value Comments Reference

Volatile content, percent of
total solids
64 - 86 -
See Table 4 7
Nitrogen , percent of total 1.5 5 Depends on length of storage 69

solids of sludge in filter.
2.9 71
2.0 13
Phosphorus as P 2O5, percent 2.8 71
of total solids 1.2 13
Fats , percent of total solids 6 Ether soluble. 13
Grease, percent of total 0.03 Test slime grown in primary 72
solids effluent.
Specific gravity of individ- 1.52 73
ual solid particles 1.33 2
Bulk specific gravity (wet) 1.02 13

1.025 2
Color Grayish brown 13

Black 64
A small body of published data is available on RBR sludge

production rate from full -scale municipal installations. At
Peewaukee, Wisconsin , total suspended solids production has been
reported to be 0.62 to 0.82 pounds of total suspended solids
per pound BOD 5 ( 0.62 to 0.82 kg TSS/ kg ) removed , The final
sedimentation tank removed 70 to 83 percent of these solids as
sludge. The biological sludge alone had a concentration of 1.5
to 5.0 percent solids , Other investigations of municipal and
industrial waste applications have concluded that sludge produc -
tion for the RBR process amounts to 0.4 to 0.5 pound of total
suspended solids per pound of BOD5 ( 0.4 to 0.5 kg TSS/ kg BOD 5 )
removed ( 74 ,75, 76 ).
4.3 . 5 Coupled Attached -Suspended Growth Sludges
There are several installations of coupled attached and suspended

growth processes in the United States. These dual processes
are usually installed where nitrification is required or where
strong wastes must be treated. The attached growth reactor is
a trickling filter or a rotating biological reactor , Its role
is to reduce the load on the suspended growth process. The
suspended growth process uses an aeration tank and a final
clarifier .
Flow recirculation is usually practiced around
the attached growth reactor . Several reports describe these
4-35
p r o c e s s e s a n d n o t e t h a t t h e s l u d g e is s i m i l a r t o a c t i v a t e d
s l u d g e, b o t h in q u a n t i t y and in characteristics ( 5 ,6 7 , 6 8 , 7 7, 7 8 ).
T h e sludge characterized in T a b l e 4 -12 contains some p a r t i c l e s
o f d e n s e solids f r o m t h e a t t a c h e d g r o w t h r e a c t o r , These
p a r t i c l e s m a y i m p r o v e t h e t h i c k e n i n g characteristics o f t h e
sludge ( 7 8 ).
TABLE 4- 12
SLUDGE FROM COMBINED ATTACHED - SUSPENDED GROWTH PROCESSES
Primary sludge mixed

with biological sludge
Solids production
lb TSS produced/ Percent Percent Percent
Process Location lb BOD5 removed volatile solids volatile
Roughing filter plus Livermore , California (68) 0.98 Not stated 3.3 84
nitrifying activated
sludge
Roughing filter plus San Pablo, California ( 37 ) 1.47 78.2 Not stated Not stated
nitrifying activated
sludge
4.3.6 Denitrification Sludge

Denitrification is a b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s f o r t h e r e m o v a l o f
nitrate f r o m w a s t e w a t e r , An e l e c t r o n d o n o r , carbon in primary
effluent o r methanol , is a d d e d t o t h e nitrate- bearing w a s t e w a t e r.
Denitrifying bacteria e x t r a c t e n e r g y for g r o w t h from t h e reaction
o f nitrate with t h e e l e c t r o n d o n o r:
Nitrate + Electron d o n o r ( reduced s t a t e )

Nitrogen g a s + Oxidized e l e c t r o n d o n o r + E n e r g y
Denitrification has been extensively studied , and a few

denitrification p r o c e s s e s h a v e b e e n built into m u n i c i p a l p l a n t s.
D e n i t r i f y i n g b a c t e r i a c a n g r o w e i t h e r in a s u s p e n d e d g r o w t h
s y s t e m s i m i l a r t o a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e o r in a n a t t a c h e d g r o w t h
s y s t e m s i m i l a r t o a t r i c k l i n g filter. S l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n f o r
o r d i n a r y n i t r i f i e d d o m e s t i c w a s t e is r o u g h l y 3 0 0 p o u n d s p e r
million g a l l o n s ( 30 m g/1 ) of w a s t e w a t e r treated ( 37 ).
4.4 Chemical S l u d g e s
4 . 4.1 Introduction
Chemicals are widely used in w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t t o precipitate
and remove p h o s p h o r u s , a n d in s o m e c a s e s , t o improve s u s p e n d e d
solids removal. At a l l such facilities , chemical s l u d g e s a r e
formed . A f e w p l a n t s a p p l y chemicals t o s e c o n d a r y e f f l u e n t a n d
4- 3 6
use tertiary clarifiers to remove the chemical precipitates. An
example of this arrangement is the plant at South Lake Tahoe,
California. However, it is more common to add the chemicals to
the raw wastewater or to a biological process. Thus, chemical
precipitates are usually mixed with either primary sludge solids
or biological sludge solids.
The discussion below is brief because the subject of chemical
sludges and their characteristics is discussed in detail
elsewhere ( 79 - 82 ). A 1979 publication provides considerable
background information on theoretical rates of chemical sludge
production, as well as actual operating data from wastewater
treatment plants employing chemicals for removal of phosphorus
( 7 ). Also, production of chemical sludges in primary sedimenta-
tion is discussed in Section 4.2.2.5.
4.4.2 Computing Chemical Sludge Production -

Dry Weight Basis
Chemicals can greatly increase sludge production. The amount of

increase depends on the chemicals used and the addition rates.
There is no simple relationship between the mass of the chemical
added and the mass of sludge produced. It is beyond the scope of
this manual to describe in detail the chemistry associated with
the chemicals used in treating wastewater , and the various
solids - producing reactions that can occur. However , several
types of precipitates that are produced and must be considered
in measuring the total sludge production are listed below:
Phosphate precipitates . Examples are AIPO 4 or
Al ( H 2 PO 4 )( OH ) 2 with aluminum salts , FeP 04 with iron
salts, and Ca 3( P04 )2 with lime ( 79 , 82,83 ).
Carbonate precipitates. This is significant with lime,

which forms calcium carbonate , CaCOg . If two- stage
recarbonation is used , a recarbonation sludge of nearly
pure CaCOg is formed ( 84 ).
Hydroxide precipitates. With iron and aluminum salts,

excess salt forms a hydroxide , Fe ( 0 H ) 3 or Al ( OH ) g .
With lime, magnesium hydroxide, Mg (0H )2 » may form ; the
magnesium comes from the influent wastewater, from the
lime, or from magnesium salts.
Inert solids from the chemicals. This item is most
significant with lime. If a quicklime is 92 percent CaO,
the remaining eight percent may be mostly inert solids
that appear in the sludge. . Many chemicals supplied in
dry form may contain significant amounts of inert solids.
Polymer solids. Polymers may be used as primary

coagulants and to improve the performance of other
coagulants. The polymers themselves contribute little
4- 37
to t o t a l mass , b u t t h e y c a n g r e a t l y improve clarifier
efficiency with a concomitant increase in sludge
p r o d u c t i o n.
• S u s p e n d e d solids from t h e wastewater. Addition o f any

chemical to a wastewater treatment process affects
p r o c e s s efficiency. T h e c h a n g e in s l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n m u s t
be considered .
Quantities of t h e various precipitates in chemical s l u d g e s are

determined by s u c h conditions a s pH , mixing , reaction time, w a t e r
c o m p o s i t i o n , a n d opportunity f o r flocculation.
Chemical sludge production , like the production of other sludges,

varies from day t o d a y . T h e variation d e p e n d s s t r o n g l y o n
chemical dosage and on wastewater flows. If the chemical dosage
is about constant in terms of milligrams per liter of w a s t e w a t e r,
chemical solids production will still vary , since flows fluctuate
f r o m d a y t o d a y. C h a n g e s in w a s t e w a t e r chemistry m a y also
affect the production of chemical sludge. For example,
stormwater inflow typically has a lower alkalinity than ordinary
w a s t e w a t e r. During storms , the production of chemical sludge
will be different from production in dry weather.
4 . 4.3 Properties o f Chemical Sludges
Chemical s l u d g e properties are affected mainly by t h e precipi-

t a t e d c o m p o u n d s and by t h e o t h e r w a s t e w a t e r solids. F o r e x a m p l e,
a lime primary s l u d g e will p r o b a b l y d e w a t e r b e t t e r than a lime
s l u d g e c o n t a i n i n g substantial a m o u n t s of w a s t e- activated s l u d g e
solids ( 8 0 ). G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , lime a d d i t i o n r e s u l t s in a
s l u d g e t h a t thickens and d e w a t e r s b e t t e r t h a n the s a m e s l u d g e
without chemicals. W h e n iron o r aluminum s a l t s are a d d e d t o raw
w a s t e w a t e r , t h e primary s l u d g e d o e s n o t thicken o r d e w a t e r a s
well a s non-chemical s l u d g e. I r o n s l u d g e s d e w a t e r slightly more
easily than aluminum s l u d g e s ( 7 9 ). W h e n aluminum s a l t s a r e a d d e d
t o activated s l u d g e , t h e s l u d g e m a y thicken m u c h b e t t e r t h a n
non-chemical activated s l u d g e ( 8 5 ,8 6 ). Anionic polymers c a n o f t e n
improve the thickening and dewatering properties of chemical
s l u d g e s.
F o r efficient chemical u s a g e , f e e d r a t e s m u s t b e a d j u s t e d t o
match c h a n g e s in wastewater flow and composition.
4.4 .4 H a n d l i n g Chemical S l u d g e s
Most of the common sludge treatment processes can be used with

chemical s l u d g e s: t h i c k e n i n g , stabilization b y d i g e s t i o n ,
incineration , e t c . This section summarizes information o n
stabilization and also on r e c o v e r y o f chemicals and by - p r o d u c t s.
4-3 8
4 . 4 .4 . 1 Stabilization
Lime sludges may be stabilized by a small additional dose of

l i m e. L i m e stabilization m a y a l s o be u s e d f o r aluminum a n d iron
s l u d g e s. T h e lime improves d e w a t e r i n g o f t h e s e s l u d g e s b y a c t i n g
a s a c o n d i t i o n i n g a g e n t. C h a p t e r 6 discusses lime stabilization
o f c h e m i c a l s l u d g e s . D e w a t e r e d l i m e-s t a b i l i z e d s l u d g e s c a n
u s u a l l y b e buried in s a n i t a r y landfills .
D i g e s t i o n o f m i x e d b i o l o g i c a l - c h e m i c a l s l u d g e s is g e n e r a l l y
feasible. P u r e c h e m i c a l s l u d g e will n o t d i g e s t. Studies d o n e
in 1974 and 1 9 7 8 , h o w e v e r , n o t e s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n s in
digestibility as chemicals were added to sludge; the studies
i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e a d d i t i o n o f aluminum , i r o n, a n d p o l y m e r ( 8 7, 8 8 ).
4.4 . 4.2 C h e m i c a l a n d B y- p r o d u c t R e c o v e r y
W h e r e l i m e u s e r e s u l t s in c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e f o r m a t i o n , i t m a y
b e f e a s i b l e t o r e c o v e r l i m e b y r e c a l c i n a t i o n. T e r t i a r y l i m e
t r e a t m e n t , a s p r a c t i c e d a t t h e S o u t h L a k e T a h o e, C a l i f o r n i a ,
p l a n t i s w e l l s u i t e d t o lime r e c o v e r y ; a r e c a l c i n a t i o n p r o c e s s
h a s b e e n o p e r a t e d t h e r e f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s, W h e r e l i m e is a d d e d
to raw wastewater , lime recovery is more difficult but still
p o s s i b l e. Lime r e c o v e r y d o e s n o t reclaim a l l o f t h e c a l c i u m ,
a s s o m e i s a l w a y s l o s t w i t h t h e p h o s p h a t e , s i l i c a, a n d o t h e r
materials t h a t m u s t b e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e s y s t e m. L i m e recovery
reduces but does not eliminate the amount of residue for
d i s p o s a l. Feasibility of lime recovery d e p e n d s on plant size,
a m o u n t o f calcium c a r b o n a t e f o r m e d , c o s t o f n e w lime , a n d c o s t o f
s l u d g e d i s p o s a l ( 8 1 , 8 2 ).
4.5 Elemental Analysis of Various Sludges
A s a r u l e, a l m o s t a n y t h i n g c a n b e found i n s l u d g e , T h i s section
describes trace elements in all types of sludge , Data on
concentrations o f the 74 e l e m e n t s found i n w a s t e w a t e r s l u dge are
i n c l u d e d i n R e f e r e n c e s 8 9-9 5 .
4 . 5.1 Controlling Trace Elements
It is a basic principle of chemistry that e l e m e n t s are not

created o r destroyed but chemically recombined , Therefore , the
mass of each element entering a treatment plant fixes the mass
t h a t e i t h e r a c c u m u l a t e s w i t h i n t h e p l a n t o r l e a v e s it. T h e
mass leaving the plant does s o in gaseous emissions , effluent,
a special concentrated stream , or sludge , E x t r a c t i n g toxic
elements from sludge appears to be impractical ; source control is
t h e most practical way t o reduce toxicants.
4-3 9
Trace elements are present in industrial process waste ,
industrial waste spills, domestic water supply , feces and urine,
and detergents .
Additional trace elements are derived from:
Chemicals in photographic solutions , paints , hobby

plating supplies, dyes, and pesticides used in households
and commercial enterprises .
• Storm inflow ( this is particularly
.
g a s o l i n e a n t i- k n o c k c o m p o u n d s )
true for lead from
Corrosion of water piping , which contributes zinc,

cadmium , copper , and lead ( 96 ) .
Chemicals used in wastewater treatment , sludge
conditioning , etc . T a b l e 4 -1 3 s h o w s a n a n a l y s i s o f
f e r r i c c h l o r i d e , which i s an i n d u s t r i a l by-p r o d u c t
( pickle liquor ) of wastewater solids treatment .
TABLE 4- 13
METALS IN FERRIC CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS ( 97 )
Constituent C o n c e n t r a t i o n , mg/l a
Cadmium 2 - 3.5
Chromium 10 - 70
Copper 44 - 14 , 200
Iron 146 , 000 - 188 , 000
Nickel 92 - 6,200
Lead 6 - 90
Silver 2
Zinc 400 - 2 , 150
aThree different liquid sources were

analyzed ( 43 percent FeClg ) .
The quantity of t o x i c p o l l u t a n t s may be s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced

by source control , At Los Angeles County , metal finishing
industries w e r e a major source of cadmium , chromium, copper,
lead , nickel, and zinc .
A source control program was developed
in cooperation with the local Metal Finisher ' s Association , This
program was quite successful , a s shown in Table 4 14 , by the -
general downward trend in wastewater concentrations over time .
4- 4 0
TABLE 4- 14
PROCRESS IN SOURCE CONTROL OF TOXIC POLLUTANTS ( 98 )
Concentration in mg/1 in influent wastewater

Wastewater
pollutant
-
January June
1975
July-December
1975
-
January June
1976
-
July September -
October December January
1976 1976 1977
Cadmium 0.037 0.031 0.029 0.033 0.027 0.019
Chromium 0.70 0.73 0.78 0.61 0.47 0.43
Copper 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.33 0. 34 0.30
Lead 0.40 0.31 0.34 0.28 0.32 0.34
Nickel 0.31 0.33 0.35 0.34 0.27 0.21
Zinc 1.55 1.48 1.37 1.41 1.29 1.17
Note: Data for Joint Water Pollution Control Plant, Los Angeles County ,
California ; weekly composite samples. (13).
Occasionally , elements c a n b e c o n v e r t e d f r o m a highly toxic form

t o a less toxic form in w a s t e w a t e r treatment. Chromium is a g o o d
e x a m p l e o f t h i s. I n its hexavalent form , it is highly toxic , but
m a y be c o n v e r t e d t o t h e l e s s toxic trivalent form in s e c o n d a r y
t r e a t m e n t.
4 . 5 .2 Site- Specific Analysis

T h e elemental compositions o f various s l u d g e s differ from o n e
a n o t h e r. If sludges are t o b e reused , t h e y should be a n a l y z e d
for a number of elements. T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s i t e- s p e c i f i c
a n a l y s i s o f s l u d g e s v a r i e s w i t h t h e s i z e o f t h e p r o j e c t,
r e g u l a t o r y requirements, industrial activity , a n d t h e t y p e of
reuse desired . A sampling program should recognize t h a t:
One plant's sludge may have 100 times or more of a
certain element t h a n a n o t h e r p l a n t' s.
T h e r e m a y b e major variations between s a m p l e s a t t h e same
plant , A single grab sample may produce misleading
results . Careful attention t o sampling a n d statistical
procedures will tend to reduce the uncertainty , A
detailed r e p o r t o n such p r o c e d u r e s is available ( 9 9 ).
Estimates o f t r a c e e l e m e n t s l u d g e contamination based
o n w a s t e w a t e r a n a l y s i s a r e u s u a l l y l e s s useful t h a n
estimates based on sludge testing , H o w e v e r , if a n
e l e m e n t c a n be measured in t h e influent wastewater and if
flow r a t e s are k n o w n t h e n, a mass load ( l b o r k g p e r day )
may be c o m p u t e d , For p u r p o s e s o f e s t i m a t i n g s ludge
,
contamination it is r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s u m e t h a t large
t r a c e a m o u n t s o f cadmium , c o p p e r , and z i n c a p p e a r in the
s l u d g e. Analyses o f sludge and s u p e r n a t a n t s a m p l e s f rom
a facultative s l u d g e l a g o o n h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h e r e is a
t e n d e n c y f o r nickel and lead t o be gradually released
from the s l u d g e t o t h e liquid p h a s e ( 9 7 ) .
S l u d g e s a m p l e s s h o u l d be a n a l y z e d f o r p e r c e n t s o l i d s
and p e r c e n t volatile as w e l l a s f o r t r a c e e l e m e n t s.
4-4 1
4.5.3 Cadraium
Because it is often found in amounts that limit sludge reuse as a

soil conditioner , cadmium is a critical element , If sludge
containing cadmium is applied to agricultural cropland , some
cadmium may enter the food chain. It has been argued , with
much controversy , that the normal human dietary intake of cadmium
is already high in comparison to human tolerance limits and
that sources of additional cadmium should be strictly limited
-
( 100 ,101). Table 4 15 summarizes reports on cadmium in sludge.
Chapter 18 includes a discussion of the control of sludge
application rates for the purpose of limiting cadmium levels in
soil and crops , Additional information on this subject is
provided in reference 90.
TABLE 15
CADMIUM IN SLUDGE
Concentration, mg/dry kg
Standard Number of
Type of sludge Location Mean deviation Median Range samples Reference
Digested
Heat dried
12 U.S. cities
4 U.S. cities
89
150
72
200
65
67
6.8 -
15 - 440
200 12
4
89
89
Anaerobic Various U.S. 106 16 3 - 3 , 410 98 90
" Other" Various U.S. 70 14 4 - 520 57 90
Not stated 42 cities in England , < 200 < 200 - 1, 500 42 91
Wales (7 > 200)
Incinerator ash Palo Alto , California 84 68 - 99 2 92
Digested Chicago (Calumet) 10 - 35 93
-
Digested waste acti
vated
Dewatered digested
- -
Chicago (West Southwest)
Seattle ( West Point)
340
48
43
100
102
94
primary approximate
130
a 1.5 lb 25 95
Digested Cincinnati (Millcreek)
Raw Several U.S. cities 30 15 20 20 95
Digested About 25 U.S. cities c 75
39
104 31 9 - 550 80 95
103
Raw primary Los Angeles (Hyperion)
Mesophilic digested Los Angeles (Hyperion)c 140 103
Thermophilic digested Los Angeles (Hyperion ) 120 103
Q 103
-
Waste activa ted Los Angeles (Hyperion) 110
Anaerobically digested
chemical and waste -
Chatham ,r Ontario0 2.6 1.4 1.8 0 - 10 225 99
activated ( 3.9 per

cent average solids)
-
Anaerobically digested Simcoe , Ontario
0
78 5 72 66 - 110 198 99
chemical and waste
activated (3.2 per
-
-
cent)
Anaerobically digested Tillsonburg , Ontario
(2
9 1 9' 7 - 12 40 99
chemical and waste -
activated (4.2 per
cent)
-
Raw primary Sacramento , California 2.8 1.1 . 2.6 1.4 - 4.2 5d 97
(Northeast)
Raw primary Sacramento ( Rancho 3.0 1.4 2.6 1.2 - 4.5 5d 97
Cordova)
Raw primary Sacramento ( Natomas) 3.5 1.1 3.6 2.2 - 5.1 5d 97
Raw primary and bio - Sacramento (Highland 4.1 1.3 3.8 2.8 - 5.9 5d 97
filter Estates)
Raw primary and
filter
bio- Sacramento (County Sani
tation District 6)
- 3.6 3.3 2.5 1.0 - 9.1 5
^ 97
Raw primary and bio- Sacramento (Meadowview) 3.1 1.0 2.6 2.3 - 4.4 5
^ 97
filter
aGeometric mean.
b
Spread factor for use with geometric mean.
°Concentrations reported on wet weight basis and converted
to dry weight basis.
dweekly composites of daily samples.
-
4 42
TABLE 4- 15
CADMIUM IN SLUDGE ( CONTINUED )
Concentration , mg/dry kg
Standard Number of
Type of sludge Location Mean deviation Median Range samples Reference
Raw primary and bio
filter
- Sacramento (City Main) 10.5 2.0 11 7.6 - 13 5d 97
Waste activated Sacramento (Arden) 5.4 2.6 6.7 2.3 - 7.7 5
5d
97
Raw primary and waste
activated
- Sacramento ( Rio Linda ) 9.7 2.9 9.1 6.2 - 14 97
Raw primary Sacramento (County 29 28 12 8.3 - 72 .. 5d 97
Central)
Anaerobically digested North Toronto, Ontario 29 9 60 104
ferric chloride
Anaerobically digested Point Edward , Ontario 8.5 1.9 61 104
chemical (mostly alum)
Anaerobically digested Newmarket , Ontario 7.5 4.2 59 104
lime
Anaerobically digested Sarnia , Ontario 76 21 40 104
ferric chloride
aGeometric mean.
DSpread factor for use with geometric mean.
CConcentrations reported on wet weight basis and converted
to dry weight basis.
Weekly composites of daily samples.
4.5 . 4 Increased Concentration During Processing
Toxic elements often are nonvolatile solids that remain in

sludge after volatile solids have been removed . Removal of
volatile solids such as organic matter increases the concentra-
tion of nonvolatile components , expressed on a dry weight basis.
Table 4-16 shows this effect for four metals at one plant. This
increased concentration may be important if sludge reuse is
desired and if regulations limit reuse for sludge that contains
contaminants that exceed certain concentrations.
TABLE 4- 16
INCREASED METALS CONCENTRATION DURING PROCESSING
Concentration , mg/kg dry weight

Raw primary sludge sludge Lagooned sludge
Element (79 percent volatile) (68 percent volatile) (56 percent volatile)
Chromium 110 160 220

Copper 200 340 450
Nickel 46 63 65
Zinc 620 930 1, 400
Number of samples ( 5) (2) ( 30)
Note: 1977 data , Sacramento County Central treatment plant , California , Anaerobic
-
digesters also receive thickened waste activated sludge (metals content not
measured ).
4-43
4.6 Trace Organic Compounds in Sludge
Several of the trace organic compounds found in sludge , for

example , polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ), are toxic , slow to
decompose and widely distributed in the environment , Table 4 -17
quantifies the amount of Aroclor 1254, a common PCB , found in
sludge. Three other PCBs , Aroclors 1242 , 1248 , and 1260 , have
also been found in sludge ( 105 , 107 , 108 ). In 1970, the production
of PCBs for several end uses was halted in the United States
and was completely phased out in 1977. As of 1979 , imports of
PCBs are prohibited except for a few special purposes , It is
anticipated that these measures will help to reduce PCB levels in
sludge. However, products containing PCBs are still in use, and
these chemicals are widely distributed , so that several years may
elapse before PCBs become undetectable in sludge.
TABLE 4- 17
AROCLOR ( PCB ) 1254 MEASUREMENTS IN SLUDGE
Average
concentration of
samples with
compound detected
Wet Dry
basis , basis , Number of Samples with Year of sample
Sludge type Location ug/1 mg/kg samples compound detected collection Reference
Undigested Hamilton, Ontario 81 1976 105

Undigested (with Al) Kitchener , Ontario 110 1976
Undigested (with Ca) Newmarket, Ontario 74 1976
Undigested (with Fe) North Toronto , Ontario 120 1976
a
Raw primary Sacramento, CA (North
east)
- 50 1.6 5 1 1977 97
a
Sacramento, (Natomas) 60 1.5 5 1 1977
Sacramento (County
a
80 1.8 5 5 1977
Central)
Ra* primary and biofilter

a
Sacramento , (City Main) 80 3.8 5 4 1977
a
Sacramento (County Sani- 50 2.0 5 1 1977
tation District 6)
a
Sacramento (Meadowview) 50 2.4 5 2 1977
a
Raw primary and waste Sacramento (Rio Linda) 90 3.5 5 3 1977
activated
Lagooned digested primary Sacramento (County 270 4.8 30 3C 1977 106

and waste activated Central)
Digested 10 U.S. cities 3.9 10 9 -

1971 1972 89
Heat dried 4 U.S. cities 9.3 4 4 -

1971 1972
a
Weekly composite of daily samples.
Because of their fat -soluble nature , PCBs tend to concentrate

in skimmings and scum at wastewater treatment plants. The
conventional procedure of introducing skimmings into the
digester can cause higher concentrations of PCBs in the final
sludge. Alternative disposal procedures for skimmings , such as
incineration, can reduce this problem.
Table 4 -18 presents data on three chlorinated hydrocarbon

pesticides found in sludge from several treatment plants.
4 -44
TABLE 4- 18
CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON PESTICIDES IN SLUDGE ( 97 , 106 )

Average concentration in
samples with compound Total Samples with
Compound Sludge type Plant . detected , mg/dry. kg samples compound detected
a
Hexaehlorobenzene -
Waste activated Arden 0.8 5
a
1
Hexachloroben zene Raw primary County Central 0.4 5 2
a
Lindane -
Waste activated
Raw primary
Arden
Northeast
1.0
0.6
5
5
a
1
1
a
-
Technical qradp chlordane Raw primary
Raw primary
Northeast
Natomas
2.6
2.3
5
5
a
1
2
a
Raw primary County Central 2.8 5 5
Lagooned anaerobically di - County Central 4.2 30 3C
gested primary and waste
activated
-
-
Waste activated
Raw primary and waste
-
Arden
Rio Linda
4.4
5.5
5
5
a
a 2
5
activated a
Raw primary and biofilter Meadowview •
0.6 b
a
1
Raw primary and biofilter City Main 19 5 4
All plants in Sacramento County , California.
aWeekly composites of daily samples.
4.7 Miscellaneous Wastewater Solids

In addition to the primary , biological , and chemical sludges
discussed in previous sections , there are several other
wastewater solids that must be properly handled to achieve good
effluent , general environmental protection , and reasonable
treatment plant operations , These solids include screenings ,
grit , scum , septage , and filter backwash.
When mixed with primary or secondary sludges, screenings , scum ,

grit , and septage can interfere with the processing and reuse of
the sludge. Before mixing these wastewater solids with primary
and secondary sludges , design engineers should consider the
following :
Screenings and scum detract from the final appearance ,

and marketability , and utilization of sludges. They can
also clog piping , pumps, and mixers, and occupy valuable
space in digesters and other tankage.
Scum presents a special problem when mixed with other

solids and subjected to gravity thickening , decanting , or
centrifugation , Under these conditions , scum tends to
concentrate in the sidestream and to be recycled to the
wastewater processes , Eventually some of this recycled
scum is discharged to the effluent.
Grit can block pipelines , occupy valuable space in

digesters and other tankage, and cause excessive wear to
solids piping and processing equipment.
4-45
“'’KSBftSsB* »
4.7.1 Screenings
Screenings are materials that can be removed from wastewater by
screens or racks with openings of 0.01 inch ( 0.25 mm ) or larger.
Coarse screens or racks have openings larger than 0.25 inch
( 6 mm ) , whereas fine screens have openings from 0.01 to 0.25 inch
( 0.25 to 6 mm ). If openings are larger than 1.5 inches ( 38 mm ),
the screens are often called trash racks.
Racks and screens are usually installed to treat the wastewater

as it enters the treatment plant .
Racks and coarse screens
prevent debris from interfering with other plant equipment , Fine
screens remove a significant fraction of the influent suspended
solids and BOD 5 , thus reducing the load on subsequent treatment
processes. In this regard , fine screens may act like primary
sedimentation tanks, although they do not ordinarily remove as
much of the solids as do sedimentation tanks, Fine screens are
usually protected by upstream coarse screens or racks.
4.7.1.1 Quantity of Coarse Screenings

Coarse screenings are basically debris , Items typically
collected on coarse screens include rags , pieces of string ,
pieces of lumber , rocks, tree roots, leaves, branches, diapers ,
and plastics.
The quantity of coarse screenings is highly variable , but most

plants report 0.5 to 5 cubic feet per million gallons ( 4 ml/ m
to 40 ml/ m 3 ) on average flows. Table 4- 19 shows the quantities
^
of screenings reported for a number of communities. The quantity
of screenings depends on:
• Screen opening size. Generally , greater quantities are

collected with smaller screen openings. This was seen
most clearly at Grand Island , Nebraska , where a change
from 0.5 - inch to 1.25 - inch ( 13 to 32 mm ) openings
caused screenings production to drop from about 7 to
about 3 cubic feet per day ( 0.2 to 0.08 m / day )( 114 ).
^
Tests at Chicago , Illinois , and Adelaide , Australia ,
showed this tendency also ( 13 ).
• Shape of openings. For example , bar racks may have

o p e n i n g s 0.75 inch ( 19 mm ) wide and over 2 feet ( over
600 mm ) .
long Such a rack will pass twigs , ballpoint
,
pens and other debris , that would be captured on a mesh-
type screen with square openings of .
0.75 inch ( 19 mm )
• T y p e of s e w e r s y s t e m . Combined storm and sanitary

sewers pboduce more screenings than separate sanitary
sewers. This effect is especially pronounced where much
or all of the combined wastewater is treated during and
after storms , rather than being bypassed.
4-46
TABLE 4- 19
SCREENING EXPERIENCE ( 109 , 110 ]
Rack or screen F low, Screeninqs ,

opening , in. City mgd cu ft/mil gal
-
3 3/8
3
Norwalk , Connecticut
New Haven , Connecticut
11.75
8
0.17
1.0
3 East Hartford , Connecticut 4.0 1.33
3 San Jose , California 0.25
-
1 3/8 New York , New York , Jamaica 65 0.6
-
1 1/2 Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , North 48.2 2.20
-
1 1/2
1- 1/2
Oklahoma City , Oklahoma , Southside
Cranston , Rhode Island
25.0
8 .32
2.1
0.65
-
1 1/2 Taunton , Massachusetts 3.5 1.0
-
1 1/2 Meadville , Pennsylvania 2.5 0.6
-
1 1/2 Grove City , Pennsylvania 0.8 0. 1
1- 1/4 Uniontown , Pennsylvania 3.0 0.9
1- 1/4 Fargo , North Dakota 2.7 4.55
1 New York , Wards Island 180 1.0
1 New York , Owls Head 160 0.6
1 Minneapolis- St. Paul , Minnesota 134 0.9
1 New York , Hunts Point 120 0.7
1 East Bay , Oakland , California 98 1.6
1 New York , Coney Island 70 1.4
1 New York , 26 th Ward 60 1.1
1 New York , Tallmans Island 40 0.7
1 Bridgeport , Connecticut , West Side 17 0.93
1 New York , Rockaway 15 1.0
1 Waterbury , Connecticut 15 2.35
1 Bridgeport, Connecticut , East Side 14 2.04
1 Duluth , Minnesota 12 0.56
1 Austin , Minnesota 9 1.1
1 Fond du Lac , Wisconsin 7.2 5
1 Findlay , Ohio 7 0.39
1 Massillon , Ohio 5.2 1. 5
1 York , Nebraska 5 1.5
1 Marion , Ohio 5.0 2.5
1 Gainesville , Florida 5 3.5
1 Marshalltown , Iowa 4.0 0.25
1 East Lansing , Michigan 3.8 0.4
1 Birmingham, Michigan 1.5 1.2
7/8 Boston , Massachusetts , Nut Island 125 1.2
7/8 Richmond , Indiana 6.2 1. 2
3/4 Detroit , Michigan 450 0.47
3/4 New York , Bowery Bay 40 1.1
3/4 Hartford , Connecticut 39.0 1.6
3/4 Portsmouth , Virginia 9.7 0.82
3/4 Sheboygan , Wisconsin 8.0 0. 25
3/4 Aurora , Illinois 8.0 1.42
3/4 Topeka , Kansas 7. 5 1.30
3/4 Oshkosh , Wisconsin 6.0 1.7
1/2 Green Bay , Wisconsin 10.0 1.2
1/2 Manteca , California 1.5 5.2
1 in. 2.54 cm
1 mgd = 3 ,785 mJ5/day.
^ ^ m 3.
1 cu ft/mil gal = 7.48 m /1 x 10
-
4 47
• Operating practices . Where manual cleaning is used ,
operators sometimes pass some screenings through or
around the screens. Where automatic equipment is used ,
the operating pattern can greatly affect removals ( 112 ).
• Length of sewer system . The volume of screenings removed

may double with a short , as opposed to lengthy , inter-
ceptor system. This condition may be explained by the
fact that solids are more subject to disintegration with
a lengthy collection system ( 5 ). Wastewater pumping will
also tend to disintegrate large solids .
Screenings loads may increase dramatically during peak flows. It
is estimated that , at the East Bay Municipal Utility District
plant in Oakland , California , the screenings load was about
10 times the average during peak flows. For the most part , this
plant services separate sanitary sewers, but the screenings load
is concentrated ( 110 ).
4.7.1.2 Quantity of Fine Screenings

Fine screens are usually used as an alternative to conventional
primary sedimentation to remove suspended solids . Screens
with 0.09 to 0.25 inch ( 2 to 6 mm ) openings remove about 5 to ,
10 percent of suspended solids from typical municipal raw

wastewater. If 0.03 to 0.06 inch ( 0.8 to 1.5 mm ) openings are
used instead , about 25 to 35 percent of suspended solids may be
removed ( 5 ). Higher removals increase the dry weight and the
moisture content of the screenings , For example , consider fine
screens that remove 25 percent of suspended solids from an
influent concentration of 300 mg/1. In this case , screenings are
630 dry pounds per million gallons ( 75 mg/ 1 ) of wastewater . If
the screenings are ten percent solids and weigh 60 wet pounds per
cubic foot ( 961 kg /m 3 ) , then the volume is 105 cubic feet per
million gallons ( 14.04 m / lxlO m 3 ). This is over 25 times more
^ ^
than a typical value for coarse screenings of 4 cubic feet per
million gallons ( 0.53 m 3/ ixl 0 m 3 ).
^
4.7 .1.3 Properties of Screenings
If screenings have not been incinerated , they may contain
pathogenic microorganisms. They are also odorous and tend to
attract rodents and insects. Screenings have been analyzed
for solids content , volatile content , fuel value , and bulk
wet weight. Some of the reported values are summarized in
Table 4- 20.
4.7 .1.4 Handling Screenings

Screenings may be ground and handled with other sludges ; direct
landfilled ; and incinerated , with the ash disposed in landfill.
Table 4- 21 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of various
methods.
4-48
TABLE 4- 20
ANALYSES OF SCREENINGS
Solids content, Fuel value ,

percent dry Volatile content , Btu/lb dry Bulk wet weight ,
solids percent solids lb/cu ft Comments References
20 5 ,400a 60 Coarse screenings. Fine 5
screenings may have
lower solids content.
10 - 20 80 - 90 40 - 60 Common values 21
8 - 23 68 - 94 53 - 67 Various plants, fine

screens , 0.03 to 0.12
13
inch openings
6.1 96 Thickened ground screen - 113

-
ings from 0.75 inch
racks; after grinding ,
screenings were thick
ened on a static screen
-
-
with 0.06 inch openings.
17 96 Dewatered ground screen

-
ings from 0.75 inch
- 113
racks ; after grinding ,
screenings were de
watered on a rotating
-
drum screen with 0.03
inch openings.
-
86 7,820 Fine screenings 114
aComputed.
1 Btu/lb dry solids = 2,32 kj/ dry solids.
1 lb/cu ft = 16.03 kg/m - .
1 in. = 2.54 cm. ^
S o m e f e c a l s o l i d s a c c o m p a n y t h e l a r g e r materials s u c h a s r a g s a n d
t w i g s. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , a s w e l l a s t o s a v e l a b o r time a n d c o s t ,
it i s d e s i r a b l e t o mechanize s c r e e n i n g s h a n d l i n g , A l s o, w h e r e
c o a r s e s c r e e n i n g s a r e l a n d f i l l e d o r i n c i n e r a t e d , it is d e s i r a b l e
to use the largest rack opening that will adequately protect
downstream processes, This will minimize the quantity of
s c r e e n i n g s t h a t m u s t b e handled s e p a r a t e l y .
S c r e e n i n g s m a y b e t r a n s p o r t e d p n e u m a t i c a l l y ( 1 1 6 ) , in s l u i c e w a y s ,
o n c o n v e y o r s , a n d i n c a n s , d u m p s t e r s , o r c o v e r e d t r u c k s.
S c r e e n i n g s- w a t e r m i x t u r e s t h a t a r e g r o u n d m a y b e p u m p e d , For
thickening and dewatering , fine static screens, drum screens,
c e n t r i f u g e s ( 1 1 3 ), a n d d r u m o r s c r e w p r e s s e s m a y b e u s e d .
Chemical conditioning is not required .
4 . 7 .1 . 5 Screenings from Miscellaneous Locations
Screens are occasionally used on streams other than influent

w a s t e w a t e r. F o r i n s t a n c e, w h e n it is f e d t o a t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r ,
primary effluent may be screened to prevent clogging of orifices
i n t h e distributor o n t h e t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r ( 1 0 9 ). A t o n e h e a v i l y
loaded plant where regular influent screening equipment was
p a r t i a l l y b y p a s s e d , s c r e e n s installed i n a e r a t i o n b a s i n e f f l u e n t
channels, chlorine contact tank outlets, and other locations
p r e v e n t e d c o a r s e, f l o a t i n g o b j e c t s f r o m b e i n g d i s c h a r g e d w i t h
4 -4 9
the effluent ( 117 ) . Another example occurred at a plant where
digested sludge was discharged to the ocean , Fine screens were
used to prevent floatable materials from being discharged ( 118 ).
Other examples of the use of screens on streams other than
influent wastewater are the screening of overflow water from grit
separators and the screening of feed sludge to disc - nozzle
centrifuges to prevent clogging ( 113,119 ) .
TABLE 4- 21
METHODS OF HANDLING SCREENINGS

.... Advantages Disadvantages
s... ...
Method
?
1. Comminution within main wastewater stream ; Highly mech. -
iized , low operating labor re Sludge contains screenings, which may inter -
•SW' handle comminuted screenings with
other wastewater solids, e.g., primary
sludge
quirement
J
^
Minimized number of unit operations
fer with public acceptance for reuse of
sludge as a soil amendment.
Sludge probably needs further maceration or
Usually free of nuisance from flies and screening if it is to be pumped or
odors thickened in a disc centrifuge.
Widely used , familiar to plant operators If sludge is to be digested , digesters must
be cleaned more often. Plastics and
synthetic fabrics do not decompose in
digesters. Aggravates digester scum pro
blems. Ground screenings tend to
-
agglomerate in digesters.
Not appropriate if suspended solids removal
is required (fine screens).
Not appropriate for very large screenings
loads, especially if high grit loads are
also present (large plants , combined
sewers)
3
2. Removal from main stream , grinding or Similar to Method 1 , except more complex Similar to Method 1, except Method 2 can be
maceration, and return to main stream mechanical ly designed for very large flows and screen-
ings loads. Method 2 is more expensive
than Method 1 for small screenings loads.
3. Removal3 from main stream, draining or Keeps screenings out of other sludges; Transport of screenings may be difficult.
dewatering , landfill avoids disadvantages of Methods 1 and 2. Unless carefully designed and operated ,
Can be fairly well mechanized. causes fly and odor nuisances and health
hazards.
Regulations for landfill disposal may strongly
affect operations.
4. Removal3 from main stream, dewatering, Keeps screenings out of other sludges; High cost if an incinerator is required for
incineration, landfill of ash . avoids disadvantages of Methods 1 and 2. screenings alone.
Ash is very small in volume and easy to Unless incinerator is properly designed and
transport and dispose of.
If incineration is used for other sludges
operated , air pollution (odor and partic
ulates) will be serious.
-
and/or grit, then screenings can be
added at modest cost *
Not well adapted to wide fluctuations in-
screenings quantities , unless screenings
Pathogen kill are only a small part of the total in
cinerator load .
-
5. Anaerobic digestion of fine screenings Digestion was tested at large scale at
alone (not mixed with other Milwaukee, Wisconsin , but found to be
solids) impractical.. (115)
6. Anaerobic digestion of screenings Tested at Malabar plant, Sydney , Australia,

together with scum but separate but found to be inoperable, Material
from other sludges handling was the chief difficulty.
aMechanical removal is usually practiced at large plants. Manual removal is frequently used at small plants. The advantages
of manual removal are simplicity and low capital cost ; the disadvantages are high operating labor requirements and fly and odor
problems. A common arrangement at small plants is to install a single comminutor with a manually cleaned bar rack as a standby unit.
4.7.2 Grit
Grit is composed of heavy , coarse solids associated with raw
wastewater. It may be removed from wastewater before primary
sedimentation or other major processes. Alternatively , it may be
4- 50
removed from primary sludge after the primary sludge is removed
from the wastewater , Typical ingredients of grit are gravel,
sand , cinders , nails, grains of corn , coffee grounds , seeds , and
bottle caps.
4.7.2.1 Quantity of Grit
The amount of grit that is removed varies tremendously from one

plant to another. Table 4- 22 shows grit quantities measured at
several plants. Additional values have been published elsewhere
( 5 , 109 ). The quantity of grit depends on:
Type of collection system , If a system is combined , then

street sanding , catch basin maintenance , and amount of
combined sewer overflow become important .
Degree of sewer system corrosion . Grit may include
products of hydrogen sulfide corrosion derived from the
pipes ( 122 ).
Scouring velocities in the sewers . If scouring

velocities are not regularly maintained , grit will build
up in the sewers , During peak flows , the grit may be
resuspended , and the treatment plant may receive heavy
loads during peak flows.
Presence of open joints and cracks in the sewer system.

These permit soil around the pTpes to enter the sewers.
This effect also depends upon soil characteristics and
groundwater levels .
Structural failure of sewers. Such failures can deliver

enormous amounts of grit to the wastewater system .
Quantities of industrial wastes.
Degree to which household garbage grinders are used .
Efficiency of grit removal at the treatment plant ( 5 ).
• Amount of septage.
Occurrence of construction in the service area or at the
treatment plant.
It is not possible to develop a formula which allows for all

these factors. Cautious use of available information is ,
therefore , recommended , It is important to recognize that
extreme variations occur in grit volume and quantity .
A generous
safety factor should be used in calculations involving the
storage , handling , or disposal of grit ( 5 ) .In a new system
where there are separate sanitary sewers and favorable conditions
4- 51
such as adequate scouring velocities , an allowance of 15 cubic
feet per million gallons ( 2 m 3/ lxl 0 m 3 ) should suffice for ^
maximum flows. On the average , the quantity of grit in waste-
water will usually be less than 4 cubic feet per million gallons
^ ^ ^
( 0.53 m / lxlO m ) for separate sewer systems , ( 5 ) but
higher values have been observed ( see Table 4- 22 ).
TABLE 4- 22
GRIT QUANTITIES
Quantity ,
Plant cu ft/mil gal Comments References
Santa Rosa, California (Collecje 0.8H Average. Separate sewers. 110

Avenue) 0.3 Minimum month
1.4 Maximum month
San Jose , California 2.5 Separate sewers. Older removal 110

systems removed less grit (0.3
and 1.4 cu ft/mil gal)
Manteca , California 5.2 Averaye. Separate sewers. 110

3.2 Minimum month
9.5 Maximum month
Santa Rosa , California (Laguna) 5.0 Average. Separate sewers. 110

2.1 Minimum month
10.7 Maximum month
Seattle , Washington (West Point) 2.6 Average. Combined storm and sani - no
tary sewers.
11.2 Maximum day
Dublin- San Ramon , California 7 Average. Separate sewers. 120
Los Angeles, California 2 1973 average. Separate sewers. 99

(Hyperion)
Livermore, California 1.0 Average over 24 months. Separate 68

sewers.
0.3 Lowest month
2.4 Highest month
Gary , Indiana 8.6 Annual average. Combined sewers. no

89 Highest value on test runs. 121
Renton , Washington 1.7 Average over 19 months before im - 119

provements to grit removal equip
ment. Separate sewers.
-
4.1 Average over 12 months after im
provements.
-
7.0 Maximum month , following improve
ments.
-
1 cu ft/mil gal =
3
7.48 m /1- x 106 m
3
4.7.2.2 Properties of Grit

Grit has been analyzed for moisture , volatiles content , specific
gravity , putrescibility , ( 123 ) particle size , and heating value.
All of these depend on the kind of sewer system and the method
of grit removal and washing.
4- 52
The moisture content of grit is reported as ranging from 13 to
65 percent , and the volatiles content from 1 to 56 percent ( 109 ) .
Specific gravity of grit particles varies; values from 1.3 to
2.7 have been reported ( 109 ) The range for volatile solids was .
8 to 46 percent ( 123 ). Particle size for grit removed from five
plants is shown in Table 4- 23 , along with an analysis of digester
bottom deposits.
TABLE 4- 23
SIEVE ANALYSIS OF GRIT
Percentage retained
Digester deposits,
Sieve opening , Green Bay , Kenosha , Tampa , St . Paul, Renton, Renton , Los Angeles,
c
Sieve sizea mm Wisconsin Wisconsin Florida Minnesota Washington Washington ^ California
4
8
4.76
2.38
1
5
-- 7
20
2.S
- 13.S 0 - 0.5
2.8
10
12
b
2.08
1.41
3.7 12 19.S - 34.5 2 - 11
7.3
20
28
b
0.84
0.6G
9.1 12
- 53 50 - 74.5 10 - 41
28.3
40 0.42 19.8 70 71 - 88.5 27 - 62
50
60
0.30
0.25
29.6 2.3 20 - 67 90.5 - 94 60 - 76.5
b
65 0.21 51.7 59
80 0.18 95
100
150
b
0.149
0.105
78.2 59.3 97 - 99.9 97.5 85
- 92
77.6
200 0.074 96.1 99.5 99.5 95
- 98 84.9
Source (109) (109) (109) (109) (119) (119) (118)
aU.S. series, except as noted.

b
Tyler series sieve.
°Dried at 103 C.
° Four tests. Volatile contents 34 to 55 percent.
^Same samples as previous column, ashed at 550°C and resieved.
Grit quality can be varied to some extent. If a " clean" grit

with very low putrescibility is desired , it may be obtained by
grit washing and operational adjustments to the grit removal
system. However , such operations may make it impossible to
remove fine sand ( of less than 0.08 inch [ 0.2 mm ] ). For example ,
'
if a separate grit washer is used , fine sand may be recycled in
the wash water. If it is essential, fine sand can be removed
with high efficiency . However, the sand will be accompanied by
large amounts of putrescible solids. A compromise between
cleanliness of grit and high removals of fine particles is
necessary ( 124 ). If good washing equipment is used , operators
can often remove significant quantities of fine materials without
sacrificing cleanliness. Grit should be regarded as containing
pathogens unless it has been incinerated .
4.7.2.3 Handling Grit
The first step in grit handling is the separation of the grit

from the main stream of wastewater. Grit may be removed from
4-53
4.7.3 Scum
S c u m -i s t h e m a t e r i a l t h a t f l o a t s o n w a s t e w a t e r , e x c e p t w h e r e
flotation is involved , In a flotation unit , scum is incorporated
into t h e f l o a t , Scum may be removed from many t r e a t m e n t
units i n c l u d i n g p r e a e r a t i o n tanks , skimming tanks , primary
a n d s e c o n d a r y sedimentation tanks , chlorine contact tanks ,
gravity thickeners , a n d d i g e s t e r s , The term "skimmings" refers
s p e c i f i c a l l y t o scum t h a t has been r e m o v e d.
4.7 . 3.1 Quantities of Scum
Quantities of scum are generally small compared to those of such

wastewater solids as primary sludge and waste- activated sludge.
Table 4- 24 lists some properties and quantities of scum , The
data in this table are based on scum from primary sedimentation
tanks. Scum is often removed from secondary clarifiers and
chlorine contact tanks , but there is almost no available data on
the quantities removed.
Although there is some data on the quantity of grease removed

during wastewater treatment , grease loads are not indicators of
scum quantities . As shown in Tables 4 - 2 and 4 - 3 , the grease
content of primary sludge can exceed 25 percent of the total
solids. In biological sludges , it can be over ten percent.
Since the quantities of these sludges are usually large compared
to the amount of scum , it can be assumed that most of the grease
is in the sludge , not in the scum . Typically , the grease content
of raw domestic wastewater is 100 mg / 1 ( 2 ) , but the largest
amount of scum indicated in Table 4- 24 is 17 mg/1, and in many
instances , the amounts are lower. At one p l a n t , it w a s estimated
that only five percent of grease was removed in the scum , The
remainder was in the primary sludge ( 131 ).
S c u m production is influenced b y:
Wastewater temperature , dissolved solids , and pH .
Design and operation of grease traps at commercial

kitchens , g a s stations , and industries.
Amount and c h a r a c t e r o f s e p t a g e t h a t is mixed with the

w a s t e w a t e r.
Habits of residential population a n d s m a l l businesses. “
cooFTng' fat are l i k e l y t o b e removed

( S p e n t m o t o r oil and
a s s c u m if t h e y reach t h e sewers. )
Preaeration and prechlorination.
4 -55
Efficiency of upstream processes in removing colloidal
grease. This is true for chlorine contact tank scum ,
since chlorine breaks emulsions , allowing grease
particles to coalesce and float , Chlorine dose and
mixing may also affect contact tank scum.
Scum that is returned from sludge handling. Anaerobic
digesters usually have a scum layer , Recycled digester
supernatant may carry portions of this scum back to the
influent wastewater. Similarly , scum may be returned in
sidestreams from gravity thickening and centrifugation.
Scum removal equipment effectiveness , Some arrangements
produce better removal efficiencies than others , Also,
some arrangements produce a scum with a high solids
content and , therefore, a small volume.
_
Tendency of sludge solids to float jL n sedimentation tanks
due to formation of gas bubbles.
Process unit from which scum is removed , If pr imary

sedimentation is used , most of the scum is usually
removed there. Amounts of scum from secondary clarifiers
and chlorine contact tanks are normally small in
comparison.
e Actinomycete growths in activated sludge ( 50). These

growths may cause large amounts of solids to float in the
clarifers.
At existing treatment plants , it is often possible to estimate
scum quantities from such data as scum pump operating hours or
the frequency with which scum pits must be emptied , Design
calculations should always allow for large variations in quantity
of scum.
4.7.3.2 Properties of Scum
-
Table 4 24 contains information on the solids content, volatile
content , fuel value , and grease content of scum. Scum usually
has a specific gravity of about 0.95 (110).
Varying quantities of vegetable and mineral oils , grease , hair ,
rubber goods , animal fats , waxes , free fatty acids , calcium and
magnesium soaps, seeds , skins , bits of cellulosic material such
as wood , paper or cotton , cigarette tips , plastic and pieces
of garbage may comprise scum (110 ). When gases are entrained in
particles of primary and secondary sludge , these particles become
components of scum ( 126 ). At one plant, a variation in scum
consistency was noted , At 36°F (10°C), the scum was a congealed ,
clotty mass. At 5 4°F ( 20°C ), it flowed freely , in a manner
similar to that of four percent combined thickened sludges ( 126 ).
Scum should not be stored for more than a few days because the
grease will begin to decompose , with a resulting odor production.
-
4 56
TABLE 4- 24
SCUM PRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES
Quantity Quantity (dry weight)

(volume), Volatile Fuel value ,
gal/mi 1 gal lb/mil gal mg/1 of Solids , solids, percent Btu/lb dry
Treatment plant of wastewater of wastewater wastewater percent of total solids solids Comments Reference
-
Dublin San Ramon, Calif
ornia
- 250 From primary sedimentation,
domestic waste
120
Lower Allen Township, near a

463a
Harrisburg , Pa.
Northwest Bergen County ,

14
25
31
'
19 2.3
4 25
27
9
® .
42
6 ,900
^
3 ,100"
a From low lime primary sedi-
mentation (pH 9.4 to 9.0),
after heated thickener
From gravity thickener
125
126
Oakland , New Jersey
Wichita , Kansas 9 From primary sedimentation. 127
Grease is 30 percent of
skimmings after decant
ing.
-
0 7 - Grease balls from preaer-
ation tanks.
127
Minneapoli3-St. Paul , 96 13 ,000 From primary sedimentation 128

Minnesota
?
.
East Bay, Oakland , Calif
ornia
- 19 82 9. a 54 • 96 Average , July
1970b
- June 129
. 110 13 64 99 Maximum month 129

’ 60 7.2 43 81 Minimum month 129
West Point , Seattle,

29
50 24
51 14,000 1965 - 1966 data 130
2.9 6 As pumped from primary 131
Washington sedimentation tanks
8 19 2.3 30 As above , after decanting ; 131
6.4 percent grease
130 From sedimentation tanks 131
under poor conditions0
Not stated 88.5 16,750 114
San Mateo , California 95 11 110
Salisbury, Maryland 200 From primary clarifiers. 132
Heavy grease load from
industry
Three New York City plants 0.3
- 5 1.2
- 15 0.1
- 2 40
- 52 From primary clarifiers;
about 80 percent of
133
solids are grease

Jamaica , New York City 3 10 1.2 4B From secondary clarifiers; 133
(no primary)
County Sanitation Districts , 87 10 Primary sedimentation 134
Los Angeles County, CA
Albany, Georgia 3,000 140 17 .
0 57 Primary sedimentation. 135
Heavy industrial load.
*Two samples. About 58 percent of nonvolatile solids was calcium carbonate.

b
91 percent of total solids were oil and grease. Scum from primary sedimentation , measured after decanting
in a heated unit.
CSludge was tending to float in the sedimentation tanks. Amount shown is estimate of pumpage. Skimming
system was unable to keep up with scum production under these poor conditions.
3
1 gal/mil gal m /l x m 106
3
1 lb/mil gal 0.12 kg/1 x 103 m
1 Btu/ lb dry solids = 2.32 kJ/kg
•f
Ordinarily , scum should be seen as containing pathogens ,

However, some scum handling processes may disinfect. If scum
has been heated to 176°F ( 80° F ) for decanting , incinerated , or
treated with a dose of caustic soda sufficient to produce a pH of
12 , few pathogens are likely to remain.
4.7.3.3 Handling Scum
Table 4 - 25 lists the advantages and disadvantages of various

approaches to scum disposal . Progressive cavity- type pumps have
been found suitable for pumping scum , although they are unable to
handle large grease balls ( 125 ) unless some sort of rack or
disintegrator is provided . Pneumatic ejectors are suitable if
grease does not interfere with the .controls , Piping should be
glass - lined and kept reasonably warm to minimize blockages.
4-57
::mm&t&&*****,=
iCwi
TABLE 4- 25
METHODS OF HANDLING SCUM

Method Advantages Disadvantages
1. Mix with other sludges , digest Partial decomposition occurs (134), so some May cause grease balls to form , which must be
aerobically. of the scum does not require further manually removed and disposed of, and which
handling. may increase odors .
Avoids complexity of separate handling. May cause petroleum contamination of sludge,
Widely used which will interfere with reuse.
Degrades appearance of sludge if to be re
used.
-
May cause scum buildup due to return of scum
containing liquors from sludge handling to
-
influent wastewater.
2. Mix with other sludges, digest Similar to Method 1, above. If digester is not strongly mixed , greatly
anaerobically. increases cleaning requirements. ( 119) Di
gester cleaning is expensive and -
odorous ; also material still requires dis
posal.
-
Even if digester is well mixed , a scum blan
ket will form to some extent; therefore,
-
digester must be physically larger (136)
Degrades appearance of sludge if to be re
used ; may cause petroleum contamination. -
May cause scum buildup , like Method 1.
Requires good decanting to avoid pumping
excess water to the digester.
2. Landfill separately Low capital cost May have very high operating cost.
Possible odors during storage.
Requires good decanting to minimize volume
and fluidity of scum.
4. Burn in open lagoon Very low cost. Severe air pollution ( 128); illegal under
present laws.
5. Incinerate in separate " Watergrate" Very small amount of ash in slurry. High capital cost , especially for small plants
furnace (Nichols)a Despite low emissions , may not be acceptable
to air pollution regulators.
Problems with feed systems.
6. Incinerate in separate single purpose Very small amount of ash High capital cost (130)
multiple hearth furnace a
- High maintenance cost
Despite low emissions , may not be acceptable
to air pollution regulators
Requires good decanting
-
7. Incinerate in multiple hearth furnace
with other wastewater solidsa
Low incremental cost
Fuel value of scum can be used to offset
Requires good decanting
Requires very careful feed to the furnace ;
fuel requirements of other solids otherwise causes high maintenance and
severe smoke problems. These problems can
be avoided. ( 137)
8. Incinerate in fluidized bed furnace Similar to Method 7. Unless well decanted , can tax furnace
with other wastewater solidsa capacity. (126)
If scum is mixed with sludge before injec-
tion into furnace , unstable operation is
likely. (126)
9. Reuse for cattle feed Provides reuse, not disposal (however, do Toxic organic materials (e.g., DDT) tend to
not expect revenue concentrate in grease
Low capital cost Erratic market demand for waste grease (133),
it may be impossible to find anyone
that wants it.
Treatment for reuse must begin within a few
days; otherwise grease begins to decompose .
Requires good decanting because of long dis
tance transportation.
-
Subject to interference from actinomycete
growths in activated sludge, which increase
the amount of solids that are not grease
but are in the scum.
.
10 Reuse for low grade soap manufacture Same as Method 9. Similar to Method 9, but less serious.
Caustic soda could be added at the treat
ment plant , preventing decomposition and
-
probably making the material more usable
to grease reclaimers , but raising operating
.
costs
11. Return to influent wastewater Almost zero direct cost Slight increase in hydraulic load on the
treatment plant
Highly suitable for scum from chlorine con
tact tanks , secondary clarifiers , etc.
- Inapplicable to the main source of scum
(primary sedimentation tanks if used ,
when scum is removed from primary sedi
mentation tanks
- secondary clarifiers if primary tanks are
not used ).
aFor further information on scum incineration, see Chapter H , High Temperature Processes.
4- 5 8
P i p i n g s h o u l d be h e a t e d t o a minimum o f 6 0 °F ( 1 5 ° C ). H i g h e r
t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e p r e f e r r e d , e s p e c i a l l y if p i p e s i z e s o f l e s s
t h a n f o u r- inch diameter ( 1 0 0 m m ) a r e u s e d o r if pipe l e n g t h s are
s u b s t a n t i a l. Flushing connections and cleanouts should be
liberally p r o v i d e d . W h e n s c u m is t o be incinerated , a s m a l l
amount of fuel oil should be added as a convenient means of
ensuring that t h e scum can be p u m p e d ( 1 3 7 ). An inline g r i n d e r
should be p r o v i d e d if decanting o r incinerating is t o t a k e p l a c e
( 125 , 1 3 7 ).
Decanting ( simple thickening by flotation ) is occasionally used
t o increase t h e solids c o n t e n t of t h e s c u m. Decanting requires
some care in design, in o r d e r t o reduce t h e effects o f u n p l e a s a n t
odor a n d high g r e a s e a n d solids c o n t e n t in t h e d e c a n t e d w a t e r.
A t l e a s t t w o m a n u f a c t u r e r s m a r k e t a h e a t e d d e c a n t i n g unit .
H e a t i n g s c u m t o a b o u t 1 8 0 °F ( 8 0 °C ) g r e a t l y i m p r o v e s t h e
separation of solids from w a t e r . T h u s , the decanted w a t e r will
have a lower solids and g r e a s e c o n t e n t , w h e r e a s t h e thickened
scum will contain less moisture.
4 . 7.4 Septage
Domestic s e p t i c t a n k w a s t e s ( s e p t a g e ) m a y b e defined a s a
p a r t i a l l y d i g e s t e d mixture o f l i q u i d a n d solid m a t e r i a l t h a t
originates a s waterborne domestic w a s t e s. S e p t a g e a c c u m u l a t e s in
a septic tank or cesspool over a period of several months or
years. Normally , household w a s t e s derive f r o m t h e toilet, b a t h
o r s h o w e r , s i n k , g a r b a g e d i s p o s a l , d i s h w a s h e r, a n d w a s h i n g
machine , S e p t a g e m a y a l s o include t h e p u m p i n g s f r o m t h e
s e p t i c t a n k s o f s c h o o l s , m o t e l s , r e s t a u r a n t s, a n d s i m i l a r
establishments. S e p t a g e is f r e q u e n t l y d i s c h a r g e d into municipal
w a s t e w a t e r s y s t e m s. W i t h c a r e f u l d e s i g n a n d operation , m u n i c i p a l
s y s t e m s c a n handle s e p t a g e adequately ( 1 3 8-1 4 0 ).
4.7.4 . 1 Quantities o f S e p t a g e
F o r Connecticut , K o l e g a and o t h e r s ( 138 ) estimated residential
s e p t a g e a t 6 6 g a l l o n s p e r c a p i t a p e r y e a r ( 2 5 0 1/ c a p i t a/y r ).
S o m e t a n k s were p u m p e d only after many y e a r s of service; o t h e r s
were p u m p e d more t h a n t h r e e times a y e a r , F r e q u e n t p u m p i n g w a s
associated with seasonally h i g h g r o u n d w a t e r levels , Based o n
t h e detailed observations of t h r e e t a n k s, B r a n d e s recommended
designing for a septage volume of 53 gallons per capita per
y e a r ( 2 0 0 1 / c a p i t a /y r ) ( 1 4 1 ). O t h e r s h a v e r e c o m m e n d e d 5 0 t o
3 6 0 g a l l o n s p e r capita p e r year ( 1 8 9 t o 1 4 6 1/capita/y e a r ).
4.7.4 . 2 P r o p e r t i e s of S e p t a g e
T a b l e 4- 2 6 contains a wide r a n g e of d a t a o n various constituents
o f s e p t a g e. Septage may foam and generally has a highly
offensive o d o r ( 1 4 0 ). Settling properties are highly variable.
S o m e s a m p l e s s e t t l e r e a d i l y t o about 2 0 t o 5 0 p e r c e n t o f
t h e i r o r i g i n a l v o l u m e , w h e r e a s o t h e r s s h o w l i t t l e s e t t l i n g.
4- 59
Significant amounts of grit may be present ( 140 ). Large
concentrations of total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and fecal
streptococci have been found in septage ( 140 , 141 ).
TABLE 4- 26
CHARACTERISTICS OF DOMESTIC SEPTAGE ( 140 )
Parameter Mean9 Standard Range3 Number of

deviation3 samples
Total solids (TS)
Total volatile solids (TVS),
38 ,800 23 ,700 3 ,600 - 106 ,000 25
percent of total solids
Suspended solids (SS)
65.1
13 ,014
11.3
6 ,020
32
1 , 770
-- 81
22 ,600
22
15
Volatile suspended solids
(VSS), percent of suspended
solids 67.0 9.3 51 - 85 15
-
5 day biochemical oxygen de-
mand ( BOD 5 )
Total chemical oxygen demand
5 ,000 4 , 570 1 ,460 - 18 ,600 13
(CODt) 42 , 850 36 ,950 2 ,200 - 190 ,000 37
Soluble chemical oxygen de
mand ( COD5)
- 2 , 570 b 21
Total organic carbon (TOC) 9 ,930 6 ,990 1 , 316- 18 ,400 9
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN ) 677 427 66 - 1 , 560 37
Ammonia nitrogen ( NH 3 - N) 157 120 6 - 385 25
Total phosphorus (Total P) 253 178 24 - 760 37
pH (units) 6.9 C 6.0 - 8.8 25
Grease 9 , 090 6 , 530 604 - 23 ,468 17
Linear alkyl sulfonate (LAS) 157 45 110 - 200 3
Iron (Fe) 205 184 3 - 750 37
Zinc (Zn) 49.0 40.2 4.5 - 153 38
Aluminum ( Al ) 48 61 2 - 200 9
Lead (Pb)
Copper ( Cu)
8.4
6 .4
12.7
8 .3
1.5 - 31
0.3 - 38
5
19
Manganese ( Mn) 5.02 6.25 0.5 - 32 38
Chromium ( Cr) 1.07 0.64 0.3 - 2.2 12
Nickel ( Ni) 0.90
0.71
0.59
2.17
0.2
< .05
-- 3.7
10.8
34
24
Cadmium (Cd )
Mercury ( Hg) 0.28 0.79 < .0002 - 4.0 35
Arsenic ( As) 0.16 0.18 0.03 0.5 12
Selenium ( Se) 0.076 0.074 < 0.02 0.3 13
aValues are concentrations in mg/1 , unless otherwise noted.

^Soluble COD is 6 percent of total COD.
CMedian.
4.7.4.3 Treating Septage in Wastewater
Treatment Plants
When treated at wastewater treatment plants, septage is often

mixed with the influent wastewater * In some situations, however,
it is treated or pretreated separately, Septage may also be
added directly to the wastewater sludge , Septage is delivered
from tank trucks , loaded into the system immediately , or
temporarily stored and added gradually to the wastewater or
sludge. Holding tanks for septage are therefore recommended in
many cases.
4-60
If septage is added to wastewater, the quantities of all
wastewater solids in the treatment plant increase for the
f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s:
S e p t a g e contributes t o g r i t , s c u m , a n d s c r e e n i n g s.
T h e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s in t h e s e p t a g e m a y be largely
r e m o v e d in primary sedimentation , increasing the amount
o f p r i m a r y s l u d g e. O n e p i l o t s t u d y found 5 5 t o 6 5 p e r-
cent removals of septage suspended solids ( 1 4 0 ), b u t
v e r y different values m i g h t o c c u r u n d e r o t h e r conditions.
I n b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s , s e p t a g e i n c r e a s e s t h e B O D5
load a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e s l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n , F u r t h e r m o r e,
septage may produce as much as twice the amount of sludge
p e r unit B O D5 r e m o v e d a s o r d i n a r y w a s t e w a t e r , since t h e
s e p t a g e h a s a h i g h r a t i o o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s t o -B O D
( 1 4 0 ). ^
Addition o f s e p t a g e increases t h e p h o s p h o r u s load a t a
treatment plant, F o r p l a n t s which m u s t m e e t e f f l u e n t
l i m i t s o n p h o s p h o r u s, t h e a d d i t i o n o f s e p t a g e w i l l
increase t h e n e c e s s a r y c h e m i c a l d o s e , T h u s, c o s t s a n d
t h e a m o u n t o f chemical s l u d g e will i n c r e a s e.
A t s o m e p l a n t s, s l u d g e t h i c k e n i n g a n d d e w a t e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s h a v e
b e e n d e g r a d e d by s e p t a g e , but t h e r e a r e f e w d a t a a v a i l a b l e o n t h e
extent of t h e p r o b l e m, and d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s a r e o b t a i n e d at
d i f f e r e n t locations. A t S h r e w s b u r y , M a s s a c h u s e t t s, d e w a t e r i n g
difficulties w e r e e n c o u n t e r e d w h e n t h e s e p t a g e/s e w a g e h y d r a u l i c
r a t i o e x c e e d e d a b o u t 0 . 0 0 3 3 ( 1 4 0 ). Furthermore, problems
associated with bulking activated sludge may be related to
s e p t a g e ( 1 4 0 ). Bulking sludge has very poor thickening and
dewatering p r o p e r t i e s , T h e m e t a l s c o n t e n t of s e p t a g e m a y a l s o be
h i g h.
4 . 7.5 Backwash
W a s t e w a t e r is sometimes filtered t o r e m o v e s u s p e n d e d solids. A s

u s e d i n this section, t h e t e r m " f i l t e r s " includes s a n d filters ,
dual and mixed-media filters, and microstrainers , Solids
a c c u m u l a t e in filters a s t h e y a r e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e w a s t e w a t e r.
They are subsequently removed f r o m t h e f i l t e r s b y b a c k w a s h i n g.
The volume of backwash water is g r e a t , o f t e n s e v e r a l p e r c e nt of
t h e t o t a l w a s t e w a t e r f l o w. However , t h e q u a n t i t y o f s u s p ended
solids in b a c k w a s h is n o r m a l l y a b o u t 3 0 0 t o 1 , 5 0 0 m g / 1 ( 0 . 0 3 to
0 . 1 5 p e r c e n t ). T h e d r y w e i g h t l o a d is u s u a l l y s m a l l c o m p a r e d to
t h o s e f r o m p r i m a r y, b i o l o g i c a l , a n d chemical s l u d g e s.
B a c k w a s h i s n o r m a l l y r e t u r n e d t o t h e influent w a s t e w a t e r s a n d
its s u s p e n d e d solids a r e r e m o v e d in w a s t e w a t e r p r o c e s s e s s u c h a s
p r i m a r y sedimentation a n d activated s l u d g e.
4- 6 1
When designing a plant with filters , the following measures
should be taken to allow for backwash and associated solids:
• If the backwash is produced intermittently , as is usually

the case, then a spent backwash holding tank should be
provided . Thus , the backwash need not drastically
increase the flows to be treated. Solids may settle to
some extent in the holding tank . Therefore , washout
facilities or possibly air agitation should be provided.
• An allowance for increased flow due to recycle of
backwash should be included when sizing wastewater
treatment processes.
• Filter solids should be allowed for when primary ,
biological , and chemical sludge quantities are computed.
4.7.6 Solids from Treatment of Combined Sewer

Overflows
Solids generated in the treatment of combined sewer overflows
( CSOs may be treated separately , or discharged under non-storm
)
conditions to the dry - weather sludge treatment and disposal
facilities. The volumes and characteristics of solids produced
from CSO treatment vary widely. The volume of solids residuals
evaluated in a recent study ranged from less than one percent to
six percent of the raw volume treated and contained 0.12 percent
to 11 percent suspended solids ( 142 ). The volatile content of
these sludges varied between 25 percent and 63 percent , with
biological treatment residuals showing the highest volatile
content ( about 60 percent ).
Pesticides and PCB concentrations in the CSO sludges have been
found to be high at some locations ( 142 ). PCB concentrations as
high as 6 , 570 ug /kg dry solids have been measured.
Heavy metal concentrations in the CSO sludges have been found to
vary widely. The range of heavy metal concentrations for the
sites studied in reference 142 are given in Table 4- 27.
TABLE 4- 27
METALS CONCENTRATIONS IN
SOLIDS FROM TREATMENT OF
COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS ( 142 )
Concentration ,
Metal mg /kg dry solids
Z inc 697 - 7 , 154

Lead 164 - 2 , 448
Copper 200 - 2, 454
Nickel 83 - 995
Chromium 52 - 2 , 471
Mercury 0.01 - 100.5
4-62
4.8 References
1. Water Pollution Control Federation. MOP 8 Wastewater
Treatment Plant Design . Water Pollution Control
Federation. 1977.
2. Metcalf and Eddy , Inc. Wastewater Engineering ; Treatment

Disposal , Reuse. 2 nd Edition. McGraw - Hill Book Company .
1979.
3. American Public Health Association , American Water Works

Association , Water Pollution Control Federation. Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater .
14 th Edition. 1975.
4. Schmidt , 0.J . " Wastewater Treatment Problems at North

Kansas City , Missouri. Journal Water Pollution Control
Federation. Vol. 50 , P 635. ( 1978 ).
-
5. Babbitt , H . E. and E . R. Baumann. Sewerage and Sewage
Treatment. Eighth Edition, Wiley , 1958.
6. Brisbin, S.G. "Flow of Concentrated Raw Sludges in Pipes."

Journal Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE. Volume 83 ,
SA 3 , 1957.
7. USEPA Review of Techniques for Treatment and Disposal of

Phosphorus- Laden Chemical Sludges. Office of Research and
Development , Cincinnati , Ohio, 45268. EPA-600/2- 79- 083 ,
February 1979.
8. Knight , C.H., R.G. Mondox, and B. Hambley. "Thickening

and Dewatering Sludges Produced in Phosphate Removal."
Paper presented at Phosphorous Removal Design Seminar ,
May 28-29 , 1973 , Toronto.
9. Young , J .C. , J.L. Cleasby , and E . R . Baumann , " Flow

and Load Variations in Treatment Plant Design." Journal
Environmental Engineering Division ASCE. Vol. 104, ( EE 2 ),
— , . =. a.- «.•
P -289 ( 1978 )
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Disposal." Sewage Works Journal. Vol. 9 ( 2 ). March 1936.
11 . Anderson , C.N. "Peak Sludge Loads at a Municipal Treatment

.
Plant " Presented at the 44 th Annual Meeting of the
Pacific Northwest Pollution Control Association. Portland ,
Oregon. November 2-4, 1977.
12. USEPA . Cost - Effective Design of Wastewater Treatment

Facilities Based on Field Derived Parameters. Office of
Research an Development , Cincinnati , Ohio, 45268. EPA- 670/
2- 74- 062. July 1974.
4-63
13. Babbitt , H.E. Sewerage and Sewage Treatment. 6 th Edition
Wiley. 1947.
14. Smith , J . E . , Jr . " Ultimate Disposal of Sludges . "
Technical Workshop on Advanced Waste Treatment , Chapel
Hill, North Carolina. February 9 -10, 1971.
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and Data ( WPCF ). July 1978.
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Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. Report
WP- 20-4. 1968 .
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Central Treatment Plant , County of Sacramento Final Report,
County of Sacramento, Sacramento, California. February
1974.
18. Metropolitan Engineers. West Point Waste Activated Sludge

Withholding Experiment . Report to Municipality of
Metropolitan Seattle , Washington. October 1977.
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Removal. Technology Transfer , Cincinnati, Ohio, 45268.
EPA - 62 5/1- 75 - 00 3 a. January 1975.
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Engineering Division ASCE. Vol. 83, P - 1177. 1957.
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Vol. Ill , Disposal of Sewage. Third Edition, McGraw - Hill,
1935.
22 . Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle, Washington , Data

from Renton Treatment Plant operations reports, 1976.
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Process Biochemistry. 1966.
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History. November 1973.
25. Heukelekian, H ., H.E. Orford , and R. Manganelli. " Factors

A f f e c t i n g t h e Q u a n t i t y o f S l u d g e P r o d u c t i o n in the
Activated Sludge Process." Sewage and Industrial Wastes.
Vol. 23 , ( 8 ), 1951.
26. .
Colbaugh , J E . and A Liu . .
" Pure Oxygen and Diffused Air
Activated Sludge Studies at Hyperion " .
Presented at 48 th
Annual Conference of the California Water Pollution Control
Association, South Lake Tahoe, California .
April 14-16 ,
1976.
4-64
2 7. U S E P A. Characterization o f t h e Activated S l u d g e P r o c e s s
O f f i c e o f R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t. C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o ,
4 5 2 6 8. E P A -R 2-7 3/2 2 4, A p r i l 1 9 7 3.
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R e l a t i o n t o S t r e a m S a n i t a t i o n." S e w a g e a n d I n d u s t r i a l
W a s t e s. V o l. 2 6 , ( 1 ), ( 1 9 5 4 ).
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E n g i n e e r s. B a r n e s & N o b l e , 1 9 7 0.
3 0. B r o w n a n d C a l d w e l l. W e s t P o i n t P i l o t P l a n t S t u d y , V o l. I I ,
A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e R e p o r t f o r Municipality o f M e t r o p o l i t a n
S e a t t l e. S e a t t l e, W a s h i n g t o n. D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 8.
3 1. .
B e e r e , C W • / a n d J .F .
Malina .
Application of Oxygen
t o T r e a t W a s t e F r o m M i l i t a r y FieTd I n s t a l l a t i o n s: An
Evaluation o f a n A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e P r o c e s s E m p l o y i n g
Downflow Bubble Contact Aeration ”
.
P a r t I I , F i n a l R e p o r t,
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-
3 4. Middlebrooks, E.J ., a n d C .F. G a r l a n d , " Kinetics o f M o d e l
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.
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1 2, 1 9 7 7, P u r d u e U n i v e r s i t y , A n n A r b o r S c i e n c e, P
1 9 7 8.
-
7 5 9,
3 7. USEPA. P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l f o r N i t r o g e n C o n t r o l.
T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r , C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o, 4 5 2 6 8 , E P A-6 2 5/1- 7 5-
0 0 7, O c t o b e r 1 9 7 5.
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R a t e o f Production a n d P r o p e r t i e s o f Activated S l u d g e in
P l a n t s T r e a t i n g Domestic S e w a g e." J o u r n a l o f t h e Institute
o f S e w a g e Purification. P a r t 5 , 1 9 6 5.
4-6 5
39 . C h a p m a n, L C T D . .,
Matsch and E H Zander . .
"E f f e c t o f . . .
High Dissolved
Oxygen Concentration in Activated Sludge
.
Systems " Journal Water Pollution Control Federation .
.
Vol 49, P 2486 , (1976 )
- .
40 . Miller, M A . .
"Two A c t i v a t e d Sludge Systems Compared ."
Water and Wastes Engineering Vol 15, ( 4 ) , (1978 ) . . .
41 . Kalinske, A A . .
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P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. V o l. 4 4, ( 8 ), ( 1 9 7 2 ).
1 1 9. F i n g e r , R.E ., a n d J . P a r r i c k. "O p t i m i z a t i o n o f G r i t
R e m o v a l a t a W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t P l a n t." Presented at
,
5 1s t A n n u a l C o n f e r e n c e W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n,
, ,
A n a h e i m California O c t o b e r 3 , 1 9 7 4.
120. Questionnaire for San Francisco Bay Region Wastewater
S o l i d s S t u d y , O a k l a n d , California 9 4 6 1 1 , 1 9 7 7.
121. M a t h e w s , W.W. 1 9 5 7 O p e r a t o r s' F o r u m , W . D. I t a t f i e l d ,
L e a d e r. S e w a g e a n d I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e s. V o l. 3 0 , A p r i l
1 9 5 8.
122 . USEPA. P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l f o r S u l f i d e C o n t r o l in
Sanitary Sewerage Systems. Technology T r a n s f e r,
C i n c i n n a t i, O h i o. 4 5 2 6 8. E P A 6 2 5/1 -7 4-0 0 5. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 4.
1 2 3. F i s c h e r. S e w a g e W o r k s J o u r n a 1 1 9 3 0. As cite by
Metcalf , L. a n d H .P . E d d y . A m e r i c a n S e w a g e P r a c t i c e,
V o l. I l l , D i s p o s a l o f S e w a g e. Third E d i t i o n, M c G r a w -Hill,
1 9 3 5.
1 2 4. C o o p e r, T.W. 1 9 6 3 O p e r a t o r s F o r u m, A.J. W a h l , President.

J o u r n a l W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l Federation. V o l. 3 6 , ( 4 ),
( 1964 ) .
4-7 2
125 . D r a g o, J . A . I n t e r n a l M e m o r a n d u m o n S i t e V i s i t t o H a m p t o n
R o a d s S a n i t a r y D i s t r i c t , V i r g i n i a , B r o w n a n d C a l d w e l l,
W a l n u t C r e e k , C a l i f o r n i a 9 4 5 9 6. 1 9 7 6.
1 2 6. B a e r , G .T., J r. " W a s t e w a t e r S k i m m i n g s: H a n d l i n g a n d
I n c i n e r a t i o n. " W P C F D e e d s a n d D a t a , S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 7.
1 2 7. L e e, R.D. " R e m o v a l and D i s p o s a l o f G r e a s e a n d S k i m m i n g s a t
W i c h i t a , K a n s a s." S e w a g e a n d Industrial W a s t e s. V o l. 3 1,
( 6 ) , ( 1 9 5 9 ).
1 2 8. M i c k , K.L. " R e m o v a l a n d D i s p o s a l o f G r e a s e a n d S k i m m i n g s
a t M i n n e a p o l i s- S t. P a u l , Minnesota." S e w a g e a n d Industrial
W a s t e s. V o l. 3 1 ,( 6 ), ( 1 9 5 9 ).
1 2 9. E a s t B a y M u n i c i p a l U t i l i t y District , S p e c i a l D i s t r i c t N o. 1
A n n u a l R e p o r t S u p p l e m e n t , 1 9 7 0. E a s t B a y M u n i c i p a l U t i l i t y
District, O a k l a n d , California 9 4 6 2 3. 1 9 7 1 .
1 3 0. R o s s, E.E. " S c u m Incineration E x p e r i e n c e s." J o u r n a l W a t e r
P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. V o l. 4 2, ( 5 ), ( 1 9 7 0 ).
1 3 1. B u r w e l l, H . W . M e m o r a n d a o n W e s t P o i n t T r e a t m e n t P l a n t
Operations, Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle,
W a s h i n g t o n 9 8 1 0 1. 1 9 7 6.
1 3 2. B a n e r j i , S.K • / C.M. R o b s o n, a n d B.S. H y a t t , J r. "G r e a s e

P r o b l e m s in M u n i c i p a l W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t S y s t e m s. "
P r o c e e d i n g s o f 2 9 t h I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e C o n f e r e n c e. M a y 7-9 ,
1 9 7 4 , P u r d u e U n i v e r s i t y , P 7 6 8, 1 9 7 5.
-
1 3 3. D o n a l d s o n , W. " U t i l i z a t i o n o f S e w a g e G r e a s e. " Sewage
Works Journal . V o l. 1 6 , ( 3 ), M a y 1 9 4 4.
1 3 4. H a r r i s, R .HS k i m m i n g s R e m o v a l a n d D i s p o s a l S t u d i. e s.
.
A r e p o r t submitted t o t h e R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t S e c t i o n,
C o u n t y Sanitation Districts o f L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y , Whittier ,
California 9 0 6 0 7. S e p t e m b e r 2 8, 1 9 6 4.
135 . Brown a n d C a l d w e l l S t u d y o f O p e r a t i o n s, P h a s e 1 R e p o r t o f
C i t y o f A l b a n y , G e o r g i a 3 1 7 0 2. March 1 9 7 9.
136. M e t r o p o l i t a n E n g i n e e r s. Sludge Handling and Disposal

Interim M e a s u r e s. R e p o r t t o Municipality o f M e t r o p o l i t a n
S e a t t l e, S e a t t l e, W a s h i n g t o n 9 8 1 0 1. N o v e m b e r 1 9 7 5.
1 3 7. L y o n, S.L. "I n c i n e r a t i o n o f R a w S l u d g e s a n d G r e a s e s." WPCF

D e e d s a n d D a t a, A p r i l 1 9 7 3 .
1 3 8. U S E P A. T r e a t m e n t a n d D i s p o s a l o f W a s t e s P u m p e d f r o m S e p t i c
T a n k s. O f f i c e o f R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t, Cincinnati,
O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. E P A -6 0 0/ 2-7 7- 1 9 8, S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 7.
4- 7 3
139. USEPA. Septage Treatment and Disposal. Prepared for 1977
Technology Transfer Seminar Program. Technology Transfer,
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 .1977.
140. USEPA . Treatment and Disposal of Septic Tank Sludges , A

Status Report. Design Seminar Handout , Small Wastewater
Treatment Facilities. Technology Transfer, Cincinnati,
Ohio 45268. January 1978.
.
141 Brandes , M . " Accumulation Rate of Septic Tank Sludge
and Septage." Journal Water Pollution Control Federation.
Vol. 50, ( 5 ), ( 1978 ).
142. USEPA. Handling and Disposal of Sludges from Combined Sewer
Overflow Treatment. Office of Research and Development ,
Cincinnati , O h i o 45268 . .
EPA - 600/ 2 - 77 - 053 a , b , and c
May 1977.
4- 74
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 5. Thickening


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 5
THICKENING
5.1 Introduction
The p u r p o s e of t h i s c h a p t e r is t o p r o v i d e t h e r e a d e r with
r a t i o n a l d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i n g information o n which t o b a s e
decisions about cost-effective thickening p r o c e s s e s. Thickening
is o n l y one p a r t o f the wastewater solids treatment and disposal
s y s t e m and must be integrated into the overall treatment process ,
s o t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e f o r b o t h liquid and s o l i d s t r e a t m e n t is
o p t i m i z e d and total c o s t is minimized ( 1- 3 ).
5 . 1.1 Definition
Thickening is defined in this c h a p t e r as removal of water from
s l u d g e t o achieve a volume reduction . The resulting material is
still fluid.
5 . 1.2 Purpose
Sludges are thickened primarily to decrease the capital and

operating costs of subsequent sludge processing steps by
s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e d u c i n g t h e v o l u m e. Thickening from one to
t w o p e r c e n t solids concentration , for e x a m p l e , halves the s l u d g e
volume. Further concentration t o five p e r c e n t solids reduces the
volume t o one -fifth its original volume.
Depending on the process selected , thickening may also
provide the following benefits: s l u d g e blending , sludge flow
equalization , s l u d g e s t o r a g e , g r i t removal , g a s stripping , and
clarification.
5 . 1.3 P r o c e s s Evaluation
A l t h o u g h it is g o o d design practice t o pilot thickening equipment

before designing a facility , pilot testing d o e s not guarantee
a successful full -scale s y s t e m , Designers must be cognizant of
t h e difficulties involved in scale- u p and the changing c h a r a c t e r
o f w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e and allow f o r them in d e s i g n.
T h e main design variables o f a n y thickening process are :
• Solids concentration a n d v o l u m e t r i c f l o w r a t e o f t h e
feed s t r e a m ;
5- 1
• Chemical d e m a n d and c o s t if chemicals a r e e m p l o y e d ;
• Suspended and dissolved solids concentrations and

volumetric flow rate of the clarified s t r e a m ;
• Solids concentration and volumetric flow rate of the

thickened s l u d g e.
Specific d e s i g n criteria for selection o f a thickening process

c a n a l s o be d e p e n d e n t o n the c h o s e n downstream p r o c e s s train.
A n o t h e r important consideration is t h e o p e r a t i o n and maintenance

( 0/ M ) c o s t a n d t h e v a r i a b l e s a f f e c t i n g it. I n t h e p a s t , 0/ M
c o s t s h a v e n o t been given e n o u g h attention. T h i s should c h a n g e
as USEPA begins t o implement its new Operations Check List ( 4 )
in all p h a s e s of t h e Construction G r a n t s P r o g r a m.
Finally , thickening reliability i s important f o r s u c c e s s f u l p l a n t

operation. A reliable thickening system is needed t o maintain
t h e desired concentration and relatively uninterrupted removal o f
sludge from a continuously o p e r a t e d treatment p l a n t. S l u d g e s a r e
being generated constantly , and if they are allowed t o accumulate
f o r a l o n g t i m e , t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e e n t i r e p l a n t w i l l b e
d e g r a d e d.
5 . 1.4 T y p e s and O c c u r r e n c e of Thickening P r o c e s s e s
Thickening i s a c c o m p l i s h e d in s e d i m e n a t i o n b a s i n s ; g r a v i t y ,
flotation a n d c e n t r i f u g a l t h i c k e n e r s ; a n d i n m i s c e l l a n e o u s
facilities such a s s e c o n d a r y anaerobic digesters , elutriation
basins , and sludge lagoons.
5.2 Sedimentation Basins
5 . 2.1 Primary Sedimentation
A p r i m a r y clarifier c a n b e used a s a thickener u n d e r c e r t a i n

conditions . Primary s l u d g e thickens w e l l , provided t h e s l u d g e is
r e a s o n a b l y f r e s h, s o l i d s o f b i o l o g i c a l o r i g i n ( f o r e x a m p l e,
w a s t e- activated s l u d g e ) a r e k e p t t o a minimum , a n d t h e w a s t e w a t e r
is reasonably cool . I f s l u d g e of f i v e t o s i x p e r c e n t s o l i d s
c o n t e n t is t o b e recovered from a primary sedimentation s y s t e m ,
it is essential t h a t t h e s l u d g e t r a n s p o r t facilities b e designed
to move those solids . This w i l l r e q u i r e s h o r t suction piping ,
a d e q u a t e n e t p o s i t i v e suction heads o n t h e primary s l u d g e p u m p ,
suction- sight glass inspection piping , and a p o s i t i v e means o f
ascertaining the quantity pumped and the concentration o f t h e
s l u r r y ( 5 ).
5 -2
5 . 2.2 Secondary Sedimentation
Thickening in secondary or intermediate clarifiers has not

b e e n successful in t h e p a s t b e c a u s e b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e s a r e
difficult to thicken by gravity. Thickening h a s b e e n improved by
using side w a t e r d e p t h s of f r o m 1 4 t o 1 6 f e e t ( 4 t o 5 m ) , suction
s l u d g e w i t h d r a w a l m e c h a n i s m s r a t h e r t h a n p l o w mechanisms , a n d
g e n t l e f l o o r s l o p e s , f o r e x a m p l e , 1 : 1 2. A l t h o u g h t h i c k e n i n g
within a sedimentation basin can be beneficial under certain
conditions , s e p a r a t e thickening is usually recommended.
5.3 G r a v i t y Thickeners
5.3.1 Introduction
S e p a r a t e , continuously operating gravity thickening f o r municipal

w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s w a s conceptualized in the early 1 9 5 0's ( 6 ) .
Until t h a t t i m e , t h i c k e n i n g h a d b e e n c a r r i e d o u t w i t h i n t h e
primary clarifier . Operating p r o b l e m s s u c h a s floating s l u d g e ,
odors , dilute s l u d g e, a n d p o o r p r i m a r y e f f l u e n t l e d t o t h e
development of t h e s e p a r a t e thickening t a n k. Gravity thickeners
became t h e m o s t c o m m o n l y used sludge concentrating device ; now ,
h o w e v e r , t h e i r u s e i s b e i n g c h a l l e n g e d by o t h e r t h i c k e n i n g
processes .
Table 5 -1 lists advantages and disadvantages of gravity
thickeners c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r thickeners.
TABLE 5- 1
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GRAVITY THICKENERS
Advantages Disadvantages
Provides greatest sludge storage Requires largest land area

capabilities
Requires the least operational skill Contributes to the production of odors
Provides lowest operation (especially For some sludges ,
power) and maintenance cost - solid/liquid separation can be erratic
- can produce the thinnest least
concentrated sludge
5 . 3.2 Theory
Since t h e early w o r k o f C o e and C l e v e n g e r ( 7 ) , understanding o f

g r a v i t y t h i c k e n i n g h a s s l o w l y i m p r o v e d ( 8 -1 1 ). The key to
understanding the continuous gravity thickening process is
recognition of the behavior of materials during thickening.
5 -3
Coarse m i n e r a l s t h i c k e n a s p a r t i c u l a t e ( n o n f 1o c c u1e n t )
suspensions .
M u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s , h o w e v e r, a r e u s u a l l y
flocculent suspensions that behave differently (12 ) .
Detailed, comprehensiveanalysis of current gravity thickening
theory for municipal wastewater sludges i s beyond the scope
of this manual; those desiring such detail should consult
Design and Operational C r i t e r i a for Thickening of Biological
Sludges ( 13 ) .
A short descriptive summary of current theory
follows ( 12 ) .
OVERFLOW INFLOW
fit ZONE OF CLEAR LIQUID

ZONE OF CLEAR LIQUID
I
-
I
; SEDIMENTATION ZONE SEDIMENTATION ZONE
I
LU t
z
<
H
THICKENING ZONE THICKENING ZONE
UNDERFLOW
Ci Cb Cu
SOLIDS CONCENTRATION
IN THICKENER
Cj - INFLOW SOLIDS CONCENTRATION

Cb - LOWEST CONCENTRATION AT WHICH FLOCCULANT SUSPENSION IS IN
THE FORM OF POROUS MEDIUM
Cu - UNDERFLOW CONCENTRATION FROM GRAVITY THICKENER
FIGURE 5- 1
TYPICAL CONCENTRATION PROFILE OF MUNICIPAL

WASTEWATER SLUDGE IN A CONTINUOUSLY OPERATING
GRAVITY THICKENER
F i g u r e 5 -1 s h o w s a t y p i c a l s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e f o r
municipal wastewater sludges within a continuously operating
gravity thickener .
Sludge moving into the thickener partially
disperses i n water i n the sedimentation zone and p a r t i a l l y flows
as a density current t o the bottom of the sedimentation zone .
T h e s o l i d p h a s e o f t h e s l u d g e, b o t h d i s p e r s e d a n d i n t h e d e n s i t y
current, creates floes that settle on top of the thickening
zone . Floes i n the thickening zone lose t h e i r individual
character . They have mutual contacts and thus become a p a r t o f
5-4
the matrix of solids c o m p r e s s e d by t h e pressure o f t h e overlying
s o l i d s. The d i s p l a c e d w a t e r f l o w s u p w a r d t h r o u g h c h a n n e l s in
the solids matrix .
G e n e r a l l y , in decision making about thickener size , the settling

p r o c e s s in t h e sedimentation zone as well as the consolidation
p r o c e s s in the t h i c k e n i n g zone should be evaluated ; whichever
process ( sedimentation or thickening ) requires g r e a t e r surface
area dictates the size of the thickener , For municipal
wastewater s l u d g e s , t h e thickening zone area required is almost
a l w a y s g r e a t e r t h a t h a for the sedimentation zone.
n t
5 . 3.3 S y s t e m Design Considerations
Circular concrete t a n k s are the m o s t common configuration for

c o n t i n u o u s l y operating gravity thickeners, though circular steel
t a n k s and r e c t a n g u l a r c o n c r e t e t a n k s h a v e a l s o b e e n used .
F i g u r e 5 - 2 s h o w s a t y p i c a l g r a v i t y thickener installation ;
F i g u r e 5 - 3 is a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l v i e w o f a t y p i c a l circular
g r a v i t y thickener ( 1 4 ).
FIGURE 5- 2
TYPICAL GRAVITY THICKENER INSTALLATION
5-5
BAFFLE
HANDRAILING SUPPORTS
INFLUENT
PIPE EFFLUENT
TURNTABLE WEIR
1" GROUT
BRIDGE
z /
MAX. WATER SURFACE
1'3" MIN.
EFFLUENT
LAUNDER
:v
•
pj»
| *
T<
INFLUENT
BAFFLE
TOP OF TANK
2
i -
’• i.
J,
D m
m
cn
*
Mi DRIVE
CAGE
f
i>
x H
m
/
2%' **
.»
•
12”
dlr - ytZ,
i,; • n
2" GROUT
\
ADJUSTABLE
'
S <r SCRAPER SQUEEGEES
y BLADES
r/a" BLADE /
/
SLUDGE
CLEARANCE SLUfWJ HOPPER
PIPE
1*;
1 f t = 0.305 m
1 in = 2.54 c m HOPPER
SCRAPERS
FIGURE 5- 3
CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF A TYPICAL CIRCULAR

GRAVITY THICKENER
At minimum , the following should be evaluated for every gravity

thickener : minimum surface area requirements, hydraulic loading ,
drive t o r q u e r e q u i r e m e n t s, and t o t a l tank d e p t h. Floor s l o p e and
several other considerations will also influence the final design
of t h e gravity thickener.
5.3.3 . 1 Minimum Surface Area Requirements
If s l u d g e from t h e particular f a c i l i t y is available f o r testing ,

the required surface area can be found by using a settling
column , developing a settling flux curve , and calculating the
critical flux ( mass loading , lbs/sq ft / hr ) for that particular
s l u d g e ( 4, 1 3 , 15 ). In m o s t cases, however , t h e s l u d g e t o be
thickened is not available , and t h e designer m u s t r e s o r t t o other
m e t h o d s.
Table 5- 2 provides criteria for calculating required surface area

w h e n t e s t d a t a a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e and p i l o t p l a n t w o r k is n o t
r e a s o n a b l e. The designer must specify the sludge type ( for
mixtures , the a p p r o x i m a t e proportions should be known ), the r a n g e
o f s o l i d s concentrations t h a t a r e e x p e c t e d in t h e thickener
inflow , and t h e underflow concentration required for downstream
processing. P a r t A o f t h e d e s i g n e x a m p l e ( S e c t i o n 5 . 3 .4 )
illustrates the use o f Table 5- 2 in sizing gravity thickeners.
5- 6
TABLE 5- 2
3
TYPICAL GRAVITY THICKENER SURFACE AREA DESIGN CRITERIA
Influent Expected
solids underflow
concentration , concentration , Mass loading ,
Type of sludge percent solids percent solids lb/sq ft/hr*3 Reference
.
II
-
Separate sludges:
Primary (PRI)
Trickling filter (TF )
2
1
-
-
7
4
5 - 61 0 0.8
0.3
- 1.2
- 0.4
16
16
Rotating biological
contactor (RBC)
Waste activated sludge
1 - 3.5 2 - 5 0.3 - 0.4 16
(WAS)
WAS air 0.5 1.5 2 - 3 0.1 - 0.3 16
WAS
WAS
oxygen
(extended
0.5 - 1.5 2 - 3 0.1 - 0.3 17
aeration) 0.2 - 1.0 2 - 3 0.2 - 0.3 16

sludge from primary
digester 8 12 1.0 18
Thermally conditioned
sludge:
--- 151 0 - 2.1

PRI only 3 - 6 12 15 1.6 19
PRI + WAS
WAS only
3
0.5
-- 6
1.5
8
6
1.2
0.9
-- 1.2
1.8 19
19
Tertiary sludge:
High lime 3 - 4.5 12 - 15 1.0 - 2.5 18 , 20
Low 1 ime
Alum
3 - 4.5 10 - 12 0.4 - 1.25 18 , 20
Iron 0.5 - 1.5 3 -4 0.1 - 0.4 20
Other sludges:
PRI + WAS 0.5 - 1.5 4 - 6 0.2 - 0.6 20
2.5 - 4.0 4 -7 0.3 - 0.7 16
PRI + TF 2 -6 5 - 98 0.5 - 0.8 16
PRI
PRI
+ RBC
+ iron
2 -26 5 -4 0.4 - 0.7
0.25
16
18
PRI + low lime 5 7 0.8 18
PRI + high lime 7.5 12 1.0 18
PRI + (WAS + iron) 1.5 3 0.25 18
PRI + (WAS + alum) 0.2 - 0.4 4.5 -
6.5 0.5 -0.7 20
(PRI + iron) + TF
(PRI + iron) + WAS
0.4 - 0.6
1.8
6.5
3.6
-8.5 0.6 - 0.8
0.25
20
18
WAS + TF 0.5 - 2.5 2 - 4 0.1 -0.3 16
PRI + WAS 4 8 0.6 18
PRI + (WAS + iron) 4 6 0.6 18
aData on supernatant characteristics is covered later in this section.

Typically, this term is given in lb/sq ft/day. Since wasting to the
thickener is not always continuous over 24 hours , it is a more
realistic approach to use lb/sq ft/hr.
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m 2/hr
-
5 7
5.3.3.2 Hydraulic Loading
Hydraulic loading is important for two reasons. First , it
is related to mass loading. The quantity of solids entering
the thickener is equal to the product of the flow rate and
solids concentration. Since there are definite upper limits for
mass loading , there will therefore be some upper limit for
hydraulic loading. Secondly , high hydraulic loading causes
excessive carryover of solids in the thickener effluent.
Typical maximum hydraulic loading rates of 25 to 33 gallons per
square foot per hour ( 1,200 to 1 ,600 l/m /hr) have been used in
the past but mainly for primary sludges. For sludges such as ^
-
waste activated or similar types , much lower hydraulic loading
rates , 4 to 8 gallons per square foot per hour ( 200 to 400 l/n//
hr ) are more applicable ( 16 ). Table 5 -3 gives some typical
operating results. Note that the hydraulic loading rate in
gallons per square foot per hour can be converted to an average
upward tank velocity in feet per hour by dividing by 7.48.
TABLE 5- 3
REPORTED OPERATING RESULTS AT VARIOUS OVERFLOW RATES FOR

GRAVITY THICKENERS ( 20 , 21 )
Influent Thickened
solids solids Overflew
concentration, Hydraulic Mass concentration, suspended
Sludge percent loading, loadinq , percent solids,
Location *
type 3 solids gal/sq ft/hr Lb/sq ft/hr solids mg/1
Port Huron, MI P-FWAS 0.6 8 0.34 4.7 2 , 500

Sheboygan, WI P+TF 0. 3 18.6 0.46 8.6 400
P+(TF+A1) 0.5 19.0 0.73 7.8 2 ,000
Grand Rapids, MI WAS 1.2 4.1 •
0.42 5.6 140
Lakewood, OH P+(WAS4A1) 0.3 25.8 0.6 5.6 1,400
dValues shown are average values only. For example , at Port Huron , MI the hydraulic
loading varies between 7 to 9 gal/sq ft/hr ( 300-400 l/m 2/hr) , the thickened solids in
the underflow between 4.0 and 6.0 percent solids ; and the suspended solids in the
overflow , from 100 to 10 ,000 mg/1.
bP = Primary sludge
TF = Trickling filter sludge
WAS Waste-activated sludge 1 gal/sq ft/hr = 40.8 l/m' Vhr
A1 = Alum sludge 1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /hr
^
Using the typical maximum hydraulic loading rates mentioned
above , maximum velocities for primary sludges are 3.3 to 4.4 feet
per hour ( 1.0 to 1.3 m/hr ) and for waste activated sludge are
0.5 to 1.1 feet/hour ( 0.2 to 0.3 m/hr ).
-
Several researchers have related overflow rates to odor control ,
but odor is due to excessive retention of solids and can be
better controlled by removing the thickened sludge from the
thickener at an increased frequency.
5.3.3.3 Drive Torque Requirements

Sludge on the floor of a circular thickener resists the movement
of the solids rake and thus produces torque. Calculation
-
5 8
of torque for a circular drive unit is based on the simple
cantilevered beam equation represented by Equation 5-1:
T = WR 2 ( 5-1 )
where:
T = torque, ft/lb
W uniform load — this is sludge specific,
lb/ft ( see Table 5- 4 )
R tank radius , ft
TABLE 5- 4
TYPICAL UNIFORM LOAD (W ) VALUES
Truss arm W ,
Sludge type lb/fta
Primary only (little grit) 30

Primary only (with grit) 40
Primary + lime 40 to 60
Waste-activated sludge (WAS)
Air 20
Oxygen 20
Trickling filter 20
Thermal conditioned 80
Primary + WAS 20 to 30
Primary + trickling filter 20 to 30
aRake arms typically have a tip speed

between 10 to 20 ft/min ( 3 to 6 m/min).
1 lb/ft = 1.49 kg/m
Note that there are several levels of torque which must be

specified for a circular gravity thickener ( 22 ). Table 5-5 lists
and defines the various torque conditions.
5.3.3.4 Total Tank Depth

The total vertical depth of a gravity thickener is based on three
considerations: tank free board , settling zone ( zone of clear
5-9
liquid and sedimentation zone ), and compression and s t o r a g e zone
( thickening zone ).
TABLE 5- 5
DEFINITION OF TORQUES APPLICABLE TO CIRCULAR GRAVITY THICKENERS ( 22 )
Running torque -
this is the torque value calculated from equation 5 1 -
Alarm torque -
torque setting , normally 120 percent of running , which tells the operator
that there is something wrong
-
Shut off torque
the mechanism
-
torque setting , normally 140 percent of running, which would shut off
. . . .
.
.
Peak torque -torque value , determined by the supplier of the drive unit. This torque
is provided only for an instant and is normally 200 percent of the running torque
Free Board
T a n k f r e e b o a r d i s t h e vertical distance b e t w e e n t a n k l i q u i d
surface and t o p o f vertical t a n k wall , It is a function o f t a n k
diameter , t y p e of bridge structure--half o r full bridge--t y p e of
influent p i p i n g a r r a n g e m e n t , a n d w h e t h e r o r n o t s k i m m i n g is
provided . It will u s u a l l y be a t least 2 t o 3 feet ( .6 t o 9 m ) .
a l t h o u g h freeboard distances u p t o 7 t o 1 0 feet ( 2 t o 3 m ) have
been used by some designers .
Settling Z o n e
This zone encompasses the theoretical zone of clear liquid and
sedimentation z o n e a s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 5 - 1 . T y p i c a l l y 4 t o
6 feet ( 1 . 2 t o 1 . 8 m ) is necessary , with the g r e a t e r depth being
f o r t y p i c a l l y d i f f i c u l t s l u d g e s , such a s w a s t e - a c t i v a t e d o r
nitrified s l u d g e .
Compression and S t o r a g e Zone
Sufficient tank volume must be provided s o that the solids will
be retained for t h e period o f time required t o thicken t h e s l u r r y
t o the required concentration. In addition , sufficient s t o r a g e
is necessary t o c o m p e n s a t e for fluctuations in solids loading
rate .
A n o t h e r consideration is t h a t g a s m a y be p r o d u c e d b e c a u s e o f
anaerobic conditions o r denitrification , Development o f these
conditions d e p e n d s o n the t y p e o f s l u d g e , liquid t e m p e r a t u r e ,
and the length o f time s l u d g e is k e p t in the thickener , Plant
o p e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e h a s indicated t h a t t h e t o t a l v o l u m e in
this zone should not exceed 24 hours of maximum s l u d g e wasting .
5.3.3 . 5 Floor Slope

The f l o o r s l o p e s o f thickeners are n o r m a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n 2 inches
of vertical distance per foot o f tank radius ( 17/cm/m ). This is
s t e e p e r t h a n t h e f l o o r s l o p e s f o r s t a n d a r d c l a r i f i e r s. T h e
5-1 0
--
' '’- '’-***''"''*'-
yfKiWV y
steeper slope maximizes the depth of solids over the sludge

.
h o p p e r, a l l o w i n g t h e t h i c k e s t s l u d g e t o b e r e m o v e d The steeper
slope also reduces sludge raking problems by allowing gravity to
d o a g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e w o r k in m o v i n g t h e s e t t l e d s o l i d s t o t h e
c e n t e r o f t h e thickener.
5 . 3 .3 . 6 Other Considerations
Lifting Devices
O p t i m u m f u n c t i o n i n g o f a t h i c k e n e r mechanism c a n b e i n h i b i t e d
by heavy accumulation of solids due to power outages or
i n c o n s i s t e n t a c c u m u l a t i o n s o f heavy o r v i s c o u s s l u d g e s.
T h i c k e n e r s c a n b e p r o v i d e d with either a m a n u a l o r a n automatic
lifting device that will raise the mechanism above these
accumulations. T h i s d e v i c e h a s n o t b e e n considered n e c e s s a r y i n
the majority of municipal wastewater treatment plants except
in applications involving very dense sludges ( for example,
t h e r m a l l y- c o n d i t i o n e d s l u d g e o r p r i m a r y p l u s l i m e s l u d g e ).
Skimmers
S e v e r a l y e a r s a g o, i t w a s r a r e f o r s k i m m e r s t o b e i n s t a l l e d
o n g r a v i t y t h i c k e n e r s. T o d a y i t is c o m m o n p r a c t i c e t o s p e c i f y
s k i m m i n g a n d b a f f l i n g f o r new p l a n t s. T h e r e a s o n f o r t h e c h a n g e
is the increased processing of biological sludges and the
i n h e r e n t f l o a t i n g s c u m l a y e r associated w i t h t h o s e s l u d g e s.
Polymer Addition
A d d i t i o n o f p o l y m e r t o g r a v i t y thickener f e e d h a s b e e n p r a c t i c e d
a t s e v e r a l p l a n t s ( 2 3 , 2 4 ). R e s u l t s indicate t h a t t h e addition
of p o l y m e r s i m p r o v e s solids c a p t u r e b u t h a s little o r n o e f f e c t
o n i n c r e a s i n g s o l i d s u n d e r f l o w concentration. ( S e e C h a p t e r 8 f o r
further discussion) .
Thickener Supernatant
——
W* W W “W WWK 1 w
T h i c k e n e r s u p e r n a t a n t o r overflow is n o r m a l l y r e t u r n e d t o e i t h e r
t h e p r i m a r y o r s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s. A s i n d i c a t e d i n
T a b l e 5- 3 , t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e o v e r f l o w , a s m e a s u r e d b y t o t a l
s o l i d s , c a n v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y. T h e l i q u i d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m
must be sized to handle the strongest recycled load. ( See
C h a p t e r 1 6 f o r f u r t h e r discussion ).
Pickets
Stirring with pickets in gravity thickeners is thought to
h e l p c o n s o l i d a t e s l u d g e in t h e t h i c k e n i n g z o n e ( 2 5 ). H o w e v e r,
t h e s u p p o r t r a k e mechanism u s u a l l y c a n p r o v i d e sufficient s l u d g e
m i x i n g t o m a k e s p e c i a l p i c k e t s u n n e c e s s a r y.
5-11
Feed Pump and Piping
The following guidelines are applicable for feed pump and piping :
• Use positive displacement feed pumps with variable

speed drives for variable head conditions and positive
feed control .
• Provide as nearly continuous pumpage as possible.
• Design piping for operational flexibility.
Thickener Underflow Pump and Piping
For variable head conditions and typical abrasiveness of many

sludges, a positive displacement pump with variable s p e e d drive
s h o u l d be used and its operations should be controlled by some
t y p e of solids sensor , for e x a m p l e , either by a s l u d g e blanket
level indicator or solids concentration indicator. Pumps should
be l o c a t e d d i r e c t l y a d j a c e n t t o t h e t h i c k e n e r f o r s h o r t e s t
p o s s i b l e suction line. A positive o r pressure head should be
provided o n the suction side of the pump. A minimum of 1 0 feet
( 3 m ) should be provided for primary s l u d g e s and a minimum of
6 feet ( 2 m ) for all other s l u d g e s , It is critical t o provide
a d e q u a t e clean-o u t s and flushing connections on both the p r e s s u r e
and suction sides of t h e pump , Clean-o u t s should be b r o u g h t t o
an elevation g r e a t e r t h a n that o f the w a t e r surface so that the
line may be rodded without emptying the thickener.
5.3 .4 Design Example
A d e s i g n e r h a s c a l c u l a t e d t h a t it is n e c e s s a r y t o thicken
a maximum of 2 , 7 0 0 p o u n d s ( 1 , 225 kg ) p e r d a y of waste s l u d g e,
( d r y weight ). The s l u d g e consists of 1 ,0 8 0 p o u n d s ( 4 9 0 kg ) of
p r i m a r y a t 4 . 0 p e r c e n t s o l i d s a n d 1 ,6 2 0 p o u n d s ( 7 3 5 k g ) o f
activated a t 0 . 8 p e r c e n t s o l i d s , Wasting from the primary
c l a r i f i e r w i l l b e initiated b y a t i m e c l o c k a n d t e r m i n a t e d
by a sludge density meter when the s l u d g e concentration d r o p s
below a given value. W a s t e-activated s l u d g e will be pumped from
the final clarifier 24 hours p e r d a y at 1 7 gallons p e r minute
( 6 4 1 /min ).
Thickener Surface Area
Since this is a new facility and pilot testing is not possible ,

the designer m u s t utilize Table 5- 2.
T h e r e a r e t w o p o s s i b l e t h i c k e n i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s, The first
a l t e r n a t i v e i s t h i c k e n i n g o f s t r a i g h t w a s t e - activated s l u d g e
w i t h a m a x i m u m i n f l u e n t s o l i d s concentration o f 0 . 8 p e r c e n t
5 -1 2
solids. At maximum conditions, the designer has selected a mass
loading o f 0 . 2 p o u n d s per s q u a r e foot p e r hour ( 1 . 4 7 kg /m /hr )
and will design for a 2.0 p e r c e n t solids in the underflow.
^
1 , 6 2 0 l b/d a y = 337.5 sq ft ( 31.4 m 2 )

( 0.2 lb/s q ft/d a y ) ( 24 h r s/d a y )
T h e s e c o n d alternative i s t h i c k e n i n g a c o m b i n a t i o n o f w a s t e -
activated s l u d g e a n d p r i m a r y s l u d g e , The d e n s i t y m e t e r o n
the primary clarifier will be set t o allow the sludge pump t o
continue as l o n g a s the solids concentration i s g r e a t e r than or
e q u a l t o 4.0 p e r c e n t solids , The primary s l u d g e pump will b e
equipped with a variable s p e e d controller and has a maximum rated
pumping capacity of 1 0 gallons per minute ( 38 1/min ).
O n a m a s s loading basis, the designer 's p a s t experience indicates

that surface area required f o r t h e combination o f primary and
w a s t e - activated s l u d g e is l e s s t h a n t h a t required f o r w a s t e -
activated a l o n e. However , t o a s s u r e s y s t e m r e l i a b i l i t y ,
sufficient s u r f a c e area s h o u l d b e p r o v i d e d t o thicken o n l y
w a s t e-a c t i v a t e d. With t h e a d d i t i o n o f p r i m a r y s l u d g e , t h e
e x p e c t e d underflow solids concentration is 4.0 p e r c e n t.
Hydraulic Loading
T h e maximum p o s s i b l e hydraulic f l o w t o the g r a v i t y thickener

would be 1 7 gallons p e r minute ( 1 . 0 1/sec ) o f w a s t e- activated
a n d 1 0 g a l l o n s per minute ( 0 . 6 3 1/ s e c ) o f p r i m a r y s l u d g e.
T h e d e s i g n e r is c o g n i z a n t o f t h e solids r e c y c l e p r o b l e m f r o m
the thickener overflow and has selected a value of 6 gallons
^
per s q u a r e feet p e r h o u r ( 250 l/m / h r ) a s the maximum overflow
r a t e.
( ( 1 7 + 1 0 ) g a l/ min ) x ( 6 0 min/hr )) =
2 7 0 s q ft ( 25.1 m 2 )
6 gal/sq ft/hr
The area required for hydraulic loading is less than that

r e q u i r e d for mass loading.
Since continuous o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s l u d g e h a n d l i n g s y s t e m i s
essential , t w o gravity thickeners , each c a p a b l e of handling the
s l u d g e f l o w , will b e p r o v i d e d , T h e m i n i m u m r e q u i r e d area
is 3 3 7 . 5 s q u a r e f e e t ( 3 1 . 4 m 2 ) , which is e q u i v a l e n t t o a
2 0 . 7-foot ( 6 . 2 m ) diameter unit , In this size range , equipment
manufacturers have standardized on 1- foot ( 0.3 m ) increments ;
therefore , a 21-foot ( 6.3 m ) diameter , 346 -square-foot ( 32.2 m 2 )
unit will be specified.
5-1 3
Torque Requirements
T h e 3 0 p o u n d s p e r f o o t ( 4 5 k g /m ) v a l u e will b e u s e d f o r t h e t r u s s
a r m l o a d i n g ( T a b l e 5 - 4 ). F r o m Equation 5-1 , t h e r u n n i n g t o r q u e
r e q u i r e d is:
3
Qfoo t n d S
'
,
x ( 1 0 5 f e e t ) 2 = 3 , 3 0 7 f t -l b ( 4 6 5 m -k g )
-
T h e d e s i g n e r w i l l s p e c i f y a minimum r u n n i n g t o r q u e c a p a c i t y
o f 3 , 3 0 7 f o o t p o u n d s ( 4 6 5 m - k g ). T h e o t h e r t o r q u e s ( a l a r m ,
s h u t -o f f , and p e a k ) w o u l d b e s p e c i f i e d a s in T a b l e 5 - 5.
Tank Depth
B e c a u s e both t h e full and t h e half bridge s y s t e m s w o r k equally

well and the full bridge is less expensive to install, the
designer will use a full bridge thickener mechanism that
will r e s t a t o p t h e g r a v i t y thickener a n d will have a skimming
m e c h a n i s m a t t a c h e d.
I n o r d e r t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e skimming a r m beneath t h e bridge a n d

a l l o w r o o m t o p e r f o r m maintenance w o r k , t h e d e s i g n e r h a s selected
2 4 inches ( 0 . 6 1 m ) f o r t h e f r e e b o a r d in t h e thickener.
F r o m p a s t e x p e r i e n c e , t h e d e s i g n e r has s e l e c t e d a t y p i c a l d e p t h
of 5 f e e t ( 1 . 5 4 m ) f o r t h e s e t t l i n g zone.
T o calculate t h e d e p t h o f t h e thickening z o n e , it is a s s u m e d t h a t
t h e a v e r a g e solids concentration in t h e z o n e w o u l d be 1 . 4 p e r c e n t
solids and t h a t one-d a y s t o r a g e w o u l d b e utilized.
T h e f o l l o w i n g a s s u m p t i o n s w e r e m a d e in o r d e r t o arrive a t this
p e r c e n t a g e:
O n l y w a s t e- activated s l u d g e w o u l d b e thickened .
The top of t h e t h i c k e n i n g zone w o u l d hold 0 . 8 p e r c e n t

solids.
T h e bottom o f t h e thickening zone w o u l d hold 2 . 0 p e r c e n t

solids .
The average concentration would be equal to 0.8 plus

2 . 0 q u a n t i t y d i v i d e d b y 2.
1 , 6 2 0 l b o f w a s t e- activated s l u d g e
5.36 ft ( 1.61 m )
( 0 . 0 1 4 )( 8 . 3 4 )( 7 . 4 8 g a l/c u f t )( 3 4 6 s q ft )
5- 1 4
T h e t o t a l vertical side -w a l l d e p t h o f t h e g r a v i t y thickener i s
t h e sum o f t h e f r e e b o a r d , s e t t l i n g z o n e , a n d r e q u i r e d t h i c k e n i n g
zone . I n this c a s e , it w o u l d be 1 2 . 3 6 feet ( 3 . 7 7 m ). A t this
time , n o a l l o w a n c e h a s b e e n m a d e f o r t h e d e p t h of t h e c o n e h e i g h t
o f t h e thickener which would reduce s l i g h t l y ( 2 1 inches [.2 7 m ]
the vertical side wall depth of the thickening zone when
.
s u b t r a c t e d f r o m t h e t h i c k e n i n g zone d e p t h
5 . 3.5 Cost
5 . 3.5 . 1 Capital Cost

Several recent publications have developed capital cost curves
f o r g r a v i t y t h i c k e n e r s ( 2 6 - 2 8 ). Probably the most factual
is t h e r e f e r e n c e b a s e d o n a c t u a l U S E P A b i d d o c u m e n t s f o r t h e
y e a r s 1 9 7 3- 1 9 7 7 ( 27 ).
According to a USEPA Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant

Construction C o s t I n d e x 2nd q u a r t e r 1 9 7 7 ( 2 7 ), a l t h o u g h t h e
data were scattered , a r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s indicated t h a t t h e
capital c o s t could b e a p p r o x i m a t e d by E q u a t i o n 5 - 2.
C = 3.28 x 104 Q 1 - 1 0 ( 5-2 )
w h e r e:
C = c a p i t a l c o s t of p r o c e s s in d o l l a r s
Q = p l a n t d e s i g n f l o w in million g a l l o n s o f
w a s t e w a t e r flow p e r d a y
T h e a s s o c i a t e d c o s t s i n c l u d e t h o s e f o r e x c a v a t i o n, p r o c e s s
piping , equipment , c o n c r e t e , a n d s t e e l , I n addition , s u c h c o s t s
a s t h o s e for a d m i n i s t r a t i n g and engineering a r e e q u a l t o 0 . 2 2 6 4
times E q u a t i o n 5- 2 ( 2 7 ).
5.3 . 5.2 O p e r a t i n g and Maintenance C o s t

Staffing
Figure 5- 4 indicates a n n u a l m a n-h o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r operation
a n d maintenance. A s a n e x a m p l e , for a gravity thickener surface
^
a r e a o f 1 ,0 0 0 s q u a r e f e e t ( 9 3 m ), a d e s i g n e r w o u l d i n c l u d e
3 5 0 m a n - h o u r s of o p e r a t i o n and maintenance in t h e c o s t a n a l y s i s.
Power
F i g u r e 5-5 s h o w s a n n u a l p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n f o r a c o n t i n u o u s l y
o p e r a t i n g g r a v i t y thickener a s a function o f g r a v i t y thickener
s u r f a c e a r e a. A s a n e x a m p l e, f o r a g r a v i t y thickener s u r f a c e
5- 1 5
area of 1 ,000 square feet (93 m 2), a designer would include a
yearly power usage of 4 ,500 kWhr (16.2 GJ ) in the cost analysis.
-
Figure 5 5 does not include accessories such as pumps or polymer
feed systems.
7
6
5
4
o3 3
o
cc 2
o
LL
CO
cc
3 1,000 .
c
o 9
X 8
7
6
CC
o 5
5 4
< 3
3
2
2
<
2
—
100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
THICKENER AREA, sq ft ( 1 sq ft = 0.093 m 2 )
FIGURE 5- 4
ANNUAL O &M MAN- HOUR REQUIREMENTS - GRAVITY

THICKENERS
Maintenance Material Costs

.
-
Figure 5 6 shows a curve developed for estimating circular
gravity thickener maintenance material costs as a function of
gravity thickener surface area. As an example , for a gravity
thickener surface area of 1 ,000 square feet (93 m 2), a designer
would estimate a yearly materials cost of $ 375. Since this
number is based on a June 1975 cost, it must be adjusted to the
current design period.
5.4 Flotation Thickening

Flotation is a process for separating solid particles from a
1 iquid phase. Flotation of solids is usually created by the
introduction of air into the system , Fine bubbles either adhere
to , or are absorbed by , the solids , which are then lifted
to the surface. Particles with a greater density than that of
the liquids can be separated by flotation ( 24 ,29 ).
5 16-
In o n e flotation m e t h o d , dissolved air flotation , s m a l l g a s
bubbles ( 50-1 0 0 p ) are g e n e r a t e d as a result o f the precipita -
t i o n o f a g a s f r o m a solution s u p e r s a t u r a t e d w i t h t h a t g a s.
Supersaturation occurs when air is dispersed through t h e sludge
in a closed , high pressure tank. When the sludge is removed from
t h e t a n k and e x p o s e d t o a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , t h e p r e v i o u s l y-
dissolved air leaves solution in the form of fine bubbles.
100,000
9
8
7
6
5
4
Z
O 3
ti
2
Z«
O I!
O ^
10,000
cr ^ 9
LU 5 8
5^ 7
o
CL - 6
5
-i
<
I JO
4
Z 3
z
<
2
1,000 I
100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10,000 2 3 4 6 8 7 8 9 100,000
FIGURE 5- 5
ANNUAL POWER CONSUMPTION - CONTINUOUS OPERATING

GRAVITY THICKENERS
In a second method , dispersed air flotation , relatively large gas

b u b b l e s ( 5 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 p m ) a r e g e n e r a t e d w h e n g a s is introduced
t h r o u g h a revolving impeller or through p o r o u s media ( 30 , 31 ).
In biological flotation , the g a s e s formed by natural biological

activity are used t o float solids ( 32-34 ).
In v a c u u m f l o t a t i o n , s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n occurs w h e n t h e s l u d g e
is s u b j e c t e d i n i t i a l l y a t a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , t o a vacuum
of approximately 9 i n c h e s ( 2 3 0 mm ) o f mercury in a closed
tank ( 3 5 , 36 ).
Although all four methods have been used in wastewater sludge

t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s , t h e d i s s o l v e d air f l o t a t i o n p r o c e s s h a s
been t h e dominant method used in the United States.
5-1 7
10,000
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
V)
CO
2
O
“O
H
CO
°
a 1,000
8
9
<
3
Z
Z
<
7
6
5
4
«
—
3
J LLLJJ
100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8
THICKENER AREA , sq ft ( 1 sq ft = 0.093 m2 )
FIGURE 5- 6
ESTIMATED JUNE 1975 MAINTENANCE MATERIAL COST FOR

CIRCULAR GRAVITY THICKENERS
TABLE 5- 6
TYPES OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER SLUDGES BEING THICKENED

BY DAF THICKENERS
Primary only Primary plus trickling filter

Waste activated sludge (WAS)
WAS (oxygen) only
- air only Aerobically digested WAS
Aerobically digested primary plus WAS (air)
Trickling filter only Alum and ferrous sludge from phosphorus
Primary plus WAS (air) removal
5.4.1 Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF)

Since the 1957 installation of the first municipal DAF thickener
in the Bay Park Sewage treatment plant , Nassau County , New York ,
about 300 U.S. municipal installations (over 700 units) have been
installed. Although the principal use of the DAF thickener has
-
been to thicken waste activated sludge , about 20 percent of the
installations handle other sludge types ( 37). Table 5 6 lists -
5 18-
the types of municipal wastewater sludges currently being
thickened b y DAF thickeners.
Table 5- 7 lists a d v a n t a g e s and disadvantages o f DAF thickeners

c o m p a r e d t o other major thickening equipment.
TABLE 5- 7
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DAF THICKENING
Provides better solids^liquid separation Operating cost of a DAF thickener is

than a gravity thickener higher than for a gravity thickener
For many sludqes , yields higher solids Thickened sludge concentration is less
concentration than qravity thickener than in a centrifuge
Requires less land than a gravity thickener Requires more land than a centrifuge
Offers excellent sludge equalization control Has very little sludge storage capacity
Has less chance of odor problems than a
gravity thickener
Can remove grit from sludge processing
system
Removes grease
5.4.1.1 Theory
In t h e DAF t h i c k e n i n g p r o c e s s , air is a d d e d a t p r e s s u r e s in
excess o f a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e either t o t h e i n c o m i n g s l u d g e
stream o r t o a s e p a r a t e liquid stream. When pressure is reduced
and turbulence is created , air in excess of that required for
saturation at atmospheric p r e s s u r e leaves the solution as v e r y
small bubbles of 5 0 t o 1 0 0 y m in diameter. The bubbles adhere t o
the s u s p e n d e d particles or become enmeshed in the solids matrix .
Since t h e average density of t h e solids-air aggregate is less
than that of water , the a g g l o m e r a t e floats to t h e surface. The
floated solids build t o a d e p t h of several inches at the water
s u r f a c e. W a t e r d r a i n s f r o m t h e f l o a t and a f f e c t s s o l i d s
concentration. Float is continuously removed b y skimmers ( 35 ).
Good solids flotation occurs with a solids-air a g g r e g a t e specific
gravity of 0.6 t o 0 . 7.
5 . 4.1 . 2 S y s t e m Design Considerations
D A F thickeners c a n b e utilized either t o t h i c k e n w a s t e w a t e r

s o l i d s p r i o r t o d e w a t e r i n g o r stabilization o r t o t h i c k e n
a e r o b i c a l l y d i g e s t e d o r o t h e r solids p r i o r t o d i s p o s a l o r
dewatering.
DAF t h i c k e n e r s c a n be r e c t a n g u l a r o r circular , c o n s t r u c t e d
of concrete or steel , and can o p e r a t e in the f u l l , partial , o r
r e c y c l e pressurization modes.
5- 19
Fullf Partial and Recycle Pressurization
T h e r e a r e t h r e e w a y s i n w h i c h a D A F s y s t e m c a n b e o p e r a t e d.
T h e f i r s t m e t h o d i s c a l l e d " f u l l o r t o t a l p r e s s u r i z a t i o n."
With this d e s i g n , t h e entire sludge flow is p u m p e d t h r o u g h t h e
p r e s s u r e r e t e n t i o n t a n k , w h e r e t h e s l u d g e is s a t u r a t e d with
air and t h e n p a s s e d t h r o u g h a pressure reduction valve before
entering t h e flotation c h a m b e r. A distribution device is used t o
dissipate inlet energy and t h u s t o p r e v e n t turbulence and limit
s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g. T h e p r i m a r y a d v a n t a g e o f p r e s s u r i z i n g t h e
t o t a l f l o w i s t h a t it minimizes t h e s i z e o f t h e f l o t a t i o n
c h a m b e r , a significant p a r t o f t h e capital c o s t. H o w e v e r , t h e
a d v a n t a g e of a smaller c h a m b e r m a y be partially offset by the
c o s t o f a higher head feed pump , l a r g e r p r e s s u r e vessel , a n d more
expensive operation. O p e r a t i o n a l problems m a y result from floe
shearing a n d clogging when s l u d g e is p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e p r e s s u r e
regulating valve.
T h e second method o f operation is called " partial pressuriza-
tion." With this design only p a r t o f the s l u d g e flow is p u m p e d
t h r o u g h the p r e s s u r e retention t a n k. After pressurization t h e
u n p r e s s u r i z e d a n d p r e s s u r i z e d s t r e a m s a r e combined a n d m i x e d
before t h e y e n t e r t h e flotation chamber. I n this a r r a n g e m e n t
the pressurizing p u m p and p r e s s u r e vessel a r e smaller and t h e
process is not as susceptible to flow variations as is total
pressurization; this is t h e case w h e n the necessary pump c o n t r o l s
a r e included in the d e s i g n. T h e size o f the flotation c h a m b e r
w o u l d be t h e same as t h a t for a total pressurization s y s t e m.
T h e third method is called " recycle pressurization." H e r e, a
portion of the clarified liquor ( subnatant ) or an alternate
source containing relatively little suspended matter is
pressurized. O n c e saturated with air , it is combined a n d mixed
w i t h t h e u n t h i c k e n e d s l u d g e b e f o r e it is r e l e a s e d i n t o t h e
flotation c h a m b e r.
T h e major a d v a n t a g e of this s y s t e m over t h e total and partial
pressurization s y s t e m is t h a t it minimizes high s h e a r conditions ,
a n i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h f l o c c u l e n t-t y p e
s l u d g e s. Another advantage arises when wastewater sludge
s t r e a m s c o n t a i n i n g stringy materials are thickened. T h e recycle
pressurization system eliminates clogging problems with the
pressurization pump , retention tank , and p r e s s u r e release valve.
F o r t h e a b o v e reasons, r e c y c l e pressurization s y s t e m s a r e t h e
m o s t c o m m o n l y used u n i t s in t h e United S t a t e s. F i g u r e 5 - 7 s h o w s
a typical r e c t a n g u l a r steel tank installation.
I n this s y s t e m , t h e p r e s s u r e r e t e n t i o n t a n k m a y b e e i t h e r
u n p a c k e d o r p a c k e d ( m e a n i n g t h a t t h e t a n k is filled w i t h a
packing material t o c r e a t e turbulence ). T h e use of either is
d e p e n d e n t principally o n t h e s o u r c e of t h e pressurized recycle
f l o w.
The pressurized recyle flow can be obtained either from the
subnatant stream o r , typically , from the s e c o n d a r y effluent, T h e
a d v a n t a g e s o f u s i n g s e c o n d a r y effluent are that it results in a
5 -2 0
much cleaner stream ( low suspended solids and low grease content )
and allows the use of a packed pressure retention tank. A packed
tank is smaller than a packless tank , has lower associate <
capital cost , and provides for a more efficient saturation of the ^
liquid stream. In this case , less air is required to achieve the
same level of liquid saturation as a packless tank and Povf ® r
requirements are lower. Packed tanks may , however , even tually
require cleaning , and the use of secondary plant effluent will
significantly increase the flow through the secondary treatment
system , thereby increasing pumping costs and possibly affecting
the performance of the secondary clarifier.
TSeW
--
W V C
FIGURE 5- 7
TYPICAL RECTANGULAR , STEEL TANK , RECYCLE PRESSURIZATION

DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION THICKENER
Rectangular or Circular
es
The use of rectangular DAF thickeners has a number of advant
over circular units in float removal. First , skimmers can ea
be closely spaced ; secondly , they can be designed to skirr
^ -
.^ the
^
ily
entire surface. Because of the side-walls , float does not ea ^
-
5 21
move around the end of the skimmers , Bottom sludge flights are
usually driven by a s e p a r a t e unit and , hence , c a n be o p e r a t e d
independently of the skimmer flights , Water level in the tank
can be changed readily b y adjusting the end weir. This permits
changing the depth of water and flight submergence to accommodate
c h a n g e s in float weight and displacement , which a f f e c t the
ability t o remove this material from the unit.
The main a d v a n t a g e o f circular units is their lower c o s t in
terms of both structural concrete and mechanical equipment . For
e x a m p l e , t w o 6 0 - foot ( 1 8 m ) diameter circular units are the
equivalent of three 20- foot by 9 0- foot ( 6 m by 27 m ) rectangular
units. The rectangular units require approximately 1 1 percent
more structural concrete , as well as more drives and controls
which increase maintenance requirements.
Concrete or Steel
Steel t a n k s come completely assembled and o n l y require a concrete
foundation pad and piping and wiring hookups. Although equipment
purchase price is much higher for steel tanks , considerable field
l a b o r and e x p e n s i v e e q u i p m e n t installation are eliminated .
Structural and shipping problems limit steel DAF units t o the
^
smaller sizes ( 450 square feet [ 40.5 m ] or less for rectangular
units and 100 square feet [ 9 m ] for circular units ).
^
For a l a r g e installation requiring m u l t i p l e t a n k s or l a r g e
tanks, concrete tanks are more economical .
Pilot - or Bench - Scale Testing

If s l u d g e is available , the d e s i g n e r should , as a minimum ,
p e r f o r m bench - s c a l e testing ( 3 8 , 39 ) . If m o n e y is available ,
consideration should be given to renting a pilot DAF thickener
and conducting a four - t o six - w e e k t e s t program t o e v a l u a t e
the effects of such parameters as recycle ratio , air- t o-solids
ratio , solids and hydraulic loading , and polymer type and dosage.
If sludge is not available , then a detailed review must be made
of experience at installations where a similiar type of sludge is
being thickened by DAF thickeners.
Feed Characteristics
The first step in designing a DAF thickener is to evaluate the
characteristics of the feed stream , The designer must evaluate
the t y p e of s l u d g e ( s ) t o be thickened and the approximate
q u a n t i t i e s of e a c h under various p l a n t loadings and m o d e s of
operation. If waste-activated sludge is to be thickened , the
expected range of sludge ages must be determined , since sludge
age can significantly affect DAF thickening performance ( 40 ).
Information is needed about the source of waste sludge and the
range of solids concentrations that can be expected . Also, there
should be an evaluation of any characteristic of the feed stream
that may affect air solubility — for example, concentration of
dissolved salts , and range of liquid temperatures.
5- 2 2
Surface Area
To calculate the effective surface area of a DAF thickener , a
designer must know the net solids load , solids surface loading
rate , and hydraulic surface loading rate.
Net Solids Load
Since a DAF thickener is not entirely efficient , more sludge must

be pumped into the thickener than the actual amount removed , The
actual amount removed is the net solids load , From a design
s tandpoint, the net load is the amount of solids that must be
removed from the liquid processing train each day. This value
divided by the appropriate solids loading rate gives the require <3
effective surface area.
The gross solids load is calculated by dividing the net load
by the expected solids capture efficiency of the system , The
gross solids load is important in sizing system hydraulic piping .
Solids Loading Rate
The allowable solids loading rate is related to the minimum

solids flux t h a t w i l l o c c u r w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f s l u d g e
concentrations found in the thickener ( 41 ). This f l u x i s a
function of the type of sludge processed , the float concentration
desired , and polymer used . Pounds of dry solids per square foot
per day or pounds of dry solids per square foot per hour are the
units used to express this rate.
The effect of sludge type on the solids loading rate is shown
in Table 5 -8. The
mu „ loading
i
rates indicated will normally result
in a minimum of four percent solids concentration in the float.
Actual operating data are listed in Table 5 -9 .
TABLE 5- 8
TYPICAL DAF THICKENER SOLIDS LOADING RATES NECESSARY TO PRODUCE

A MINIMUM H PERCENT SOLIDS CONCENTRATION
Solids loading rate , Ib/sq ft/hr

Type of sludge No chemical addition Optimum chemical addition
Primary only 0.83 - 1.25 up to 2.5
Waste activated sludge (WAS)
Air 0.42 up to 2.0
Oxygen 0.6 -.0.8 up to 2.2
Trickling filter 0.6 -
0.8 up to 2.0
Primary + WAS ( air) 0.6 -
1.25 up to 2.0
Primary + trickling filter
. MmmJh+tm* HAMMIHP
0.83 -
1.25 up to 2.5
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /hr

^
5-23
TABLE 5- 9
FIELD OPERATION RESULTS FROM RECTANGULAR DAF THICKENERS
Solids Feed Polymer Float Subnatant

loading solids dosage, concentration, suspended
Sludge rate, concentration, lb per dry percent solids,
Installation typea lb/sq ft/hr mg/1 ton solids solids mg/l Ref
Eugene, OR
Springdale, AR
P+TF
P+TF
1.25
2.5
5 ,000
20 ,000
0
7 6.5
-
4.5 5.0 500
200
43
43
Athol , MA A. 3.2 8 ,000 2 4.0 50 43
Westgate Fairfax, VA Ab 7.0 14 ,000 1-4 7.3 20 43
Warren, MI Ac 11 ,000 40 5.0 200 16
Frankenmuth, MI AC 0.58 5,000 0 3.0 750 14
AC 8 ,000 26 3.5- 5.5 90
Cinnaminso, NJ A 2.0 5 ,000 5 4.0 250 16
San Jose, CA P+ Ad 1.9 23 ,000 0 7.1 14
P+Ae 1.6 17 ,000 0 5.3 14
Boise / ID A 1.0 4 ,600 0 4.0 14
A 1.17 5 ,000 3 3.8 500 14
A 1.13 5 ,000 6 4.0 500 14
Levittorn, PA A 0.54 8 ,000 0 6.5 14
P+A 1.00 6 ,400 0 8.6 14
Xenia, OH A 4 ,000 30 -
2.5 3.0 100 16
Indianapolis, IN
Columbus, OH
P +A 10 ,000 30 -
3.5 4.2 -
100 1 ,000 16
(Jackson Pike) A 6 , 000 0 3.2 800 16

Wayne County, MI A 0.83 4 ,500 0 4.6 14
Dalton, GA P+ A 0.75 12 ,900 0 6.1 14
Middletcwn, NJ A 2.0 10 ,000 -
5 6 4.0 500 14
a P
= Primary sludge K =3;
-
A = Was te ac tiva ted re
TF = Trickling filter sludge
^cConsiderable
Oxygen plant
brewery waste
—
dMNon canning season
eCanning season

1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t
^
I n general, increasing t h e s o l i d s loading rate d e c r e a s e s the

float concentration . F i g u r e 5 -8 i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s p h e n o m e n o n
.
w i t h o u t p o l y m e r a d d i t i o n, a n d F i g u r e 5 -9 w i t h p o l y m e r a d d i t i o n
T h e addition o f p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e . will usually increase the s o l i d s

l o a d i n g r a t e.
Hydraulic Loading
The hydraulic loading rate for a DAF thickener is normally
e x p r e s s e d a s g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e p e r s q u a r e f o o t, When like
units are cancelled , the hydraulic loading rate becomes a
velocity equivalent to the average downward velocity of water as
i t f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e t h i c k e n i n g t a n k. T h e m a x i m u m hydraulic r a t e
m u s t a l w a y s b e l e s s t h a n t h e minimum r i s e r a t e o f t h e s l u d g e/a i r
particles to ensure that all the particles will reach the sludge
f l o a t b e f o r e t h e p a r t i c l e r e a c h e s t h e effluent end o f t h e t a n k.
5 -2 4
âfissassa-
"""a
8 800
7 700
—CD
t
TJ 6 E
1
*z
600
_
m
Q
J
o
5 500 S
H o
LU
< Q
cc z
H 4 400 LU
Z Qu
LU to
D
z m
O 3 300 H
O z
H <
< H
<
_
O
1 2 200 z
LL CD
D
00
1 100
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
SOLIDS LOADING, Ib/sq ft /hr ( 1 Ib/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m 2/hr
FIGURE 5- 8
FLOAT CONCENTRATION AND SUBNATANT SUSPENDED

SOLIDS VERSUS SOLIDS LOADING OF A WASTE
ACTIVATED SLUDGE - WITHOUT POLYMERS ( 16 )
Reported values for hydraulic loading rates range from 0 , 79 t o

4.0 gallons per minute per square foot ( 0.54- 2 to.7 l/ min/ m 2 )
-
( 32 ,42 46 ). T h i s wide r a n g e p r o b a b l y indicates a l a c k o f
understanding of the term. In some cases, the hydraulic loading
refers simply to the influent sludge flow , while in others , the
recycle flow is included . In most sources , no definition of
the term was given. Table 5-10 indicates the hydraulic loading
rates found in the literature.
Since the total flow through the thickener affects the particles,
the hydraulic loading rate should be based on the total flow
( influent plus recycle ). Extensive research on waste- activated
sludge ( 48 ) has resulted in the conclusion that a peak rate of
2.5 gallons per minute per square foot ( 1.7 1/sec/ m 2 ) should
be employed . This value is based on use of polymers. When
polymers are not used , this value is expected to be lower, but no
design criterion has been suggested at this time. Figure 5 -10
shows the effects of polymer and hydraulic loading rate on DAF
thickener subnatant chemical oxygen demand ( COD ) ( 48 ).
Air- to-Solids- Ratio
Another design p a r a m e t e r t o be considered in DAF thickening is
t h a t o f the air - t o- solids ( A / S ) r a t i o , Theoretically , the
quantity of air required t o achieve satisfactory flotation is
5 -25
directly proportional to the quantity of solids entering the
thickener ( defined as g r o s s solids load in the p r e v i o u s section ).
F o r d o m e s t i c w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s , r e p o r t e d ratios r a n g e from
0.01 t o 0 . 4, with most s y s t e m s operating at a value under 0.1.
8 800
7 700
-o*
</
6 600
E
a c/5
Q
z
o
5 500 8
Q
LU
< Q
DC
z
4 400 £
CL
LU CO
u Z)
z C/5
O 3 300
u z
<
<
o
u
_ 2 200
<
z
CO
3
C/5
1 100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
SOLIDS LOADING, Ib/sq ft /hr ( 1 Ib/sq ft /hr = 4.9 kg/m2/hr )
FIGURE 5- 9
FLOAT CONCENTRATION AND SUBNATANT SUSPENDED

SOLIDS VERSUS SOLIDS LOADING OF A WASTE
ACTIVATED SLUDGE - WITH POLYMERS ( 16 )
T h e a p p r o p r i a t e A/S ratio f o r a p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n is a
function o f t h e characteristics of t h e s l u d g e , p r i n c i p a l l y ,
t h e s l u d g e volume index ( 4 0 ), t h e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n s y s t e m s air
dissolving efficiency , and the distribution o f the g a s-liquid
mixture into the thickening tank. Figures 5-1 1 and 5-1 2 show the
effects of A/S o f float concentration and subnatant s u s p e n d e d
solids , with and without p o l y m e r addition.
Polymer Usage
Polymers have a marked effect on DAF thickener performance, and

a designer must therefore be careful to differentiate between
performance with and without polymer use.
Polyelectrolytes may improve flotation by substantially

increasing the size of the particles present in the waste , The
particles in a given waste may not be amenable to the flotation
process because their small size will not allow proper air bubble
5- 2 6
a t t a c h m e n t. Doubling the diameter or size of the particle can
result in a fourfold increase in the rise rate provided the
p r e v i o u s A/S r a t i o is m a i n t a i n e d. T h e s u r f a c e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e
solids may have to be altered before effective flotation can
o c c u r. Sludge particles can be surrounded by electrically
c h a r g e d l a y e r s t h a t d i s p e r s e t h e s e p a r t i c l e s in t h e l i q u i d p h a s e.
P o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s c a n neutralize t h e c h a r g e , c a u s i n g t h e p a r t i c l e s
to coagulate so that air bubbles can attach to them for effective
f l o t a t i o n. T h u s , w i t h u s e o f p o l y m e r s , t h e f o l l o w i n g o p e r a t i n g
a d v a n t a g e s m a y o c c u r: t h e s i z e o f t h e D A F t h i c k e n e r m a y b e
reduced; solids capture may be imp roved, thus reducing the
a m o u n t o f solids r e c y c l e d b a c k t o t h e l i q u i d h a n d l i n g s y s t e m ; a n
e x i s t i n g , o v e r l o a d e d facility i n w h i c h p o l y m e r s a r e n o t b e i n g
u t i l i z e d m a y b e u p g r a d e d. T h e y a l s o a c t a s u r f a c t a n t, t h u s
a l l o w i n g b e t t e r a t t a c h m e n t o f a i r b u b b l e s.
TABLE 5- 10
3
REPORTED DAF THICKENER HYDRAULIC LOADING RATES
H y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e ( g p m /s q f t )
Influent only Influent plus recycle Reference

1 . 5- 2 . 5 44
2.5 45
1 . 0- 4 . 0 46
0.79 47
1 . 2 5- 1 . 5 48
0.9 3.0 49
aAll v a l u e s r e p o r t e d a r e associated with p o l y m e r u s a g e , V a l u e s

f o r s y s t e m s n o t using p o l y m e r c o u l d n o t b e f o u n d in t h e literature .
2
1 g p m/ s q f t = 4 0 . 8 1/m i n/m
The m a j o r d i s a d v a n t a g e o f p o l y m e r s i s c o s t ( p o l y m e r c o s t,
operation and maintenance of polymer feed equipment ) when
c a l c u l a t e d o v e r t h e useful lifetime o f t h e p l a n t , I n addition ,
t h e a c t u a l a m o u n t r e q u i r e d i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e until
f l o t a t i o n s t u d i e s c a n b e r u n o n t h e a c t u a l i n s t a l l a t i o n, I f
p o l y m e r s a r e t o b e used , it is best t o d e s i g n c o n s e r v a t i v e l y ,
so that the possibility of the exceptionally high polymer
d e m a n d n e e d e d t o k e e p m a r g i n a l o p e r a t i o n a t c a p a c i t y i s a v o i d e d.
T a b l e 5 -9 l i s t s c u r r e n t o p e r a t i n g r e s u l t s o f p l a n t s w i t h a n d
w i t h o u t p o l y m e r a d d i t i o n.
Pressurization S y s t e m
T h e a i r dissolution e q u i p m e n t , which consists of t h e pressuriza-
tion p u m p , a i r dissolution t a n k , a n d o t h e r . mechanical e q u i p m e n t ,
5-2 7
is the heart of a DAF thickener system. In sizing a pressuriza-
tion system , the designer must decide on an operating pressure
and a quantity of pressurized flow and must be aware of factors
affecting the performance of the system.
300
200
o>
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CO
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100
LEGEND
O WITHOUT POLYMER
WITH POLYMER
0
2 3 4 5
HYDRAULIC LOADING ( INFLUENT + RECYCLE ) RATE ( gpm /sq ft )

( 1 gpm /sq ft - 40.8 l /min /m 2 )
FIGURE 5- 10
EFFECT OF HYDRAULIC LOADING ON PERFORMANCE IN

THICKENING WASTE ACTIVATED SLUDGE ( 48 )
Operating Pressure
Most commercial available pressurization systems operate at 40 to
80 psig ( 276 to 522 kN / m 2 ). For a given A/S ratio , the air
-
5 28
r e q u i r e d t o f l o a t t h e s l u d g e c a n b e o b t a i n e d by i n c r e a s i n g
t h e operating p r e s s u r e o f t h e s y s t e m t o dissolve more air, o r
holding a lower operating p r e s s u r e and increasing the volume o f
p r e s s u r i z e d flow.
£ 800
7 700
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6 600
o
to
o to
Q
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o
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U FLOAT D
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CONCENTRATION
00
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SUBNATANT
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SOLIDS D
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AIR SOLIDS RATIO
FIGURE 5- 11
FLOAT CONCENTRATION AND SUBNATANT SUSPENDED SOLIDS

VERSUS AIR- SOLIDS RATIO WITH POLYMER FOR A WASTE
ACTIVATED SLUDGE ( 16 )
In o n e s t u d y ( 4 0 ) , it w a s s h o w n t h a t t h e higher t h e operating
p r e s s u r e o f a flotation thickener s y s t e m , t h e lower the rise r a t e
of the sludge .
T h e r e a s o n f o r a h i g h e r rise r a t e a t 4 0 p s i g
^
( 2 7 6 k N/ m ) t h a n a t 6 0 o r 8 0 p s i g ( 4 1 4 o r 5 5 2 k N/m ) i s t h a t
t h e optimum b u b b l e size is predominant a t this lower operating
^
p r e s s u r e. This s t u d y c o n c l u d e s t h a t attempting t o raise the A/S
ratio by increasing t h e operating p r e s s u r e is detrimental t o t h e
t h i c k e n i n g p r o c e s s. T h e s e results are i m p o r t a n t in t h a t it will
be in t h e u s e r's b e s t interest t o o p e r a t e a t t h e lowest p r e s s u r e
p o s s i b l e. T h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r h i g h e r h e a d p u m p s , l a r g e r a i r
c o m p r e s s o r s , a n d higher p r e s s u r e rated retention t a n k s raises t h e
initial c o s t o f t h e p r o c e s s a s well a s operating c o s t s.
Quantity of Pressurized Flow
F o r a D A F thickener t o w o r k effectively , t h e p r o p e r a m o u n t o f
a i r m u s t b e p r e s e n t f o r e a c h p o u n d o f s o l i d s t o be h a n d l e d
( A /S r a t i o ). T h e d e s i g n p r e s s u r i z e d f l o w s h o u l d b e b a s e d o n
t h e maximum g r o s s solids load t h a t t h e D A F thickener is designed
5 -2 9
to receive. For multiple units , each basin should have its own
independent pressurization system. This is especially important
to remember if the thickening system is designed to operate over
a wide range of influent solids concentrations and flows.
AIR SOLIDS RATIO
FIGURE 5- 12
FLOAT CONCENTRATION AND SUBNATANT SUSPENDED SOLIDS

VERSUS AIR- SOLIDS RATIO WITHOUT POLYMER FOR A
WASTE ACTIVATED SLUDGE
Factors Affecting Performance.

•1A I
”
The designer should be aware of two physical factors , air

saturation and turbulence , which can affect the performance
of the pressurizing system.
Air Saturation. The basic mechanism that makes flotation

possible is the increase in the amount of gas dissolved when
pressure is increased , The relationship between pressure and
quantity dissolved is shown in Henry's Law , which states that if
no reaction prevails between the gas and liquid phases , the
solubility of the gas is directly proportional to the absolute
pressure of the gas at equilibrium with the liquid at constant
temperature.
5 -3 0
In practice , the actual amount of air dissolved for a g i v e n a i r -
input d e p e n d s on the efficiency of the p r e s s u r i z a t i o n device ,

liquid t e m p e r a t u r e and concentration o f solutes in the liquid
stream being pressurized.
N o r m a l l y a p r e s s u r e r e t e n t i o n t a n k is u s e d t o o p t i m i z e t h e
air - w a t e r interface for efficient air transfer in the shortest
detention time. Depending o n tank design ( p a c k e d t a n k , p a c k l e s s
tank , t a n k s with mechanical mixers, etc.) , efficiencies can r a n g e
from a s l o w a s 5 0 p e r c e n t t o o v e r 9 0 p e r c e n t , I t i s c u r r e n t
d e s i g n p r a c t i c e in t h e United S t a t e s t o s p e c i f y a minimum o f
8 5 t o 9 0 p e r c e n t efficiency.
The equilibrium concentration o f a g a s in a liquid is inversely

related t o the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e liquid p h a s e. The t e m p e r a t u r e
effect is substantial. For e x a m p l e , the saturation o f air in
water at 140 ° F ( 6 0 ° C ) is about one half less than the saturation
of air in water at 6 6 ° F ( 18.8 ° C ) at one a t m o s p h e r e.
T h e p r e s e n c e of s a l t s such a s chloride will n o r m a l l y d e c r e a s e t h e

air solubility at a g i v e n t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e , The effect
of s a l t concentration o n air d i s s o l v i n g e f f i c i e n c y is b e s t
evaluated by conducting bench-scale treatability tests or a pilot
unit t e s t program.
Turbulence. T h e p r o p e r a m o u n t o f t u r b u l e n c e m u s t b e p r e s e n t
a t the point of pressure reduction t o cause bubble formation .
Without the n e c e s s a r y turbulence , the r a t e at which air bubbles
form is slow and may occur t o o late in the process , Excessive
turbulence can result in increased bubble agglomeration and f l o e
shear . Under this condition , t h e majority o f bubbles formed will
be c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r t h a n t h e 5 0 t o 1 0 0 y m needed for effective
flotation.
Number of Units to be Used

The number of DAF thickeners t o be provided at a facility d e p e n d s
on the following factors :
T h e availability and configuration o f available land.
T h e operating c y c l e that will be used , for e x a m p l e , seven

days per week, 24 hours per day; five days per week ;
eight hours per d a y ; e t c.
Seasonal v a r i a b i l i t y; for e x a m p l e, the operation of a

food processor six months of the year , the w a s t e f l o w
f r o m which will g o t o t h e m u n i c i p a l f a c i l i t y.
The variance in a v e r a g e -t o-peak hourly solids load that

can be expected o n a d a y-t o-d a y basis.
5- 3 1
Adequate capacity t o thicken p e a k hourly waste s l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n
is n e c e s s a r y .
In addition , p r o v i s i o n m u s t be m a d e t o h a n d l e
the sludge flow if a unit must be taken o u t of service. ( S e e
discussion in Chapter 2 ) .
Other Considerations
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s y s t e m d e s i g n considerations p r e v i o u s l y
discussed , t h e d e s i g n e r m u s t a l s o g i v e consideration t o f e e d
s l u d g e line sizing , thickened sludge r e m o v a l , bottom draw-off
piping , subnatant piping , pressurized flow piping , and controls.
Each o f these items is briefly discussed below.
Feed S l u d g e Line
Feed s l u d g e flow rate must be controlled t o s t a y within allowable

limits . This r e q u i r e s a f l o w m e t e r t h a t a c c u r a t e l y measures
a high solids stream and piping large e n o u g h t o handle maximum
flow.
Thickened S l u d g e Removal
T h e s u r f a c e skimmer brings t h e thickened s l u d g e o v e r the
d e w a t e r i n g beach a n d d e p o s i t s it in a s l u d g e h o p p e r. The
thickened s l u d g e must then be pumped t o the next p h a s e of t h e
solids handling s y s t e m. I n p u m p selection , it is i m p o r t a n t t o
r e m e m b e r t h a t air h a s b e e n entrained i n this s l u d g e b y t h e
flotation thickening process. P u m p s t h a t can air lock should
n o t be used ; p o s i t i v e d i s p l a c e m e n t p u m p s a r e common in t h i s
application.
F o r p i p e s i z i n g and f i n a l p u m p s e l e c t i o n , c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e
thickened s l u d g e can reach concentrations in t h e r a n g e of t e n
percent . ( S e e C h a p t e r 1 4 for further discussion ).
B o t t o m S l u d g e D r a w Off
In a r e c t a n g u l a r DAF tank , t h e b o t t o m collector moves t h e settled

solids t o t h e influent end of the basin. H e r e it is deposited
i n t o e i t h e r m u l t i p l e h o p p e r s o r a cross - s c r e w c o n v e y o r t h a t
delivers it t o a h o p p e r. T h e b o t t o m c o l l e c t o r in a circular
D A F t a n k d e l i v e r s t h e settled s o l i d s d i r e c t l y t o a h o p p e r in
the center of t h e tank , O n c e the solids are in t h e h o p p e r , t h e y
m u s t be r e m o v e d f r o m t h e t a n k , Depending on where this flow
g o e s, it can b e handled b y either gravity o r pumps.
O n e major consideration that applies t o either removal s y s t e m ,

but particularly to gravity removal , is the static head
a v a i l a b l e . S i n c e t h e d r a w -o f f p o i n t is a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e
flotation basin , the entire depth o f t h e liquid in t h e basin m u s t
be considered a s available static head , Although fine control is
not required , this head must be dissipated in order t o restrict
the flow. A positive displacement pump with variable speed drive
will assure control of bottom s l u d g e withdrawal.
5- 3 2
-
This draw off is at the lowest point in the basin and therefore
could also be used as a basin drain , If a tee and drain valve is
installed on this line at the outside of the tank wall , draining
can take place , The line from the drain valve can go to the
plant's drain system.
Subnatant Line
Pipe sizing should be such that it can handle the maximum total
flow ( influent plus recycle ) without any appreciable head loss.
Pressurized Flow Piping
Because of the high pressure requirements of this flow , the
pressurization liquor is usually delivered to the pressure tank
-
by a high speed , closed impeller centrifugal pump. Piping must
be sized to handle the maximum liquid throughput rate of the
pressure tank selected.
Controls
The controls for a DAF thickener are dependent upon the system ,
the degree of automation required , and the equipment manufac
turer's design. They usually include , at a minimum , a pressure
-
controller for the pressure vessel and flow meters for the feed
and thickened sludge flows.
5.4.2 Design Example

A designer has calculated that it will be necessary to thicken a
maximum of 2 ,700 pounds ( 1 ,225 kg ) per day of waste sludge at
0.5 to 0.8 percent solids from a contact stabilization plant
employing no primary clarification , The facility will have a
sludge handling system consisting of a DAF thickener for the
waste activated sludge , mechanical dewatering by belt press and
composting. The treatment plant will be manned eight hours per
day , seven days per week but dewatering operations will only
take place six hours per day , five days per week , Thickening
operation would take place 7.5 hours per day , five days per week.
Waste sludge flow from the final clarifier would be continuous
--
during the thickening operation that is , 7.5 hours per day , five
days per week.
The designer has decided to provide polymer feed equipment for
the DAF thickener to be used in emergency situations only .
Polymers are not used in normal operation.
The designer has also decided to use a packed pressurization
tank , which requires a relatively clean source of pressurized
flow. Secondary effluent will be utilized.
Effective Surface Area
The maximum daily waste sludge production expected was given as
-
2,700 pounds ( 1 , 225 kg ) of waste activated sludge with a solids
concentration of 5 ,000 to 8 ,000 mg/1.
-
5 33
The maximum net hourly load ( actual amount of solids that must be
captured and removed per hour by the thickener ) is:
( 2, 700 lb/day ) ( 7 days/wk )

( 7.5 hrs/day )( 5 day/wk operation ) = 504 lb/hr ( 228.6 kg /hr )
The sludge being thickened is considered to be equivalent to a

straight waste- activated sludge even though primary solids are
mixed with it. From Table 5-8 , a value of 0.42 pounds per square
foot per hour ( 2.1 kg /m 2/hr ) is selected.
504 lb/hr max , net load , 2

0.42 lb/sq ft/hr loading rate = 1 200 sq ft ( 108 m )
Based on the solids loading rate ( hydraulic loading rate needs to

be checked ) , the maximum effective surface area required is
1 , 200 square feet ( 108 m 2 ).
Flow Determination
Feed , pressurized recycle , thickened sludge , and subnatant must
be calculated to determine pump size and piping requirements.
Feed Flow Rate - Both the gross solids load and minimum solids
concentration must be known to calculate the feed flow rate.
1...
The gross solids load is the amount of solids that must be fed to
the thickener in order for the system to capture and thicken the
required net solids load . The maximum net hourly load has
already been calculated to be 504 pounds per hour ( 228.6 kg /hr ).
Since polymers are not to be used during normal operation , a
capture efficiency of 85 percent is used ( standard for the
industry ). The maximum gross solids load is then calculated as
follows:
504 lb/ hr max . net load = 593 lb/hr ( 269 kg /hr )

0.85 efficiency factor
The minimum solids concentration expected is 5 , 000 mg /1 , The

maximum feed flow rate can now be calculated as follows:
593 lb/hr = 237 gpm ( 897 1/min )

( 0.005 )( 8.34 ) ( 60 min/hr )
Pressurized recycle flow rate - The design pressurized flow

should bi based on the maximum gross solids load expected from
the DAF thickener. For this example, the maximum hourly gross
solids load used was 593 pounds per hour ( 269 kg /hr ).
5- 34
After discussing the operating conditions with several DAF
t h i c k e n e r e q u i p m e n t s u p p l i e r s, t h e e n g i n e e r d e s i g n e d f o r a
maximum o f 237 g a l l o n s per minute ( 14.95 1/sec ) .
Thickened sludge flow rate The maximum hourly net solids load
w a s 5 0 4 p o u n d s p e r h o u r ( 2 2 8 . 6 k g / hr ) , At t h e minimum four
p e r c e n t s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n, t h e e x p e c t e d f l o w r a t e c a n b e
calculated a s follows:
( 0.04 )( 8 . 3 4 )( 60 min/ hr ) 25 , 2 g p m ( 1 , 59 1/sec )
S u b n a t a n t flow r a t e
This r a t e is equal t o the maximum total
flow into the tank — 237 gallons per minute ( 14.95 1/sec ) feed
plus 237 gallons per minute ( 14.95 1/sec ) r e c y c l e.
Hydraulic Surface Loading Rate
B a s e d o n s o l i d s l o a d i n g , t h e m i n i m u m thickener s u r f a c e a r e a
w a s c a l c u l a t e d t o b e 1 , 2 0 0 s q u a r e f e e t ( 1 0 8 m 2 ). T h e t o t a l
maximum flow rate ( influent p l u s r e c y c l e ) was calculated t o be
4 7 4 g a l l o n s p e r minute ( 1 , 7 9 4 1/ min ). T h e maximum h y d r a u l i c
surface loading r a t e would be:
1 , 200 sq ft =
2.53 g p m/sq ft ( 1.72 1/ sec/ m 2 )
474 gpm
The 2.53 g a l l o n p e r minute p e r s q u a r e foot ( 105 1/min/ m 2 ) is o n

the high side f o r a s y s t e m that d o e s n o t employ p o l y m e r addition.
Under maximum conditions , p o l y m e r usage would be required .
N u m b e r of Units
O n l y o n e unit will be used , with an adequate spare parts

inventory t o minimize down time .
Manufacturer' s Recommendations
Several r e p u t a b l e manufacturers o f DAF thickeners were contacted
for their comments o n the designer's calculations and proposed
applicat ion.
5.4. 3 Cost
5.4.3.1 Capital Cost
Several r e c e n t publications have developed capital c o s t curves

for DAF thickeners ( 26 - 2 8 ) . A s discussed in Section 5.3 .5.1 ,
t h e m o s t f a c t u a l i s t h e r e f e r e n c e b a s e d o n a c t u a l U S E P A bid
5-3 5
d o c u m e n t s f o r t h e y e a r s 1 9 7 3-1 9 7 7 ( 27 ). A l t h o u g h t h e d a t a were
s c a t t e r e d , a r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s indicated t h e c a p i t a l c o s t c o u l d
be a p p r o x i m a t e d b y E q u a t i o n 5-3:
C = 2.99 x 104 Q1 - 1 4 ( 5-3 )
w h e r e:
C = c a p i t a l c o s t o f p r o c e s s in d o l l a r s;
Q = p l a n t d e s i g n flow in mil g a l w a s t e w a t e r flow p e r d a y .
The associated costs include, those for, excavation, process
piping , e q u i p m e n t , c o n c r e t e a n d s t e e l. I n addition , s u c h c o s t a s
those for administrating and engineering are equal to 0.2264
times E q u a t i o n 5-3 ( 27 ).
5 . 4.3 . 2 O p e r a t i n g and Maintenance C o s t s
Staffing
F i g u r e 5-1 3 indicates a n n u a l m a n-h o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r o p e r a t i o n s
a n d maintenance. A s a n e x a m p l e , f o r a DAF thickener s u r f a c e area
o f 1 , 0 0 0 s q u a r e f e e t ( 9 3 m 2 ) a d e s i g n e r w o u l d include 2 , 7 0 0 m a n-
h o u r s o f o p e r a t i o n and maintenance in t h e c o s t analysis.
Power
Figure 5-1 4 shows annual power consumption for a continuously
operating DAF thickener as a function of DAF thickener surface
area . A s a n e x a m p l e , for a D A F thickener s u r f a c e a r e a of
1 , 0 0 0 s q u a r e f e e t ( 9 3 m 2 ) , a d e s i g n e r w o u l d include a y e a r l y
p o w e r u s a g e of 7 2 0 , 0 0 0 k W h r ( 2 , 5 9 2 GJ ) in t h e c o s t a n a l y s i s.
Figure 5 -1 4 does n o t include accessories such as p u m p s or polymer
feed s y s t e m s.
Maintenance Material C o s t
F i g u r e 5-1 5 s h o w s a c u r v e d e v e l o p e d f o r e s t i m a t i n g D A F thickener
maintenance material cost as a function of DAF thickener
s u r f a c e a r e a. A s a n e x a m p l e , f o r D A F thickener s u r f a c e a r e a of
1 ,000 s q u a r e feet ( 9 3 m 2 ), a d e s i g n e r w o u l d estimate a y e a r l y
m a t e r i a l s c o s t o f $ 2 7 5. Since t h i s n u m b e r is b a s e d o n a J u n e
1 9 7 5 c o s t , it m u s t be adjusted t o t h e c u r r e n t d e s i g n p e r i o d .
5.5 Centrifugal Thickening
5 . 5 .1 Introduction
The concept of using centrifuges for thickening municipal
w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s ( w a s t e-activated s l u d g e ) w a s f i r s t considered
in t h e United S t a t e s in t h e l a t e 1 9 3 0's ( 4 9 ). A t t h a t time , d i s c
5-3 6
nozzle centrifuges were used. Early installations used machines
developed for industrial processing , Equipment manufacturers
did not appreciate that the composition of municipal wastewater
sludges is extremely variable from plant to plant and within a
plant , and that most wastewater treatment facilities provided
little , if any , of the preventive maintenance common in
industrial applications.
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
d6
O 2
DC
o
LL
C/5 1,000
DC 9
8
O 7
X 6
5
DC 4
O
5 3
<
D
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100
9
8
7
6
5
10 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 5- 13
ANNUAL O &M MAN- HOUR REQUIREMENTS -

DAF THICKENERS ( 28 )
Consequently , early installations developed numerous operational

and maintenance problems ; thus , for a period of time designers
and users did not favor the centrifuge.
By the late 1960's , equipment manufacturers had designed new
machines specifically for wastewater sludge applications , and
centrifuges began to be used once again. Considerable experience
resulted in improved application of centrifuges and centrifuge
-
5 37
support systems (chemical conditioning and chemical feed systems ,
pumps , and e l e c t r i c a l controls ) , Today , more sophisticatd
machines are being built that require less power and attention
and produce less noise .
9
5 8
7
o 6
CD
00 5
I! 4
-C 3
2
_c
1 , 000,000
z 9
O 8
7
H
Q 6
.
5 5
D
CO 4
Z
o 3
O
CL
IU 2
s
o
CL
< 100,000
D 9
Z 8
Z 7
6
-
< I
5
10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9100 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 5- 14
ANNUAL POWER CONSUMPTION - CONTINUOUS OPERATING

DAF THICKENERS ( 28 )
At present , disc nozzle, imperforate basket and scroll type -

decanter centrifuges are used in municipal wastewater sludge
thickening .
5.5 2 . Theory
Centrifugation i s an acceleration of sedimentation through

the use of centrifugal force .
In a settling tank, solids sink to
the bottom and the liquid remains a t the top In a centrifuge, .
the rotating bowl acts as a highly effective s e t t l i n g tank .
Space limitations within t h i s manual make i t impossible to
discuss the theory and mathematics involved in centrifugation .
Complete discussions can be found in other references ( 50 52 ) - .
5-3 8
s
10,000
7
6
5
4
CO
3
CO
o 2
T>
h-
CO
co
o 1 ,000
9
CJ
8
7
< 6
3
Z
<
5-
4
-
3
2 -
100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 ,0 0 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 5- 15
ESTIMATED JUNE 1975 MAINTENANCE MATERIAL COST

FOR DAF THICKENERS ( 28 )
One aspect that should be mentioned about centrifuge theory ,

because of i t s misapplication by the wastewater design profes -
sion , i s the use of a Sigma factor to evaluate bids from
.
d i f f e r e n t c e n t r i f u g e m a n u f a c t u r e r s F i r s t d e v e l o p e d in 1952 ( 5 3 ) ,
the Sigma concept i s an established method developed t o
predict the sedimentation performance of centrifuges that are
geometrically and hydrodynamically similar, I t cannot , however,
be used in engineering bid specifications to compare different
units when the two basic assumptions , geometric and hydrodynamic
similarity , are not valid , This is normally the case in
s c r o l l- t y p e d e c a n t e r s.
5.5 3 . System Design Considerations
5.5.3.1 Disc Nozzles
Disc nozzles were f i r s t used in the United States in 1937 ( 49 ) .

To date, approximately 90 machines have been installed a t over
-
5 39
5 0 m u n i c i p a l i t i e s ( 3 7 ). T a b l e 5 - 1 1 lists t h e a d v a n t a g e s and
disadvantages o f a disc nozzle as compared t o o t h e r thickening
systems . Figure 5-1 6 shows a typical disc nozzle centrifuge.
TABLE 5- 11
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DISC NOZZLE CENTRIFUGES
Yields highly clarified centrate without Can only be used on sludges with particle
the use of chemicals sizes of 400 ym or less
Has large liquid and solids handling Requires extensive prescreening and grit
capacity in a very small space removal
Produces little or no odor Requires relatively high
_ maintenance if
pretreatment system xs improperly
designed
Requires skilled maintenance personnel
FIGURE 5-16
TYPICAL DISC NOZZLE CENTRIFUGE IN THE FIELD
5 -4 0
Principles of Operation
-
Figure 5 17 features a cut away view of a disc nozzle centrifuge.
The feed normally enters through the top ( bottom feed is also
possible ) and passes down through a feedwell in the center of the
rotor. An impeller within the rotor accelerates and distributes
the feed slurry , filling the rotor interior. The heavier solids
settle outward toward the circumference of the rotor under
increasingly greater centrifugal force. The liquid and the
-
lighter solids flow inward through the cone shaped disc stack.
These lighter particles are settled out on the underside of the
discs, where they agglomerate , slide down the discs , and migrate
out to the nozzle region. The gap of 0.050 inches ( 1.27 mm )
between the discs means that the particles have a short distance
to travel before settling on the disc surface. The clarified
_
liquid passes on through the disc stack into the overflow chamber
and is then disehtrge' tk.. V the effluent liner
FEED FEED
EFFLUENT EFFLUENT
DISCHARGE DISCHARGE
ROTOR
BOWL
CONCENTRATING
CHAMBER
ROTOR
NOZZLES
SLUDGE SLUDGE
DISCHARGE DISCHARGE
RECYCLE FLOW
FIGURE 5- 17
SCHEMATIC OF A DISC NOZZLE CENTRIFUGE
-
5 41
The centrifugal action causes the solids t o concentrate a s they
s e t t l e o u t w a r d. At the o u t e r rim o f t h e rotor bowl , t h e high
energy imparted t o the fluid forces the concentrated material
t h r o u g h t h e r o t o r n o z z l e s. One part of this concentrated
s l u d g e i s d r a w n off as the thickened p r o d u c t a n d another is
r e c y c l e d back t o the base of the rotor and p u m p e d back into the
c o n c e n t r a t i n g c h a m b e r ; t h e r e , it is s u b j e c t e d t o additional
c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e a n d i s f u r t h e r c o n c e n t r a t e d b e f o r e it i s
once again discharged through the n o z z l e s , This recirculation
i s a d v a n t a g e o u s b e c a u s e it increases t h e o v e r a l l u n d e r f l o w
concentration ; minimizes particle accumulation inside the rotor
b y f l u s h i n g action ; a l l o w s t h e use of l a r g e r n o z z l e s , t h u s
decreasing the potential for nozzle plugging ; and helps to
a c h i e v e a s t a b l e s e p a r a t i o n e q u i l i b r i u m t h a t l e n d s itself t o
precise adjustment and control.
Application
Disc nozzle centrifuges can be applied o n l y t o s l u d g e s consisting
of smaller particles ( less than 400 m [ 5 4 ] ) a n d void o f
fibrous material . I n e a r l y installations , severe o p e r a t i n g
and maintenance p r o b l e m s occurred from p l u g g a g e ( 24,49 , 5 5,56 ).
For wastewater treatment , then , only those systems that provide
p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t and s e p a r a t e t h e p r i m a r y s l u d g e f r o m t h e
w a s t e - a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e c a n be e q u i p p e d with a d i s c n o z z l e
centrifuge and o n l y activated s l u d g e can b e thickened in this
w a y. Even for those s y s t e m s that k e e p t h e n e c e s s a r y separation ,
designers have frequently forgotten the amount of fibrous
material t h a t can b e r e c y c l e d b a c k i n t o t h e aeration s y s t e m
from a dirty anaerobic digester s u p e r n a t a n t stream , This a l s o
eventually causes severe p l u g g a g e.
Pretreatment
T o further reduce operation and maintenance requirements, c u r r e n t
design recommendations provide for pretreatment of the disc
n o z z l e feed s t r e a m. Figure 5 -1 8 shows a disc nozzle pretreatment
s y s t e m.
R a w W A S is p u m p e d t o a strainer in o r d e r t o remove l a r g e solids
a n d f i b r o u s material . S t r a i n e r s s h o u l d b e m a d e o f stainless
steel , should be self - cleaning , and should be easily accessible.
Approximately one p e r c e n t of t h e inlet f l o w will be rejected .
The reject stream should go to the primary sludge handling
s y s t e m.
A f t e r s c r e e n i n g , the f l o w g o e s t o a d e g r i t t e r; h o w e v e r , e v e n
a f t e r a e r a t e d g r i t r e m o v a l and p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t , s o m e g r i t
g e t s into the aeration basin. Under t h e velocities g e n e r a t e d in
a d i s c n o z z l e, t h i s g r i t b e c o m e s a b r a s i v e and c a u s e s n o z z l e
d e t e r i o r a t i o n. T h e d e g r i t t e r d o e s n o t e l i m i n a t e t h e p r o b l e m
c o m p l e t e l y but it d o e s increase the running time between nozzle
r e p l a c e m e n t s. Approximately 1 0 p e r c e n t o f the degritter inlet
flow is rejected , and this rejected s t r e a m is usually combined
with the screen flow.
5 -4 2
STRAINER
RAW WASTE
ACTIVATED DEGRITTER
SLUDGE
\j
l
* /
BUFFER
TANK
P I
I
RECIRCULATION
GJ PUMP
p p
NOZZLE
SEPARATOR
REJECT FLOW GOES THICKENED
BACK TO PRIMARY SLUDGE
SLUDGE HANDLING SYSTEM
FIGURE 5- 18
TYPICAL DISC NOZZLE PRETREATMENT SYSTEM
Performance
T a b l e 5 -1 2 l i s t s t y p i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e t h a t c a n b e e x p e c t e d o f
disc n o z z l e c e n t r i f u g e s. In addition to the standard process
v a r i a b l e s , t h e d i s c n o z z l e m a c h i n e variables considered a r e b o w l
diameter , b o w l s p e e d , o p e r a t i o n o f r e c y c l e , d i s c spacing , a n d
n o z z l e c o n f i g u r a t i o n. P o s s i b l y t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n ,
h o w e v e r, i s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s l u d g e .
A s with o t h e r c e n t r i f u g e
a p p l i c a t i o n s , a n i n c r e a s i n g s l u d g e v o l u m e index ( S V I ) i n f l u e n c e s
machine p e r f o r m a n c e. F i g u r e 5-1 9 s h o w s t h e e f f e c t o f S V I's o n
c a p t u r e a n d t h i c k e n i n g ( 5 7 ).
TABLE 5- 12
TYPICAL PERFORMANCE OF DISC NOZZLE CENTRIFUGE
Capacity , Feed Underflow Polymer,

gallons solids , solids , Solids pounds per
per percent percent recovery , dry ton
Ref minute solids solids percent of solids
5
5
150
400
--
0.75 1.0
>
-4.0
5 5.5 90 +
80
None
None
5
5
50 80
60 270-
- 0.7
0.7
5 7 -6.1 -
93 87
-
97 80
None
None
24
60
66
200
1.5
0.75
6.5-7.5
5.0
-
87 97
90
None
None
1 gpm = 3.78 1/min

1 lb/ton = 0.5/kq/t
5 -4 3
100
90
80
> 70
cc
LU
>
O 60
u
LU
CC
50
40
30
THICKENED SLUDGE SOLIDS, %
FIGURE 5- 19
EFFECT OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE SETTLEABILITY ON

CAPTURE AND THICKENING ( 57 )
I n g e n e r a l , it c a n be said of disc nozzle p e r f o r m a n c e t h a t the

concentration of the thickened sludge tends to increase with
increasing solids concentration in t h e inlet. Depending o n inlet
solids concentration, thickened sludge will be five t o t e n times
more concentrated t h a n the feed , T h e capability t o c o n c e n t r a t e
w i l l d e c r e a s e a s t h e inlet s o l i d s b e c o m e m o r e c o n c e n t r a t e d .
Solids c a p t u r e o f 9 0 p e r c e n t o r b e t t e r for t h e material fed into
the disc nozzle ( after screening and grit removal) should be
obtainable without t h e u s e o f polymers.
O t h e r Considerations
A s n o t e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f p r e t r e a t m e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s,
approximately 1 1 percent o f t h e flow t o the disc nozzle s y s t e m is
rejected. T h e reject s t r e a m contains t w o t o t h r e e p e r c e n t solids
and is usually p u m p e d t o t h e primary s l u d g e handling s y s t e m.
T h e centrate s t r e a m i s normally returned t o the aeration tank.

This line should be designed to handle the entire flow being
p u m p e d t o t h e p r e t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m.
5 -4 4
Typically , equipment suppliers furnish disc nozzle systems
c o m p l e t e , i n c l u d i n g a l l n e c e s s a r y p u m p s. T h e s y s t e m m u s t b e
assembled in t h e field .
5.5 .3 . 2 Imperforate Basket
I m p e r f o r a t e b a s k e t c e n t r i f u g e s w e r e first u s e d in t h e u.S. in
1 9 2 0 , a n d t o d a t e , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 0 m u n i c i p a l installations
( o v e r 3 0 0 machines ) h a v e b e e n installed ( 3 7 ). About o n e half a r e
used for thickening , I n fact , t h e largest centrifuge facility
in t h e w o r l d , t h e J o i n t W a t e r P o l l u t i o n P l a n t o f t h e C o u n t y
Sanitation Districts of L o s A n g e l e s County , California, utilizes
48 imperforate basket centrifuges, T a b l e 5 -1 3 l i s t s t h e
a d v a n t a g e s and disadvantages o f a n imperforate basket centrifuge
c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r thickening s y s t e m s.
TABLE 5- 13
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF IMPERFORATE BASKET CENTRIFUGE
Facility can be designed so that same Unit is not continuous feed and discharged
machine can be used both for thickening Requires special strucbural support
and dewatering
Has the highest ratio of capital cost to
Is very flexible in meeting process capacity
requirements
Is not affected by grit
Of all the centrifuges , has the lowest
operation and maintenance requirements
Compared to gravity and DAF thickener
installations , is clean looking and has
little to no odor problems
- -
Is an excellent thickener for hard to handle
sludges
Principles of Operation
Figure 5-20 is a schematic of a top feed imperforate basket
centrifuge illustrating general location o f s l u d g e inlet , p o l y m e r
feed , and c e n t r a t e piping and location o f c a k e d i s c h a r g e.
T h e following describes o n e complete batch operating c y c l e of a

basket centrifuge. W h e n t h e " c y c l e start " b u t t o n is p u s h e d , t h e
centrifuge b e g i n s t o a c c e l e r a t e .
After approximately 3 0 s e c o n d s ,
t h e feed pump is started t h r o u g h a timer r e l a y. Depending o n
t h e feed p u m p r a t e, it will t a k e one t o t h r e e m i n u t e s f o r t h e
,
bowl t o r e a c h operating s p e e d . S l u d g e e n t e r s t h e unit t h r o u g h a

stationary feed pipe mounted t h r o u g h t h e c u r b c a p. This pipe
e x t e n d s t o t h e b o t t o m portion o f t h e basket and ends a t a n a n g l e
just a b o v e t h e floor in o r d e r t o impart a tangential velocity t o
t h e input s t r e a m. T h e duration o f t h e feed time is controlled by
5 -4 5
either a pre-set timer or a centrate monitor that shuts the feed
pump off when a certain level of suspended solids appears in the
centrate. The centrate is normally returned to the inlet of the
secondary treatment system.
POLYMER
SKIMMINGS
-
*
'vi
8 #
i
1mu* !
KNIFE
&
it
&
CAKE
\
CAKE
FIGURE 5- 20
GENERAL SCHEMATIC OF IMPERFORATE BASKET CENTRIFUGE
Deterioration in the centrate indicates that the centrifuge bowl

is filled with solids , and separation can no longer take place.
At this point , the sludge feed pump is turned off.
Turning off or diverting the feed pump decelerates the centrifuge.

When the centrifuge has decelerated to 70 rpm ’ s , a plow ( located
by the center spindle shaft ) is activated and starts to travel
horizontally into the bowl where the solids have accumulated.
5-46
When the plow blade reaches the bowl wall, a dwell timer is
activated to keep the plow in the same position for approximately
5 to 15 seconds until all the solids have been discharged , When
the plow retracts , a cycle has been completed and the machine
will automatically begin to accelerate , starting a new cycle.
Application
Basket centrifuge is a good application for small plants ( under

1 to 2 MGD [ 44 to 88 1/sec ] ) pumping capacity . The appropriate
plant would provide neither primary clarification nor grit
removal ( that is , extended aeration , aerated lagoons , contact
stabilization ) , but would require:
Thickening before aerobic or anaerobic digestion,
Solids content of less than ten percent to minimize cost

of hauling liquid sludge for land disposal , and
A machine that can thicken sludge part of the time and

dewater sludge part of the time.
Performance
Table 5 -14 lists typical basket centrifuge performance on several

types of sludges , Figure 5-21 shows the relative influence of
one process variable as a function of feed solids content ,
holding all other process variables constant.
TABLE 5- 14
TYPICAL THICKENING RESULTS USING IMPERFORATE

BASKET CENTRIFUGE
Polymer
Average required , Recovery
Feed solids cake solids pounds dry based on
concentration , concentra tion , per ton dry centrate ,
Sludge type percent solids percent solids feed solids percent
-
Raw waste activated -
0.5 1.5 -
8 10 0 -
85 90
sludge
Aerobically
1
1-3 8- 10
-0
1.0 3.0 -
90 95
80-90
digested sludge 1.0- 3.0 90-95
Raw trickling filter sludge 2- 3 8-9 0 -
90 95
(rock & plastic media) -
9 11 1.5- 3.0 -
95 97
Anaerobically digested 2- 3 -
8 10 0 95-97
sludge, primary and rock
tricklinq filter sludge
-
7 9 1.5- 3.0 -
94 97
(70:30)
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t
5 -47
CO
as
A O
Q
co
A POSSIBLE
>oc• <
H
LU O
> H
O
o
LU LU
DC
*<
O
FEED, % TOTAL SOLIDS FEED, % TOTAL SOLIDS
c
A -O
C
A
)
E -_C
a) Q
O
a a
£ A “O
8-
M
c
o o
5 -
^
“O
a>
0) 00£
^ rs
tr CD - CO
H
LU
$
o I 8, 5
a.
FIGURE 5 - 21
RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF ONE PROCESS VARIABLE AS A

FUNCTION OF FEED SOLIDS CONTENT FOR IMPERFORATE
BASKET CENTRIFUGE HOLDING ALL OTHER PROCESS
VARIABLES CONSTANT
5-4 8
I n d i s c u s s i o n s o f h y d r a u l i c f l o w r a t e , a distinction m u s t be
m a d e b e t w e e n instantaneous f e e d r a t e a n d a v e r a g e f e e d r a t e.
I n s t a n t a n e o u s feed r a t e is t h e a c t u a l h y d r a u l i c p u m p r a t e t o
the basket. The a v e r a g e feed r a t e includes the period of time
during a c y c l e w h e n s l u d g e i s n o t being p u m p e d t o t h e basket
( acceleration , deceleration , discharge ) , Therefore , dividing
total g a l l o n s p u m p e d p e r c y c l e b y total c y c l e time g i v e s t h e
a v e r a g e feed r a t e.
Basket centrifuge p e r f o r m a n c e is affected by the solids feed r a t e

t o the machine. As t h e solids concentration c h a n g e s , the flow
r a t e m u s t b e adjusted , E v e r y effort should be made t o minimize
floe shear. For this reason, positive d i s p l a c e m e n t cavity feed
pumps with 4 t o 1 s p e e d variation are recommended .
Cake solids concentration can o n l y be discussed a s average solids

concentration. The solids concentration in a basket centrifuge
is maximum a t the bowl wall and d e c r e a s e s t o w a r d t h e c e n t e r , T h e
s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n d i s c h a r g e d will b e t h e a v e r a g e f o r t h e
mixture.
The c e n t r a t e stream should be returned t o the s e c o n d a r y s y s t e m.
5.5 .3 . 3 Solid Bowl Decanter

The first solid bowl decanter centrifuge in the U.S. t o o p e r a t e
s u c c e s s f u l l y on municipal w a s t e w a t e r sludge was installed in the
mid - 1 9 3 0 ' s ( 5 8 ). Since t h e n t h e r e h a v e b e e n a p p r o x i m a t e l y
1 5 0 installations ( o v e r 400 machines ) ( 3 7 ). F e w o f t h e s e units
were used for thickening because the rotating scroll created
disturbances in the thickening s l u d g e , and t h e gravity force t h a t
had t o be overcome in climbing the beach made it more difficult
for t h e liquid thickened sludge t o be discharged .
Technological advances have made solid bowl decanters for
thickening w a s t e -activated s l u d g e available , Table 5-1 5 lists
the current a d v a n t a g e s and disadvantages o f solid bowl decanter
centrifuges in waste-activated s l u d g e thickening .
Principles o f Operation
Figure 5 - 2 2 is a schematic of a solid bowl d e c a n t e r centrifuge.

T h e s l u d g e s t r e a m e n t e r s the bowl t h r o u g h a feed pipe m o u n t e d a t
one end o f the centrifuge .
As soon a s the s l u d g e p a r t i c l e s are e x p o s e d t o t h e gravitational
field , they start to settle out on the inner surface of the
rotating bowl. The lighter liquid , o r centrate , p o o l s above the
s l u d g e l a y e r and f l o w s t o w a r d s t h e centrate outlet p o r t s located
a t the large end of t h e machine.
5- 4 9
TABLE 5- 15
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOLID BOWL DECANTER CENTRIFUGES
Yields high throughput in a small area Is potentially a high maintenance item
Is easy to install May require polymers in order to operate
successfully
Is quiet
Causes no odor problems
Requires grit removal in feed stream
Has low capital cost for installation Requires skilled maintenance personnel
Is a clean looking installation
Has ability to constantly achieve four to
six percent solids in the thickened sludge
v/j T
0
v
ROTATING
^ CONVEYOR
A
/
f/
A
ROTATING
BOWL :/
•••
•• ••
i
•\v
#
CENTRATE COVER ••s »* DEWATERED

•.• •
t
«
i t
SOLIDS
•• lf •
• ••
FIGURE 5- 22
SCHEMATIC OF TYPICAL SOLID BOWL DECANTER

CENTRIFUGE
The settled sludge on the inner surface of the rotating bowl is

transported by the rotating conveyor towards the conical section
( s m a l l e n d ) o f t h e b o w l , I n a d e c a n t e r d e s i g n e d f o r d e w a t e r i n g,
t h e s l u d g e, h a v i n g r e a c h e d t h e c o n i c a l s e c t i o n , i s n o r m a l l y
c o n v e y e d u p a n i n c l i n e t o t h e s l u d g e o u t l e t. W a s t e - a c t i v a t e d
-
5 50
s l u d g e is t o o " s l i m y " t o be conveyed u p w a r d without large doses
o f p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e , I n t h e n e w l y d e s i g n e d m a c h i n e s, m a x i m u m
pool d e p t h s are maintained ; i n a d d i t i o n , a s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n e d
baffle is located a t t h e beginning of the conical section , This
baffle , working in conjunction with the deep liquid p o o l , allows
hydrostatic pressure t o force the thickened sludge o u t of the
machine i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e rotating c o n v e y o r , This design
e l i m i n a t e s t h e n e e d f o r p o l y m e r a d d i t i o n t o aid i n c o n v e y i n g
thickened s l u d g e u p the incline towards t h e s l u d g e discharge and
allows only the thickest cake at the bowl wall t o be removed .
Figure 5- 23 shows a typical installation of a centrifuge designed
for thickening .
*« v
:
•
' air
£:: * .
£
t <
v.
FIGURE 5- 23
SOLID BOWL DECANTER CENTRIFUGE INSTALLATION
Application
B e c a u s e of t h e s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n e d b a f f l e , t h e n e w t y p e o f
thickening decanter centrifuge can be used to thicken only
straight waste-activated or aerobically digested w a s t e-activated
5- 51
sludge. A thickening type decanter centrifuge cannot be used for
-
primary or equivalent sludges , whereas the old style decanters
without baffle can be used to thicken any sludge.
Performance
Operating data on the newly designed machines are very limited.
-
Table 5 16 shows typical operating results supplied by one
equipment manufacturer.
TABLE 5- 16
TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NEW TYPE THICKENING

DECANTER CENTRIFUGE ON WAS ( 63 )
Solid bowl
Parameter conveyor
Operating method Continuous
Bowl diameters , inches
Normal G range
-
14 40
1 ,400- 2 ,100
WAS feed solids , percent
Thickened WAS solids , percent
-
0.5 1.5
5- 8
Recovery , percent 85-95
Polymer range , lb/ton 0-6
1 inch 2.54 cm
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t
Pumps should provide positive displacement and variable speed .

There should be no rigid piping connections to the centrifuge.
Several points of polymer addition should be provided , This is

necessary because of differences in polymer charge densities ,
effect of polymer reaction times with the sludge , and variances
in sludge characteristics , Polymer can be added at the sludge
feed line , just before either the junction of the feed pipe and
the centrifuge or the inlet side of the sludge feed pump , or
immediately downstream from the outlet side of the sludge feed
pump.
There should be a moveable overhead hoist for removing and
replacing the internal conveyor.
A washwater connection must be provided in the feed line to wash
the decanter internally if the unit is to be shut down for more
than several hours. It is important that the material not dry
out within the machine , as it can cause a load imbalance.
-
5 52
awveuesss
5.5.4 Case History
-
The following is a summary of a three year project in which
a disc nozzle , imperforate basket and solid bowl decanter
centrifuge were evaluated for their ability to thicken waste
activated sludge. The study was concluded at the Village Creek -
Plant , Fort Worth , Texas ( 59 ), where wastewater temperatures
reach 86°F ( 30°C). The plant had been unable to gravity thicken
-
waste activated sludge over a maximum of 2.5 percent ,
addition , sludge blanket turnovers and other process upsets
In
proved troublesome. Use of polymers , dilution water , and mixing
with primary sludge did not resolve the problems associated with
-
gravity thickening waste activated sludge.
After some pilot testing , two disc-nozzle centrifuges were
-
installed to concentrate waste activated sludge prior to
anaerobic dig-estion , and an equipment testing- program was-
-
'
undertaken on other centrifuges. An expansion from 45 to 96 MGD

( 2 to 4 nw/s ) was anticipated without an increase in the plant's
existing digester capacity. This meant that sludge would have to
be concentrated to at least five percent total solids.
Over a three-year period , the existing disc nozzle centri -
fuge system was redesigned and optimized and other centrifuges
( imperforate basket and solid bowl decanter ) were tested .
The test program at Village Creek graphically illustrated that

-
the thickening characteristics of waste activated sludges vary
markedly depending on the design and operating criteria of the
activated sludge process and on the storage conditions of the
sludges. These variations can be reduced considerably by the use
of polyelectrolyte conditioners. The effect of polyelectrolytes
on unit process costs varies; the advisability of using them must
be determined for each individual case.
Disc Nozzle
-
Testing was conducted on a 24 inch ( 61 cm ) diameter unit ,
-
operating at 4,290 rpm and having a 0.07 inch ( 1.7 mm ) nozzle
opening . The optimum design for obtaining a five percent
sludge and 90 percent recovery was at 200 gpm ( 12.62 1/sec ) and
750 pounds per hour ( 340 kg/hr ) of solids.
-
In operation , the nozzles on a disc nozzle machine will plug up
in minutes if prescreening is not provided. For activated sludge
the screen must be chosen with care , Vibrating screens can
become coated with grease and fiber , They may coat over even
when provided with spray nozzles , or they may tear from abrasion.
A rotating drum wedge wire screen with either 0.010 inch -
-
( 0.25 mm ) or 0.020 inch ( 0.51 mm ) openings offered the best
results. The rejects from this screen were about 5 to 15 percent
of the feed solids. These rejects consisted of approximately
60 percent hexane extractables and 30 percent fiber.
-
5 53
Even with prescreening , the centrifuge nozzles e v e n t u a l l y plug
u p , a n d p e r f o r m a n c e deteriorates. A n examination o f t h e
centrifuge after p e r f o r m a n c e deterioration revealed that g r e a s e
had built u p and had begun to back up into the disc s t a c k and
interfere with clarification , T h e centrifuge t h e n h a d t o be
disassembled a n d c l e a n e d , a b o u t a n e i g h t - h o u r ( 1 6 m a n - h o u r )
operation. With o n l y drum screening , runs of about three d a y s'
duration were experienced , but when a n inline w e d g e-wire b a c k u p
screen was installed , the runs were of seven t o ten d a y s duration.
Other installations have h a d success r e m o v i n g this g r e a s e
in-line by periodically flushing the centrifuges with hot water
introduced into the feed pipe ; the r u n is thereby l e n g t h e n e d t o
more than thirty d a y s.
In addition , the nozzles, their holders, and r e c y c l e t u b e s a l s o
underwent extreme wear. Erosion d u e t o fine grit in the sludge
( despite primary treatment ) was ruining one nozzle o r its holder
about e v e r y three d a y s until c y c l o n e degritters were installed.
These reduced the p r e s s u r e t o 1 0 0 g a l l o n s p e r minute ( 6 . 3 1 1/sec )
a t 4 5 p s i ( 3 1 0 k N / m ) a n d r e m o v e d g r i t d o w n t o 7 5 m m. T h e y
^
also reduced wear , s o that the nozzle had t o be r e p l a c e d o n l y
once every six months.
I m p e r f o r a t e Basket
T e s t i n g w a s c o n d u c t e d o n a 4 0 - inch ( 1 0 2- c m ) d i a m e t e r unit
operating a t 1 , 5 0 0 rpm. P o l y m e r usage was not evaluated. T h e
optimum design was for a six percent cake and 8 0 percent recovery
at a n average feed r a t e of 4 0 g p m ( 252 1/sec ) and 1 5 0 p o u n d s p e r
hour ( 6 8 kg / hr ) of solids.
Solid Bowl Decanter

T e s t i n g w a s conducted and scaled u p f o r a 2 . 5 - inch ( 6 3 . 5 - cm )
diameter bowl unit, Polymer usage was not evaluated. The
optimum design was for a 7.5 percent c a k e and 9 0 p e r c e n t r e c o v e r y
at 1 5 0 g p m ( 9.46 1/ s e c ) and 5 6 2 p o u n d s p e r hour ( 2 5 5 k g / h r ) of
solids.
Analysis of Results
Since all three t y p e s of centrifuges were c a p a b l e of producing ,
without polymer , cake solids content and solids capture
considered a d e q u a t e at Fort Worth , the issues of reliability and
c o s t came into question. Cost is based o n 73 , 3 0 0 p o u n d s p e r d a y
( 33 , 275 kg / d a y ), the maximum expected solids t o b e generated
o v e r a n entire m o n t h. This would require 20 basket, s i x
h o r i z o n t a l s c r o l l , a n d f o u r d i s c n o z z l e c e n t r i f u g e s. The
horizontal scroll and disc nozzle centrifuges would require
cycloning grit removal equipment and the disc nozzle prescreen-
i n g. Comparative capital and o p e r a t i o n and maintenance c o s t s are
listed in Table 5-17. Estimated operating costs consist of power
and additional head for c y c l o n e s. Maintenance costs were k n o w n
5- 54
from plant d a t a for disc nozzle machines and o t h e r manufacturer 's
horizontal b o w l s a n d considered minimal f o r t h e basket , Cleaning
c o s t s w e r e included f o r the disc nozzle.
TABLE 5- 17
ESTIMATED CAPITAL AND 0 / M COST FOR VARIOUS CENTRIFUGES

FOR THICKENING OF WASTE- ACTIVATED SLUDGE
AT VILLAGE CREEK - FORT WORTH , TEXAS
Dollars
Twenty
Six solid bowl Five disc imperforate
Item decanters nozzle basket
Capital cost
Centrifuges 900 , 000 600 ,000 1,400 , 000
Associated equipment 300 , 000 300 ,000 1,500 , 000
Annual cost
-
20 yr life , 7 percent interest 113 ,280 84 ,960 179 , 360
Operating cost
Maintenance parts 17 , 800 20 ,000 10 , 000
Manpower ($10/hr) 12,480 41,600 20 , 800
Electricity (1.75 cents/kWhr) 55 , 188 51,739 144 , 975
Total cost of thickening 180,948 198 , 299 325 ,135
Cost/ton of sludge processed 12.33 13.40 21.97
aBuilding , piping , and pumping to and from facility not included.

1 kWhr = 3.6 MJ
5.5.5 Cost
5 . 5.5.1 Capital C o s t
Disc Nozzle Centrifuge
Capital cost data for disc nozzle systems are not readily
a v a i l a b l e. I n o n e s t u d y ( 5 9 ) t h e 1 9 7 8 c o s t f o r f i v e 2 0 0 - g p m
( 1 2 . 6 2 1 /s e c ) u n i t s with p r e t r e a t m e n t e q u i p m e n t w o u l d b e
$ 9 0 0 , 000. This c o s t f i g u r e w a s restricted t o equipment .
Basket Centrifuge
Capital c o s t curves f o r basket c e n t r i f u g e installations a r e n o t

a v a i l a b l e a t this t i m e. In June 1979 , a typical top feed ,
4 8- i n c h b y 3 0 - i n c h ( 122 cm by 76 cm ) imperforate basket ( the
size most c o m m o n l y used ) with drive , electrical c o n t r o l p a n e l ,
5-5 5
flexible connectors , necessary spare parts , air compressor ,
sludge feed pump , polymer feed system and start up services was -
$160 ,000 to $170 ,000.
Solid Bowl Decanter Centrifuge
Figure 5- 24 shows estimated June 1975 capital cost for a solid

bowl decanter installation. The cost includes centrifuge
equipment , pumps , hoist , electrical facilities , and building.
1,000, 000
9
(Si 8
CO 1
o 6
O
"
5
C/D 4
H
C/D
O 3
O
z 2
O :
f-
CJ
D
CC 100,000
9
co 8
z 7
O 6
O
5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 10 2 3 4 56789100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SINGLE UNIT INSTALLED CAPACITY, gpm ( 1 gpm = 40.8 l /min )
FIGURE 5- 24
ESTIMATED JUNE 1975 SOLID BOWL DECANTER

INSTALLATION CAPITAL COST ( 28 )
5.5.5.2 Operating and Maintenance Cost
Disc Nozzle Centrifuge
Operating and maintenance cost data for disc nozzle systems are
not readily available , In one study ( 59 ) the following 1978
costs were given for operating four 200 gpm ( 12.62 1/sec ) units -
24 hours per day:
• Maintenance parts - $20 ,000/year
• Manpower cost at $10/hr - $41 ,600
• Electricity at 1.75 cents/kWhr - $ 51 ,739
-
5 56
The foilowin g Provides a rough guide for operating a n d
maintenance requirements for a disc nozzle centrifuge:
It is best to run a disc nozzle 24 hours per day to
prevent shutdowns from materials that will dry out
between stacked plates when machine is not operating.
At least once every eight hours, each machine should be
inspected for general machine operation , product , and
amperage draw--l/2 man-hour per unit .
At least once a week , each machine should be shut down
to be given a thorough flushing , and nozzles should be
removed and cleaned — two man-hours per unit .
If grease is present in the system , the machine should

be flushed with hot water at least once every other
day--three manhours per unit.
Depending on sludge characteristics , the length of time

before a machine has to be completely disassembled and
cleaned is quite variable , A complete cleaning will
take approximately 16 man-hours.
Even with good pretreatment , nozzles , holders and recycle
tubes will have to be replaced .
Other parts that will need replacing are drive belts

and pumps.
Imperforate Basket Centrifuge
For a well designed system, operation and maintenance for one

48- inch by 30 - inch ( 122 cm x 76 cm ) basket using a hydraulic
drive can be approximated as follows:
Normal startup and shutdown - .

0.5 man- hour
Observation time per eight-hour shift--1.0 man- hour.

Basket oil change ( 1 quart SAE 10- 40 motor oil [ 0.95 1 ]
10-40 motor oil ) is required every 200 operating hours —
0.5 man-hour.
General machine lubrication is needed every 200 operating

hours--0.5 man- hour.
Air compressor should be serviced every 1 , 000 operating

hours--1.0 man- hour.
Hydraulic oil change ( 65 gallons [ 246 1 ] ) is required

every 3 , 500 operating hours or once per year--3.0 man-
hours.
5 -57
High pressure oil filter should be changed every 1 ,000
--
operating hours 0.5 man hour. -
If the machine is to be shut down for more than 24 hours ,
the basket should be cleaned with water ( tap water
pressure ). This can be provided as an automatic or a
-- -
manual operation 0.5 man hour for manual operation.
Basket bearings should be replaced every 100 , 000

—
operating hours 40 man hours. -
Standard materials repair cost per 1 ,000 machine
operating hours is $300 to $ 350 (June 1979 ) .
Specific power draw for this size basket centrifuge
ranges from 1.1 to 1.3 horsepower per gallon per minute
( 13 to 15 kW/l/sec ) flow rate.
Solid Bowl Decanter Centrifuge
- -
Figure 5 25 indicates annual man hour requirements for operation
_
and maintenance. Included in the curve are labor requirements
directly related to the centrifuge , sludge conditioning , and
other associated equipment.
100,000
8
9
7
6 -
5
66 4
O
3
CL
O
LL 2
CO
CL
3
O
X 10,000
9
8
CL 7
O 6
§ 5
4
<
3 3
Z
Z
< 2
1,000
L±1 5t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 0 2 3 4 56789100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
AVERAGE FLOW, gpm ( 1 gpm = 40.8 l /min )
FIGURE 5- 25
ANNUAL O &M REQUIREMENTS - SOLID BOWL DECANTER
CENTRIFUGE ( 28 )
-
5 58
Power
Power is dependent on machine design , but it should range from

0.28 to 0.37 horsepower per gallon per minute flow rate ( 3.3 to
4.4 kW/l/sec ).
Maintenance Material Costs
Figure 5 -26 shows a curve developed for estimating solid bowl
decanter centrifuge maintenance material cost .
100,000
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
c/>
CD
2
o
o
H
CO
O
O
10,000 -
< 6
Z)
z 5
Z 4
<
3
1,000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 89100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
AVERAGE FLOW, gpm ( 1 gpm = 40.8 l /min )
FIGURE 5- 26

FOR SOLID BOWL DECANTER CENTRIFUGE
5.6 Miscellaneous Thickening Methods
5.6 .1 Elutriation Basin

Elutriation is a satisfactory process for washing and thickening
digested p r i m a r y s l u d g e s , Elutriation is a l s o effective for
mixtures of primary and biological sludges as long a s a small
5 -5 9
d o s a g e o f flocculent is used t o coflocculate t h e mixed s l u d g e s.
T h i s p r e v e n t s excessive l o s s o f f i n e s i n t h e o v e r f l o w e l u t r i a t e.
( S e e C h a p t e r 8 f o r further discussion.)
5 . 6.2 S e c o n d a r y Anaerobic Digesters
G r a v i t y thickening o f b i o l o g i c a l l y p r o d u c e d s l u d g e s in s e c o n d a r y
anaerobic d i g e s t e r s d o e s n o t w o r k w e l l a s p r e s e n t l y d e s i g n e d.
Digesters should not be relied upon to function as gravity
thickeners. T h e y m a y, h o w e v e r , b e used t o g e n e r a t e m o r e methane
( five t o t e n p e r c e n t ) a n d t o function a s s l u d g e h o l d i n g t a n k s
( o n l y if equipped with floating -t y p e covers ). ( S e e C h a p t e r 6 f o r
f u r t h e r discussion.)
5 . 6.3 Facultative S l u d g e L a g o o n s
A l t h o u g h s l u d g e l a g o o n s a r e o u t o f f a v o r with m a n y d e s i g n e r s,
properly designed facultative sludge lagoons can provide an
effective m e a n s f o r f u r t h e r c o n c e n t r a t i n g a n a e r o b i c a l l y d i g e s t e d
s l u d g e ( 6 0 ). ( S e e C h a p t e r 1 5 f o r f u r t h e r discussion.)
5 . 6. 4 Ultrafiltration
T h i c k e n i n g w a s t e- activated s l u d g e f r o m o n e t o s i x p e r c e n t s o l i d s
b y u l t r a f i l t r a t i o n h a s b e e n s t u d i e d ( 6 1 ). M i n i m u m e s t i m a t e d
m e m b r a n e a r e a required t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n e t o n ( 0 . 9 t ) o f w a s t e-
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p e r d a y f r o m one t o s i x p e r c e n t s o l i d s w a s
2 6 0 s q u a r e feet ( 2 3 . 4 m 2 ). High p r e s s u r e d r o p s o f 2 5 t o 7 5 p s i
( 1 7 t o 5 2 N/c m 2 ) h a d t o b e u s e d . Power requirements were
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 4 0 k W h r p e r t o n ( 5 9 5 k W h/t ) o f d r y f e e d s o l i d s.
5.7 References
1. C r a i g , E.W., D. D. Meredith , a n d A.C. Middleton. " A l g o r i t h m

f o r O p t i m a l A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e D e s i g n." Journal of the
Environmental Engineering Division , A S C E. Vol. 1 0 4, EE6 ,
p. 1 1 0 1 ( 1 9 7 8 ).
2. D i c k , R. I . a n d D. L. S i m m o n s. "Optimal Integration of
Process for S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t. " P r o c e e d i n g s 3 rd National
Conference o n S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t D i s p o s a l a n d Utilization ,
Miami B e a c h , F l o r i d a , 1 2/1 4-1 6/ 7 6 , s p o n s o r e d b y ERDA , U S E P A ,
NSF and ITI , p . 20 .
3. A n d e r s o n , R.K • / B.R. W e d d l e , T. Hillmer, a n d A. Geswein.
Cost of Landspreading and Hauling Sludge from Municipal
W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t P l a n t s. USEPA Office o f Solid Waste?
"
"
W a s h i n g t o n , D C 2 0 4 6 0. EPA 5 3 0/S W- 6 1 9. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 7.
4. USEPA O p e r a t i o n s Check Lists. Water Program Operations.

W a s h i n g t o n , DC 1 0 4 6 0. D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 8.
5-6 0
5. USEPA P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l f o r U p g r a d i n g E x i s t i n g W a s t e-
w a t e r T r e a t m e n t P l a n t s. T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r! C i n c i n n a t i,
Ohio 45268 E P A 6 2 5/1-7 1 - 0 0 4a. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 4.
6. T o r p e y , W . N. " C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f Combined P r i m a r y a n d A c t i-
v a t e d S l u d g e s i n S e p a r a t e T h i c k e n i n g T a n k s ." Journa 1
S a n i t a r y E n g i n e e r i n g D i v i s i o n , P r o c e e d i n g s American S o c i e t y
o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s . V o l. 8 0 , p. 4 4 3 ( 1 9 5 4 ).
7. C o e, H.S., a n d G.H . C l e v e n g e r , " Methods for Determining

t h e C a p a c i t i e s o f Slime S e t t l i n g T a n k s." Transactions
American Institute o f M i n i n g E n g i n e e r s. V o l. 5 5, p. 3 5 6
( 1 9 1 6 ).
8. K y n c h , G .J . " A T h e o r y o f S e d i m e n t a t i o n." Transactions

o f F a r a d a y S o c i e t y. V o l. 4 8, p. 1 6 6 , ( 1 9 5 2 ).
9. T a l m a g e , W.P. a n d E .B. Fitch. " D e t e r m i n i n g T h i c k e n e r Unit

A r e a s." I n d u s t r i a l a n d E n g i n e e r i n g C h e m i s t r y. V o l. 3 7,
p. 3 8 ( 1 9 5 5 ).
10 . S h a n n o n , P.T., R.D. D e c h a s s , E .P. S t r o u p e , a n d E.M. T o r r y.

" Batch and Continuous Thickening " Industrial and .
E n g i n e e r i n g Chemistry F u n d a m e n t a l s. V o l. 2 , P 2 03, .
( A u g u s t 1 9 6 3 ).
1 1. D i c k , R.I . " T h i e k e n i n g ." Wa ter Q u a l i t y Engineering:

New Concepts and Developments. E . L. T h a c k s t o n a n d
W . W. E c k e n f e l d e r , J r . E d i t o r s , J e n k i n s P u b l i s h i n g C o. ,
A u s t i n a n d N e w Y o r k , 1 9 7 2.
12 . K o s , P. Continuous G r a v i t y T h i c k e n i n g o f S l u d g e s . Dorr
O l i v e r Technical R e p r i n t 7 0 5, 1978.
1 3. Keinath , T. M ., M .D. R y c k m a n , C.H. D a n a , J r. , a n d D. A. H o f e r.
D e s i g n a n d O p e r a t i o n a l Criteria f o r T h i c k e n i n g o f B i o l o g i c a l
S l u d g e s P a r t s I , I I , I I I , I V. W a t e r R e s o u r c e s R e s e a r c h
I n s t i t u t e , C l e m s o n U n i v e r s i t y . S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 6.
1 4. C o u r t e s y o f E n v i r e x , I n c., W a u k e s h a , Wisconsin 5 3 1 8 7.
1 5. "Gravity T h i c k e n i n g ." Process Design Techniques for

I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e T r e a t m e n t. Edited b y C a r l E. A d a m s a n d
W.W. E c k e n f e l d e r , Enviro P r e s s , I n c. 1 9 7 4.
1 6. N o l a n d , R. F. a n d R.B. Dickerson. " T h i c k e n i n g o f S l u d g e."

USEPA Technology Transfer Seminar on Sludge Treatment
a n d D i s p o s a l. V o l . 1 , U S E P A - M E R L , T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r ,
Cincinnati , O h i o 4 5 2 6 8, O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
17. Benefield , L.D. a n d C.W. R a n d a l l. " Air o r O 2 Activation:
V e r d i c t S t i l l Undecided o n B e s t S y s t e m f o r S e t t l e a b i l i t y ."
W a t e r a n d S e w a g e W o r k s. p. 4 4, ( A p r i l 1 9 7 9 ).
5 -6 1
1 8. U S E P A S l u d g e H a n d l i n g a n d C o n d i t i o n i n g, Office o f W a t e r
P r o g r a m O p e r a t i o n s. W a s h i n g t o n , D C 2 0 4 6 0. E P A 4 3 0/9 - 7 8-
022. F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 8.
1 9. S u m m a r y o f r e p o r t e d o p e r a t i n g d a t a f o r various U.S. t h e r m a l
conditioning facilities.
20. Review of Techniques for Treatment and Disposal of
Phosphorus - Laden Chemical S l u d g e s. USEPA- MERL
c o n t r a c t 6 8-0 3- 2 4 3 2 t o b e p u b l i s h e d in t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 7 9.
21 . V o s h e 1 , D. " Sludge Handling At Grand Rapids , Michigan

W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t P l a n t." Journal Water Pollution
C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n . V o l. 3 8, p . 1 5 0 6 ( 1 9 6 6 ).
22. B o y l e , W .H .
" Ensuring Clarity and Accuracy in Torque
Determinations." W a t e r a n d S e w a g e W o r k s. ( M a r c h 1 9 7 8 ).
2 3. J o r d a n , V .J . a n d C . H . S c h e r e r . "Gravity Thickening
T e c h n i q u e s a t a W a t e r Reclamation P l a n t." Journal Water
P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n . V o l . 4 2, P • 1 8 0 ( 1 9 7 0 ) .
^
2 4. E t t e l t , G . A. a n d T . K e n n e d y . " R e s e a r c h a n d O p e r a t i o n a l
Experience i n S l u d g e D e w a t e r i n g a t C h i c a g o." J o u r n a l W a t e r
P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Federation. V o l. 3 8 , p . 2 4 8 ( 1 9 6 6 ) .
2 5. D i c k , R .I. a n d B . B. E w i n g . " E v a l u a t i o n o f A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e
T h i c k e n i n g T h e o r i e s." Journal of the Environmental
E n g i n e e r i n g D i v i s i o n , A S C E. V o l. 9 3 , E E 4 , p. 9 ( 1 9 6 7 ).
2 6. USEPA. Areawide Assessment Procedures Manual - V o l u m e I I I.
M u n i c i p a l Environmental R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y . Cincinnati,
O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. E P A 6 0 0/9 -7 6 -0 1 4. J u l y 1 9 7 6.
2 7. USEPA . Construction Costs for Municipal Wastewater

T r e a t m e n t P l a n t s. Office of Water Program Operations.
W a s h i n g t o n , D C 2 0 4 6 0. M C D 3 7. J a n u a r y , 1 9 7 8.
2 8. C u l p/ W e s n e r/ C u l p. Cost and Performance Handbook Sludge

H a n d l i n g P r o c e s s e s. Prepared for Wastewater Treatment and
R e u s e Seminar , S o u t h L a k e T a h o e. O c t o b e r 2 6- 2 7 , 1 9 7 7.
2 9. S v a r o v s k y , L. " Introduction t o S o l i d -L i q u i d S e p a r a t i o n."

S o l i d - L i q u i d S e p a r a t i o n , B u t t e r w o r t h s , I n c • t 1 9 7 7. P • 1 .
3 0. T a y l o r , R .W . " D i s p e r s e d A i r F l o t a t i o n." Pollution
E n g i n e e r i n g. P - 2 6, ( J a n u a r y 1 9 7 3 ).
31 . V r a b l i k , E . R. " F u n d a m e n t a l P r i n c i p l e s o f D i s s o l v e d - A i r
Flotation o f Industrial W a s t e s." 1 4t h P u r d u e I n d u s t r i a l
W a s t e C o n f e r e n c e , 1 9 5 9.
3 2. L a b o o n , J . F. " E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u d i e s o n t h e Concentration o f
R a w S l u d g e." S e w a g e a n d Industrial W a s t e s . . .
V o l 2 4, p 4 2 3
( 1952 ) .
5 -6 2
3 3. L a b o o n , J.F. " P i t t s b u r g h P l a n s U n i q u e P r o j e c t t o A b a t e
S t r e a m P o l l u t i o n." C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g. V o l . 2 4 , p. 4 4
( J a n u a r y 1 9 5 4 ).
3 4. B u r d , R.S. A S t u d y o f S l u d g e Handling a n d D i s p o s a l. U.S.
D e p a r t m e n t o f Interior W P- 2 0- 4 , M a y 1 9 6 8.
3 5. L o g a n , R .P . " Scum Removal b y V a c u a t o r a t P a l o A l t o. "
S e w a g e a n d industrial W a s t e s. V o l. 2 1 , p. 7 9 9 ( M a y 1 9 4 9 ).
3 6. M a y s, T.J." V a c u a t o r O p e r a t i o n s a t S a n t a Maria." Sewage

and Industrial W a s t e s. V o l. 2 5 , p. 1 2 2 8 , ( O c t o b e r 1 9 5T7
3 7. T a k e n f r o m e q u i p m e n t m a n u f a c t u r e r's installation l i s t s.
3 8. W o o d , R . F . a n d R. I . D i c k .
"Factors Influencing Batch
F l o t a t i o n T e s t s ." Journal Water Pollution Control
Federation. V o l . 4 5, P. 3 0 4 ( 1 9 7 3 ).
3 9. E c k e n f e l d e r , W. W. a n d D.L. F o r d . W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l
E x p e r i m e n t a l P r o c e d u r e s f o r P r o c e s s D e s i g n, P e m b e r t o n P r e s s
Jenkins P u b l i s h i n g C o • 1 1 9 7 0. P 7 5. -
4 0. Gulas , V • r L. Benefield and C . Randall. " F a c t o r s Affecting
t h e D e s i g n of Dissolved Air Flotation S y s t e m s." Journal
W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l Federation , V o l. 5 0 , p 1 8 3 5 ( 1 9 7 8 ).
-
4 1. W e b e r , W.J. P h y s i o c h e m i c a 1 P r o c e s s e s f o r W a t e r Q u a l i t y
C o n t r o l. W i l e y- Interscience N e w Y o r k , 1 9 7 2. P 5 5 5.
-
4 2. K o m i i n e , T.R. " Dissolved Air Flotation Tackles Sludge
T h i c k e n i n g ." W a t e r a n d W a s t e s Engineering . p. 6 3 ( F e b r u a r y
1 9 7 8 ).
4 3. Bare, W.F.R., N . B. J o n e s , a n d E.J. Middlebrooks. "A l g a e

R e m o v a l u s i n g D i s s o l v e d Air F l o t a t i o n." Journal Water
Pollution C o n t r o l Federation. Vol. 4 7 p. 1 5 3 ( 1 9 7 5 ).
,
4 4. W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. MOP 8 Wastewater
T r e a t m e n t Plant D e s i g n . W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l Federation ,
1 9 7 7.
4 5. M u l b a r g e r , M .C . a n d D. D. H u f f m a n . " M i x e d L i q u o r S o l i d s
S e p a r a t i o n b y F l o t a t i o n." J o u r n a l o f t h e E n v i r o n m e n t a l
E n g i n e e r i n g Division , A S C E. Vol. 9 6 , S A 4, p. 8 6 1 ( 1 9 7 0 ).
4 6. W a l k e r P r o c e s s. Dissolved Air Flotation , T h e o r y a n d D e s i g n

Calculations. Standard C 1 2 0 - 0-1 , F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 7.
4 7. Komline S a n d e r s o n , K- S Dissolved Air Flotation. Latest
bulletin , 1 9 7 8.
4 8. B r o w n and C a l d w e l l. Pilot P l a n t S t u d y f o r W a s t e w a t e r Solids
P r o c e s s i n g. R e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r S e l m a - K i n g s b u r g - F o w l e r
C o u n t y Sanitation District. F e b r u a r y 2 7 , 1 9 7 8.
5- 6 3
49. Kraus , L.S . and J .R. Longley . " Concentrating Activated
Sludge with a Continuous Feed Centrifuge." Sewage Works
Journal. Vol. 11 , p. 9 , ( 1939 ).
50. Keith , F. W. and T.H. Little. " Centrifuges in Water and
Waste Treatment." Chemical Engineering Progress. Vol. 65 ,
( November 1969 ).
51. Svarovsky , L. " Separation by Centrifugal Sedimentation."
Solid - Liquid Separation , Butterworths , Inc., Ladislav
52.
Svarovsky , editor 1977. P 125.
,
-
Vesilind , P.A. Treatment and Disposal of Wastewater Sludge.
Ann Arbor Science Publishers , 1974.
53. Ambler , C.M. " The Evaluation of Centrifuge Performance."

Chemical Engineering Progress. Vol. 48 # 3 ( 1952).
54. Landis , D.M . " Centrifuge Applications . " Filtration
55.
Engineering. P
- 27 , ( September 1969 ).
Bradney , L. and R.E. Bragstad . " Concentration of Activated
Sludge by Centrifuge ." Sewage and Industrial Waste.
Vol. 27 , p. 404 , ( 1955).
56. Keefer , C.E . and H. Krotz . " Experiments on Dewatering
Sewage Sludge with a Centrifuge." Sewage Works Journal ,
Vol. 1 , p. 120 , ( 1929 ).
57. Vaughn , D.R. and G. A. Reitwiesner. " Disc Nozzle Centrifuges
-
for Sludge Thickening." Journal Water Pollution Control
Federation. Vol. 44 , p. 1789 , ( 1972).
58. Albertson , O. E. and E . E. Guidi , Jr . " Centrifugation of
Waste Sludges." Journal Water Pollution Control Federation.
59.
-
Vol. 41 , P 607 , ( 1969 ).
McKnight , M .D., " Centrifugal Thickening of Excess Activated
Sludge." Unpublished article on experience at Village Creek
Plant , Ft. Worth , Texas. 1978.
60. Earnshaw , G. " A Storage System That Works. " Sludge

Magazine. March April , p. 29, ( 1979 ).
-
61. NCASI. A Pilot Plant Study of Mechanical Dewatering Devices
Operated on Waste Activated Sludge. Prepared for National
Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream Improvement.
Technical Bulletin 288 , November 1976.
-
5 64
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 6 . Stabilization


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 6
STABILIZATION
6.1 Introduction
T h e principal purposes o f stabilization are t o make the treated
sludge less odorous and putrescible and to reduce the pathogenic
organism content, Some procedures used to accomplish these
o b j e c t i v e s can a l s o r e s u l t in o t h e r basic c h a n g e s in t h e s l u d g e.
The selection of a certain method hinges primarily on the final
disposal p r o c e d u r e p l a n n e d . If the s l u d g e is t o be dewatered and
incinerated , frequently no stabilization p r o c e d u r e is e m p l o y e d .
M o s t stabilization m e t h o d s , particularly anaerobic and aerobic
d i g e s t i o n , r e s u l t in a s u b s t a n t i a l d e c r e a s e in t h e a m o u n t o f
s u s p e n d e d s l u d g e s o l i d s. Hence, the corollary function of
conversion is included in the description o f these p r o c e s s e s.
This chapter provides detailed discussion of four processes
t h a t h a v e t h e primary function o f s l u d g e stabilization. These
processes are anaerobic digestion , aerobic digestion , lime
s t a b i l i z a t i o n , and c h l o r i n e o x i d a t i o n. Both a n a e r o b i c a n d
aerobic digestion are currently increasing in popularity . The
former is receiving revived attention from some cities and n e w
attention from o t h e r s for several reasons. T h e production o f
m e t h a n e in anaerobic digestion is attractive in view o f energy
s h o r t a g e s , a s is t h e s u i t a b i l i t y o f a n a e r o b i c a l l y d i g e s t e d
sludges to disposal on land . Also, it is being recognized
that p r o b l e m s experienced previously with anaerobic digestion
were a c t u a l l y due t o other w a s t e w a t e r p r o c e s s considerations.
I n t e r e s t in a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n o f e x c e s s activated s l u d g e i s
g r o w i n g b e c a u s e it h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r p r o v i d i n g a g o o d
quality liquid p r o c e s s s t r e a m and can p r o d u c e exothermic reaction
conditions. A major i m p e t u s for p r o c e s s e s such as anaerobic and
aerobic digestion and lime treatment is the growing emphasis o n
u t i l i z a t i o n o f s l u d g e r a t h e r t h a n m e r e d i s p o s a l. Chlorine
o x i d a t i o n is o f limited use f o r s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n s o r w h e r e
s e p t i c t a n k w a s t e s a r e involved .
Several o t h e r sludge t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s provide varying d e g r e e s

o f stabilization , although this is n o t their principal function.
C o m p o s t i n g i s p r a c t i c e d in s e v e r a l United S t a t e s c i t i e s and
is b e i n g a c t i v e l y i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r o t h e r s , T h i s p r o c e s s is
considered important e n o u g h , with the e m p h a s i s o n recycling of
s l u d g e t o the land , t h a t it a l o n e is discussed in C h a p t e r 1 2.
Heat t r e a t m e n t , discussed in C h a p t e r 8 , h a s been installed in
several new United S t a t e s p l a n t s t o i m p r o v e sludge conditioning
a n d d e w a t e r i n g e c o n o m i c s. Some processes used to disinfect
6 -1
sludge , such as heat drying and pasteurization , also provide
limited stabilization. These processes are discussed in
Chapters 7 and 10.
Selection of the optimum stabilization method for any treatment

-
and disposal system requires an in depth understanding of
the method and its limitations. The designer must recognize
these limitations and accommodate them in the design of the
subsequent processing and disposal steps.
6.2 Anaerobic Digestion
6.2.1 Process Description

Anaerobic digestion is the biological degradation of complex
organic substances in the absence of free oxygen , During these
reactions , energy is released and much of the organic matter is
converted to methane , carbon dioxide, and water , Since little
carbon and energy remain available to sustain further biological
activity , the remaining solids are rendered stable.
6.2 . 1.1 History and Current Status

Anaerobic digestion is among the oldest forms of biological
wastewater treatment. It was first used a century ago to reduce
both the quantity and odor of sewage sludges. Originally ,
anaerobic digestion was' carried out in the same tank as
-
sedimentation , but the two story tanks developed in England by
Travis and in Germany by Imhoff began a trend toward separating
the two processes. Separate sludge digestion tanks came into use
in the first decades of this century . At first , these were
little more than simple holding tanks , but they provided the
opportunity to control environmental conditions during anaerobic
digestion and , thereby , improve process performance. With the
development of digester heating and , subsequently , mixing ,
anaerobic digestion became the most common method of stabilizing
sludge.
As both industrial waste loads and the general degree of

wastewater treatment increased , the sludges generated by treat
ment plants became more varied and complex.
-
Digester systems
failed because their design and operation were empirically
developed under simpler conditions. As a result , anaerobic
sludge digestion fell into disfavor. However , interest in
anaerobic digestion of dilute wastes stimulated a new wave of
research into the process. The resulting development of steady
state models in the 1960s ( 1 ,2 ,3 ), dynamic models in the 1970s
( 4 ,5 ,6 ), and increasing research into the basic biochemical
processes (7 ,8 ,9 ,10 ) led to significant improvements in both
reliability and performance of anaerobic digesters.
6 -2
Currently , sludge stabilization by anaerobic digestion is used
extensively. A 1977 survey ( 11 ) of 98 municipal wastewater
treatment plants in the United States found that 73 used
anaerobic digestion to stabilize and reduce the volume of sludge.
Because of emphasis on energy conservation and recovery and
environmental pressure to use wasteewater sludges on land , it is
expected that anaerobic digestion will continue to play a major
role in municipal sludge processing.
6.2.1.2 Applicability
A wide variety of sludges from municipal wastewater treatment
plants can be stabilized through anaerobic digestion , Table 6 1
lists some types of sludge that have been anaerobically digested
-
in full scale , high rate digesters.
-
TABLE 6- 1
TYPE AND REFERENCE OF FULL-SCALE STUDIES ON

HIGH RATE ANAEROBIC DIGESTION OF MUNICIPAL
WASTEWATER SLUDGE (13,14.15, 16- 34)
Reference
Mesophilic Thermophilic
Sludge type diqestion digestion
Primary and lime 16 , 17

Primary and ferric chloride 18
Primary and alum 19
Primary and trickling filter 20 , 21
Primary , trickling filter , and alum 22
Primary and waste activated 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 25 , 27 , 28 , 29
Primary , waste activated , and lime 30 , 31
Primary , waste activated , and alum 30 , 32 , 33
Primary , waste activated , and ferric
chloride 30
Primary , waste activated , and sodium
aluminate 32 , 33
Waste activated only ( pilot plant
only) 13 , 14 , 15 , 34
. 13 , 14 , 15
-
Solids liquid separation of digested primary sludge is downgraded
by even small additions of biological sludge , particularly
activated sludge. Although mixtures of primary and biological
sludge will break down readily under anaerobic conditions , the
net rate of the reaction is slowed slightly ( 12 ). Experience
with full-scale anaerobic digestion of straight activated sludge
is limited , although laboratory ( 13 ,14 ) and pilot-scale studies
( 15 ) demonstrate that separate digestion of activated sludge is
feasible.
Chemical sludges have been successfully digested anaerobically ,
although in several cases , volatile solids reduction and gas
-
6 3
p r o d u c t i o n were low , c o m p a r e d with conventional s e w a g e s l u d g e s
( 3 5 , 36 ). Decreased p e r f o r m a n c e a p p e a r s t o result from reduced
b i o d e g r a d a b i l i t y , r a t h e r t h a n f r o m t o x i c inhibition o f t h e
anaerobic microorganisms ( 35 ).
A n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n is a feasible s t a b i l i z i n g m e t h o d f o r
wastewater sludges that have low concentrations of toxins
and a volatile solids content above 50 p e r c e n t , T h e obligate
anaerobic microorganisms are sensitive and d o n o t thrive under
fluctuating operating conditions. Consequently , t h e process must
be c a r e f u l l y considered for use a t t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s w h e r e wide
variations in s l u d g e quantity and quality are common.
6 . 2.1.3 A d v a n t a g e s and Disadvantages
Anaerobic digestion offers s e v e r a l a d v a n t a g e s over o t h e r methods

of s l u d g e stabilization ; specifically , the p r o c e s s:
Produces methane , a u s a b l e source o f e n e r g y , In m o s t

cases , t h e p r o c e s s is a n e t e n e r g y p r o d u c e r , since
t h e energy content of digester gas exceeds the energy
demand for mixing and heating , Surplus methane
is frequently used for h e a t i n g b u i ldings, running
e n g i n e s , o r g e n e r a t i n g electricity ( 3 7 , 38 , 39 ). ( Refer t o
C h a p t e r 18.)
• R e d u c e s t o t a l s l u d g e m a s s t h r o u g h t h e conversion o f
organic m a t t e r t o primarily methane , carbon dioxide , and
w a t e r. C o m m o n l y , 2 5 t o 4 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e r a w s l u d g e
solids a r e d e s t r o y e d d u r i n g anaerobic digestion , This
can s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduce the c o s t o f s l u d g e d i s p o s a l .
Yields a s o l i d s residue s u i t a b l e f o r use a s a s o i l

conditioner . A n a e r o b i c a l l y d i g e s t e d s l u d g e contains
rTu t r i e n t s a n d o r g a n i c m a t t e r t h a t c a n i m p r o v e t h e
fertility and t e x t u r e o f soils. Odor levels are greatly
reduced by anaerobic digestion.
• Inactivates p a t h o g e n s. Disease- producing organisms in

s l u d g e die off during the relatively long detention times
u s e d in anaerobic digestion. T h e high t e m p e r a t u r e s used
in thermophilic d i g e s t i o n ( 1 2 2 t o 1 4 0° F , 5 0 t o 6 0° C ) h a v e
a n additional bactericidal effect . P a t h o g e n reduction
during anaerobic d i g e s t i o n is discussed in C h a p t e r 7.
Principal disadvantages of anaerobic s l u d g e digestion are that
it :
• H a s a high capital c o s t. V e r y l a r g e , c l o s e d digestion

tanks are required , which must be fitted with s y s t e m s for
feeding , heating , and mixing the s l u d g e.
6 -4
• I s s u s c e p t i b l e t o u p s e t s. Microorganisms involved in
a n a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n a r e sensitive t o small c h a n g e s in
their environment. Monitoring of p e r f o r m a n c e and close
p r o c e s s control are required t o p r e v e n t u p s e t s.
• P r o d u c e s a poor quality sidestream. S u p e r n a t a n t s from

anaerobic digesters often have a high oxygen demand and
high concentrations of nitrogen and s u s p e n d e d solids.
Recycling of digester s u p e r n a t a n t t o t h e p l a n t influent
m a y u p s e t t h e liquid p r o c e s s stream o r p r o d u c e a build - u p
of fine particles in the treatment p l a n t. In p l a n t s that
are required t o remove nitrogen from the w a s t e w a t e r , the
soluble nitrogen in t h e s u p e r n a t a n t can cause p r o b l e m s
and /or increased costs of treatment.
• K e e p s m e t h a n e - p r o d u c i n g bacteria g r o w t h at a slow r a t e .
L a r g e reactors are required t o hold the sludge for 1 5 t o
3 0 d a y s t o stabilize t h e o r g a n i c s o l i d s e f f e c t i v e l y .
This slow g r o w t h r a t e a l s o limits the s p e e d with which
the process can adjust to changes in waste loads,
t e m p e r a t u r e , and o t h e r environmental conditions ( 4 0 ) .
6 . 2.1 . 4 Microbiology
Anaerobic digestion involves several successive fermentations

carried out b y a mixed culture of microorganisms ( 7, 1 0 ). This
web of interactions compromises t w o general degradation phases :
acid formation a n d m e t h a n e p r o d u c t i o n. F i g u r e 6 -1 s h o w s , in .
simplified form , the reactions involved in anaerobic digestion.
ACID METHANE
FORMATION PRODUCTION
A_ A.
7 MICRO -
7 \
MICRO - - * .
amanpw gwra * m
ORGANISMS STABLE AND INTERMEDIATE j ORGANISMS CH4 + co2 . OTHER END

RAW SLUDGE DEGRADATION PRODUCTS PRODUCTS
COMPLEX
SUBSTRATE
PRINCIPALLY
ACID FORMERS
ORGANIC ACIDS, CO
H O, AND CELLS
2
-. METHANE
BACTERIA
H2O, H 2 S
CARBOHYDRATES . CELLS AND STABLE

DEGRADATION
FATS AND
PROTEINS PRODUCTS
FICURE 6- 1
SUMMARY OF THE ANAEROBIC DIGESTION PROCESS
In the first phase of digestion , facultative bacteria convert

c o m p l e x o r g a n i c s u b s t r a t e s t o s h o r t - chain o r g a n i c acids --
primarily acetic , propionic , and lactic acids. These volatile
6-5
organic acids tend t o reduce the pH, although alkaline buffering
materials are also produced . Organic matter is converted into a
form suitable for breakdown by the second group of bacteria.
In the second p h a s e , strictly anaerobic bacteria ( called
methanogens ), convert the volatile acids to methane ( CH 4 ), carbon
dioxide ( CO 2 ) , and other trace gases, There are several groups
of methanogenic bacteria , each with specific substrate require-
m e n t s , that w o r k in c o n c e r t t o reduce c o m p l e x w a s t e s such a s
sewage s l u d g e. Tracer studies indicate that there are two major
pathways of methane formation :
• The cleavage of acetic acid t o form methane and carbon

dioxide.
CH 3 COOH CH 4 + C02
• T h e reduction of c a r b o n dioxide , b y u s e o f h y d r o g e n
g a s or formate p r o d u c e d by o t h e r bacteria , t o form
methane .
C 02 + 4 H 2 CH4 + 2 H 20
When an anaerobic digester is working properly, the two phases of

degradation are in dynamic equilibrium ; that is , the volatile
organic acids are converted to methane at the same rate that they
are formed from the more complex organic molecules. As a result ,
volatile acid levels are low in a working digester. However ,
methane formers are inherently slow -growing , with doubling times
measured in d a y s. In addition , methanogenic bacteria can b e
adversely affected b y even small fluctuations in p H, substrate
concentrations, and temperature .
In contrast , the acid formers
can function over a wide range of environmental conditions and
have doubling times normally measured in hours. As a result ,
when an anaerobic digester is stressed b y shock loads, t e m p e r a-
ture fluctuations , or an inhibitory material , methane bacteria
activity begins to lag behind that of the acid formers. When
this h a p p e n s, organic acids cannot be converted t o methane as
rapidly as they form. Once the balance is upset , intermediate
organic acids accumulate and t h e p H d r o p s. As a r e s u l t , the
methanogens are further inhibited , and the process eventually
fails unless corrective action is taken.
The anaerobic process is essentially controlled by the methane
bacteria because of their slow growth rate and sensitivity t o
environmental change. Therefore , all successful designs must be
based around the s p e c i a l l i m i t i n g characteristics of t h e s e
microorganisms.
6 -6
6.2.2 P r o c e s s Variations
E x p e r i m e n t a t i o n over t h e y e a r s h a s y i e l d e d four basic variations
in anaerobic sludge digestion: low-r a t e digestion , high- rate
digestion , anaerobic contact , and phase s e p a r a t i o n.
High - rate digestion is obviously a n improvement over low-r a t e

digestion , and its features have been incorporated into standard
practice, T h e anaerobic contact process and p h a s e separation ,
while offering some specific benefits , have n o t been used for
sludge digestion in full -scale facilities.
6.2 . 2.1 Low - R a t e Digestion
T h e simplest and oldest t y p e of anaerobic s l u d g e stabilization

.
p r o c e s s is l o w - r a t e d i g e s t i o n T h e basic f e a t u r e s o f this
p r o c e s s layout are shown on Figure 6-2. Essentially, a l o w -r a t e
digester is a l a r g e s t o r a g e t a n k. With the p o s s i b l e exception
of heating , no attempt is made to accelerate the process by
controlling the environment . R a w s l u d g e is fed into t h e t a n k
i n t e r m i t t e n t l y. Bubbles of s l u d g e g a s are generated soon after
s l u d g e i s f e d t o t h e d i g e s t e r , and t h e i r rise t o t h e s u r f a c e
provides t h e o n l y mixing. As a result , the contents o f t h e tank
s t r a t i f y , f o r m i n g t h r e e distinct z o n e s : a f l o a t i n g l a y e r o f
scum , a middle level o f s u p e r n a t a n t , and a lower zone of s l u d g e .
Essentially , all decomposition is restricted t o the l o w e r zone.
Stabilized s l u d g e , which accumulates and thickens at the bottom
of the tank , is periodically d r a w n off f r o m t h e c e n t e r of t h e
f l o o r. S u p e r n a t a n t is r e m o v e d f r o m t h e s i d e o f t h e t a n k and
r e c y c l e d back t o the treatment p l a n t. S l u d g e g a s collects above
the liquid surface and is drawn o f f t h r o u g h the cover.
6 . 2.2 . 2 High - R a t e Digestion
In the 1950 s , research w a s directed toward improving anaerobic

digestion. Various studies ( 24 , 4 1 , 4 2,4 3 , 44 ) documented the value
o f h e a t i n g , a u x i l i a r y m i x i n g , t h i c k e n i n g t h e r a w s l u d g e , and
uniform f e e d i n g . These f o u r f e a t u r e s , t h e essential elements of
high- r a t e digestion, act t o g e t h e r t o create a s t e a d y and uniform
environment , the best conditions f o r the biological process. The
net result is that volume requirements are reduced and process
s t a b i l i t y is enhanced . F i g u r e 6 - 3 s h o w s t h e basic l a y o u t o f this
process.
Heating
The contents o f a high- rate digester are heated and consistently

m a i n t a i n e d t o w i t h i n 10 F ( 0 . 6 ° C ) o f d e s i g n t e m p e r a t u r e ,
Heating is beneficial because the r a t e of microbial g r o w t h and ,
therefore , the r a t e of digestion , increases with t e m p e r a t u r e.
Anaerobic o r g a n i s m s , p a r t i c u l a r l y m e t h a n o g e n s , a r e e a s i l y
inhibited b y even s m a l l c h a n g e s in t e m p e r a t u r e. Therefore , close
6 -7
control of the temperature in a digester helps maintain the
microbial balance and improves the balance of the digestion
process .
DIGESTER GAS
GAS
SCUM
c \ \ \ \ \\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\\
RAW SLUDGE \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\ \ \ V\ A
SUPERNATANT
SUPERNATANT
\ \ \\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\ \\\ \ v\ \W\\\\\“
ACTIVELY
DIGESTING SLUDGE
,\\\\ \\\\\ \\\\\\\ \ \ \ \ \ s \ \ \\\
\ \ \ \\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\\ \\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\\ \\ I
STABILIZED
SLUDGE
DIGESTED SLUDGE
UNHEATED
UNMIXED
INTERMITTENT FEEDING AND WITHDRAWAL
DETENTION TIME : 30- 60 DAYS
LOADING RATE: 0.03- 0.10 lb VSS /cu ft /day
( 0.4- 1.6 kg VSS/m3 /day )
FIGURE 6- 2
LOW - RATE ANAEROBIC DIGESTION SYSTEM
Methane production has been reported at temperatures ranging from

3 2 ° F t o a s h i g h a s 1 4 0 ° F ( 0 t o 6 0 ° C ). M o s t c o m m o n l y , h i g h -r a t e
d i g e s t e r s a r e o p e r a t e d b e t w e e n 8 6 a n d 1 00 0 F ( 3 0 a n d 3 8 ° C ).
The organisms that grow in this temperature range are called
m e s o p h i 1 i c. A n o t h e r g r o u p o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s, t h e t h e r m o p h i l i c
b a c t e r i a, g r o w a t t e m p e r a t u r e s b e t w e e n 1 2 2 a n d 1 4 0 ° F ( 5 0 a n d
6 0 0 C ). Thermophilic anaerobic digestion has been studied
s i n c e t h e 1 9 3 0 s, b o t h a t l a b o r a t o r y s c a l e ( 1 3 , 4 5 , 4 6 ) a n d p l a n t
s c a l e ( 2 7 , 2 8 , 2 9 ). This research was recently reviewed by
B u h r a n d A n d r e w s ( 4 7 ). In general, the advantages claimed for
thermophilic over mesophilic digestion are: faster react ion
r a t e s t h a t p e r m i t l o w e r d e t e n t i o n t i m e s, i m p r o v e d d e w a t e r i n g o f
t h e d i g e s t e d s l u d g e , a n d i n c r e a s e d d e s t r u c t i o n o f p a t h o g e n s.
Disadvantages of thermophilic digestion include their higher

energy requirements for heating ; lower quality supernatant,
containing larger quantities of dissolved materials ( 29 );
6-8
and poorer process stability , Thermophilic organisms are
particularly sensitive t o temperature fluctuation, More detailed
information on the effects of temperature on digest ion is
included in Section 6.2 4 . .
Design of digester heating systems i s
discussed in Section 6.2 6.2 . .
O
DIGESTER GAS
GAS
HEAT
RAW ACTIVE
SLUDGE T ZONE
EXCHANGER
<
* MIXING
DIGESTED SLUDGE
HEATED TO CONSTANT TEMPERATURE

MIXED
CONTINUOUS FEEDING AND WITHDRAWAL
DETENTION TIME : 10- 15 DAY MINIMUM
LOADING RATE : 0.10 - 0.50 lb VSS/cu ft /day
( 1.6-8.0 kg VSS/m /day )^
FIGURE 6- 3
SINGLE- STAGE , HIGH- RATE ANAEROBIC

DIGESTION SYSTEM
Auxiliary Mixing
S l u d g e i n h i g h-r a t e d i g e s t e r s i s m i x e d c o n t i n u o u s l y t o create
a homogeneous environment throughout the reactor . When
stratification is prevented , the entire digester is available
for a c t i v e d e c omposition, thereby increasing the effective
detention t i m e .
Furthermore , mixing quickly brings the
raw sludge into contact with the microorganisms and evenly
distributes metabolic waste products and toxic substances .
Methods of mixing and mixing system designs are described in
Section 6.2 6.3 . .
6-9
"mfc
'
P r e- thickening
T h e b e n e f i t s o f t h i c k e n i n g raw s l u d g e b e f o r e d i g e s t i o n were
first demonstrated b y T o r p e y i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 5 0 s ( 2 4 ) . By
gravity thickening a combination o f primary and excess secondary
s l u d g e before digestion , he was able to achieve stabilization
equivalent to digestion without thickening in o n e q u a r t e r o f the
digester volume. I n addition , liquid that had previously been
r e m o v e d a s d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t was instead r e m o v e d in t h e
preceding t h i c k e n e r . S i n c e t h i c k e n e r s u p e r n a t a n t is o f f a r
better quality than digester s u p e r n a t a n t , it had significantly
less adverse impact when returned t o the w a s t e w a t e r treatment
stream . Also, heating requirements were considerably reduced by
p r e- thickening , since smaller v o l u m e s o f raw s l u d g e e n t e r e d the
digesters . / >
L a t e r full-scale studies by T o r p e y and Melbinger ( 48 ) showed that

thickening of digester feed sludge could be improved b y recycling
a portion of the digested s l u d g e back t o t h e gravity thickener.
This variation of high - r a t e digestion , often called the T o r p e y
p r o c e s s , is shown schematically o n Figure 6 - 4. The r e s u l t s of
T o r p e y a n d M e l b i n g e r ' s s t u d i e s a r e s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e 6 - 2 .
While the initial effect o f recirculation was t o i m p r o v e
thickening , further benefits were obtained , I m p r o v e d thickening
o f the feed s l u d g e increased the detention time ( solids retention
time ) in t h e d i g e s t e r s a n d , t h e r e b y , e n h a n c e d solids reduction
during digestion. The result was that the v o l u m e of s l u d g e for
final disposal was reduced by 43 p e r c e n t , T h e s e r e s u l t s were
obtained with the same overall plant treatment efficiencies and
wastewater aeration requirements a s had b e e n achieved prior t o
the recycling of digested s l u d g e.
PRIMARY RECIRCULATING
SLUDGE DIGESTED SLUDGE
THICKENED DIGESTED
^.\/ DIGESTER
GRAVITY ANAEROBIC TO
DISPOSAL
^
THICKENER / MIXED SLUDGE SLUDGE
MODIFIED
AERATION
SLUDGE
TO WASTEWATER
SUPERNATANT
’
TREATMENT STREAM
FIGURE 6- 4
FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE TORPEY PROCESS
T h e r e is , h o w e v e r , a p o i n t b e y o n d which f u r t h e r t h i c k e n i n g
of feed sludge has a detrimental effect on digestion, Two
problems can result from over -concentration of feed s l u d g e.
6-10
1. Good mixing becomes difficult to maintain , The solids
concentration in the digester affects the viscosity ,
which , in turn , affects mixing . Sawyer and Grumbling
( 49 ) experienced difficulty in mixing when the solids
content in the digester exceeded six percent. Because
of the reduction of volatile solids occurring during
digestion , the solids concentration within the digester
is less than the feed solids concentration , Therefore ,
feed solids concentrations may reach eight to nine
percent before mixing is impaired.
2 . Chemical concentrations can reach levels that can inhibit
microbial activity. A highly thickened feed sludge
means that the contents of the digester will be very
concentrated. Compounds entering the digester , such as
salts and heavy metals , and end products of digestion ,
such as volatile acids and ammonium salts , may reach
concentrations toxic to the bacteria in the digester
( 50 ). For example , in one case , digester failure
followed a three- month period during which feed solids
concentrations ranged from 8.2 to 9.0 percent ( 51 ). It
is believed that this caused ammonium alkaline products
to reach toxic concentrations.
TABLE 6- 2
RESULTS OF RECIRCULATING DIGESTED SLUDGE TO
THE THICKENER AT BOWERY BAY PLANT , NEW YORK ( 48 )
Without With
recirculation recirculation ^
Raw sludge
Dry weight , lb/day 108 ,000 101 , 500
Digester feed ( includes recircula -
tion)
Dry weight, lb/day 108 , 000 144 , 300
Solids concentration , percent 8.2 9.9
Digested sludge to disposal
Dry weight , lb/day 60 , 000 47 , 500
Solids concentration , percent 4.6 6.1
Volume , cu ft/day 20,700 12 , 300
aAverages for operation in 1961. Average treatment plant flow = 105 MGD.
ôf
Averages for 15 months of operation with 33 , 50 , or 67 percent recirculation
digested sludge. Average treatment flow = 101 MGD.
1 lb/day = 0.454 kg/day

^
1 cu ft/day = 0.0283 m /day
Uniform Feeding
- '-' I'
^
‘
-
Feed is introduced into a high rate digester at frequent
intervals to help maintain constant conditions in the reactor.
-
6 11
In the p a s t , many digesters were fed only once a d a y o r e v e n l e s s
frequently . T h e s e s l u g loadings p l a c e d a n unnecessary s t r e s s o n
t h e biological s y s t e m a n d destabilized t h e p r o c e s s. Although
c o n t i n u o u s f e e d i n g i s ideal , it is a c c e p t a b l e t o c h a r g e a
digester intermittently , a s long a s this is done frequently ( for
e x a m p l e , e v e r y t w o h o u r s ). Methods of automating digester
feeding a r e described in Section 6 . 2 . 6 . 5.
T w o-Stage _ Digestion
F r e q u e n t l y , a h i g h - r a t e d i g e s t e r i s c o u p l e d i n s e r i e s with
a second digestion tank ( Figure 6- 5 ). Traditionally , t h i s
s e c o n d a r y d i g e s t e r is similar in d e s i g n t o t h e primary d i g e s t e r,
e x c e p t that it is neither heated n o r mixed , I t s main function is
t o a l l o w g r a v i t y c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f d i g e s t e d s l u d g e s o l i d s and
decanting o f s u p e r n a t a n t liquor. This reduces the volume o f the
s l u d g e requiring further processing and disposal, Very little
solids reduction and g a s production takes p l a c e in t h e s e c o n d
s t a g e ( 23 ).
DIGESTER
1 GAS
GAS GAS
HEAT ACTIVE SUPERNATANT

RAW ZONE TRANSFER SUPERNATANT
SLUDGE| SLUDGE \
EXCHANGER
MIXING
DIGESTED
SLUDGE
DIGESTED
SLUDGE
PRIMARY DIGESTER SECONDARY DIGESTER
FIGURE 6- 5
TWO- STAGE , HIGH- RATE ANAEROBIC DIGESTER SYSTEM
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , m a n y s e c o n d a r y digesters h a v e p e r f o r m e d poorly
a s thickeners , p r o d u c i n g d i l u t e s l u d g e a n d a h i g h s t r e n g t h
s u p e r n a t a n t. T h e basic cause of t h e p r o b l e m is t h a t , in m o s t
c a s e s, a n a e r o b i c a l l y d i g e s t e d s l u d g e s d o n o t s e t t l e r e a d i l y .
Basically , t w o factors contribute t o this p h e n o m e n o n ( 5 2 ).
6 -12
1 . F l o t a t i o n o f s o l i d s. T h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e p r i m a r y
digestion tank may become s u p e r s a t u r a t e d with digester
g a s. When this sludge is transferred into the secondary
d i g e s t i o n tank , t h e g a s will come o u t o f solution ,
forming small bubbles. These bubbles attach t o sludge
p a r t i c l e s and p r o v i d e a b u o y a n t force t h a t hinders
settling .
2. H i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f fine - sized p a r t i c l e s. Fine - sized
solids are produced during digestion by both mixing ( 53 )
and the n a t u r a l breakdown of p a r t i c l e size t h r o u g h
biological decomposition ( 54 ). These fines settle poorly
and enter the s u p e r n a t a n t. The problem is compounded
w h e n s e c o n d a r y and t e r t i a r y s l u d g e s are fed into the
digesters. The solids in these s l u d g e s have quite often
been flocculated and , thus, are more easily broken up
during digestion than primary sludge solids.
The return t o the head of a plant of poor quality s u p e r n a t a n t

from t w o - s t a g e d i g e s t i o n often h a s a n adverse impact o n the
performance of other treatment processes. Supernatant commonly
contains larger quantities of dissolved and suspended materials .
( S e e Section 6 . 2 . 4 . 3 f o r a m o r e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f
supernatant quality ). For example, Figure 6-6 shows that at one
s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t plant , m o s t o f the carbon and nitrogen
leaving the secondary digester was found in the s u p e r n a t a n t and ,
consequently , was returned t o the liquid process stream. The
impact of high r e c y c l e l o a d s o n t r e a t m e n t at o n e midwestern .
plant is s h o w n on Figure 6 - 7. When digester supernatant was

recycled , solids built up in the plant, and the total amount of
suspended solids in the final effluent increased by 22 percent.
Suggestions for improving liquid - solids separation in s e c o n d a r y

digesters have included vacuum degassing ( 56 ), elutriation ( 57 ),
and enlarging the secondary digester , However, in many cases,
particularly when biological sludges are digested , it is better
t o eliminate the secondary digester altogether ( 5 2 ). Digested
s l u d g e is t h e n taken d i r e c t l y t o either a facultative s l u d g e
l a g o o n ( see C h a p t e r 1 5 ) or mechanical dewatering equipment
( see Chapter 9 ). Since solids capture is better in the units,
their sidestreams are of relatively high quality compared with
supernatant from secondary digesters.
A secondary digester may successfully serve t h e f o l l o w i n g

functions:
• Thickening digested primary sludge.
• Providing standby digester capacity .

If the secondary
digester i s equipped with adequate heating , mixing , and
intake piping .
• Storing digested sludge. A secondary digester fitted

’ ’
with a floating cover ca n provide s t o r a g e for sludge .

6- 1 3
• -
Assuring against short circuiting of raw sludges through
digestion. This may be important for odor control if
digested sludge is transferred to open basins or lagoons
(see Chapter 15 ). It also provides a margin of safety
for pathogen reduction.
120 12
100 :! 10
03 03
LO
80 *
*
in
_Q 8
R
-Q V
-
Q Q
T3 60 D
“
C
6 •:
C
03 03
to
3 3 .
o I, /
yj
- O
JZ c . ,ifc-Si
r <H
K
X
40
-
h
X
o
4
4
<
o i-
.4
LU LD
§ §
TTi
-.
20
•r K,w t
=
2 i
I
-
FEED 1 ST 2ND FEED 1ST 2ND
STAGE STAGE STAGE STAGE
CARBON NITROGEN
20,000 = 9.1kg x 103 2000lb = .91kg x 103
4000tb = 1.82
6000lb = 2.72
LEGEND 8000lb = 3.63
10,0001b = 4.54
GAS = SUPERNATANT
E!
'!
i
FEED SLUDGE i STABILIZED SLUDGE
TRANSFER SLUDGE ] UNACCOUNTABLE
FIGURE 6- 6
CARBON AND NITROGEN BALANCE FOR A TWO- STAGE ,

HIGH- RATE DIGESTION SYSTEM ( 23 )
6 - 14
RAW SEWAGE PRIMARY AERATION SECONDARY FINAL EFFLUENT
16,035 15,969 CLARIFIER —
i
TANK 9,501
ft
CLARIFIER 2,836
( 10,520 ) ( 36,801 ) ( 15,306 ) ( 3,467 )
RETURN SLUDGE
PRIMARY SLUDGE WASTE SLUDGE

13,249 9,593
( 19,626 ) ( 14,645 )
SUPERNATANT ANAEROBIC- DIGESTED SLUDGE

0 DIGESTER
( 30,172 )
DATA IN PARENTHESES WERE OBTAINED WHEN UNTREATED

SUPERNATANT WAS RETURNED TO THE HEAD OF THE PLANT.
( AVERAGE OF THREE GRAB SAMPLES ) DATA NOT IN .
PARENTHESES WERE OBTAINED WHEN NO SUPERNATANT
WAS RECYCLED. ( AVERAGE OF THIRTEEN GRAB SAMPLES ) .
SOLIDS FLOWS DO NOT BALANCE BECAUSE OF GRAB
SAMPLING. ALL VALUES EXPRESSED AS lb SS /day ( 1 lb day =
0.454 kg/day ) .
FIGURE 6- 7
EFFECT OF RECYCLING DIGESTER SUPERNATANT

ON THE SUSPENDED SOLIDS FLOW THROUGH AN
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANT ( 55 )
6.2 . 2.3 Anaerobic Contact Process

T h e anaerobic c o n t a c t p r o c e s s is t h e anaerobic e q u i v a l e n t of
t h e activated s l u d g e p r o c e s s , A s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 6 -8, t h e
unique f e a t u r e of this variation is that a p o r t i o n of t h e
active biomass leaving t h e d i g e s t e r is c o n c e n t r a t e d a n d t h e n
mixed with the raw s l u d g e feed , This recycling a l l o w s f o r
a d e q u a t e cell retention t o m e e t kinetic r e q u i r e m e n t s while
operating at a significantly reduced hydraulic detention time.
DIGESTER
GAS
GAS
'
HEAT ACTIVE
K/vP*-
RAW POSITIVE CLARIFIED
• ZONE LILIUID - SOLIDS
SLUDGE SEPARATION LIQUID
EXCHANGER
MIXING
-
n e t s FD
UDGP
BIOMASS H£ CYCLE
^ ^
FIGURE 6- 8
ANAEROBIC CONTACT PROCESS
Positive solids-1 iquid separation is essential t o the operation

of the anaerobic contact process, T o gain any of the benefits
from recycling , the r e t u r n stream must be more concentrated than
6-15
the contents of the digester. The difficulties in thickening
anaerobically digested sludge have been discussed above , Vacuum
degasifiers have been used in anaerobic contact systems to reduce
the buoyancy effect of entrapped gas , thereby improving cell
settling ( 56 ).
The anaerobic contact process has found application in the
treatment of high strength industrial wastes ( 56 , 58 , 59 ), and it
has been operated successfully at a laboratory scale to stabilize
primary sludge ( 60 ). Nevertheless , this system configuration is
rarely considered in municipal anaerobic sludge digestion because
of the difficulty in achieving the necessary concentration within
the return stream.
6.2.2.4 Phase Separation

.
As discussed in Section 6.2 1.4 , anaerobic digestion involves
two general phases: acid formation and methane production. In
the three preceding anaerobic digestion processes, both phases
take place in a single reactor . The potential benefits of
dividing these two phases into separate tanks were discussed
as early as 1958 ( 61 ).
Subsequent research ( 62 , 63 ) has shown that two-phase digestion is
feasible for the treatment of sewage sludges. Figure 6 -9 shows a
schematic of this multi-stage system as conceived by Ghosh , and
othe'rs ( 63 ).
DIGESTER
GAS
HEAT UR!*1’ = HEAT

RAW
SLUDGE|
EXCHANGER
MIXING
POSITIVE
LIQUID - SOLIDS
SEPARATION
EXCHANGER MIXING
POSITIVE
LIQUID- SOLIDS
SEPARATION
CLARIFIED
LIQUID -
4
DIGESTED
'' 4
SLUDGE
BIOMASS RECYCLE
BIOMASS RECYCLE
4
ACID DIGESTER METHANE DIGESTER
FIGURE 6- 9
TWO-PHASE ANAEROBIC DIGESTION PROCESS
An effective means of separating the two phases is essential to

the operation of anaerobic digestion in this mode , Possible
separation techniques include dialysis ( 62 ), addition of chemical
inhibitors , adjustment of the redox potential ( 64 ), and kinetic
control by regulating the detention time and recycle ratio for
each reactor ( 63 ), The latter approach is the most practical
and has been developed into a patented process ( U .S. Patent
4, 022,665 ).
6-16
-
Operating data for a bench scale system , summarized in Table 6 3 ,
show the differences between the reactors in a two phase system. -
-
The acid digester has a very short detention time ( 0.47 to
1.20 days ), low pH ( 5.66 to 5.86 ), and produces negligible
amounts of methane. Conditions in the methane digester are
similar to those found in a conventional high rate digester ,
which is operated to maintain the optimum environment for the
-
methanogenic bacteria. The detention time listed in Table 6 3 -
for the methane digester ( 6.46 days ) is significantly lower
than the detention time in a conventional high rate digester. -
However , this is probably because the two phase system was -
-
operated in a bench scale system rather than in a full scale
system where conditions are not ideal. The main advantage of a
-
-
two phase system is that it allows the creation of an optimum
environment for the acid fermenters. As of 1979 , a two phase
system has never been operated at a plant scale.
-
TABLE 6- 3
OPERATING AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS FOR
THE BENCH - SCALE , TWO- PHASE ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
OF WASTE ACTIVATED SLUDGE ( 63 )
Combined
Acid Methane two-phase
Parameter digester digester system
Temperature, C ° 37 37 37
Detention time, day 0.47- 1.20 6.46 -
6 .86 7.66
Loading ,
lb VS/day/cu ft -
1.54 2.67 0.18 0.20
PH -
5.66 5.86 7.12 7.12
Ammonia nitrogen, mg/1 490-600 766 766
Averaqe alkalinity ,
790 4 ,127 4 ,127
mg/1 CaCC>3
Gas composition , mole percent
CH 4 19- 44 69.7 65.9
C02 73- 33 29 . 0 32.3
N2 8- 23 1.3 1.8
Gas yield , standard cu ft/lb 0.2- 0.9 17.7 15.7
VS reduced
Methane yield , standard 0.1- 0.3 11.9 10.7
cu ft/'lb VS reduced
VS reduction, percent 8.5-31.1 29. 3 40.2
Effluent volatile acid, 3 ,717 134 134
mg/1 HAc
v*
< < **•«••«
1 lb/day/cu ft = 16.0 kg/day/m ^

1 cu ft/lb = .0623 m /kg
^
-
6 17
6.2.3 Sizing of Anaerobic Digesters
Determination o f d i g e s t i o n t a n k v o l u m e is a critical s t e p
in the design of an anaerobic digestion s y s t e m , First , and most
i m p o r t a n t , d i g e s t e r v o l u m e m u s t be sufficient t o p r e v e n t t h e
p r o c e s s f r o m failing u n d e r a l l e x p e c t e d conditions , P r o c e s s
failure is defined a s t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f v o l a t i l e a c i d s
( v o l a t i l e acids/ a l k a l i n i t y r a t i o g r e a t e r t h a n 0 . 5 ) a n d t h e
cessation of methane production . O n c e a digester turns sour ,
it u s u a l l y t a k e s at l e a s t a m o n t h t o r e t u r n it t o service .
M e a n w h i l e , r a w s l u d g e m u s t be d i v e r t e d t o t h e r e m a i n i n g
digesters , which m a y become overloaded in turn , Furthermore ,
s l u d g e f r o m a sour d i g e s t e r h a s a s t r o n g , noxious o d o r , a n d
therefore , its s t o r a g e and disposal are a g r e a t nuisance .
D i g e s t e r capacity must also be l a r g e e n o u g h t o ensure that raw
s l u d g e is a d e q u a t e l y stabilized. " Sufficient stabilization " must
be defined on a case- by-case basis , depending on the processing
a n d d i s p o s a l a f t e r d i g e s t i o n. In the past , digested sludge
quality has been acceptable a s l o n g a s the digester remained in
a b a l a n c e d c o n d i t i o n and p r o d u c e d m e t h a n e. H o w e v e r , h i g h e r
levels of stabilization m a y be required after the 1970 s because
wastewater s l u d g e s increasingly a r e being applied t o land and
coming into closer contact with the public.
6 . 2. 3 . 1 Loading Criteria
Traditionally , volume requirements for anaerobic digestion have

been determined f r o m empirical l o a d i n g criteria. T h e o l d e s t
and simplest of these criteria is per capita volume allowance.
Table 6 -4 lists typical design values. This crude loading factor
s h o u l d b e u s e d o n l y f o r i n i t i a l s i z i n g e s t i m a t e s , s i n c e it
implicitly assumes a value for s u c h important p a r a m e t e r s a s per
capita waste load , solids removal efficiency in t r e a t m e n t , and
digestibility o f the sludge. These parameters v a r y widely from
one a r e a t o the next and cannot a c c u r a t e l y be l u m p e d into one
parameter .
A more direct loading criterion is the volatile solids loading
r a t e , which specifies a certain r e a c t o r volume requirement for
each unit of volatile dry solids in the s l u d g e feed per unit of
time. This criterion has been c o m m o n l y used t o size anaerobic
digesters. However , as e a r l y a s 1948 , Rankin recognized that
p r o c e s s p e r f o r m a n c e is n o t a l w a y s correlated with the volatile
solids loading r a t e. The problem stems from the fact that this
p a r a m e t e r is n o t directly tied t o the fundamental c o m p o n e n t in
anaerobic digestion , the microorganisms a c t u a l l y performing the
stabilization.
6 . 2.3.2 Solids Retention Time

T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n in s i z i n g a n a n a e r o b i c
digester is that the bacteria m u s t b e given sufficient time t o
6-1 8
r e p r o d u c e s o that t h e y can ( 1 ) r e p l a c e c e l l s l o s t with t h e
withdrawn s l u d g e , and ( 2 ) adjust their p o p u l a t i o n size t o follow
fluctuations in o r g a n i c loading .
I n a c o m p l e t e l y mixed anaerobic digester , cells are e v e n l y
distributed t h r o u g h o u t t h e t a n k , A s a r e s u l t , a p o r t i o n o f
t h e bacterial p o p u l a t i o n is r e m o v e d with e a c h withdrawal o f
digested sludge, T o m a i n t a i n t h e s y s t e m in s t e a d y s t a t e ,
the r a t e of cell g r o w t h must at least match the r a t e a t which
cells are removed . Otherwise , the population of bacteria in the
digester declines and the process eventually fails.
TABLE 6- 4
TYPICAL DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SIZING MESOPHILIC

ANAEROBIC SLUDGE DIGESTERS ( 65 , 66 )
Low-rate High-rate
Parameter digestion digestion
—- —
W«Mr
V .
Volume criteria ,
cu ft/capita
Primary sludge -
2 3 1.3
Primary sludge +
Trickling filter humus -
4 5 2.7 - 3.3
Primary sludge +
Activated sludge -
4 6 2.7-4
Solids loading rate , 0.04-0.1 0.15 - 0.40
lb VSS/day/cu ft
S o l i d s retention time , d a y s -
30 60 10 - 20
1 cu ft/capita = .028 m 3/capita

1 Ib/day/cu ft = 16.0 kg/day/m
^
T o ensure that the process will n o t fail , then , it is critical t o
know the g r o w t h r a t e o f the bacteria in the d i g e s t e r. It is not
practical t o measure directly t h e r a t e a t which the anaerobic
b a c t e r i a m u l t i p l y. However , as these bacteria grow and
r e p r o d u c e , they metabolize the w a s t e and p r o d u c e end p r o d u c t s.
A s a r e s u l t , t h e bacterial g r o w t h r a t e c a n be determined b y
m o n i t o r i n g t h e r a t e a t which s u b s t r a t e i s r e d u c e d a n d end
p r o d u c t s are produced . Studies of these r a t e s o f c h a n g e b e g a n in
t h e l a t e 1 9 5 0 s and h a v e led t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f d i g e s t e r
p r o c e s s kinetics ( 9 , 1 0 , 6 7 ).
T h e k e y d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r f o r anaerobic b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t
is t h e b i o l o g i c a l s o l i d s r e t e n t i o n t i m e ( S R T ), which i s t h e
-
6 19
average time a unit o f microbial mass is retained in the s y s t e m
( 68 ). S R T c a n b e o p e r a t i o n a l l y defined a s t h e t o t a l s o l i d s
mass in the t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m divided b y t h e quantity of solids
withdrawn d a i l y. In anaerobic digesters without r e c y c l e , the S R T
is equivalent t o the hydraulic detention time. Recycling of a
concentrated stream back t o the head of the s y s t e m , which is the
unique feature of the anaerobic contact process, increases the
S R T relative t o t h e h y d r a u l i c detention time.
F i g u r e 6 -1 0 illustrates t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n S R T a n d
t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f a l a b - s c a l e anaerobic d i g e s t e r fed with
r a w p r i m a r y s l u d g e. Specifically, the figure shows how the
production of methane , a s well a s the reduction o f degradable
p r o t e i n s , c a r b o h y d r a t e s , l i p i d s , chemical o x y g e n d e m a n d , a n d
volatile solids, are related to the S R T. As the S R T is r e d u c e d ,
t h e concentration of each c o m p o n e n t in the effluent g r a d u a l l y
increases until the S R T r e a c h e s a value b e y o n d which the
concentration r a p i d l y i n c r e a s e s. T h i s b r e a k p o i n t i n d i c a t e s
t h e S R T at which washout o f microorganisms begins--that i s , the
point where the rate at which the organisms leave the system
exceeds their rate of reproduction. Figure 6 -10 shows t h a t the
lipid - metabolizing bacteria have the slowest g r o w t h r a t e and ,
therefore, are the first to washout. As t h e SRT is shortened
beyond the first breakpoint ( occurring at an S R T between eight
t o t e n d a y s a t 9 5 ° F [ 3 5°C ] ), more t y p e s o f bacteria are washed
out and performance is increasinglyinhibited. The SRT can
b e l o w e r e d t o a c r i t i c a l p o i n t ( SRTC ) b e y o n d w h i c h t h e
p r o c e s s will fail c o m p l e t e l y. Calculations based o n p r o c e s s
kinetics predict an SRTC of 4 . 2 d a y s f o r the d i g e s t i o n o f
wastewater s l u d g e at 9 5° F ( 35 ° C ) ( 6 9 ), which c o r r e s p o n d s with
T o r p e y' s p i l o t - s c a l e s t u d y ( 7 0 ) , in w h i c h anaerobic s l u d g e
digesters o p e r a t i n g a t 9 9 ° F ( 3 7° C ) failed a t a n S R T o f 2 . 6 d a y s.
Performance b e g a n deteriorating sharply a s the S R T w a s reduced
below five d a y s.
T e m p e r a t u r e has a n important effect on bacterial growth rates
a n d , a c c o r d i n g l y, c h a n g e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n S R T a n d
digester performance . The effect of temperature on methane
production and volatile solids reduction is shown o n Figure 6 -1 1.
The significance of this relationship is t h a t stabilization is
slowed at lower temperatures , with 6 8 ° F ( 20°C ) appearing t o be
t h e m i n i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e a t which s l u d g e s t a b i l i z a t i o n c a n b e
accomplished within a practical solids retention time ( 6 9 ). The
critical minimum solids retention time ( SRTC ) is a l s o affected
b y t e m p e r a t u r e. O' R o u r k e ( 6 9 ) f o u n d t h a t t h e SRTC f o r t h e
digestion of a primary sewage s l u d g e in a bench-scale digester
was 4 . 2 d a y s at 9 5 ° F ( 35 °C ), 7.0 d a y s at 7 7° F ( 25°C ), and 10.1
d a y s at 50 ° F ( 10° C ).
6.2 . 3.3 Recommended Sizing Procedure

The size o f an anaerobic digester should b e a d e q u a t e t o ensure
that t h e solids retention time in t h e s y s t e m n e v e r f a l l s below a
certain critical value .
T h i s d e s i g n s o l i d s r e t e n t i o n time
6- 20
6
\ METHANE
5 x>
5
H
3
U
—
4 2 a>
C3
- t—
4UIM
IVUIUI {
I
uw
3 «D
3 a ii
On
— VOLATILE SOLIDS
2
** —
l
£
«
3
UJ
5
COD 1
O
0
BENCH-SCALE DIGESTION OF
°
PR IMARY SLUDGE AT 95 F (35
°CJ
VOLATILE ACIDS
LIPIDS
CELLULOSE PROTEIN
40 50 60
SOLIDS RETENTION TIME { SRT }, days
FIGURE 6- 10
EFFECT OF SRT ON THE RELATIVE BREAKDOWN

OF DEGRADABLE WASTE COMPONENTS AND
METHANE PRODUCTION ( 69 )
-
6 21
6
35 C°
A
n
5
25 G
°
u
°
20 C
2l 4 METHANE
H
U
rs it
O _Q
a:~ 3
« ** -
LU 3
<
X“
<“
H
LLl
5
20
RAW SLUDGE : 11, 8 gm /l DEGRADABLE

6.6 gm /I NQNDEG RAD ABLE
18,4 TOTAL
E
15
o
<
ce 11,
DEGRADABLE
z VOLATILE SOLIDS
LU
o 10
z:
O
a
H
°
15 G
Z
LU
20°C
.
LL
LL
Uj
5
°
25 C
35°C
a
x .j"
0
*
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
SOLIDS RETENTION TIME (SRT), days
FIGURE 6- 11
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND SRT ON THE PATTERN

OF METHANE PRODUCTION AND VOLATILE
SOLIDS BREAKDOWN ( 69 )
6- 2 2
( SRT ) and the conditions under which it must be met should be
^
selected with care. A margin of safety must be provided , since
-
SRTC was determined on the basis of bench scale digesters
maintained at such ideal conditions as complete mixing , uniform
feeding and withdrawal rates , and closely controlled digestion
temperature. -
However , in a full scale facility , the ideal
condition of complete mixing is not achieved . Both the quantity
and the chemical characteristics of the feed sludge vary over
time , and sludge temperature may fluctuate. All these actual -
system characteristics tend to slow the rate of the microbial
digestion process. As a result , SRT must be considerably
^
greater than SRTC. McCarty ( 71 ) recommends a minimum safety
factor of 2.5.
Several researchers ( 43 ,49 ,57 ,72,73 ,74 ,75) have recommended ten
-
days as a minimum acceptable solids retention time for high rate
digesters operating near 95°F ( 35°C ). ( Values for systems
sizing criterion is reasonable , since it
-
operated at other temperatures are shown in Table 6 5.) This
corresponds with the
replication time of the slowest growing bacteria , However , this
criterion must be met under all expected conditions , including:
Peak hydraulic loading , This value should be estimated
by combining poor thickener performance with the maximum
plant loading expected during seven continuous days
during the design period .
Maximum grit and scum accumulations. Considerable
amounts of grit and scum may accumulate before a digester
is cleaned. This reduces the active volume of the tank.
Liquid level below highest level , Several feet of liquid
level variability ( two to three , usually ) must be
retained to allow for differences in the rate of feeding
and withdrawal and to provide reasonable operational
flexibility.
These conditions may very well occur simultaneously and ,
therefore , the designer should compound them when applying
-
the ten day SRT sizing criterion ,
^ In the past , " liberal "
detention time criteria have been applied at the average
conditions. However , problems arise during critical periods ,
not when conditions are average , For this reason , the most
-
rational approach to sizing a full scale facility is to apply
experimentally based design criteria ( increased by a reasonable
margin of safety ) to the actual set of expected peak conditions.
( An example is included in Section 6.2.9.3 ).
6.2.4 Process Performance

The primary result of anaerobic sludge digestion is the reduction
of both volatile solids and pathogenic organisms , Volatile
solids are degraded into smaller molecules , and eventually a
-
6 23
l a r g e p o r t i o n are c o n v e r t e d into g a s , primarily methane ( C H 4 )
a n d c a r b o n d i o x i d e ( C O 2 ). Pathogens are reduced through
n a t u r a l d i e-o f f b e c a u s e t h e a n a e r o b i c environment is unsuitable
f o r their survival , ( R e f e r t o C h a p t e r 7 ). M a n y o t h e r chemical
a n d p h y s i c a l c h a n g e s occur during anaerobic s l u d g e d i g e s t i o n ,
some o f which a r e described l a t e r in this section.
TABLE 6- 5
SOLIDS RETENTION TIME DESIGN CRITERIA FOR

HIGH RATE DIGESTION ( 71 )
Solids retention time , days
Operating Suggested
temperature , Minimum for design
Op (SRTC ) ( )
SRTd
65 11 28
75 8 20
85 6 14
95 4 10
105 4 10
It is not possible t o predict p r e c i s e l y t h e n a t u r e and e x t e n t o f

all c h a n g e s o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g anaerobic d i g e s t i o n , Wastewater
sludges have a complex, variable character and there are many
reactions t h a t o c c u r d u r i n g d i g e s t i o n within t h e mixed c u l t u r e o f
anaerobic m i c r o o r g a n i s m s. T h i s section d e s c r i b e s g e n e r a l t r e n d s
of digester performance and identifies the major influences on
anaerobic digestion.
T o p r o v i d e a n o v e r v i e w o f a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r p e r f o r m a n c e,
o p e r a t i n g d a t a f o r a f u l l- s c a l e d i g e s t i o n f a c i l i t y a r e s h o w n in
T a b l e s 6 -6 and 6-7. T h e s e d a t a a r e for a t w o-s t a g e , h i g h- r a t e
digester s y s t e m in which o n l y t h e p r i m a r y d i g e s t e r w a s h e a t e d and
mixed ( 2 3 ). T h e s e c o n d t a n k p r o v i d e d a q u i e s c e n t z o n e f o r t h e
g r a v i t y s e p a r a t i o n o f d i g e s t e d s o l i d s f r o m s u p e r n a t a n t l i q u o r.
O p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e in t h e first s t a g e was maintained a t 9 4 ° F
( 3 4 ° C ) , a n d d e t e n t i o n t i m e in e a c h t a n k w a s 3 9 d a y s , Feed
sludge consisted of approximately equal amounts of primary
s l u d g e and w a s t e-activated s l u d g e.
E s s e n t i a l l y , a l l stabilization o c c u r r e d in t h e p r i m a r y d i g e s t e r.
In this first stage , 57 percent of the volatile solids were
c o n v e r t e d t o l i q u i d o r g a s. O n l y 2 . 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e volatile
solids in t h e r a w s l u d g e w e r e r e d u c e d in t h e s e c o n d a r y d i g e s t e r.
A s i m i l a r p a t t e r n o f p e r f o r m a n c e i s s h o w n i n T a b l e 6-7 f o r
c a r b o h y d r a t e, l i p i d , a n d protein reduction. While d a t a indicate
6- 2 4
***»»*{
; »< «
*
that fixed solids also decreased during digestion, this is a

little understood phenomenon , and research on the subject is
continuing { 1 6 ).
TABLE 6- 6
AVERACE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SLUDGES

FROM TWO- STAGE DIGESTER SYSTEM ( 23 )
Concentration , mg/la
Feed Transfer Stabilized
Component sludge sludge Supernatant sludge
pH 5.7 7.7 7.8 7.8
Alkalinity 758 2, 318 2 ,630 2 ,760
Volatile acids 1, 285 172 211 185
Total solids 35,600 18 ,200 12, 100 32,800
Fixed solids 9 ,000 6 , 600 3 , 310 12 , 300
Carbohydrates 9 ,680 1, 550 1,020 3 ,100
Lipids 8, 310 2,075 1 , 321 3,490
Carbon 15,450 6 ,950 4 ,440 10 ,910
Proteins , as gelatin 18 ,280 11, 200 6 , 580 17 , 200
Ammonia nitrogen , as NH 213 546 618 691
Organic nitrogen , as NH3
Total nitrogen, as NH 3
^ 1, 346
1,559
879
1,425
564
1, 182
1,455
2,146
aExcept pH.
TABLE 6- 7
a
MATERIALS ENTERING AND LEAVING TWO- STAGE DIGESTER SYSTEM ( 23 )
Quantity , tons
Gas
Feed Transfer Stabilized
sludge sludge Supernatant sludge 1st stage 2nd stage
Volatile solids 79.9 34.1 23.4 8.5

Fixed solids 26.9 19.4 8.8 5.1
Carbohydrates (as 28.9 4.55 2.71 1.28
glucose)
Lipids 24.8 6.09 2.40 1.44
Carbon 46.2 20.4 11.8 4. 5 22.1 2.7
Ammonia nitrogen 0.64 1.61 1.64 0.28
Organic nitrogen 4.02 2.58 1.50 0.60
Proteins (as gelatin) 54.6 32.9 17.1 7.1
Total nitrogen (as NH 3 ) 4.66 4.20 3.25 0.89 0.47 0.04
aPeriod of analysis = 33 days.

. 1 ton = .907 t
6-25
Reduction o f solids during digestion has t h e effect o f producing
a m o r e d i l u t e s l u d g e, F o r e x a m p l e, in t h i s c a s e, t h e r a w
s l u d g e fed t o t h e s y s t e m h a d a t o t a l s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
3 . 5 6 p e r c e n t , y e t t h e s o l i d s concentration w a s r e d u c e d t o
1 , 8 6 p e r c e n t in t h e first stage of digestion . Although gravity
concentration did occur in the second -s t a g e tank. , t h e largest
portion o f the digested solids w a s contained in the s u p e r n a t a n t .
A t t h i s p l a n t, t h e s u p e r n a t a n t w a s r e c y c l e d t o t h e p r i m a r y
clarifiers and t h e n t h e solids it contained either r e t u r n e d t o
the primary digester o r left the p l a n t in t h e final effluent.
T h e p r e c e d i n g e x a m p l e illustrates t h e g e n e r a l p e r f o r m a n c e o f
anaerobic digesters, In the remainder of this section, three
t o p i c s a r e d i s c u s s e d in m o r e detail : solids r e d u c t i o n , g a s
production a n d s u p e r n a t a n t quality .
6 . 2.4 . 1 Solids Reduction
Solids reduction is one of the main objectives of anaerobic
digestion. I t n o t o n l y makes the s l u d g e less putrescible but
a l s o r e d u c e s t h e a m o u n t o f s o l i d s f o r u l t i m a t e d i s p o s a l.
I t is usually assumed t h a t this reduction takes place only in the
v o l a t i l e p o r t i o n o f t h e s l u d g e s o l i d s , T h e r e f o r e, a c o m m o n
measure of digester p e r f o r m a n c e is t h e p e r c e n t of the volatile
s o l i d s d e s t r o y e d, Volatile solids reduction in anaerobic
digesters u s u a l l y r a n g e s between 35 t o 6 0 p e r c e n t. T h e d e g r e e o f
volatile solids reduction achieved in any p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n
d e p e n d s o n both the character of the sludge and t h e operating
p a r a m e t e r s o f the digestion s y s t e m .
The character of the sludge determines the upper limit for
v o l a t i l e s o l i d s r e d u c t i o n. N o t all of t h e v o l a t i l e solids
c a n be converted by t h e anaerobic bacteria. Limited r e s e a r c h
( 7 7 t o 8 0 ) suggests that only 6 0 t o 8 0 p e r c e n t of the volatile
solids in municipal w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e is readily biodegradable.
T h e remaining fraction consists chiefly o f inert o r g a n i c s s u c h a s
lignins a n d tannins, T h e s e complex organic molecules m a y even-
tually b e degraded w h e n held f o r s e v e r a l m o n t h s in a facultative
s l u d g e l a g o o n, b u t c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d i n d i g e s t i b l e w i t h i n t h e
c o n t a c t times n o r m a l l y associated with anaerobic d i g e s t i o n .
T h e m o s t important operating p a r a m e t e r s affecting volatile solids
reduction a r e solids retention t i m e and d i g e s t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e.
A s shown o n Figure 6 -1 2, volatile solids reduction climbs rapidly
t o 5 0 t o 6 0 p e r c e n t a s the S R T is increased. Beyond this point ,
further reduction is minimal even with substantial increases in
t h e S R T. Similar curves h a v e been p r o d u c e d b y o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s
( 4 3,6 0 ,8 1 ). T h e s h a p e of the r e s p o n s e curve and t h e point a t
which it levels o u t a r e influenced s t r o n g l y b y t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f
t h e digester. F i g u r e 6 -1 2 s h o w s t h a t a t a n y given S R T, raising
t h e o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e t o 9 5 ° F ( 3 5 ° C ) w i l l increase t h e
proportion of volatile solids d e s t r o y e d during digestion. This
r e s p o n s e t o t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e is n o t instantaneous but would
6- 2 6
70
60
PRIMARY SLUDGE ONLY
A A
ft
50 «
40
00
20
• PILOT PLANT REF. (82 ]

to 4 PILOT PLANT REF, ( S3)
j i
0 JL 1 1 1
ACTIVATED SLUDGE ONLY

60
50 ft li
O 4 ft 9
A
d
Z3
A
A
Q 40 A ft
• 9•* ft ft
9
ft
i
- a
30 • ft
* ft
ft
g ft ft *
UJ
20 A PILOT PLANT REF . ( 13)
h- PILOT PLANT REF. < 14 )
5 10 ft PILOT PLANT REF . (85 }
§
0 i
ft
ft
ft
PRIMARY AND
60 ACTIVATED SLUDGE
a
ft
50 A * A
A
f
AA A
A
40 M
A
ft
30
20 FULL SCALE REF. ( 24}

*
A PILOT PLANT RCF , ( 70)
10 FULL SCALE REF. ( 27)
0 1 1 1 i
0 200 400 600 800 1200 1400 1600 1600 2000 2200
TEMP. ( * C3 SOLIDS RETENTION TIME (DAYS)

*
FIGURE 6- 13
VOLATILE SOLIDS REDUCTION VS TEMPERATURE X SRT

FOR THREE TYPES OF FEED SLUDGES ( 82- 85 )
6- 2 8
6.2 . 4.2 G a s Production
A p a r t i c u l a r a d v a n t a g e o f anaerobic d i g e s t i o n o v e r o t h e r m e t h o d s
o f s l u d g e s t a b i l i z a t i o n i s t h a t it p r o d u c e s a m e d i u m - e n e r g y
g a s as a b y- p r o d u c t . D i g e s t e r g a s c a n be burned t o p r o v i d e heat
and generate electricity for the treatment plant, Several
o f f-s i t e u s e s o f d i g e s t e r g a s a r e a l s o f e a s i b l e, i n c l u d i n g:
b l e n d i n g w i t h t h e d o m e s t i c g a s s u p p l y, g e n e r a t i o n o f s t e a m o r
e l e c t r i c i t y f o r s a l e t o a d j a c e n t industries , bottling f o r use as
a p o r t a b l e f u e l , and p r o d u c t i o n o f chemicals s u c h a s ammonia a n d
methanol . Utilization o f d i g e s t e r g a s is described further in
Sections 6 . 2.6 . 2 , 6 . 2.7, and C h a p t e r 1 8. B e f o r e a n y utilization
p r o g r a m c a n be established , t h e q u a n t i t y a n d q u a l i t y o f available
d i g e s t e r g a s m u s t b e determined.
The generation of digester gas is a direct result of the

d e s t r u c t i o n o f s o l i d s. T h e m i c r o b i o l o g y a n d b i o c h e m i s t r y o f
this conversion a r e described in Section 6 . 2.1 . 4. Because of
this c l o s e relation b e t w e e n g a s p r o d u c t i o n and solids retention ,
g a s p r o d u c t i o n i s b e s t e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f t h e v o l u m e o f g a s
p r o d u c e d p e r unit o f solids d e s t r o y e d . This p a r a m e t e r , termed
s p e c i f i c g a s p r o d u c t i o n, i s c o m m o n l y e x p r e s s e d a s cubic f e e t o f
g a s p e r p o u n d o f volatile solids ( VS ) d e s t r o y e d . Specific gas
production values for the anaerobic digestion of some of the
principal c o m p o n e n t s o f s l u d g e a r e p r e s e n t e d in Table 6 -8. F a t t y
substances have a higher energy content per unit weight than
o t h e r f o r m s o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r. T h u s, t h e b r e a k d o w n o f a s l u d g e
with a h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f f a t s, o i l s, and g r e a s e s can b e e x p e c t e d
t o yield a g r e a t e r q u a n t i t y of g a s p e r unit o f solids d e s t r o y e d.
TABLE 6- 8
GAS PRODUCTION FOR SEVERAL COMPOUNDS

IN SEWAGE SLUDGE ( 86 )
Specific gas
production , cu ft/lb CH4 content ,
Material destroyed percent
—..
v '
Fats 18 - 23 62 - 72
Scum 14 - 16 70 - 75
Grease 17 68
Crude Fibers 13 45 - 50
Protein 12 73
1 c u ft/lb = .0 6 2 3 m
'
Vkg
Specific gas production for anaerobically digested municipal
sludges generally ranges between 12 to 17 cu ft per lb of
6- 2 9
o c c u r a f t e r a period o f acclimatization , T h e g r a p h a l s o p o i n t s
out t h a t a t h i g h e r S R T s, t h e e f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e i s l e s s
pronounced.
TOO
90 R A W S L U D G E CHARACTERfSTfCS
TYPE PRIMARY
80 SOLIDS C O N C. 2.3%
z VOLATILE CONTENT 8 0%
o
f— 70
a
a
uu
cc
35°C
£ 50 „
25°C
Q
an 40 20°C
IXi
30
H
< °
15 C
O 20
>
10
!
10 20 30 40 50 60
SOLIDS RETENTION TIME, days
FIGURE 6- 12
EFFECT OF SOLIDS RETENTION TIME AND TEMPERATURE

ON VOLATILE SOLIDS REDUCTION IN A LABORATORY-
SCALE ANAEROBIC DIGESTER ( 69 )
T h e combined effect o f S R T a n d t e m p e r a t u r e o n volatile s o l i d s

reduction f o r three c o m m o n s l u d g e s is p l o t t e d o n F i g u r e 6 -1 3.
A l t h o u g h t h e d a t a p o i n t s are somewhat s c a t t e r e d , t h e y s u g g e s t
t h a t p r i m a r y s l u d g e d e g r a d e s f a s t e r t h a n a mixture o f p r i m a r y a n d
w a s t e-a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e, w h i c h i n t u r n d e g r a d e s f a s t e r t h a n
s t r a i g h t activated s l u d g e ( 1 2 ). T h e e m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n t e r m ,
t e m p e r a t u r e times S R T, h a s been f o u n d useful when t h e s p r e a d o f
t e m p e r a t u r e s in a s e t o f d a t a i s n o t g r e a t.
A 1978 laboratory study ( 34 ) found that thermal treatment

o f a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e ( 3 4 7 °F [ 1 7 5 °C ] ) f o r a h a l f h o u r p r i o r t o
anaerobic digestion increased volatile solids reduction and
r e s u l t a n t g a s p r o d u c t i o n. Dewaterability of the digested
s l u d g e was a l s o i m p r o v e d b y t h e r m a l p r e t r e a t m e n t.
6- 27
v o l a t i l e solids destroyed ( 0.75 t o 1 . 1 m /kg ) ^ .
F i g u r e 6 -1 4
shows how s p e c i f i c g a s production i s a f f e c t e d by temperature .
Conversion of v o l a t i l e solids i s most e f f i c i e n t a t about 95°F
( 35°C ) and 130° F ( 54 °C ) .
Detention time , o r SRT , has e s s e n t i a l l y
no e f f e c t on s p e c i f i c g a s production s o long a s t h e SRT i s
exceeded .
Lengthening t h e SRT , however , i n c r e a s e s t h e t o t a l
quantity of gas produced because volatile solids reduction i s
increased .
As discussed e a r l i e r , the mix of organic compounds in
the feed sludge strongly influences specific gas production
v 'a l u e s .
20 r -
15
o
-
I
u
-a
3 b“O
a
°
? XJ
CL
SB
10
<
tD !
£ 3
u
o
LU
L
C/3 5
BASED ON DATA FROM 23 STUDIES
j
80 90 100 110 120 130 140
TEMPERATURE , °F
FIGURE 6- 14
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON GAS PRODUCTION ( 87 )
Instantaneous rates of gas production can vary widely because

of fluctuations in the feed rate , sludge composition , and
bacterial activity, These momentary peaks must be considered
in sizing gas piping and storage f a c i l i t i e s Generally , gas .
production increases soon after sludge i s fed to the digester .
Therefore , continuous feeding aids in providing uniform gas
production .
-
6 30
The characteristics of sludge gas from several digester
installations a r e s h o w n in T a b l e 6 - 9 . A h e a l t h y d i g e s t i o n
p r o c e s s p r o d u c e s a d i g e s t e r g a s with a b o u t 6 5 t o 7 0 p e r c e n t
methane, 3 0 t o 3 5 p e r c e n t carbon dioxide, a n d very low levels o f
nitrogen , hydrogen, a n d hydrogen sulfide. T h e carbon dioxide
concentration of digester gas h a s been found t o increase with the
loading r a t e ( 6 0 , 8 8 ).
TABLE 6- 9
CHARACTERISTICS OF SLUDGE GASa ( 85 )
Constituent __ Values for various plants, percent by volume

^
Methane (CH4) 42.5 61.0 62.0 67.0 70.0 73.7 75.0 73 - 75
Carbon dioxide (CO 2)
Hydrogen (H 2)
47.7
1.7
32.8
3.3
38.0c 30.0 30.0 17.7
2.1
22.0
0.2
21
1
-- 224
Nitrogen (N2) c
8.1 2.9
-
3.0 6.5 2.7 1 - 1.5
2
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) 0.15 0.01 -
0.02 0.06 0.1 1 - 750
Heat value , Btu/cu ft 459 667 660 624 728 791 716 739 - 0.80
Specific gravity (air = 1) 1.04 0.87 0.92 0.86 0.85 0.74 0.78 0.70 -
aData from 1966 studies by Herpers and Herpers.
^
c
Except as noted ,
Trace.
T h e h y d r o g e n s u l f i d e c o n t e n t o f t h e g a s is a f f e c t e d b y t h e
chemical c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e s l u d g e ( 8 4 ). Sulfur-bearing
industrial w a s t e s a n d saltwater infiltration t e n d t o increase
H 2S levels in s l u d g e g a s. H o w e v e r, metal w a s t e s and m e t a l ions
a d d e d during chemical t r e a t m e n t o r conditioning c a n r e d u c e the
a m o u n t o f H 2 S in t h e s l u d g e by f o r m i n g i n s o l u b l e s a l t s . H 2 S ,
a major source o f o d o r s in digested s l u d g e , c a n a l s o be corrosive
in the p r e s e n c e of moisture, by forming sulfuric acid .
Although the hydrogen content has some effect on the heat
value, m e t h a n e is t h e chief combustible constituent in d i g e s t e r
g a s. T h e high h e a t value for digester g a s r a n g e s between 5 0 0 t o
7 0 0 B t u p e r c u f t ( 4.5 t o 6 . 2 k g -k c a l/m 3 ), with a n a v e r a g e of
a b o u t 6 4 0 B t u p e r cu ft ( 5.7 kg -k c a l/ m ) ( 8 4 ). ^ T h e high h e a t
value is the h e a t released d u r i n g combustion a s measured in a
calorimeter. H o w e v e r, g a s engine efficiencies a r e usually based
o n t h e l o w h e a t value , which is t h e heat value of g a s w h e n n o n e
o f the w a t e r v a p o r f o r m e d by combustion h a s b e e n condensed , By
w a y o f comparison , s l u d g e g a s containing 7 0 p e r c e n t m e t h a n e and
n o o t h e r combustibles h a s a low h e a t v a l u e of 6 4 0 B t u p e r c u f t
^
( 5 . 7 k g - k c a l/ m ) a n d a h i g h h e a t v a l u e o f 7 0 3 B t u p e r c u f t
( 6 . 2 6 k g -k c a l/ m ) ( 8 4 ).
^
6.2 . 4.3 S u p e r n a t a n t Quality
S u p e r n a t a n t f r o m a n anaerobic digestion s y s t e m can contain high
concentrations o f o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l , d i s s o l v e d a n d s u s p e n d e d
6-3 1
s o l i d s, n i t r o g e n , p h o s p h o r u s, a n d o t h e r m a t e r i a l s t h a t , w h e n
returned t o the p l a n t , m a y impose extra l o a d s o n other treatment
p r o c e s s e s a n d effluent r e c e i v i n g w a t e r s. Mignone ( 89 ) has
reviewed t h e literature o n anaerobic d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t
quality. Methods of treating digester s u p e r n a t a n t are described
in C h a p t e r 16 and in other references ( 9 0,9 1 , 9 2 ). However , in
most cases it is p r e f e r a b l e t o minimize or eliminate , rather than
treat , h i g h l y p o l l u t e d d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t ( 5 2 ).
It is v e r y difficult t o g e n e r a l i z e a b o u t s u p e r n a t a n t q u a l i t y
because it can vary w i d e l y, even at a single treatment plant.
T a b l e 6 - 1 0 p r e s e n t s r e p o r t e d characteristics o f a n a e r o b i c
digester s u p e r n a t a n t for three common t y p e s of feed sludge. Many
factors contribute to the wide r a n g e o f variation in s u p e r n a t a n t
quality ( 9 0 ,9 1 ,9 7, 9 8 ).
T h e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s , biochemical o x y g e n demand , s o l u b l e
p h o s p h o r u s , p h e n o l s , and ammonia in the s u p e r n a t a n t can a l l cause
p r o b l e m s in a treatment plant . If the anaerobic s u p e r n a t a n t must
b e r e t u r n e d t o t h e p l a n t f l o w f o r t r e a t m e n t , it s h o u l d b e
recycled continuously t o spread the loading .
Suspended Solids
S u p e r n a t a n t s m a y contain high concentrations o f finely divided

s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s b e c a u s e , a s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 6 . 2.2 . 2,
anaerobically digested s l u d g e s settle p o o r l y , particularly when
biological s l u d g e is fed into t h e digestion s y s t e m , Unless these
fine-sized particles are removed with the digested s l u d g e , they
will build u p in t h e p l a n t , c a u s i n g p r o c e s s o v e r l o a d i n g and
e v e n t u a l l y , degradation o f the plant effluent.
Biochemical O x y g e n Demand
Because suspended and dissolved solids from an anaerobic digester
are in a chemically reduced s t a t e , t h e y i m p o s e a l a r g e o x y g e n
demand w h e n returned t o the liquid process s t r e a m , T h e aeration
requirement for aerobic biological treatment is often increased
s u b s t a n t i a l l y b y t h e recycling of high B O D d i g e s t e r supernatant.
Soluble Phosphorus
T h e recent emphasis o n removal of phosphorus from wastewaters h a s
created s l u d g e s that contain h i g h proportions of this element.
I n b i o l o g i c a l p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l , p h o s p h o r u s is t a k e n u p b y
the growing cell mass and is removed from the wastewater s t r e a m
in t h e w a s t e d b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e ( 9 9 , 1 0 0 ). Chemical m e t h o d s
of phosphorus removal entail the precipitation of phosphates
with metal ions — predominantly f e r r o u s, ferric , aluminum , and
calcium. T h e fate o f p h o s p h o r u s d u r i n g the anaerobic digestion
o f p h o s p h o r u s- laden biological and chemical s l u d g e s has b e e n the
subject of several studies ( 55 , 1 0 1- 1 0 4 ). T h e results o f these
studies are not entirely consistent. In some cases ( 99 , 101 ),
bound phosphorus was resolubilized during anaerobic digestion
6-3 2
and released to the digester supernatant , The return of this
phosphorus-laden supernatant to the liquid treatment stream can
substantially reduce the net phosphorus removal efficiency of the
plant ( 101 ) and /or increase chemical demand , However , in most
studies ( 55 ,102-104 ), release of soluble phosphorus into digester
supernatant was minimal.
TABLE 6- 10
SUPERNATANT , CHARACTERISTICS OF HICH- RATE ,

TWO- STATE , MESOPHILIC , ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
AT VARIOUS PLANTS ( 90 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 )
Concentrationa , mg/1
Parameter Primary and trickling

Primary sludge filter sludge Primary and activated sludge
Reference (95) { 90)b ( 94) ( 9 5' °
( 90) ( 941 (94) (95) (96) ( 90)b
Total solids 9 ,400 4 , 545 1 ,475 2 , 160
Total volatile solids 4 ,900 2 ,930 814 983
Suspended solids
Average 4 , 277 2 , 205 1,518 7 ,772 383 143 740 1 ,075 4 ,408
Maximum 17 ,300 32,400 14 ,650
Minimum 660 100 100
Volatile suspended solids

Average 2 ,645 1,660 4 ,403 299 118 750 3 , 176
Maximum 10 ,850 17 ,750 10,650
Minimum 420 60 75
BOD
Average 713 1 ,238 515 667
Maximum 1 , 880 6 ,000 2,700
Minimum 200 135 100
COD 4,565 2 , 230 1 , 384 1 , 310 1, 230

TOC 1 , 242 443 320
-
Total (P04 j P 143 85 63 87 100
-
NH 3 N
Organic N
853
291 678
253
53
559
91 360
480
560
8.0 7.3 7.2 7.0 7.8 7.0 7.3
PH
Volatile acids 264 322 250
Alkalinity (as CaC03) 2 ,555 3,780 1 , 349 1 ,434
Phenols '
Average 0.23 0.23 0.35

Maximum 0 .80 0.50 1.00
Minimum 0.06 0.06 0.08
aUnless noted , all values are average for the sampling period studied.
bValues indicated are a composite from seven treatment plants.
cValues indicated are a composite from six treatment plants.
Phenols
Phenols have been found in digester supernatants in concentra-
t ions sufficient to inhibit biological activity ( 56 ). Typical
phenol concentrations are included in Table 6 - 10 . The source
o f p h e n o l s is not u s u a l l y industrial w a s t e d i s c h a r g e s but
putrefaction of proteins , which begins in the h u m a n b o d y and
continues in the sewage system , Phenols are very toxic and are
used commercially as an antiseptic . In dilute concentrations ,
phenols do not necessarily kill bacteria but slow their growth
6- 33
and inhibit their normal metabolic activity , As a result , the
p h e n o l s contained in digester s u p e r n a t a n t , combined with phenolic
c o m p o u n d s already in the sewage , may be an important cause of
s l u d g e bulking ( 9 0 ). In addition , the recycling of phenols in
s u p e r n a t a n t m a y contribute t o odor p r o b l e m s .
Ammonia
As shown in Table 6 -10 , high levels of ammonia are often found in
digester s u p e r n a t a n t. In p l a n t s that are nitrifying , the s u p e r-
natant r e t u r n will provide a large portion of the ammonia feed t o
t h e w a s t e w a t e r p r o c e s s. The conversion of this ammonia to
nitrate will therefore result in increased c o s t s t o p r o v i d e the
required o x y g e n for t r e a t m e n t , In plants that must achieve a
n i t r o g e n limitation in t h e i r e f f l u e n t , the recycle ammonia
loadings must be c a r e f u l l y evaluated a s t o their overall effect
in meeting the standards.
6.2.5 O p e r a t i o n a l Considerations
6.2 . 5.1 pH
A s was noted in Section 6 . 2.1 , anaerobic digestion is a t w o- s t e p

process consisting o f " acid -forming " and " methane-forming " s t e p s.
During the first s t e p , the production o f volatile acids tends
t o r e d u c e the p H . T h e r e d u c t i o n is n o r m a l l y c o u n t e r e d b y
destruction of volatile acids by methanogenic bacteria and the
s u b s e q u e n t production o f bicarbonate.
Close pH control is n e c e s s a r y because methane- producing bacteria

are e x t r e m e l y sensitive t o slight c h a n g e s in p H. E a r l y research
( 1 0 5 - 1 0 7 ) showed t h a t t h e o p t i m u m p H f o r m e t h a n e - p r o d u c i n g
b a c t e r i a i s in t h e r a n g e o f 6 . 4 - 7 . 5 and t h a t t h e s e b a c t e r i a
are v e r y sensitive t o p H c h a n g e , A 1970 s t u d y ( 108 ) seems t o
indicate that the pH tolerance of me thane-producing bacteria
is greater than previously thought , The bacteria are not
necessarily killed by high and low pH levels ; their growth is
merely stopped . Because o f the importance of these findings t o
system control , more research is needed to verify these results.
Several different acid - base chemical equilibria a r e r e l a t e d t o

pH. In the anaerobic digestion process, the p H r a n g e of interest
i s 6 . 0 t o 8 . 0 , which m a k e s t h e c a r b o n d i o x i d e - b i c a r b o n a t e
r e l a t i o n s h i p t h e most important. A s F i g u r e 6 - 1 5 indicates ,
s y s t e m p H i s c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e C O 2 concentration o f t h e g a s
p h a s e and t h e b i c a r b o n a t e a l k a l i n i t y o f t h e l i q u i d p h a s e . A
digester with a g i v e n g a s- p h a s e C O 2 concentration and liquid -
p h a s e b i c a r b o n a t e a l k a l i n i t y c a n exist a t o n l y o n e p H . If
bicarbonate alkalinity is a d d e d t o t h e d i g e s t e r a n d t h e
proportion of CO 2 in the g a s phase remains the same , digester
6-3 4
p H m u s t increase. F o r a n y fixed g a s- p h a s e C O 2 c o m p o s i t i o n, t h e
a m o u n t o f sodium bicarbonate r e q u i r e d t o achieve t h e d e s i r e d p H
c h a n g e i s g i v e n b y t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n:
D = 0 . 6 0 ( BA a t initial p H - B A a t final p H ) ( 6-1 )
w h e r e:
D = sodium bicarbonate d o s e, m g /1
B A = d i g e s t e r bicarbonate a l k a l i n i t y as m g/1 C a C C> 3
The pH increase is less important , however, than the effect

o n s y s t e m b u f f e r i n g c a p a c i t y , ( t h a t i s , t h e s y s t e m' s a b i l i t y
t o r e s i s t p H c h a n g e s ). If b i c a r b o n a t e a l k a l i n i t y i s a d d e d ,
b u f f e r i n g c a p a c i t y i s increased , s y s t e m p H i s s t a b i l i z e d , a n d
t h e s y s t e m b e c o m e s l e s s s u s c e p t i b l e t o u p s e t. T h e e f f e c t o f
b u f f e r i n g c a p a c i t y o n anaerobic d i g e s t e r o p e r a t i o n s i s discussed
e l s e w h e r e ( 1 1 0 , 1 1 1 ).
ou
Co
f OPERATING
TEMPERATURE
40
°
96 F (35 C )°
& Q
CO Q?
<
o
a: 3 0
LU
£
LU
C3
G 20
2
CN
o
a
0
250 500 1000 2500 5000 10,000 25,000
BICARBONATE ALKALINITY AS CaC03, mg/ I
FIGURE 6- 15
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN pH AND BICARBONATE

°
CONCENTRATION NEAR 95°F ( 35 C ) ( 109 )
6-35
Bicarbonate alkalinity can be calculated from t o t a l alkalinity b y
the following equation:
BA TA - 0.71 ( VA ) ( 6-2 )
where:
BA = bicarbonate alkalinity a s mg/1 CaCC> 3
T A = total alkalinity a s m g/1 CaCC> 3 determined b y titration

t o p H 4.0
VA = volatile acids measured as mg/1 acetic acid
0.71 is obtained b y t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f t w o f a c t o r s , ( 0 . 8 3 and

0.85 ) . 0.83 converts volatile acids as acetic acid t o volatile
acid alkalinity a s CaCC> 3. 0.85 is used because in a titration
t o p H 4.0 , about 85 percent of the acetate has been converted t o
the acid form.
It has been suggested ( 110 ) that the only sensible way to

increase digester p H and buffering capacity is b y the addition of
sodium bicarbonate. O t h e r materials , such a s caustic soda , s o d a
a s h , and lime , cannot increase bicarbonate alkalinity without
r e a c t i n g with s o l u b l e c a r b o n dioxide , which c a u s e s a p a r t i a l
vacuum w i t h i n t h e s y s t e m . A b o v e p H 6 . 3 , lime m a y r e a c t with
bicarbonate t o f o r m insoluble calcium c a r b o n a t e , promoting s c a l e
formation o r encrustation. Ammonia g a s ( N H 3 ) c o u l d be used
without causing vacuum p r o b l e m s , but control of p H with sodium
bicarbonate is p r e f e r r e d b e c a u s e it p r o v i d e s g o o d b u f f e r i n g
c a p a c i t y w i t h o u t r a i s i n g t h e p H as m u c h as NH 3 w o u l d . B o t h
sodium and ammonia can inhibit anaerobic bacteria ; care must b e
t a k e n d u r i n g p H control t o avoid reaching toxic concentrations o f
these chemicals.
6.2 . 5.2 Toxicity
Much o f the published d a t a o n toxicity in anaerobic digestion

systems are e r r o n e o u s a n d m i s l e a d i n g b e c a u s e of i n a d e q u a t e
e x p e r i m e n t a l t e c h n i q u e s and a g e n e r a l l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g
( 112 ). Therefore , before a n y discussion of toxicity can take
p l a c e , a review of several fundamentals i s needed.
First , f o r a n y material t o b e biologically toxic , it m u s t b e in

s o l u t i o n. If a s u b s t a n c e is n o t in solution , it c a n n o t p a s s
through t h e cell wall and therefore cannot affect the organism.
Second , t o x i c i t y i s a relative t e r m. T h e r e a r e m a n y o r g a n i c
a n d i n o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s w h i c h , if s o l u b l e , c a n b e either
6 -3 6
stimulatory or toxic. A g o o d e x a m p l e is the effect , shown in
T a b l e 6 -11 , o f ammonia nitrogen o n anaerobic digestion .
TABLE 6- 11
EFFECT OF AMMONIA NITROGEN ON ANAEROBIC DIGESTION ( 113 , 114 )
Ammonia
concentration , as N ,
mg/l Effect
50 - 200 Beneficial
200 - 1,000 No adverse effects
1 , 500 - 3 , 000 Inhibitory at pH

over 7.4 7.6
Above 3 ,000 Toxic
Acclimatization is t h e third consideration . W h e n t h e l e v e l s

o f p o t e n t i a l l y toxic materials a r e s l o w l y increased w i t h i n
t h e environment , m a n y o r g a n i s m s can r e a r r a n g e their metabolic
resources and overcome the metabolic block p r o d u c e d by the toxic
material. Under shock load conditions , there is not sufficient
time for this rearrangement to take place and the digestion
p r o c e s s fails.
Finally , there is the possibility of antagonism and synergism .

Antagonism is defined a s a reduction o f t h e toxic effect of one
s u b s t a n c e b y the p r e s e n c e of another. Synergism is defined as an
increase in the toxic effect of one s u b s t a n c e by t h e presence of
another. These a r e i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s in cation toxicity.
T h o u g h t h e r e are m a n y potentially toxic materials , this section

concerns itself o n l y with the following :
Volatile acids
H e a v y metals
Light metal cations
Oxygen
Sulfides
Ammonia
Volatile Acids
Until t h e 1 9 6 0 s , it w a s c o m m o n l y believed t h a t volatile acid
concentrations over 2, 0 0 0 mg /l w e r e toxic t o anaerobic digestion.
T h e r e w a s a l s o considerable c o n t r o v e r s y a b o u t w h e t h e r or n o t
alkaline substances should b e added t o maintain a d e q u a t e buffer
capacity.
6- 3 7
..
..
In the e a r l y 1960 s , McCarty and his coworkers published results

from c a r e f u l l y controlled studies ( 113 ,1 1 5 , 116 ). Their results
showed :
• That volatile acids , a t least up t o 6 , 0 0 0- 8 , 000 mg /1 ,

were n o t toxic t o methanogenic bacteria as long as there
was adequate buffer capacity t o maintain the s y s t e m p H in
the range o f 6 . 6 -7.4.
• That p H control by the addition of a n alkaline material

w a s a valid p r o c e d u r e a s long a s the cation associated
with t h e alkaline m a t e r i a l d i d n o t cause t o x i c i t y.
It was found that alkaline sodium , p o t a s s i u m , o r ammonium
c o m p o u n d s were detrimental but that alkaline magnesium o r
calcium c o m p o u n d s were n o t.
H e a v y Metals
H e a v y m e t a l t o x i c i t y h a s f r e q u e n t l y b e e n cited a s t h e c a u s e
o f a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n f a i l u r e s. Even though trace amounts
o f m o s t h e a v y m e t a l s a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r maximum b i o l o g i c a l
d e v e l o p m e n t ( 117 ) , the concentrations in raw w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s
could be problematic.
>
Heavy metals tend to attach themselves to sludge particles

( 1 1 8 , 1 1 9 ). H e a v y m e t a l s which c a n n o t b e detected in t h e influent
w a s t e w a t e r c a n b e c o n c e n t r a t e d t o m e a s u r a b l e l e v e l s in t h e
s l u d g e. Table 6 -1 2 gives the r a n g e of influent concentrations of
s o m e h e a v y m e t a l s. T h e r a n g e is q u i t e wide , with t h e h i g h e r
values n o r m a l l y attributed t o a local industrial p o l l u t e r.
TABLE 6- 12
INFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS AND EXPECTED REMOVALS

OF SOME HEAVY METALS IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS ( 120 , 121 )
Removal efficiency , percent
Influent concentration , Secondary

Heavy metal mg/1 treatment Alum treatment
Cadium < .008 - 1.142 20 - 45 60

Chromium
+3 < .020
< .020
5 .8
5 .8
40
0
-- 80
10
90
+6
Copper < .020 9.6 0 - 70 90
Mercury < .0001 .068 20 -- 75 65
35
Nickel < .1 - 880 15 40
Lead < .05 - 12.2 50 - 90 85
Z inc < .02 - .18.00 35 - 80 85
Arsenic
Iron
.002 -
<.l - 13
0034 28 - 73
72
Manganese .02 - .95 25
Silver
Cobalt
< .05- .6
Below detection
Barium 47
Selenium 79
6 -3 8
T a b l e 6 - 1 2 gives t h e t y p i c a l r a n g e of r e m o v a l that can be
expected from standard secondary treatment . Published data seem
to indicate that the p e r c e n t removal , without chemical addition ,
is a function of influent concentration : the higher the influent
concentration , the higher the p e r c e n t removal.
The l a s t c o l u m n of Table 6 - 1 2 shows removals of h e a v y m e t a l s
achieved with additions o f alum , In treatment systems that
add chemical c o a g u l a n t s for p h o s p h a t e removal , a significant
amount of influent heavy metals will also be removed ( 122 ).
Soluble and total heavy metal concentrations are often greatly

different because anions such a s carbonate and sulfide can remove
heavy metals from solution by precipitation and sequestering .
Consequently , it is not possible t o define precise total toxic
concentrations for any heavy metal ( 123 ). Total individual metal
concentrations that have caused severe inhibition of anaerobic
digestion are shown in Table 6 -13. However , o n l y the dissolved
fraction of these metals caused the inhibition , Table 6 - 14 shows
the total and soluble concentrations of heavy metals in anaerobic
digesters. Inhibition o f anaerobic digestion occurs at soluble
concentrations of approximately 3 mg /1 for Cr , 2 mg /1 for Ni ,
1 mg /1 for Zn , and 0.5 mg /1 for Cu ( 129 ).
TABLE 6- 13
TOTAL CONCENTRATION OF INDIVIDUAL METALS REQUIRED

TO SEVERELY INHIBIT ANAEROBIC DIGESTION ( 123 , 124 )
Concentration in digester contents

Metal as percent Millimoles metal per Soluable metal,
Metal of dry solids kilogram dry solids mg/1
Copper 0.93 150 0.5

Cadmium 1.03 100
Zinc 0.97 150 1.0
Iron 9.56 1 , 710
Chromium
+6 2.20 420 3.0
+3 2.60 500
Nickel 2.0
E x c e p t f o r chromium , h e a v y metal toxicity in anaerobic digesters

can be prevented o r eliminated by precipitation with sulfides
( 124-127 ) . Hexavalent chromium is usually reduced t o trivalent
chromium , which , under normal anaerobic digester pH conditions,
is relatively insoluble and not v e r y toxic ( 128 ).
Sulfide precipitation is used b e c a u s e h e a v y metal sulfides
are e x t r e m e l y insoluble ( 1 2 9 ). If s u f f i c i e n t sulfide is n o t
available from natural sources, it must be added in the form of
sulfate , which is then reduced t o sulfide under anaerobic
conditions.
6 - 39
TABLE 6- 14
TOTAL AND SOLUBLE HEAVY METAL CONTENT

OF DIGESTERS ( 124 )
Total concentration , Soluble concentration ,
Metal mg/1 mg/1
Chromium +6 88 - 386 0.03 - 3.0
Copper 27 - 196 0.1 - 1.0
Nickel
Zinc
2 - 97
11 - 390
0
0.1
-- 5
0.7
O n e p o t e n t i a l drawback o f using the sulfide saturation method is

the p o s s i b l e p r o d u c t i o n o f h y d r o g e n sulfide gas o r sulfuric acid
from excess dissolved sulfide in the digester. Because of this,
it is recommended that ferrous sulfate be used a s a source o f
sulfide ( 112 ). Sulfides will be produced from the biological
breakdown o f sulfate , and the excess will be held out of solution
b y t h e i r o n in t h e s u l f i d e f o r m , However, if heavy metals
e n t e r t h e digester , t h e y will draw t h e sulfide preferentially
f r o m t h e iron b e c a u s e iron s u l f i d e i s t h e m o s t s o l u b l e h e a v y
m e t a l sulfide . E x c e s s s u l f i d e a d d i t i o n s c a n be monitored b y
e i t h e r a n a l y s i n g d i g e s t e r g a s f o r s u l f i d e o r b y t h e use o f a
silver-silver electrode located within t h e digester ( 1 2 6 , 1 3 0 ).
Light Metal Cations
The importance of the light metal cations ( sodium , magnesium ,

potassium , calcium ) in anaerobic digestion was shown in the mid
1 9 6 0 s ( 1 1 2 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 2 ). Domestic wastewater sludges have low
concentrations of l i g h t m e t a l c a t i o n s, H o w e v e r , s i g n i f i c a n t
contributions , e n o u g h t o cause toxicity , can come from industrial
o p e r a t i o n s and the addition o f alkaline material for p H control.
N o t o n l y c a n each o f t h e s e cations b e either s t i m u l a t o r y o r
toxic , d e p e n d i n g o n concentration ( T a b l e 6 - 1 5 ) , b u t certain
combinations o f t h e m will f o r m either a n a n t a g o n i s t i c o r a
synergistic r e l a t i o n s h i p ( Table 6- 1 6 ). Inhibition caused by an
excess o f a certain cation can be counteracted by the addition o f
one or more o f t h e antagonist cations listed in T a b l e 6 -16.
TABLE 6- 15
STIMULATING AND INHIBITORY CONCENTRATIONS

OF LIGHT METAL CATIONS ( 133 )
Concentration , mg/1
Moderately Strongly
Cation Stimulatory inhibitory inhibitory
Calcium
Magnesium
100 -200
75 - 150
2 ,500
1,000
- 4 , 500
1.500
8 ,000
3 ,000
Potassium 200 - 400 2.500 4 , 500 12 ,000
Sodium 100 -200 3.500 5.500 8 ,000
6 -4 0
TABLE 6- 16
SYNERGISTIC AND ANTAGONISTIC CATION COMBINATIONS ( 112 , 132 )
Toxic Synergistic Antagonistic

cations cations cations
Ammonium Calcium , magnesium , potassium Sodium

Calcium Ammonium , magnesium Potassium , sodium
Magnesium Ammonium , calcium Potassium , sodium

Potassium Ammonium , calcium , magnesium ,
sodium
Sodium Ammonium , calcium, magnesium Potassium
O x y- •g e n
BIWT
'
/ !»
*
“
M a n y e n g i n e e r s h a v e e x p r e s s e d concern o v e r t h e possibility
o f o x y g e n toxicity c a u s e d by using dissolved a i r flotation
thickeners f o r s l u d g e thickening. Fields and A g a r d y ( 1 3 4 )
injected oxygen into a b e n c h - s c a l e d i g e s t e r a t t h e r a t e of
0.1 ml O 2 p e r liter per hour ( equivalent t o one volume of air
p e r 2 , 1 0 0 v o l u m e s o f digester c o n t e n t s p e r h o u r ). T o t a l g a s
production fell 36.5 percent after 19 hours and ceased completely
after 6 9 h o u r s . H o w e v e r , this r a t e of oxygen injection is
significantly higher than would be p r o d u c e d by a dissolved air
flotation t h i c k e n i n g s y s t e m . C o n s e q u e n t l y , n o p r o b l e m s are
expected under normal circumstances.
Sulfides
S o l u b l e sulfide concentrations over 2 0 0 mg /1 are toxic t o
anaerobic digestion s y s t e m s ( 1 2 5 , 1 3 5 ). T h e s o l u b l e sulfide
concentration within t h e digester is a function of the incoming
source of sulfur, the pH , the rate of g a s production , and t h e
amount of heavy metals available to act as precipitants. High
levels o f soluble sulfide can be reduced by the addition of iron
salts ( 136 ) t o the liquid , o r scrubbing of the recirculated gas.
Ammonia
Ammonia , produced during the anaerobic degradation of proteins
a n d u r e a , m a y r e a c h toxic l e v e l s in h i g h l y c o n c e n t r a t e d
s l u d g e s ( 1 1 3 , 1 1 4 , 1 3 3 ). T w o f o r m s o f ammonia a r e found in
anaerobic digestion: ammonium ion ( NH 4 + ) and dissolved ammonia
g a s ( NH 3 ). Both forms can inhibit anaerobic digestion, although
ammonia g a s h a s a toxic effect a t a much lower concentration than
ammonium ion.
T h e t w o forms of ammonia are in equilibrium a n d t h e relative
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of e a c h d e p e n d s o n pH , a s indicated b y the
following equilibrium equation:
6 -4 1
+
NH 4 + NH 3 + H
At low p H levels , the equilibrium shifts t o the left and ammonium

ion t o x i c i t y is m o r e l i k e l y t o be a p r o b l e m , At higher pH
levels , the equilibrium shifts t o the right so that inhibition is
related t o the ammonia g a s concentration.
Ammonia toxicity is evaluated b y analyzing the total ammonia-

n i t r o g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s. If the total ammonia- nitrogen
concentration is from 1 , 500 to 3 ,000 mg /1 and the p H is above
7.4- 7.6 , inhibition may result from ammonia g a s. This can be
c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e a d d i t i o n o f e n o u g h HC 1 t o m a i n t a i n t h e p H
between 7.0 and 7 . 2. If total ammonia- nitrogen levels are over
3 , 0 0 0 m g / 1 , t h e n t h e N H 4 + ion will b e c o m e t o x i c n o m a t t e r
what the pH level . The o n l y solution is t o dilute the incoming
w a s t e s l u d g e.
6.2.6 S y s t e m C o m p o n e n t Design
6.2 . 6.1 T a n k Design
Anaerobic digestion tanks are either cylindrical , r e c t a n g u l a r , or

egg -s h a p e d. A s i m p l i f i e d s k e t c h of e a c h t a n k d e s i g n t y p e i s
shown o n Figures 6 -1 6 , 6 - 1 7, and 6 -1 8.
The most common tank d e s i g n is a low , vertical cylinder ranging

in diameter from 20 t o 1 2 5 feet ( 6 t o 38 m ) , with a side water
d e p t h between 20 t o 4 0 feet ( 6 t o 1 2 m ). G a s- lift mixing is most
effective when the ratio of t a n k radius t o water d e p t h is between
0 . 7 and 2 . 0 ( 1 3 7 ). The t a n k s are usually made o f c o n c r e t e , with
either internal reinforcing o r post -tensioning rods or s t r a p s.
The latter design is the least expensive o f the t w o for t a n k s
with diameters g r e a t e r than 6 5 feet. Some steel t a n k digesters
have b e e n constructed t o diameters of 70 feet.
The f l o o r of a cylindrical digester is usually conical , with a
minimum s l o p e o f 1 :6. Sludge is withdrawn from the low point in
the c e n t e r of the tank. Digestion tanks with " waffle bottoms"
have been put into operation a t the East Bay Municipal Utility
District P l a n t in Oakland , California ( 138 , 139 ). Digesters with
similar bottoms have been designed for Tacoma , Washington , and
Portland , O r e g o n .
T h e principal objective o f t h e w a f f l e f l o o r design is t o minimize
grit accumulation and , to practically eliminate the need for
cleaning . A s s h o w n o n Figure 6 - 1 6 , the tank floor is subdivided
into pie -s h a p e d h o p p e r s , each sloping toward a s e p a r a t e drawoff
p o r t a l o n g the outside e d g e of t a n k. Subdivision of t h e bottom
area and use o f multiple drawoff ports allow s t e e p e r floor s l o p e s
and reduce the distance that settled solids must travel . As a
result , l e s s grit is likely t o accumulate. Construction c o s t s
6 -4 2
are higher for this type of bottom because it requires more
complex excavation , form work , and piping than a conventional
bottom. It has been estimated that the incremental construction
cost for waffle bottoms on the 90-foot ( 27 m ) diameter digesters
in Oakland was estimated to be $120 ,000 per tank ( 1978 dollars )
( 139 ). However , it is expected that savings will be realized
during operation because cleaning requirements will be greatly
reduced .
-
WITHDRAWAL '
PIPE
BOTTOM PLAN SECTION
CONICAL BOTTOM TYPE
X//
/
\ /
\
w \ /
/ \.
\ /
\
/ \
WH •••
N
\ * / ill
/
/ \
\I /
\
/
j
/ %
WITHDRAWAL-1
t \ -4t-
PORTS
r/P "
BOTTOM SECTION
'
V PLAN
WAFFLE BOTTOM TYPE
FIGURE 6- 16
CYLINDRICAL ANAEROBIC DIGESTION TANKS
The primary advantages of rectangular digestion tanks are

simplified construction and efficient use of a limited plant
site. However , it is more difficult to keep the contents of
-
6 43
a rectangular digester uniformly mixed because " dead s p o t s " t e n d
t o form a t t h e corners ,
F i g u r e 6- 1 7 s h o w s a p l a n and section o f
a rectangular digestion tank.
INLET
PLAN
GAS OUTLET
Tt m
i
CJ .
air V'' ~aup
1*
*53
r+t
ej
I.15
SECTION
FIGURE 6- 17
RECTANGULAR ANAEROBIC DIGESTION TANK
A l t h o u g h e g g - s h a p e d d i g e s t e r s h a v e b e e n used e x t e n s i v e l y in
E u r o p e , originating in G e r m a n y over 20 y e a r s a g o, t h e y are o n l y
now entering American practice , T h e first egg -s h a p e d digesters
in the United S t a t e s were built in Kansas City , K a n s a s , in the
mid -1 9 7 0 s , and four more are now under construction ( 1979 ) in
L o s A n g e l e s, C a l i f o r n i a , a t t h e T e r m i n a l I s l a n d W a s t e w a t e r
T r e a t m e n t P l a n t . E a c h o f t h e Terminal I s l a n d d i g e s t e r s w i l l
h a v e a c a p a c i t y o f 1 8 4 , 0 0 0 c u b i c f e e t ( 5, 2 0 0 m 3 ) a n d m e a s u r e
1 0 0 feet ( 30 m ) from t o p t o b o t t o m , with a maximum horizontal
diameter of 6 8 feet ( 21 m ) ( 1 4 0 ).
6-44
MIXER
*
—- SCUM DOOR
PLATFORM TO PLATFORM
OTHER \\ SUPERNATANT
DIGESTERS FEED
/ / — WITHDRAWAL
* wwwa'
i
H XV
PIPES
ELEVATOR
70'
PIPE AREA TOWER
iH-
;
WITHDRAW
1 BOTTOM
GAS SLUDGE
u j
- SPARGERS
4
i
ty
11
29'
IOI
FIGURE 6- 18
EGG- SHAPED ANAEROBIC DIGESTION TANK AT

TERMINAL ISLAND TREATMENT PLANT , LOS ANGELES
The purpose of forming an egg-shaped tank is to eliminate the

need for cleaning . The digester sides form a cone so steep at
the bottom that grit cannot accumulate ( Figure 6 -18 ). The top of
the digester is small , so that scum contained there can be kept
fluid with a mixer and removed through special scum doors.
Mixing in the Los Angeles digesters is promoted by gas evolution
during digestion combined with pumped circulation of sludge from
the bottom to the top of the tank. A 60 horsepower ( 45 kW ) pump
is used at the rate of 500 gpm ( 32 1/s ). Gas spargers ring the
inside wall of each tank and can be used to detach any material
adhering to the walls or to increase mixing , if necessary .
Construction of egg -shaped tanks requires complex form work and
special building techniques. Accordingly , capital costs are
6 -45
h i g h e r t h a n f o r o t h e r t a n k d e s i g n s, T h e 1 9 7 6 construction
c o s t estimate for t h e four digesters in L o s A n g e l e s was about
$ 5 , 000 , 0 0 0.
6.2 .6.2 Heating
A h e a t i n g s y s t e m is an important feature o f a modern anaerobic

digester. Raising the temperature of the digesting sludge
i n c r e a s e s the metabolic r a t e o f t h e anaerobic o r g a n i s m s a n d
reduces digestion time. Maintenance o f the t e m p e r a t u r e consis-
t e n t l y w i t h i n ± 1 °F ( 0 . 6 °C ) o f d e s i g n t e m p e r a t u r e s i m p r o v e s
process stability by preventing thermal shock.
Methods o f Heating
Heating equipment must be capable of delivering enough heat
t o raise the t e m p e r a t u r e o f incoming s l u d g e t o operating levels
and to offset losses of heat through the walls, floor, and
cover of the digester. Methods used t o transfer heat t o sludge
include:
H e a t exchanger coils placed inside t h e tank
S t e a m i n j e c t i o n d i r e c t l y into t h e s l u d g e
External heat exchanger through which sludge is

circulated
D i r e c t f l a m e h e a t i n g in which h o t combustion gases

are p a s s e d t h r o u g h the s l u d g e ( 141 )
External heat exchangers are the most commonly used heating

m e t h o d . I n t e r n a l h e a t e x c h a n g e r c o i l s w e r e u s e d in e a r l y
d i g e s t e r s ; however , t h e y are difficult t o inspect and clean. This
is a serious disadvantage because the coils become encrusted ,
reducing the r a t e of heat transfer. T o minimize caking o f sludge
o n the coils , w a t e r circulating through the coils is kept between
120 t o 1 3 0° F ( 49 t o 5 5°C ) ( 8 4 ). Typical values o f heat -transfer
coefficients for hot-w a t e r coils are listed in Table 6 -17.
S t e a m i n j e c t i o n h e a t i n g r e q u i r e s v e r y little e q u i p m e n t but
d i l u t e s t h e d i g e s t i n g s l u d g e a n d r e q u i r e s 1 0 0 p e r c e n t boiler
m a k e u p w a t e r. T h e c o s t o f t h i s w a t e r m a y b e considerable ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y if h a r d n e s s m u s t b e r e m o v e d b e f o r e a d d i t i o n t o
t h e boiler.
T h r e e t y p e s of external heat e x c h a n g e r s are commonly used for

s l u d g e heating : w a t e r bath , jacketed pipe , and spiral. In the
w a t e r bath exchanger , boiler t u b e s and s l u d g e piping are located
in a common w a t e r- filled container , Gravity circulation of hot
w a t e r a c r o s s t h e s l u d g e p i p e s is a u g m e n t e d with a p u m p , t o
6 -4 6
i n c r e a s e h e a t t r a n s f e r, The heat exchanger and boiler are
c o m b i n e d i n a s i n g l e u n i t , a f e a t u r e w h i c h c a n increase t h e
explosion hazard in the digester area, In a jacketed pipe
e x c h a n g e r , h o t w a t e r i s p u m p e d c o u n t e r- c u r r e n t t o t h e s l u d g e
f l o w, t h r o u g h a concentric p i p e s u r r o u n d i n g t h e s l u d g e p i p e , T h e
s p i r a l e x c h a n g e r i s a l s o a c o u n t e r- f l o w d e s i g n ; h o w e v e r , t h e
s l u d g e a n d w a t e r p a s s a g e w a y s a r e c a s t in a s p i r a l , O n e side o f
the heat exchanger is liquid , providing ready access to the
interior o f t h e s l u d g e p a s s a g e w a y f o r c l e a n i n g , H e a t t r a n s f e r
coefficients f o r d e s i g n o f e x t e r n a l h e a t e x c h a n g e r s r a n g e between
1 5 0 t o 2 7 5 B t u/h r/s q f t/d e g r e e F ( 7 4 0 t o 1,3 5 0 k g -c a l/h r/m 2/°c )
d e p e n d i n g o n h e a t e x c h a n g e r construction a n d fluid t u r b u l e n c e.
T o minimize c l o g g i n g w i t h r a g s a n d debris , s l u d g e p a s s a g e w a y s in
a h e a t e x c h a n g e r s h o u l d b e a s l a r g e a s p o s s i b l e , T h e interior o f
'
t h e s e p a s s a g e w a y s s h o u l d be e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e t o a l l o w t h e
operator to quickly locate and clear a blockage.
TABLE 6- 17
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS FOR HOT WATER

COILS IN ANAEROBIC DIGESTERS ( 84 )
Transfer
Material surrounding coefficient (u),
h o t water coils Btu/hr/sq ft/°F
Thin supernatant 60 - 80
Thin sludge 30
Thick sludge 8 - 15
1 B t u/h r/s q f t/°F = 4 . 9 k g -c a l/h r /rn ^/°C.
A piping arrangement used to control hot water supply to a

j a c k e t e d p i p e o r s p i r a l h e a t e x c h a n g e r is s h o w n o n F i g u r e 6-1 9.
H o t w a t e r is p u m p e d t h r o u g h t h e h e a t e x c h a n g e r a n d circulated
t h r o u g h t h e s e c o n d a r y h e a t l o o p. When the temperature of the
sludge leaving the heat exchanger falls below the set point,
s o m e h o t w a t e r f r o m t h e p r i m a r y h e a t l o o p is introduced t h r o u g h a
modulating valve into the secondary heat loop, displacing an
e q u a l v o l u m e o f c o o l e r w a t e r b a c k i n t o t h e p r i m a r y h e a t l o o p.
Balancing valves are required to assure that the secondary loop
will not be bypassed altogether and to allow adjustment of
c i r c u l a t i o n p u m p c a p a c i t y. S u p p l y w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e i s k e p t
b e l o w 1 5 5 ° F ( 6 8 °C ). A l t h o u g h h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s will increase
the rate of heat transfer, caking of sludge will occur when
t h e f l o w o f s l u d g e i s s t o p p e d. T h i s s y s t e m a l l o w s t h e h e a t
s o u r c e t o b e r e m o t e f r o m t h e h e a t e x c h a n g e r. T h i s a s s u r e s
maximum safety and supports the recovery of waste heat ( see
C h a p t e r 1 8 ). F i g u r e 6 -2 0 s h o w s a s p i r a l h e a t e x c h a n g e r o p e r a t i n g
o f f a s e c o n d a r y h e a t l o o p.
6 -4 7
Each digester should have a separate heat exchanger and in
larger plants , addition of a single heat exchanger for warming
raw sludge should be considered. Cold raw sludge should never be
added directly to the digester . The thermal shock will be
detrimental to the anaerobic bacteria , and isolated pockets of
cold sludge may form. Raw sludge should be preheated or mixed
with large quantities of warm circulating sludge before being fed
to the digester.
HEAT
SOURCE 200
PRIMARY LOOP
CIRCULATION PUMP
MODULATING VALVE SECONDARY LOOP

CIRCULATION PUMP
| I <
-- l
i
PRIMARY
HEAT
LOOP
t>o °
155 F
MAX . SLUDGE OUTLET
SECONDARY HEAT
HEAT EXCHANGER
BALANCING LOOP
VALVES
^
t SLUDGE INLET
r
7
FIGURE 6- 19
SCHEMATIC OF THE HEAT

RESERVOIR SYSTEM FOR A
JACKETED PIPE OR SPIRAL
HEAT EXCHANGER
Heat Sources
The hot water or steam used to heat digesters is most commonly
generated in a boiler fueled by sludge gas. Up to 80 percent of
the heat value of sludge gas can be recovered in a boiler.
Provisions for burning an alternate fuel source ( natural gas,
propane , or fuel oil ) must be included to maintain heating during
periods of low digester gas production or high heating demand.
-
6 48
Natural gas is the most compatible alternate fuel because it has
a low heat content and , consequently , can be blended and burned
in a boiler with minimal equipment adjustment.
FIGURE 6- 20
SPIRAL HEAT EXCHANGER OPERATING OFF
SECONDARY HEAT LOOP AT SUNNYVALE , CALIFORNIA
-
Often , waste heat from sludge gas powered engines used to
generate electricity or directly drive equipment is sufficient to
meet digester heating requirements. Typically , 18 to 20 percent
of the low heating value of engine fuel can be recovered from
the engine cooling system ( 38 ). Engines can be cooled by
either a forced draft system in which water is pumped through the
engine or a natural draft system ( termed ebullient cooling ) in
which water is vaporized and circulates without pumping , The
latter method yields a higher temperature ( and thus more useful )
source of heat and also increases engine life , A combination
-
exhaust silencer and heat recovery unit can be used to extract
from the exhaust an additional ten to thirteen percent of the low
-
6 49
heating v a l u e o f t h e e n g i n e f u e l ( 3 8 ). T o p r e v e n t formation o f
corrosive a c i d s , e x h a u s t g a s e s s h o u l d n o t b e c o o l e d b e l o w 4 0 0 ° F
( 2 0 0 ° C ).
Solar energy has been successfully used to heat anaerobic

d i g e s t e r s ( 1 4 2 ) , f r e e i n g s l u d g e g a s f o r h i g h e r g r a d e uses.
H e a t is transferred t o t h e r a w s l u d g e feed b y passing the sludge
piping t h r o u g h a t a n k o f s o l a r- heated w a t e r , T h e o p t i m a l size
s o l a r - h e a t i n g s y s t e m c a n s u p p l y 8 2 t o 9 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e total
annual h e a t load from s o l a r e n e r g y , d e p e n d i n g o n g e o g r a p h i c a l
l o c a t i o n ( 1 4 2 ). T h e e c o n o m i c a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f u s i n g s o l a r
heating for digesters, however, is strongly dependent on the
economic v a l u e o f t h e s l u d g e g a s saved .
A unique method of generating heat is to precede anaerobic
d i g e s t i o n with p u r e o x y g e n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n ( 1 4 3 ). B i o l o g i c a l l y
generated h e a t released in t h e \aerobic reactor is sufficient t o
warm t h e s l u d g e t o a s h i g h a s 1 2 5 t o 1 4 0 ° F ( 5 2 t o 6 0° C ) , a s long
as t h e solids concentration o f t h e feed t o the d i g e s t i o n s y s t e m
is k e p t a b o v e a b o u t 3 . 5 p e r c e n t and t h e t a n k is w e l l insulated.
Heat b a l a n c e calculations indicate that t h e s e t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e
o n l y attainable w h e n p u r e o x y g e n is u s e d b e c a u s e t h e l o w g a s f l o w
d o e s n o t c o o l t h e r e a c t o r ( 1 4 4 ). The w a r m s l u d g e i s t r a n s f e r r e d
to the anaerobic digester, where the bulk of stabilization
o c c u r s. I n p i l o t t e s t s ( 1 4 3 ) , t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e a n a e r o b i c
d i g e s t e r w e r e maintained at 9 5 ° F ( 35 °C ) without t h e a d d i t i o n o f
s u p p l e m e n t a l e n e r g y, o t h e r t h a n the p o w e r r e q u i r e d t o g e n e r a t e
t h e p u r e o x y g e n . T e m p e r a t u r e i s controlled b y c h a n g i n g t h e f l o w
o f o x y g e n t o t h e aerobic d i g e s t e r. As yet there have been no
full -s c a l e installations o f t h i s method o f h e a t i n g d i g e s t e r s.
H e a t R e q u i r e d f o r R a w S l u d g e. I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r a i s e t h e
t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e incoming s l u d g e s t r e a m , The amount of
heat r e q u i r e is:
d
Qs - ( gal of sludge
hr )( 8.34 lb
gal ) ( Cp ) ( T 2 - Ti ) ( 6 -3 )
w h e r e:
Qs = h e a t r e q u i r e d t o r a i s e i n c o m i n g s l u d g e s t r e a m f r o m
t e m p e r a t u r e Tg t o T 2 , B t u/h r
Cp = s p e c i f i c heat o f s l u d g e ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 . 0 B t u/l b/° F )
T = temperature of raw s l u d g e s t r e a m , ° F
^
T 2 = t e m p e r a t u r e desired w i t h i n t h e d i g e s t i o n t a n k , ° F
A s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 6-2 1 , t h e s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e r a w
s l u d g e h a s a d i r e c t i m p a c t o n t h e h e a t i n g r e q u i r e m e n t. T h e
6- 5 0
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f this g r a p h i s t h a t a s e e m i n g l y s m a l l c h a n g e
in f e e d s l u d g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a n h a v e a s u b s t a n t i a l e f f e c t
o n the r a w s l u d g e heating requirement.
60
- .
z %
IX
>
50
2o ~ 40
iu ' a a
cc 5 V
D Q ^
O 30
IU II
** .
li
h ffl 3
20
< -M
UJ G3
X
10
0 2 4 6 6 10
TOTAL SOLIDS CONCENTRATION, %
FIGURE 6- 21
EFFECT OF SOLIDS CONCENTRATION ON THE

RAW SLUDGE HEATING REQUIREMENT
Heat Required t o Make u p for Heat Losses , The a m o u n t of heat

lost t o t h e a i r and soil surrounding a d i g e s t e r d e p e n d s on t h e
t a n k s h a p e , construction materials , and the difference between
internal and external t e m p e r a t u r e s , T h e g e n e r a l expression for
h e a t flow through c o m p o u n d s t r u c t u r e s is :
Q = ( U ) ( A ) ( T2 - T3 ) -
(6 4)
where:
Q = h e a t- l o s s r a t e , B t u/h r
A area of material normal to direction of heat flow ,

s q ft
T 2 = t e m p e r a t u r e within t h e digestion t a n k , ° F
6 - 51
T 3 = temperature outside t h e digestion tank , ° F
U h e a t t r a n s f e r coefficient , B t u/ hr/ s q ft /° F , which
is directly affected by the film coefficient for
interior surface of tank, and the film coefficient for
exterior surface of t a n k , and inversely affected by the
thickness o f individual wall material , and the thermal
conductivity o f individual wall material.
Several other factors may affect the heat transfer coefficient U ;
however, they m a y be considered negligible for the purposes of
digester design . Further discussion o f heat transfer principles,
a l o n g with lists o f v a l u e s f o r film coefficients a n d t h e r m a l
conductivities, is available ( 8 4 , 145,146 ). Various values of U
for different d i g e s t e r c o v e r s , w a l l construction , a n d f l o o r
conditions are given in Table 6 -1 8.
TABLE 6- 18
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS FOR VARIOUS

ANAEROBIC DIGESTION TANK MATERIALS ( 147 )
Heat transfer coefficient (u),
Material °
Btu/hr/sq ft/ F
Fixed steel cover (1/4 in. plate) 0.91

Fixed concrete cover (9 in. thick ) 0.58
Floating cover (Downes-type with wood
composition roof) 0.33
Concrete wall (12 in. thick) exposed to air 0.86
Concrete wall (12 in. thick ) , 1 in. air
space and 4 in. brick 0.27
Concrete wall or floor (12 in. thick)
exposed to wet earth (10 ft thick) 0.11
Concrete wall or floor (12 in. thick
exposed to dry earth (10 ft thick ) 0.06
2
1 Btu/hr/sq ft/ F ° = -
4.9 kg cal/hr/m / C.
°
1 in. 2.54 cm
1 ft 0.304 m
H e a t l o s s e s c a n be r e d u c e d b y i n s u l a t i n g t h e cover a n d t h e
e x p o s e d w a l l s o f the d i g e s t e r . C o m m o n i n s u l a t i n g materials
a r e g l a s s w o o l , insulation b o a r d , u r e t h a n e f o a m , l i g h t w e i g h t
i n s u l a t i n g c o n c r e t e a n d dead air s p a c e. A f a c i n g i s p l a c e d
over t h e insulation for protection and t o improve aesthetics.
C o m m o n facing materials are brick, metal siding , s t u c c o, p r e c a s t
c o n c r e t e p a n e l s , and sprayed -o n mastic.
6.2 . 6.3 Mixing
Digester mixing is considered t o have the following beneficial

effects:
6- 5 2
Maintaining intimate contact between the active biomass
and t h e f e e d s l u d g e.
Creating physical , chemical , and biological uniformity

throughout t h e digester.
Rapidly dispersing metabolic end products produced

during digestion and any toxic materials entering
t h e s y s t e m, t h e r e b y m i n i m i z i n g t h e i r i n h i b i t i n g e f f e c t o n
microbial activity .
Preventing formation of a surface scum layer and the
deposition of suspended matter on the bottom of the
t a n k. Scum and grit accumulations adversely affect
digester performance by consuming active volume in
t h e t a n k.
While the benefits of digester mixing are widely accepted ,
c o n t r o v e r s y a n d c o n f u s i o n a r i s e in a t t e m p t i n g t o a n s w e r s u c h
q u e s t i o n s a s h o w m u c h mixing i s a d e q u a t e , a n d w h a t t h e m o s t
effective and efficient method is for mixing digesting sludge.
A l t h o u g h g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f s l u r r y m i x i n g is w e l l d e v e l o p e d
( 148 ,149 ), little r e s e a r c h has been focused o n mixing o f sludge .
Studies o f mixing i n f u l l-s c a l e d i g e s t e r s h a v e b e e n m a d e o f both
d y e ( 1 5 0 ) a n d radioactive ( 1 0 5,1 5 1 ) t r a c e r s , T h e s e and o t h e r
studies h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e d i g e s t e r a r e n o t
c o m p l e t e l y mixed a n d t h a t t h e d e g r e e of m i x i n g attained is
closely related to the total power actually delivered to the
contents o f t h e tank , irrespective of t h e actual mixing method
used.
A c e r t a i n a m o u n t o f n a t u r a l m i x i n g o c c u r s in a n anaerobic
digester, c a u s e d by both t h e rise of s l u d g e g a s bubbles and t h e
t h e r m a l convection c u r r e n t s created by t h e addition of heated
s l u d g e s. T h e effect o f natural mixing is significant ( 1 5 0 ,1 5 2 ) ,
particularly in digesters fed continuously and a t high loading
r a t e s . H o w e v e r , natural mixing does n o t maximize t h e benefits of
mixing and is insufficient t o ensure stable p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e
digestion process , Therefore, mixers a r e an essential c o m p o n e n t
in a high-r a t e digestion s y s t e m, Methods used f o r mixing include
e x t e r n a l p u m p e d c i r c u l a t i o n , i n t e r n a l mechanical m i x i n g , a n d
i n t e r n a l g a s m i x i n g , A r e v i e w o f d i g e s t e r m i x i n g m e t h o d s is
available ( 5 7 ).
External Pumped Circulation
P u m p e d c i r c u l a t i o n , w h i l e r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e , is l i m i t e d in a
physical sense because l a r g e flow r a t e s a r e n e c e s s a r y for high-
r a t e d i g e s t e r m i x i n g. H o w e v e r, t h i s m e t h o d c a n e f f e c t
substantial mixing , provided t h a t sufficient e n e r g y ( 0 . 2 t o 0 . 3
h p p e r thousand cu ft o f reactor ( 5 t o 8 W/m ) is dissipated in
t h e tank ( 7 5 ).
^
G r e a t e r p u m p p o w e r will b e required if piping
6-5 3
l o s s e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t. P u m p e d circulation is u s e d m o s t
a d v a n t a g e o u s l y in combination with other mixing s y s t e m s, Besides
augmenting agitation, circulation allows external e x c h a n g e r s t o
b e used f o r h e a t i n g t h e d i g e s t e r a n d uniform b l e n d i n g o f r a w
sludge with heated circulating s l u d g e prior t o the r a w sludge's
entering t h e digester.
A p u m p e d circulation mixing s y s t e m was r e c e n t l y installed in an

8 0-foot ( 24 m ) diameter , fixed cover anaerobic digester at the
Las V e g a s Street Plant in Colorado Springs. Sludge is withdrawn
f r o m t h e t o p - c e n t e r of t h e t a n k and p u m p e d w i t h a 1 6 - inch
( 4 1 c m ) horizontal , s o l i d s h a n d l i n g c e n t r i f u g a l p u m p t o t w o
d i s c h a r g e n o z z l e s. T h e s e n o z z l e s a r e l o c a t e d a t t h e b a s e o f
t h e s i d e w a l l , o n o p p o s i t e s i d e s o f t h e t a n k , a n d direct t h e
s l u d g e f l o w tangentially , inducing a n u p w a r d spiral motion in the
t a n k . R e t u r n f l o w f r o m t h e p u m p c a n b e directed t o a s i n g l e
scum- breaker nozzle mounted near the liquid surface. The p u m p
c a p a c i t y i s r a t e d a t 6 , 8 0 0 g a l l o n s p e r minute ( 4 2 9 1 / s ) a t
2 1 f e e t t o t a l d y n a m i c head ( 6 . 4 m ) and is sufficient t o p u m p
the entire digester contents in 3 . 5 hours. The new mixing s y s t e m
h a s s u c c e s s f u l l y e l i m i n a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e stratification and
scum b u i l d u p. Another t y p e o f p u m p e d circulation s y s t e m using
sequential pumping t h r o u g h multiple pipes s t r a p p e d t o t h e floor
o f the digester is described in Reference 1 5 3.
Internal Mechanical Mixing
Mixing by means of p r o p e l l e r s, flat - bladed turbines, or similar

d e v i c e s is w i d e l y p r a c t i c e d i n t h e p r o c e s s i n d u s t r i e s , I t s
u s e f u l n e s s , w h e n a p p l i e d t o w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e d i g e s t e r s , is
limited b y t h e n a t u r e of non- h o m o g e n e o u s w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e , T h e
l a r g e a m o u n t s of r a g g y and relatively inert , nonfluid material in
w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e r e s u l t s in f o u l i n g o f the p r o p e l l e r s a n d
subsequent failure of the mechanisms. The practice o f grinding
s c r e e n i n g s within the w a s t e w a t e r flow will accelerate ragging.
Mechanical mixers can be installed through the cover or

w a l l s o f t h e t a n k . In o n e d e s i g n , a p r o p e l l e r d r i v e s s l u d g e
through a draft tube to promote vertical mixing , Wall
installations restrict maintenance a n d r e p a i r t o the time
w h e n the d i g e s t e r h a s b e e n e m p t i e d ( u s u a l l y e v e r y t h r e e t o
five y e a r s in w e l l maintained p l a n t s ) , S t r o n g mechanical
m i x i n g c a n b e e f f e c t e d w i t h a b o u t 0 . 2 5 h p/ t h o u s a n d c u b i c
feet of reactor ( 6 . 6 W/ m ) ( 7 5 ).
^
Internal G a s Mixing
Several variations of g a s mixing have b e e n used for digesters,
including :
• T h e injection of a large s l u d g e g a s bubble at the bottom

o f a 1 2- i n c h ( 3 0 c m ) d i a m e t e r t u b e t o c r e a t e p i s t o n
pumping action and periodic surface agitation.
6- 5 4
The injection of sludge gas sequentially through a series
of lances suspended from the digester cover to as great a
depth as possible, depending on cover travel .
The free or unconfined release of gas from a ring of
spargers mounted on the floor of the digester .
The confined release of gas within a draft tube
positioned inside the tank .
The f i r s t method generally has a low power requirement, and
consequently , produces only a low level of mixing . As a r e s u l t ,
the major benefit derived from i t s use i s in scum control . Lance
free gas l i f t , and draft tube gas mixing , however, can be
scaled t o induce strong mixing of the digester contents . The
circulation patterns produced by these two mixing methods differ .
As shown on F i g u r e 6-22 i n t h e f r e e g a s l i f t system , t h e g a s
b u b b l e v e l o c i t y a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e t a n k i s z e r o, a c c e l e r a t i n g
t o a maximum a s t h e bubble reaches the l i q u i d surface .Since the
pumping action of the gas i s directly related t o the velocity of
the bubble, there i s no pumping from the bottom of the tank with
a free gas l i f t system . I n c o n t r a s t, a d r a f t tube a c t s a s a gas
l i f t pump which, by the law of continuity , causes the flow of
sludge entering the bottom of the d r a f t tube t o be the same as
that exiting at the top . Thus , the pumping rate i s largely
i n d e p e n d e n t o f h e i g h t , a s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 6 -2 3. The significance
of this difference is that draft tube mixers induce bottom
currents to prevent or at least reduce accumulations of settle -
able material . Ve locity p r o f i l e s shown on Figure 6 24 ( see -
page 6-58 ) i n d i c a t e t h a t l a n c e t y p e m i x e r s induce comparable
bottom velocities . Another difference among internal gas mixing
systems is that the gas injection devices in a free gas l i f t
system are fixed on the bottom of the digester and thus cannot be
removed for cleaning without draining the tank , To reduce
clogging problems , provisions should be made for flushing the gas
lines and diffusers with high pressure water, With the lance and
draft tube systems , the gas diffusers are inserted from the roof
and, therefore, can be withdrawn for cleaning without removing
the contents of the tank . A drawback of these systems , though ,
is that the d r a f t t u b e a n d gas lines suspended inside the tank
may f o u l with rags and d e b r i s contained i n t h e d i g e s t i n g sludge .
Basis for Sizing Gas Lift Mixers . Three basic criteria have been
u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s i z e o f g a s l i f t m i x i n g s y s t e m s:
• Unit power ( power per unit volume )
• Velocity gradient (G value)
• Unit gas flow ( gas flow per unit volume )

Each of these c r i t e r i a i s interrelated so that one can be
calculated from the other once a few assumptions are made about
gas discharge pressure and sludge viscosity The s i z e of new .
-
6 55
N 7
\ /
1
•i ,
, i
t
11 .
i
11 ' 1
!
POINT OF
GAS INJECTION
DRAFT TUBE MIXER
POINTS OF
GAS INJECTION
FREE GAS LIFT MIXER
FIGURE 6- 22
CIRCULATION PATTERNS PRODUCED BY DRAFT

TUBE AND FREE CAS LIFT MIXERS
6-5 6
m i x i n g s y s t e m s h a s t e n d e d t o i n c r e a s e in r e c e n t y e a r s a s t h e
i m p o r t a n c e o f s t r o n g m i x i n g in anaerobic d i g e s t e r s h a s become
more w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d , H o w e v e r , oversizing o f mixing s y s t e m s
n o t o n l y r e s u l t s in excess e q u i p m e n t a n d o p e r a t i n g c o s t s b u t a l s o
m a y a g g r a v a t e foaming p r o b l e m s.
S
O LIQUID SURFACE
A .
o
CD
<
st
O
m
FREE GAS
LIFT
DRAFT TUBE
<
h
I
LU
PUMPING RATE
FIGURE 6- 23
DRAFT TUBE AND FREE GAS LIFT PUMPING RATE
Unit P o w e r. T h e use o f t h e unit p o w e r criterion s t e m s from t h e

observation t h a t t h e relative effectiveness o f mixing is c l o s e l y
r e l a t e d t o t h e t o t a l p o w e r e x p e n d e d ( 1 3 7, 1 5 2 ). G e n e r a l l y , s t r o n g
m i x i n g c a n b e a c h i e v e d if 0 . 2 t o 0 . 3 h p i s u s e d t o mix e a c h
t h o u s a n d c u b i c f e e t ( 5 t o 8 W/m 3 ) o f d i g e s t e r v o l u m e , T h e u n i t
p o w e r criterion is e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f t h e m o t o r h o r s e p o w e r
used t o drive t h e c o m p r e s s o r , L e s s p o w e r is a c t u a l l y delivered
t o t h e l i q u i d b e c a u s e o f l o s s e s in t h e m i x i n g s y s t e m ( f o r
e x a m p l e, friction l o s s e s, c o m p r e s s o r i n e f f i c i e n c y ).
V e l o c i t y Gradient , C a m p a n d S t e i n ( 1 5 4 ) h a v e s u g g e s t e d use o f
t h e r o o t - m e a n- s q u a r e v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t ( G ) a s a m e a s u r e o f
mixing i n t e n s i t y e x p r e s s e d m a t h e m a t i c a l l y:
G ( 6- 5 )
w h e r e:
f t/s e c
G = r o o t- mean- s q u a r e v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t , ft s e c-1
6-5 7
W = power dissipated per unit volume
ft -l b f o r c e/s e c
cu f t = l b f /s q f t/s e c
E
W ( 6 -6 )
V
w h e r e:
E r a t e o f w o r k o n e n e r g y t r a n s f e r ( p o w e r ) , f t -l b f / s e c , a n d
V v o l u m e o f r e a c t o r, c u f t
absolute viscosity of the liquid, l b f -s e c / s q ft
The velocity gradient i s a more refined design criterion for

mixing than the unit power criterion in that i t takes into
account the power actually transferred to the liquid ( E ) ,
and the viscosity of the liquid ( )
_ Determination of these . _
man
- —
u a. l n p f i
a
For
. ui
—
n r *• r v mi
—
l i f fr m i Y I n n i n H i n p c f p r c i c H p c r r i h p- H h ^ 1- n u r
' *
j w iwr w rfc mm -m m mm, m m mm m -m vi j
—
r r mr w B& par iw **w iwr nr mat mm iur u? ui u 1
m
—
n r nr w
0 0
a
E
_ «•
o
d 7
ii
10 h FROM 20 ft FROM t
AIR SOURCE AIR SOURCE 10 30 ft
£ AIR SOURCE
x
K A
CX-
LU * P
Q \ is'
20 * 1.0
bn
0.5
VELOCITY , fps ( Ifps = 0.30m /sec )
MIXER TYPE DEPTH OF AIR RELEASE , ft ( m )
A LAMCE 17.0 ( 5.1 )

• LANCE 9.5 ( 2.9 )
-O—— - — DRAFT
O 12.5 ( 3.8 )
DEPTH OF TANK = 20 ft (6.1m )

AIR FLOW RATE = 300 scfm ( 8.5 m /min ) ^
FIGURE 6- 24
COMPARISON OF LANCE AND DRAFT TUBE

MIXING IN CLEAN WATER ( 147 )
6 58 -
W h e n g a s is d i s c h a r g e d i n t o a d i g e s t e r , l i q u i d f l o w r e s u l t s
from the transfer of energy from the gas to the liquid as
the gas isothermally expands and rises to the surface , If
the liquid vapor pressure and the kinetic energy of the gas
are ignored , t h e p o w e r transferred f r o m t h e g a s t o the l i q u i d m a y
be e x p r e s s e d a s ( 1 5 5 ):
E = 2 . 4 0 P1 ( Q ) l n ( 6 -7 )
w h e r e:
E = r a t e o f w o r k o r e n e r g y t r a n s f e r ( p o w e r ) , f t -lbf/s e c
Q = gas flow, cfm
P j = a b s o l u t e p r e s s u r e a t t h e l i q u i d s u r f a c e, p s i
P 2 = a b s o l u t e p r e s s u r e a t t h e d e p t h o f g a s i n j e c t i o n, p s i
T h e r e f o r e, g i v e n a g a s f l o w t h r o u g h a m i x e r s y s t e m a n d t h e
d e p t h o f t h e d i f f u s e r , E q u a t i o n 6 -7 c a n b e u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e
t h e p o w e r t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e d i g e s t e r l i q u i d ( E ). T h e p o w e r
dissipated per unit volume ( W ) can then be calculated by
d i v i d i n g t h e r a t e of e n e r g y transfer ( E ) b y t h e v o l u m e o f t h e
d i g e s t e r ( V ).
T h e r e i s little information o n t h e r h e o l o g y ( f l o w p r o p e r t i e s )
o f unstabilized w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s a l t h o u g h some d a t a d o e s exist
o n t h e r h e o l o g y o f a n a e r o b i c a l l y d i g e s t e d s l u d g e ( 156 , 1 5 7 ). T h i s
is p a r t l y because it is e x t r e m e l y difficult t o d o s u c h studies
c o r r e c t l y ( 1 5 8 ). I n g e n e r a l , d i g e s t i n g s l u d g e s e e m s t o b e a
pseudoplastic material exhibiting only slight thixotropic
p r o p e r t i e s ( 1 5 6 ). P s e u d o p l a s t i c l i q u i d s b e c o m e l e s s viscous a t
higher s h e a r i n g r a t e s , T h i x o t r o p i c l i q u i d s b e c o m e l e s s viscous
with time a t a c o n s t a n t s h a r i n g r a t e , C h a p t e r 1 4 h a s additional
information o n s l u d g e r h e o l o g y.
Three p a r a m e t e r s — t e m p e r a t u r e , solids concentration , a n d volatile
c o n t e n t a p p e a r t o affect s l u d g e v i s c o s i t y . A s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f
s l u d g e i s increased , its v i s c o s i t y i s r e d u c e d . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between temperature and viscosity for water is presented on
F i g u r e 6 -2 5. ( A similar r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t e m p e r a t u r e a n d
s l u d g e v i s c o s i t y e x i s t s, a l t h o u g h this h a s n o t b e e n d o c u m e n t e d.)
T h e v i s c o s i t y o f s l u d g e increases e x p o n e n t i a l l y a s t h e solids
concentration increases ( 1 5 9 ), a s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 6 - 2 6. This
graph also shows that viscosity increases with the volatile
c o n t e n t o f t h e s l u d g e ; h o w e v e r , t h e e f f e c t is o n l y noticeable
w h e n t h e solids c o n t e n t of t h e d i g e s t i n g s l u d g e i s g r e a t e r t h a n
t h r e e p e r c e n t. T h e e n t r a p m e n t o f g a s b u b b l e s in d i g e s t i n g s l u d g e
m a y a l s o a f f e c t v i s c o s i t y , a l t h o u g h t h e m a g n i t u d e o f this effect
6 -5 9
has not been measured .
I n g e n e r a l , t h e n , it is n o t p o s s i b l e
to pinpoint the viscosity of digesting sludge although major
influences can be identified.
4.0
3.0
a.
t)o
V ^
O X
«C zo
> ST
PH
D U-
“
8
cd
< 1.0
1
50 70 90 110 130 150
TEMPERATURE, oF
( 1 centipoise = 2.08 x 10 5 Ib- sec / ft 2 )
FIGURE 6- 25
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE VISCOSITY OF WATER
T h e a p p r o p r i a t e " G v a l u e " t o use f o r d e s i g n is d i f f i c u l t t o

determine. In g e n e r a l , the " G value " should be between 50 and
80 sec-l. Walker ( 7 5 ) recommends a " G value " o f 8 5 sec “l for
substantial a u x i l i a r y mixing . A design value a t the high end
o f the r a n g e should be selected f o r a large digester with o n l y a
single mixer , or in a case w h e r e grit o r scum p r o b l e m s appear
likely. A lower " G value " is appropriate in cases where several
m i x e r s a r e distributed t h r o u g h t h e t a n k o r w h e r e s u f f i c i e n t
detention time has been provided to allow a slower rate of
6-6 0
2000
AC J
1750 o
fs
cc
MEASUREMENTS MADE Uj
O
n_ 1500 WITH BROOKFIELD it 0
<*o
LVF VISCOMETER - £
SPINDLE 2 a
E AT
CL 1250
o
O-
0>
V
50
(“
<
> 1000
H
t/J
o
o
co
> 750
H
LU
EE
<
CL
CL 500
<
250
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
TOTAL SOLIDS , %
3
THE BROOKFIELD VISCOMETER OPERATES IN A VERY
LOW SHEAR STRESS RANGE, SO APPARENT VISCOSITIES
ARE VERY HIGH. THIS DATA SHOULD NOT BE USED TO
CALCULATE SLUDGE FLOW IN PIPES IN THE LAMINAR
FLOW REGIME.
FIGURE 6- 26
EFFECT OF SOLIDS CONCENTRATION AND VOLATILE

CONTENT ON THE VISCOSITY OF DIGESTING SLUDGE ( 156 )
6 -61
d i g e s t i o n. T h e u s e o f a t w o-s p e e d c o m p r e s s o r p r o v i d e s t h e
c a p a b i l i t y t o m a t c h m i x i n g intensity with variations in o p e r a t i n g
c o n d i t i o n s.
A n e x a m p l e o f g a s mixer s i z i n g is f o u n d in S e c t i o n 6 . 2.9 . 3.
U n i t G a s F l o w. A s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h s, g a s
flow through a mixing system can be related to the mixing energy
d e l i v e r e d t o t h e l i q u i d . T h e r e f o r e, a s i m p l e w a y t o s i z e a
g a s lift mixer is t o specify a u n i t g a s f l o w , F o r a d r a f t-t u b e
s y s t e m , 5 t o 7 s c f m /t h o u s a n d c u b i c f o o t o f d i g e s t e r ( 5 t o
7 m 2 / m i n /k m 2 ) a t a b o u t 6 p s i g ( 4 1 . 4 k N / m 2 ) i s s u f f i c i e n t t o
p r o d u c e s t r o n g m i x i n g . L e s s g a s i s r e q u i r e d f o r a f r e e- l i f t
s y s t e m , 4.5 t o 5 c f m p e r t h o u s a n d cubic f e e t ( 4 . 5 t o 5 m 2/m i n/
k m 2 ) o f r e a c t o r ; h o w e v e r , t h e p r e s s u r e m u s t be h i g h e r s i n c e t h e
g a s is d i s c h a r g e d a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e t a n k ( 7 5 ). 1.5 to
2 . 0 cfm per foot ( 0 . 1 4 to 0 . 1 9 m 2/min/m ) of diameter ( 0 . 1 4 to
0 . 1 9 mVmin/m ) has also been recommended for free gas lift
mixers ( 1 3 7 ).
The unit gas flow can be related to the velocity gradient by
c o m b i n i n g e q u a t i o n s 6 - 5 , 6 -6 a n d 6 -7 a n d s o l v i n g f o r ' t h e
unit g a s f l o w:
_
V
^
Q G 2M
V
In
-
(6 8 )
T h e v a l u e s in T a b l e 6 -1 9 w e r e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h i s e q u a t i o n.
6.2.6.4 Covers
Anaerobic s l u d g e d i g e s t i o n t a n k s a r e c o v e r e d t o contain o d o r s,
m a i n t a i n o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e, k e e p o u t o x y g e n, a n d c o l l e c t
d i g e s t e r g a s. Digester covers can be classified as either
f i x e d o r f l o a t i n g. Cross sections of both types are shown on
F i g u r e 6 - 2 7. Floating covers are more expensive but allow
i n d e p e n d e n t a d d i t i o n s a n d w i t h d r a w a l s o f s l u d g e, r e d u c e g a s
h a z a r d s , a n d c a n b e d e s i g n e d t o c o n t r o l formation o f a s c u m- m a t.
Fixed d i g e s t e r c o v e r s are fabricated f r o m steel, reinforced

c o n c r e t e a n d , since t h e mid -1 9 7 0 s , corrosion- p r o o f f i b e r g l a s s
r e i n f o r c e d p o l y e s t e r ( F R P ). I n m o s t c a s e s , f i x e d c o v e r s a r e
d o m e -s h a p e d , a l t h o u g h conical a n d f l a t c o n c r e t e c o v e r s h a v e b e e n
b u i l t. C o n c r e t e r o o f s a r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o c r a c k i n g c a u s e d b y
r a p i d t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e s. C o n s e q u e n t l y , g a s l e a k a g e h a s b e e n a
f r e q u e n t p r o b l e m w i t h reinforced c o n c r e t e c o v e r s ( 7 5 ).
G e n e r a l l y , fixed -cover d i g e s t e r s are o p e r a t e d s o a s t o maintain a

c o n s t a n t w a t e r s u r f a c e l e v e l in t h e t a n k , Rapid withdrawals of
d i g e s t e d s l u d g e ( w i t h o u t c o m p e n s a t i n g additions o f r a w s l u d g e )
6-6 2
can draw air into the tank , producing an explosive mixture of
sludge g a s and oxygen. The explosive range of sludge g a s in air
is 5 t o 2 0 p e r c e n t by volume ( 5 2 ). In addition , there have
been cases in which the liquid level under the fixed cover
has been allowed to increase sufficiently to damage the cover
structurally. Usually , this involves a tightly clogged overflow
system and a forgotten feed valve.
TABLE 6- 19
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE VELOCITY GRADIENT

AND UNIT CAS FLOW
G Q/V
Velocity gradient , Unit gas flowa ,
sec l “
cfm/1 , 000 cu ft
40 2.1
50 3.3
60 4.4
70 6.4
aCalculated assuming depth of gas release

is 13 ft and that absolute viscosity of
sludge is the same as for water at 95 F. °
1 cfm/1, 000 cu ft = 1 m 3/min/1 , 000 m3
Traditionally , floating covers have followed one of two designs:

the p o n t o o n or Wiggins type and the D o w n e s type ( Figure 6-27 ).
Both types of covers float directly on the liquid and commonly
have a maximum vertical travel of 6 to 8 feet ( 2 t o 3 m ). These
cover designs differ primarily in the method used t o maintain
buoyancy , which , in turn , determines the degree of submergence.
In the Wiggins design, the bottom of the cover s l o p e s steeply
a l o n g t h e o u t e r e d g e . This o u t e r portion of t h e cover f o r m s
a n annular p o n t o o n or float that r e s u l t s in a l a r g e l i q u i d
displacement for a small d e g r e e of cover - plate s u b m e r g e n c e.
Therefore , Wiggins covers have o n l y a portion of the annular area
submerged , with the largest portion of the cover exposed t o the
gas above the liquid surface. However , for the Downes design , as
shown o n Figure 6 -27, the bottom of the cover s l o p e s gradually
t h r o u g h o u t the entire radius , t h e r e b y p r o v i d i n g o n l y a s m a l l
liquid d i s p l a c e m e n t for a g r e a t e r d e g r e e of c e i l i n g p l a t e
submergence. Typically, the outer one-third of the radius of the
D o w n e s cover is in c o n t a c t with the l i q u i d . H o w e v e r , it is
desirable t o increase the degree of submergence by adding ballast
to the cover , thus keeping the liquid level a few inches within
6 -6 3
the c e n t r a l gas dome .
This keeps floating matter submerged and
subject to mixing action, reduces the area exposed to corrosive
sludge gas , and adds to cover stability , The fundamental
principle used to calculate ballast requirements i s that at
equilibrium , a floating cover displaces a volume of liquid equal
in weight to the total weight of the cover Ballast can be added .
as concrete blocks or as a layer of concrete spread across the
upper surface of the cover .
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DOMED
FIXED COVERS
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WIGGINS TYPE DOWNES TYPE GAS HOLDER
FLOATING COVERS
FIGURE 6- 27
TYPES OF DIGESTER COVERS
A variation of the floating cover i s the floating gas holder ,

shown on Figure 6 27 - .
Basically , a gas holder is a floating
c o v e r w i t h a n e x t e n d e d s k i r t ( u p t o 1 0 f e e t [ 3 m] h i g h ) t o a l l o w
storage of gas during periods when gas production exceeds demand .
However , s t o r a g e pressure in a gas holder i s low a maximum of --
1 5 i n c h e s w a t e r c o l u m n ( 3 . 7 kN/ m 2 ) Therefore , this type of .
cover will store up to three to six hours of gas production,
based on about six feet ( 2 m) of net travel Greater storage is .
achieved by compressing the gas for high pressure storage in
spheres or horizontal cylinders, or by providing a separate low
pressure displacement storage tank .
6-6 4
Gas-holding covers are less stable than conventional floating
covers b e c a u s e t h e y are s u p p o r t e d e n t i r e l y b y a cushion of
compressible gas rather than incompressible liquid and because
they expose a large side area t o lateral wind loads , T o prevent
tipping or binding , ballast at the bottom of the extended skirt
and spiral guides must be provided.
T y p i c a l a p p u r t e n a n c e s for a d i g e s t e r cover include s a m p l i n g
p o r t s ; m a n h o l e s for access , ventilation , and d e b r i s removal
during cleaning ; a liquid overflow s y s t e m ; and a vacuum - pressure
relief s y s t e m equipped with a flame t r a p , T h e permissible
range of gas pressure under a digester cover is typically 0 to
1 5 inches of water ( 0 t o 3.7 kN/m ) ^. Figure 6 - 28 provides an
o v e r v i e w o f f o u r f l o a t i n g c o v e r e d d i g e s t e r s with a p p u r t e n a n t
equipment.
-
. v. v ,
FIGURE 6- 28
OVERALL VIEW OF FOUR DIGESTERS WITH DOWNES

FLOATING COVERS AT SUNNYVALE , CALIFORNIA
6 -6 5
6.2 . 6.5 Piping
T h e piping s y s t e m for a n anaerobic d i g e s t e r is a n important
c o m p o n e n t of the design. M a n y activities t a k e p l a c e during
the operation of a digester: feeding of raw sludge, circulation
of s l u d g e t h r o u g h the heat exchanger , withdrawal of digested
sludge and supernatant , and collection of sludge gas. The piping
s y s t e m s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d t o allow these activities t o occur
c o n c u r r e n t l y , y e t independently . F l e x i b i l i t y should also be
built into the piping system t o allow operation in a variety of
modes and to ensure that digestion can be continued in the event
of equipment breakdown or pipe clogging.
Feeding of incoming s l u d g e into anaerobic digesters can be

automated to load the tanks frequently and uniformly. Switching
feeds between several tanks can be controlled based on either
time , hydraulic flow , or solids flow. A time- controlled feed
s y s t e m uses a r e p e a t - c y c l e timer t o sequentially o p e n and
close t h e feed valve f o r each d i g e s t e r . Switching between
digesters can occur e v e r y t h i r t y minutes t o four h o u r s. A
flow-controlled feed system uses a flowmeter on the raw sludge
pipeline , in combination with a totalizer, t o load preset volumes
to each digester. These may or m a y not be equal depending on the
individual characteristics of each digester . A feed control
system based on solids flow requires the measurement of both raw
sludge flow and density. Since density is correlated with the
concentration of solids in s l u d g e , t h e s e t w o signals can be
combined to yield a measure of t h e solids mass being fed to the
digesters. Selection of flowmeters and density meters for sludge
is discussed in Chapter 17.
Raw s l u d g e s h o u l d e n t e r t h e digester in t h e z o n e of intense
mixing t o d i s p e r s e the undigested o r g a n i c s quickly , Raw
sludge , before entering the digester , should be mixed with warm
circulating sludge t o seed the incoming sludge and avoid thermal
shock. The introduction of cold feed sludge into regions where
there is no local mixing results in the feed sludge sinking to
the digester bottom and becoming an isolated mass.
Digested s l u d g e is u s u a l l y d r a w n o f f t h e b o t t o m of t h e tank ,
a l t h o u g h m e a n s t o withdraw s l u d g e from at least o n e o t h e r
point should be provided in case the main line becomes plugged .
A s u p e r n a t a n t collection s y s t e m , when r e q u i r e d , s h o u l d have
drawoff points at three or more elevations to allow the operator
t o remove the clearest supernatant. An example of a supernatant
collection system is shown on Figure 6-29. The telescopic valve
is used t o adjust the water surface level in the digester. An
unvalved overflow with a vent as a .siphon breaker is provided t o
ensure that the tank cannot be overfilled .
S p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d be g i v e n in t h e d e s i g n o f
sludge- piping s y s t e m s t o p r e v e n t the deposition of grease and
clogging with debris. S l u d g e piping g e n e r a l l y h a s a minimum
diameter of 6 inches ( 1 5 0 mm ) , except for pump discharge lines
6-66
in s m a l l p l a n t s , where four - inch ( 100 mm ) diameter p i p e s m a y
be acceptable. Where possible, considering these minimum pipe
size recommendations , velocities in s l u d g e pipelines should
b e maintained a b o v e four feet per s e c o n d ( 1 . 2 m / s e c ) t o k e e p
sludge solids in suspension. The hydraulics of sludge piping is
described in detail elsewhere ( 8 4 , 160 ). Glass lining of cast
iron and steel pipe will p r e v e n t the buildup of grease and is
recommended for all pipes conveying scum and raw sludge. The
grease content of sludge is typically reduced by 50 percent or
more during digestion , s o that glass lining is not warranted for
pipes carrying digested or circulating sludge. Sludge piping is
generally kept as short as practicable, with a minimum number of
bends . L o n g radius elbows and s w e e p t e e s are p r e f e r r e d f o r
changes in direction. Provisions are commonly made for cleaning
s l u d g e lines with s t e a m , high p r e s s u r e water , o r mechanical
devices. These provisions should include blind flanges, flushing
cocks, and accommodation for thermal expansion.
A problem unique t o anaerobic digestion s y s t e m s is the buildup of
crystalline inorganic phosphate deposits on the interior walls of
the tank and downstream piping . This encrustation will increase
pipeline friction, displace volume in the digestion tank , and
foul d o w n s t r e a m mechanical equipment ( 1 0 2 ). This chemical
scale h a s formed not only in digested sludge lines , but also o n
mechanical aerators for facultative sludge lagoons and in pipes
c a r r y i n g either d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t o r fi 1 t r a t e / centrate .
Laboratory analyses have identified this material as magnesium
ammonium p h o s p h a t e ( M g N H 4 PC> 4 • 6 H 2 O ) , more c o m m o n l y k n o w n
a s g u a n i t e or struvite. It h a s a s p e c i f i c gravity o f 1 . 7 ,
d e c o m p o s e s when h e a t e d , and is r e a d i l y s o l u b l e o n l y in acid
solutions. Methods successfully used t o prevent this buildup
include ( 161 ):
Aerobic digestion of the sludge stream with the highest

phosphate content
Dilution of d i g e s t e d s l u d g e f l o w s t o p r e v e n t s u p e r -
saturation and t o raise pipeline velocities
Limiting magnesium ion concentration in the stream
Substitution of PVC pipe for cast- iron pipe t o reduce

interior roughness
6.2.6.6 Cleaning
Anaerobic d i g e s t i o n t a n k s can b e c o m e p a r t i a l l y filled with a

bottom layer of settled grit and a top layer of floating scum .
T h e s e accumulations reduce t h e v o l u m e available f o r active
digestion and thereby degrade the performance of the digesters.
P e r i o d i c a l l y , the digestion tank m u s t be drained and t h e s e
6 -6 7
deposits removed
unpleasant . . This cleaning process i s usually expensive and
Furthermore , i t can disrupt normal processing of
sludge f o r as long as several months .
Therefore , attention
should be given during design to ( 1) reducing the rate at which
g r i t and scum can accumulate , and ( 2 ) making i t easy t o clean the
digester when i t becomes necessary .
TOP OF DIGESTER
VENT
*1
I SUPERNATANT
.1 COLLECTION BOX
. TELESCOPIC VALVE
X7
.
MAX, W S, ELEVATION
DIGESTER
a
OVERFLOW t
fJ
4
GROUT
r
•a
MIN, W.S. ELEVATION
0 77?*
c,
|
C
T
.*
r
>* t
r# n
SUPERNATANT
DRAWOFF PORTS
l
i
\ \
— —
L 1J C3 C3 C~1
* w
/*
- * ** -y
^ A *• - >
TO PLANT HEADWORKS «3 mu
TO SECONDARY DIGESTER,
HEADWORKS OR SUPERNATANT .
TREATMENT
FIGURE 6- 29
TYPICAL DIGESTER SUPERNATANT COLLECTION SYSTEM
-
6 68
Prevention o f Grit and Scum B u i l d u p
T h e m o s t sensible a p p r o a c h t o minimizing digester cleaning is t o
p r e v e n t g r i t a n d scum from e n t e r i n g t h e s y s t e m . T h i s can be
accomplished through effective g r i t removal in the headworks o f
the p l a n t coupled with s e p a r a t e processing o f scum ( for e x a m p l e,
incineration or hauling t o a rendering p l a n t ). A second mitiga-
tion m e a s u r e , w h i c h is a l m o s t a s effective , is t o maintain a
h o m o g e n e o u s mixture within the digester so t h a t the grit and scum
c a n n o t s e p a r a t e o u t. This is best achieved by strong mixing and
positive s u b m e r g e n c e of the liquid surface under a floating cover
( refer t o t h e preceding sections o n mixers and covers ).
Provisions can also be made t o remove grit and scum easily from
the digester while normal digestion continues. Grit removal from
the digester can b e improved by providing multiple withdrawal
p o i n t s , o r s t e e p f l o o r s l o p e s ( a s in a w a f f l e b o t t o m o r
egg -s h a p e d digester ). An access hatch in the digester cover, o r
pipes e x t e n d i n g into t h e u p p e r levels of t h e digesting s l u d g e ,
can be used t o remove floating material in the tank before it
f o r m s a m a t . S t r o n g mixing in t h e t a n k will c a r r y f l o a t i n g
material down into the zone of active digestion , where it will be
b r o k e n d o w n . O t h e r m e t h o d s o f s c u m c o n t r o l in d i g e s t e r s a r e
described in References 4 1 and 1 6 2.
Facilities for Digester Cleaning
T r a d i t i o n a l l y , d i g e s t e r c l e a n i n g h a s b e e n a difficult , d i r t y
task. A s a result , it is often p o s t p o n e d until tank capacity is
severely reduced , C l e a n i n g t h e n b e c o m e s e v e n more o n e r o u s
because o f t h e increased u r g e n c y and s c o p e of the operation. If
a digester can be cleaned easily , it is much more likely that it
will be cleaned r e g u l a r l y.
T o e n s u r e t h a t t h e d i g e s t e r s c a n b e e a s i l y c l e a n e d , it is
important for the designer t o consider t h e following questions:
• W h a t will be d o n e with t h e r a w s l u d g e w h i l e t h e t a n k
i s o u t o f service ? T y p i c a l l y , r a w s l u d g e f l o w Ts
distributed t o t h e remaining t a n k s a s l o n g as t h e r e
i s a d e q u a t e c a p a c i t y. T h e p r o b l e m , h o w e v e r , b e c o m e s
m u c h more s e r i o u s in a p l a n t with o n l y o n e d i g e s t e r.
P o s s i b l y , a t e m p o r a r y aerobic digester o r a n anaerobic
l a g o o n can b e devised , a l t h o u g h o d o r s m a y be a problem
with the latter. Lime m a y b e added t o the raw s l u d g e t o
disinfect it and control odors ( see Section 6 . 4 ) .
How will the tank be drained ? There is a risk of
explosion during the period in which the t a n k is being
emptied , making it important t o speed this s t e p in the
cleaning p r o c e s s. Addition of a s e p a r a t e digester drain
p u m p in t h e S u n n y v a l e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t in California
a l l o w s each tank t o be emptied in less than t w o d a y s. A s
s h o w n o n Figure 6 - 3 0 , t h e intake o f the drain p u m p is
6 -6 9
**»!»*»* :
located below the low point on the digester floor , from

where the pump draws. As a result , the pump also serves
t o remove the slurry of grit and washwater rapidly. The
volume of washwater required has been greatly reduced by
the addition of the drain pump. Four to 5 feet ( 1.2 t o
1.5 m ) of sand o n the bottom can be w a s h e d from the
tank with washwater amounting t o less than a quarter of
the total tank volume.
Traditionally, the volume of washwater is two t o four
times the tank v o l u m e. O n c e drained , the S u n n y v a l e
digesters can be scrubbed down in one day , and start - up
c a n begin t h e next d a y. Before the drain p u m p was
installed , all material removed from the tank had been
lifted o u t t h r o u g h t h e m a n h o l e s in t h e s i d e w a l l s.
Consequently , it took 30 t o 60 d a y s to drain and clean
a digester. In either case , an additional month will be
required t o restore the biological process completely ,
unless it is seeded from o t h e r " h e a l t h y " digesters.
T e n t o fifteen p e r c e n t o f the d i g e s t e r' s v o l u m e is
usually required for adequate seeding . A seeded digester
can be brought back into full biological activity in less
than a week.
W h e r e will the contents of the tank and the washwater be

t a k e n? Placing these materials o n a sand - drying bed
or in an existing sludge lagoon are two simple solutions
to the problem . Construction of a small earthen basin ,
specifically for use during digester cleaning , may be
warranted . Hauling material in tank trucks t o another
treatment plant or to a suitable dispoal site is another
option. Mechanical dewatering equipment may be used t o
reduce the volume for hauling , but the large proportion
of abrasive material ( grit ) contained in the sludge and
wash water may produce excessive wear.
At the Joint Water Pollution Control Plant , operated by
the County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County ,
all washwater is treated in a s e p a r a t e digester cleaning
facility. The washwater is first passed through sieve
bend type ( static ) strainers and then pumped t o cyclonic
g r i t s e p a r a t o r s, T h e r e m o v e d g r i t is cleaned in a
helical screw grit washer and , along with the screenings ,
is transported by conveyor to storage hoppers , These
hoppers are emptied daily and the material trucked t o a
sanitary landfill. Figure 6 -31 shows the cyclonic grit
s e p a r a t o r and static screens at this plant , The liquid
discharged from the cyclonic grit separators is further
p r o c e s s e d in d i s s o l v e d air flotation t a n k s , Liquid
underflow from these flotation tanks is diverted t o the
p r i m a r y sedimentation tanks , while f l o a t and settled
material are combined with digested s l u d g e flow and
fed to the plant' s sludge dewatering system , The
digester cleaning facility now serves 33 digesters with a
6 -70
combined capacity of 5.7 million cu ft ( 21 , 2 0 0 m 3 ). A
f ul 1 - t i m e s e v e n - m a n c r e w i s r e q u i r e d f o r d i g e s t e r
c l e a n i n g , a l l o w i n g a five - y e a r c l e a n i n g c y c l e . New
d i g e s t e r a d d i t i o n s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n in 1 9 7 9 w i l l
l e n g h t e n this period t o seven y e a r s. In 1973 , t h e bid
for construction of t h e digester cleaning facility was
approximately $ 3 , 0 0 0 ,0 0 0.
• H o w will a c c e s s b e p r o v i d e d i n t o t h e t a n k ? Manholes
should be provided through both the cover and the
sidewalls o f t h e tank t o allow for ventilation , entrance
o f equipment and p e r s o n n e l , and removal of organic and
inorganic debris. Often in the p a s t , the number and size
of these openings has not been sufficient for easy
cleaning .
• I s t h e r e a source o f w a t e r f o r w a s h i n g t h e t a n k a n d
refilling it f o r s t a r t- u p ? Washdown w a t e r should be air-
g a p p e d and c a p a b l e o f supplying a p r e s s u r e in excess of
^
6 0 psi ( 414 kN/m ) t h r o u g h a h o s e o f at least one- inch
( 2.5 cm ) diameter . L a r g e r capacities are required for
digesters g r e a t e r than 5 5 feet ( 1 7 m ) in diameter. Once
the tank has been cleaned , s t a r t - u p begins b y filling the
tank with either raw wastewater , primary effluent , o r
unchlorinated s e c o n d a r y effluent , and bringing the entire
contents u p t o operating t e m p e r a t u r e. If seed s l u d g e is
t o be used , it should b e fed into t h e digester a s s o o n as
its liquid c o n t e n t s h a v e achieved operating t e m p e r a t u r e.
Additional discussions o f digester cleaning and start- u p can be

found in references 1 6 4 and 1 6 5.
ANAEROBIC SLUDGE
DIGESTER LAGOON
/// /
RECESSED IMPELLER
DRAIN PUMP
FIGURE 6- 30
DIGESTER DRAIN SYSTEM
6 -7 1
.
FI
*
V •
'
vf:'
'*
S
Vs
im- ••;•
M: •
;;
i .
>
* .%
m m %
i- X i?
3
FIGURE 6- 31
DIGESTER WASHWATER CLEANING BY CYCLONIC

SEPARATORS , GRIT DEWATERERS , AND STATIC
SCREENS AT LOS ANGELES COUNTY CARSON PLANT
6.2.7 Energy Usage

The flow of energy through a typical anaerobic digester system is
displayed on Figure 6 -32. In this simple system , a hot water
boiler , fueled with sludge gas, is used to heat the digesters.
The digestion system shown on Figure 6 - 32 produces more energy
than it requires in the form of digester gas. The energy required
for digestion is mainly to heat the sludge. The energy consumed
in mixing the digester contents is very small in comparison.
Surplus digester gas can be ( 1) burned in a boiler to produce
heat for buildings in the plant , ( 2) used to power an engine to
generate electricity or directly drive a pump , ( 3 ) sold to the
local utility for use in the domestic gas supply , or ( 4) flared
6-72
MIXING *
0.2 SURPLUS GAS
TOTAL GAS PRODUCTION a 4,8
4 7.3
2.5
CIRCULATING
SLUDGE HEATING
*
1 76
,
ANAEROBIC
DIGESTER 0.5 80 HERd
.75
RAW SLUDGEb HEAT

V7
ALL VALUES IN UNITS OF HEATING
^
1 0 BTU /TON DRV SOLIDS
FED TO THE DIGESTER
, LOSSES
RAW
SLUDGE
n Rtu/lb = 0,56 kg-cal/kg)
aRaw sludge volatile solids contents , percent 75

Volatile solids reduction during digester , percent 50
Specific gas production , cu ft/lb VS reduced 15
Heat value of gas, Btu/cu ft 650
2,000 lb/ton (.75) (.50) (15 culbft) (650 cu

Btu
ft
~ 7.3 x 106 Btu/ton
Feed solids concentration , percent

Specific heat of sludge , Btu/lb/ F
Rise in temperature , F °
°
2 ,000 lb/ton
0.04
(1
il%' < 25°F > 1.3 x 10 ^ Btu/ton
c Makeup Heat Requirement
Raw Sludge Heat Requirement = 40 percent
dNet boiler and heating system efficiency , percent 70

e 4
Feed solids concentration , percent
Detention time , days 20
Mixing requirement, bhp/1,000 cu ft 0.25
2,000 lb/ton (20 days) ( 24 hr ) (0.25 bhp ) (2 ,547 Btu )

(.04) 62.4 lb/cu ft day 1,000 cu ft bhp/hr - 2.4 x 105 Btu/ton
FIGURE 6- 32
ENERGY FLOW THROUGH AN ANAEROBIC

SLUDGE DIGESTION SYSTEM
6 -73
i n a w a s t e-g a s burner, The energy flow through a more c o m p l e x
g a s utilization s y s t e m , in which g a s is used t o fuel an engine -
g e n e r a t o r , is described in C h a p t e r 1 8.
The e n e r g y f l o w d i a g r a m s h o w n o n F i g u r e 6 -3 2 c o n v e y s v e r y
e f f e c t i v e l y t h e r e l a t i v e m a g n i t u d e a n d direction of e n e r g y
e x c h a n g e s in a n anaerobic d i g e s t i o n s y s t e m , This type of diagram
is h e l p f u l in the design o f a g a s utilization s y s t e m , However,
m o r e d e t a i l m u s t b e a d d e d a n d t h e f u l l r a n g e of e x p e c t e d
conditions m u s t be e v a l u a t e d , rather than just the average
conditions depicted f o r this case.
M o r e c o m p l e t e discussions o f d i g e s t e r g a s utilization s y s t e m s c a n
be found in C h a p t e r 1 8 and elsewhere ( 3 8 , 39 ) .
6.2.8 Costs
C o s t c u r v e s h a v e been compiled t h a t p l o t construction costs f o r
anaerobic digestion s y s t e m s versus either digester volume ( 166 ),
s l u d g e solids loading ( 167, 1 6 8 ,1 6 9 ), o r total t r e a t m e n t plant
flow ( 1 7 0,171 ,172 ). However, these curves differ significantly ,
even w h e n converted t o a common cost index and p l o t t e d in t e r m s
o f a s i n g l e s i z i n g p a r a m e t e r ( F i g u r e 6 - 3 3 ). Cost curves
are generally constructed to allow comparison of equivalent
alternatives and consequently do not always describe actual
c o s t s.
Estimated annual c o s t s for operation and maintenance a r e s h o w n

in Figure 6 -3 4. N o credit h a s been g i v e n in this g r a p h for t h e
v a l u e o f s u r p l u s s l u d g e g a s. I n m o s t c a s e s , u s e o f t h i s g a s
requires construction of additional facilities f o r conditioning ,
c o m p r e s s i n g , a n d b u r n i n g t h e g a s. T h e c o s t f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n
and operation of these systems ( 38 ) must be included in
calculations of the n e t value o f s u r p l u s sludge g a s.
6 . 2.9 Design Example
T h i s s e c t i o n illustrates t h e basic l a y o u t a n d s i z i n g of t h e
m a j o r c o m p o n e n t s in a n anaerobic s l u d g e digestion s y s t e m, For
this e x a m p l e, it is assumed t h a t t h e treatment plant provides
activated sludge secondary treatment to a typical municipal
w a s t e w a t e r. A mixture of primary sludge and thickened
w a s t e-activated s l u d g e is t o be anaerobically digested , held in a
facultative s l u d g e l a g o o n, and ultimately spread a s a stabilized
liquid o n t o land.
6 . 2.9 . 1 Design Loadings
S l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n e s t i m a t e s f o r t w o f l o w conditions , a v e r a g e
a n d p e a k d a y , a r e listed in T a b l e 6 - 2 0 ( s e e p a g e 6 - 7 9 ). T h e
p e a k l o a d i n g is listed b e c a u s e s e v e r a l c o m p o n e n t s m u s t be sized
6-7 4
to meet this critical condition .
Refer to Chapter 4 for a
discussion of the procedures to determine sludge production
values .
Sludge solids concentrations and the resulting sludge
v o l u m e s a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d i n T a b l e 6-2 0 .
i o+ o
9
7
6
§ %
5
4
P
P 3
EE
2
2 - REFERENCE 171
£
I
c
o 10
9
-
6 8
if .
H
«
7
m 6
O
U 5
Z
O 4 REFERENCE 106
§ 3
G£
•CONSTRUCTION COST ONLY ,
Z 2 DOES NOT INCLUDE ENGINEERING
8 OR CONTINGENCIES,
0,1 i i j
10 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 9 10O 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 0 1,000 2 3 4 5
DIGESTER TANK VOLUME, 1,000 cu ft ( 1 cu ft = .02Bm3 }
FIGURE 6- 33
CONSTRUCTION COSTS FOR ANAEROBIC

DIGESTION SYSTEMS ( 111- 168, 171 )
6.2.9.2 System Description
The conceptual design for a high rate anaerobic digestion -

s y s t e m i s p r e s e n t e d o n F i g u r e 6-3 5 ( s e e p a g e 6 8 0 ) - . At the
heart of the system are two cylindrical s i n g l e s t -
a g e , h i g h-r a t e
digestion tanks operated in p a r a l l e l , T h e c o n t e n t s o f both
d i g e s t e r s are heated t o 95°F ( 35°C ) a n d v i g o r o u s l y m i x e d with
draft tube gas mixers - , F l o a t i n g covers
s u b m e r g
a
e
r
d
e
,
u
a
s
n
e
d
d o
t o
n b
a l
o
l
t
o
h
w
t a
i
n
n
k
-
s to
l ine
keep floating material soft and
storage of sludge in the digestion tanks .
6-7 5
AVERAGE PLANT FLOW, MGD ftMGD = 3,785jn3/daV >
FIGURE 6- 34
OPERATING , MAINTENANCE , AND ENERGY COSTS

FOR ANAEROBIC SLUDGE DIGESTION SYSTEMS ( 171 )
Raw primary and secondary sludges are first combined and then
heated t o 9 5 ° F ( 3 5 ° C ) in a jacketed pipe heat e x c h a n g e r.
T h e r a t e of t h e r a w s l u d g e flow is measured with a magnetic
flowmeter. The signal from this meter is integrated t o indicate
the hydraulic loading to digestion. This information is also
used t o indicate e q u a l volumes of raw sludge for even distribu -
tion t o each d i g e s t e r. T h e c o n t r o l s are s e t s o that each
digester is fed approximately ten times each day. Raw sludge
is mixed with c i r c u l a t i n g s l u d g e and added t o the digester
through the g a s dome in the center of the cover. The operating
t e m p e r a t u r e in t h e digester is maintained b y circulating a
6-76
small volume o f sludge through a n external spiral heat exchanger .
D i g e s t e d s l u d g e i s w i t h d r a w n d a i l y f r o m t h e bottom o f t h e
tank and transferred by gravity t o facultative s l u d g e lagoons.
For monitoring p u r p o s e s, a flowmeter is included in the digested
s l u d g e withdrawal line . This p r o v i d e s a m e a n s for e v e n l y
distributing the sludge to several lagoons, Both tanks
a r e o p e r a t e d a s c o m p l e t e l y mixed p r i m a r y d i g e s t e r s without
s u p e r n a t a n t removal.
6.2 . 9.3 Component Sizing
Digestion Tanks
Sizing critera:
:> 1 0 d a y s solids retention time during the most critical

e x p e c t e d c o n d i t i o n t o p r e v e n t p r o c e s s failure ( S e e
Section 6 . 2 .3 . 3 ).
> 50 percent volatile solids reduction at average

^conditions t o minimize odors from the facultative sludge
lagoons.
Tank v o l u m e:
Raw sludge flow at peak conditions ( Qp )
— Assume p e a k d a y conditions ( this is conservatively l a r g e

but provides a margin o f s a f e t y ).
Qp = 6 , 010 + 3 , 430 9 , 4 4 0 cu ft p e r d a y ( 267 mVday )
Active volume ( Va )
9, 440 cu ft per day (

va = tanks
2 1 0 d a y s ) = 47, 200 cu ft p e r tank
Correction for volume displaced by grit and scum accumula-

tions and floating cover level.
Assume :
4- ft grit deposit
2- f t scum blanket
2- ft cover below maximum
8 - f t total displaced height
6 -77
Therefore , if original sidewater depth of the tank is 30 feet,
30 — 8
active volume is only 0.73 of the total tanks volume.
30
Tank volume ( Vt )
= 47
, 200 cu ft 1
vt tank .73
= 64, 700 cu ft per tank
Say 65, 000 cu ft per tank = ( 1,800 m 2/tank )
Solids retention time at average conditions ( SRTa )
65,000 cu ft per tank ( 2 tanks )

SRTa = 3 ,200 cu ft per day + 2 ,000 cu ft per day
= 25.0 days, based on total volume , 50 percent

volatile solids reduction can be expected with
this solids retention time ( see Section 6.2.4.1 ).
Tank dimensions:
Diameter ( D )
Assuming initially , a 30- foot sidewater height and
neglecting the volume in the bottom cone:
D = V 4( 65 , 000 cu ft )
( 30 ft )
_
52.5 ft ( 16.0 m )
Sidewater height ( h )
Since floating covers come in 5 -foot diameter increments,
enlarge diameter and adjust sidewater height:
4 ( 65,000 cu ft ) ( 8.4 m )
h = 27.4 ft
( 55 ft ) 2
Note: This adjustment increases displacement volume

effect and reduces active volume to 27.4-8 or 0.71.
27.4
This is ignored in this example because of previous
conservative assumptions.
6 -78
TABLE 6- 20
DESIGN LOADING ASSUMPTIONS
Flow condition
Peak
Parameter Average day
Sludge production , lb dry

solids/day
Primary sludge 10 , 000 15 ,000
Waste activated
sludge 5 ,000 7 ,500
Solids concentration ,
percent
Primary sludge 5.0 4.0
Waste activated
sludge 4.0 3.5
3
Sludge volume , cu ft/day
Primary sludge 3 , 200 6 ,010
Waste activated sludge 2,000 3 ,430
Sludge volume =
sludge production — — twit
^ ma*/ u>
(solids concentration) (density of sludge)
e.g., 10 , 000 lb/day

(.05) (62.4 lb/cu ft) -— 3 , 200 cu ft/day .
1 lb/day = .454 kg/dav

1 cu ft/day = .0283
Heat Exchangers - ( See Section 6.2.6.2 )
Raw sludge heat exchanger capacity ( Qs )
Assume:
• Peak day sludge loading

;/• ;
• Minimum temperature of raw sludge = 55 °F
9 , 4 40 cu ftv ( 62.4 lb 1 day . Btu

Qs = 1 ( 95°F- 55 °F )
day cu ft 24 hrs lb - °F
982 ,000 Btu/hr = ( 247 , 000 kg -cal/hr )
6 -79
Makeup h e a t exchanger capacity ( Qm )
A s s u m e:
• Tank completely buried but above water table, U = 0.06
• Bottom exposed to wet s o i l, U = 0.11

• Cover insulated , U 0.16
• Minimum s o i l temperature = 40°F
• Minimum a i r temperature = 10 °F
Qm = heat loss through walls + bottom + top

= ( 0 . 0 6 B t u /s f / ° F / h r ) ( [ 2 f t ] 5 5 f t/ 4 [ 2 7 . 4 f t ] ) ( 9 5 ° F- 4 0 ° F )
+ ( 0 . 1 1 ) ( [ 5 5 f t ] 2 / 4 ] ( 9 5 -
° 40 °F )
F
+ ( 0 . 1 6 ) ( [ 5 5 f t ] 2 / 4 ] ( 9 5 ° F-1 0 ° F )
= 7 6 , 0 2 9 B t u / h r = ( 1 9 . 2 k g -k c a l / h r )
The above calculated values are used for sizing equipment .

Average heat requirements would be substantially less .
RAW SLUDGE
PRIMARY HEAT EXCHANGES —% \
SLUDGE
*
* rmrml RAW SLUDGE FLOW METER
WASTE FE
ACTIVATED FEED CONTROL VALVE
SLUDGE
MAKE-UP HEAT EXCHANGER
FLOATING
COVER
#
- L n /
l
/
/
/
!
- CIRCULATING
SLUDGE PUMP
/
/
/
*-
DRAFT TUBE
GAS MIXER
—-
DIGESTER 1 DIGESTER 2
DIGESTED SLUDGE
0 [ TO FACULTATIVE
SLUDGE LAGOONS !
DIGESTED SLUDGE
FLOW METEH
FIGURE 6- 35
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF AN ANAEROBIC SLUDGE DIGESTION SYSTEM
6 -8 0
Mixing ( See Section 6.2.6.3 )
Sizing criterion:
Assumptions:
• Velocity gradient ( G ) 60 sec 1
• Plant located at sea level = 14.7 psi
• Gas released 13 ft below the water surface P 2 = 14.7

+ 0.434 ( 13 ) = 20.3 psi
• Viscosity of the digesting sludge is the same as for

^
water at 95 °F or 1.5 x 10“ ^ lbf -sec/sq ft
Rate of energy transfer ( E )
Combining Equations 6- 5 and 6-6 and solving for E :
E = V M G2
= 65 , 000 cu ft/tank ( 1.5 x 10- 5 lbf - sec/sq ft )( 60 sec-1 ) 2

= 3 , 510 ft lbf/sec/tank = ( 4.8 kW/tank )-
This is the power delivered t o the digester contents , Motor

horsepower for the compressor will be substantially higher.
Gas Flow ( Q ) solving Equation 6-7 for Q.
Q
E
.4 ( f) -
(6 8 )
( Pl ) in
^
3 , 510 ft- lb/sec/tank
20.3 psi
2.4 ( 14.7 psi ) In (14.7 psi )
= 308 cfm/tank ( 0.145 m 2/sec/tank )
6- 81
6.3 Aerobic Digestion
Aerobic digestion is t h e biochemical oxidative stabilization of
w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e in o p e n o r closed tanks that are s e p a r a t e from
t h e liquid process s y s t e m.
6 . 3 .1 P r o c e s s Description
6 . 3.1 . 1 History
Studies on aerobic d i g e s t i o n o f municipal w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e
h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d s i n c e t h e e a r l y 1 9 5 0's ( 1 7 5 , 1 7 6 ). E a r l y
studies ( 1 7 7 ,1 7 8 ) indicated t h a t aerobic digestion performed as
w e l l a s , if n o t b e t t e r t h a n , a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n i n r e d u c i n g
v o l a t i l e s o l i d s in s l u d g e. A e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n p r o c e s s e s w e r e
economical to construct, had fewer operating problems than
anaerobic processes , and produced a digested sludge that drained
w e l l. B y 1963 , at least one major equipment supplier ( 179 ) had
approximately 1 3 0 installations in plants with flow from 1 0 , 0 0 0
t o 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 g a l l o n s p e r d a y ( 3 7 . 8 t o 3 7 8 m /d a y ).
^ By the late
1960's and early 1 9 7 0's, consulting engineers across t h e country
w e r e s p e c i f y i n g aerobic d i g e s t i o n facilities f o r m a n y o f t h e
p l a n t s t h e y were designing.
6.3 . 1.2 Current Status

As of early 1979 , numerous plants use aerobic digestion, and
several o f t h e m a r e q u i t e l a r g e ( 11 ). Because o f significant
i m p r o v e m e n t s in d e s i g n a n d c o n t r o l o f anaerobic p r o c e s s e s ,
c o u p l e d w i t h t h e s i g n i f i c a n t mid - 1 9 7 0 j u m p in e n e r g y c o s t s ,
t h e c o n t i n u e d u s e o f a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n , e x c e p t in t h e s m a l l
facility , is m u c h in doubt .
6 . 3.1 . 3 Applicability
A l t h o u g h numerous l a b and pilot-scale studies have been conducted
o n a v a r i e t y o f m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s , v e r y f e w d o c u-
m e n t e d , f u l l-s c a l e studies h a v e been r e p o r t e d in t h e literature.
T a b l e 6 - 2 1 l i s t s s o m e o f t h e s e aerobic d i g e s t i o n s t u d i e s a n d
provides information o n the t y p e of s l u d g e studied , t e m p e r a t u r e
of digestion , scale of study , and literature reference.
6 . 3.1.4 A d v a n t a g e s and Disadvantages

V a r i o u s a d v a n t a g e s h a v e b e e n claimed ( 6 6 , 1 9 7 ) f o r aerobic
d i g e s t i o n o v e r o t h e r stabilization t e c h n i q u e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
anaerobic digestion, Based on all current knowledge, the
following advantages can be cited for properly designed and
o p e r a t e d aerobic digestion p r o c e s s e s:
• H a v e capital c o s t s g e n e r a l l y lower t h a n for anaerobic
s y s t e m s for plants u n d e r 5 M G D ( 2 2 0 1/s ) ( 1 7 0 ).
• A r e r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o o p e r a t e c o m p a r e d t o anaerobic
s y s t e m s.
6 -8 2
D o n o t g e n e r a t e nuisance o d o r s ( 1 9 9 , 2 0 0 ).
:
, . i ,
W i l l p r o d u c e a s u p e r n a t a n t l o w in B O D5 , s u s p e n d e d
solids , a n d ammonia nitrogen ( 1 9 9 , 2 0 0 ).
R e d u c e t h e quantity o f g r e a s e o r hexane solubles in the
s l u d g e m a s s.
Reduce the number of pathogens to a low level under
n o r m a l design .U n d e r auto-heated design , many s y s t e m s
provide 1 0 0 p e r c e n t pathogen destruction ( 187 ).
TABLE 6- 21
SELECTED AEROBIC DIGESTION STUDIES ON VARIOUS

MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER SLUDGES
Studies Studies Studies

under between over
Sludge tyoe °
50 F 50°- °
86 F °
86 F
Primary sludge 180 181 , (182a) 133 , 184

Primary sludge plus
lime
-
waste activated 187 187
188
( 185)(186 )(187)
iron 189
alum 189 ;( 190)
-
waste activated + iron
. trickling filter ..
190
131
waste paper 191
Contact stabilization sludge 192 192 , 197 ; (199)
Contact stabilization sludge plus
iron (190)
alum ( 190), (194)
-
Trickling filter sludge
, 195
181, 196
a( ) indicates full scale study results.

-
A s w i t h a n y p r o c e s s , t h e r e a r e a l s o c e r t a i n d i s a d v a n t a g e s.
I n aerobic digestion processes , the disadvantages are:
• Usually produce a digested sludge with very poor

mechanical dewatering characteristics.
• H a v e high p o w e r costs to supply o x y g e n, e v e n f o r v e r y
s m a l l p l a n t s.
• Are significantly influenced in performance by
t e m p e r a t u r e, location, and t y p e of t a n k material.
6 . 3.1.5 Microbiology
Aerobic digestion of m u n i c i p a l wastewater s l u d g e s is based o n

the principle that , w h e n t h e r e is inadequate e x t e r n a l substrate
available , microorganisms metabolize their o w n celluar mass. In
6-83
actual o p e r a t i o n , aerobic d i g e s t i o n involves t h e direct oxidation
of a n y b i o d e g r a d a b l e m a t t e r a n d t h e o x i d a t i o n o f microbial
cellular material b y o r g a n i s m s, T h e s e t w o s t e p s are illustrated
b y t h e f o l l o w i n g reactions:
Organic Bacteria Cellular

+ O2 + C02 + H 20 ( 6 -9 )
matter material
Cellular Digested
material
+ 02
sludge
+ co 2 + H 2 O -
( 6 10 )
T h e p r o c e s s d e s c r i b e d b y E q u a t i o n 6 -1 0 i s r e f e r r e d t o a s
" e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n " ; t h i s is n o r m a l l y t h e p r e d o m i n a n t
reaction in aerobic d i g e s t i o n.
6 . 3 .2 P r o c e s s Variations
6.3 . 2.1 Conventional S e m i- B a t c h O p e r a t i o n

O r i g i n a l l y , a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n w a s d e s i g n e d a s a s e m i- b a t c h
p r o c e s s , a n d t h i s c o n c e p t is s t i l l functional a t m a n y facilities.
Solids a r e p u m p e d d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e clarifiers into t h e a e r o b i c
d i g e s t e r. T h e time r e q u i r e d f o r f i l l i n g t h e d i g e s t e r d e p e n d s o n
available t a n k v o l u m e , v o l u m e o f w a s t e s l u d g e , p r e c i p i t a t i o n , a n d
e v a p o r a t i o n. During the filling o p e r a t i o n, s l u d g e undergoing
d i g e s t i o n i s c o n t i n u a l l y a e r a t e d. W h e n t h e t a n k i s f u l l,
aeration continues for two to three weeks to assure that the
solids a r e t h o r o u g h l y stabilized . Aeration is t h e n discontinued
a n d t h e stabilized solids s e t t l e d. Clarified l i q u i d is d e c a n t e d ,
and the thickened solids are removed at a concentration of
b e t w e e n t w o a n d f o u r p e r c e n t. When a sufficient amount of
stabilized s l u d g e a n d /o r s u p e r n a t a n t h a v e b e e n r e m o v e d , t h e c y c l e
is r e p e a t e d . B e t w e e n c y c l e s , i t is c u s t o m a r y t o l e a v e s o m e
s t a b i l i z e d s l u d g e in t h e a e r a t o r t o p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s s a r y
microbial p o p u l a t i o n f o r d e g r a d i n g t h e w a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s. T h e
aeration device n e e d n o t o p e r a t e f o r s e v e r a l d a y s , p r o v i d e d n o
r a w s l u d g e is a d d e d.
Many e n g i n e e r s h a v e tried t o m a k e t h e semi- b a t c h p r o c e s s m o r e

continuous by i n s t a l l i n g s t i l l i n g wells t o a c t a s clarifiers in
p a r t o f t h e d i g e s t e r. T h i s h a s n o t p r o v e n effective ( 2 0 0 - 2 0 2 ).
6.3 . 2.2 Conventional Continuous O p e r a t i o n

T h e conventional continuous aerobic digestion p r o c e s s c l o s e l y
r e s e m b l e s t h e activated s l u d g e p r o c e s s a s s h o w n o n ( F i g u r e 6-3 6 ).
A s in t h e s e m i- b a t c h p r o c e s s , s o l i d s a r e p u m p e d d i r e c t l y f r o m
6-8 4
UNSTABILIZED AEROBIC CLARIFIER \ SUPERNATANT
SOLIDS DIGESTER THICKENER
RECYCLE
STABILIZED SOLIDS
FIGURE 6-36
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR A CONVENTIONAL
CONTINUOUSLY OPERATED AEROBIC DIGESTER
clarifiers into the aerobic digester , The aerator operates

at a fixed -
l e v e l , w i t h t h e o v e r f l o w g o i n g t o a s o l i d s 1i q u i d
separator . Thickened and stabilized solids are either recycled
back to the digestion tank or removed for further processing .
.
6.3 2.3 -
Auto Heated Mode of Operation
A new concept t h a t i s r e c e i v i n g considerable a t t e n t i o n i n t h e

-
United States is the auto heated thermophilic aerobic digestion
process (187 , 203 ) . I n t h i s process, sludge from the c l a r i f i e r s
is usually thickened to provide a digester feed solids concentra -
tion of greater than four percent, The heat liberated in the
biological degradation of the organic solids i s sufficient
to raise the liquid temperature in the digester to as high
as 140 °F ( 60 °C ) ( 187 ) . Advantages claimed f o r t h i s mode of
operation are higher rates of organic solids destruction, hence
s m a l l e r volume requirements; p r o d u c t i o n of a p a s t e u r i z e d s l u d g e;
destruction of a l l weed seeds ; 30 to 40 percent l e s s oxygen
requirement than for the mesophilic process, since few, if any ,
n i t r i f y i n g b a c t e r i a e x i s t i n t h i s temperature range; and improved
s o l i d s -1 i q u i d s e p a r a t i o n t h r o u g h d e c r e a s e d l i q u i d v i s c o s i t y
(187, 203, 204 ) .
Disadvantages cited for this process are that i t must incorporate
a thickening operation , that mixing requirements are higher
b e c a u s e o f t h e h i g h e r s o l i d s c o n t e n t , a n d t h a t n o n -o x y g e n a e r a t e d
systems require extremely efficient aeration and insulated tanks .
6 -8 5
6.3.3 Design Considerations
6.3 . 3.1 Temperature
Since the majority of aerobic digesters are open tanks, digester

liquid temperatures are dependent on weather conditions and
can fluctuate extensively , As with all biological systems, lower
temperatures retard the process while higher temperatures
speed it up. Table 6 - 21 lists studies on aerobic digestion
of municipal sludges as a function of liquid temperature.
When considering temperature effects in system design , one
should design a system to minimize heat losses by using concrete
instead of steel tanks, placing the tanks below rather than above
grade, and using subsurface instead of surface aeration. Design
should allow for the necessary degree of sludge stabilization at
the lowest expected liquid operating temperature , and should meet
maximum oxygen requirements at the maximum expected liquid
operating temperature.
6.3 . 3.2 Solids Reduction

A major objective of aerobic digestion is to reduce the mass of
solids for disposal , This reduction is assumed to take place
only with the biodegradable content of the sludge, though some
studies ( 205 , 206 ) have shown that there may be destruction of the
non-organics as well. In this discussion, solids reduction will
pertain only to the biodegradable content of the sludge.
The change in biodegradable volatile solids can be represented by

a first order biochemical reaction:
dM = ( 6-11 )
dt -KdM
where:
dM = rate of change of biodegradable volatile solids

dt
per unit of time - ( Amass/time )
Kd = reaction rate constant ( time -1 )

M = concentration of biodegradable volatile solids
remaining at time t in the aerobic digester -
( mass/ volume ).
The time t in Equation 6-11 is actually the sludge age or solids

residence time in the aerobic digester , Depending on how the
aerobic digester is being operated , time t can be equal to or
-
6 86
considerably greater than the theoretical hydraulic residence
time .
T h e r e a c t i o n r a t e t e r m K <j i s a f u n c t i o n o f s l u d g e t y p e ,
temperature , and solids concentration, I t is a pseudoconstant,
s i n c e t h e t e r m 's v a l u e i s t h e a v e r a g e r e s u l t o f many i n f l u e n c e s .
-
Figure 6 37 shows a plot of various reported values as a
function of the digestion temperature .
The data shown are for
several different types of waste sludge , which partially explains
the scatter . Furthermore , there has been no adjustment in the
v a l u e o f K <j f o r s l u d g e a g e .
At this time, not enough data are
available to allow segregation of by sludge type; therefore ,
the line drawn through the data points represents an overall
average value .Little research has been conducted on the
effect of solids concentration on reaction rate The results.
-
of one study with waste activated sludge a t a temperature of
-
6 8 °F ( 2 0°C ) a r e s h o w n o n F i g u r e 6 3 8 , w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t
decreases with increasing solids concentration .
.4 0
- PILOT PLANT REF ( 207 )
,35 • -
x -
PILOT PLANT REF
FULL SCALE REF
( 208)
{ 185!
(185)
O - PILOT PLANT REF
- PILOT PLANT REF ( 200 )
, 30 ( 209) O
- PILOT PLANT REF
vs A - PILOT PLANT REF ( 196)
+ - PILOT PLANT REF ( 2101
o .2 5 O
U
"
yj
+
H , 20
< A*
x
£E . + "A
#
o .15 + a
b o
<
LU Q
cc , 10
A
, 05
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
TEMPERATURE OF LIQUID W AEROBIC DIGESTER, C °

FIGURE 6- 37
REACTION RATE Kd VERSUS AEROBIC DIGESTER

LIQUID TEMPERATURES
6 -8 7
,7 ©
>
nj
.6
TJ
*
D
X
.5
LU
I—
<
DC
.4
O
I—
o
<
in
.3
cc
6000 10,000 14,000 18,000 22,000
TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS CONCENTRATION IN AEROBIC DIGESTER , mg/I
FIGURE 6- 38
EFFECT OF SOLIDS CONCENTRATION ON

REACTION RATE Kd ( 194 )
6.3.3.3 Oxygen Requirements
Activated sludge biomass is most often represented by the

empirical equation C 5 H 7 NO 2 . Under the prolonged periods of
aeration typical of the aerobic digestion process , Equation 6-10
can be written as follows:
C 5 H 7 N02 + + + NO -
5 C02 + 3 H 20 + HT ( 6 -1 2 )
702 3
Hypothetically , this equation indicates that 1.98 pounds

( 0.898 kg ) of oxygen are required to oxidize one pound ( 0.45 kg )
of cell mass. From pilot and full-scale studies, however, the
pounds of oxygen required to degrade a pound of volatile
solids were found to be 1.74 to 2.07 ( 0.789 to 0.939 kg ), For
mesophilic systems , a design value of 2.0 is recommended , For
autothermal systems, which have temperatures above 113 ° F ( 45 °C ),
nitrification does not occur and a value of 1.45 is recommended
( 187, 203 , 204 ).
-
6 88
“SffiSSiUw
The actual specific oxygen utilization rate, pounds oxygen per

1, 0 0 0 p o u n d s v o l a t i l e s o l i d s p e r h o u r , i s a f u n c t i o n o f t o t a l
s l u d g e a g e a n d l i q u i d t e m p e r a t u r e ( 1 9 2 ,1 9 9 , 2 0 5 )
Ahlberg and Boyko (199 ) visited several operating installations
.
In one study ,
a n d d e v e l o p e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s h o w n o n F i g u r e 6- 3 9
oxygen utilization i s seen to decrease with increase in sludge
Specific.
age and decrease in digestion temperature .
UJ
8.0
V "v .
tD >
2
LLt
J
(
> «
-
_
-
6.0
4.0
TEMPERATURE RANGE
< 49°F (( 10°C
< 49°F ° 10 C|
)
O
—
C!
oo
(j o>
£ £
u UJ
Uj J
_ 2.0 p
oo o
CL <
20 60 100 140 180 220
SLUDGE AGE, days
FIGURE 6- 19
INFLUENCE OF SLUDGE AGE AND LIQUID TEMPERATURES

ON THE OXYGEN UPTAKE RATES IN AEROBIC DIGESTERS ( 199 )
Field s t u d i e s have a l s o indicated t h a t a minimum value of
1 . 0 mg o f oxygen p e r l i t e r s h o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e d i g e s t e r
at a l l times (199 ) .
6.3.3.4 Mixing
Mixing i s required in an aerobic digester to keep solids in

suspension and to bring deoxygenated liquid continuously to the
aeration device .
Whichever of these two requirements needs the
most mixing energy controls the design .
No published studies are available on field evaluation of
horsepower requirements to maintain various levels of solids
in suspension within aerobic digesters .
According to past
experience , levels ranging from 0.5 to 4.0 horsepower per
1 0 0 0 c u b i c f e e t o f t a n k v o l u m e ( 1 3 t o 1 0 6 K w /1 , 0 0 0 m ) w e r e
,
satisfactory .
Designers should consult an experienced aeration
^
equipment manufacturer for assistance in design .
Based on an analysis of over 15 years of data on the effect of
tank geometry on mixing ( 211 ) charts have been developed that
calculate the optimum energy requirements to meet oxygen needs of
6 -8 9
the process for a particular tank geometry , Figure 6- 40 shows
the chart developed by Envirex Incorporated for low speed
mechanical aerators in noncircular basins .
The use of this chart
is explained in the design example in Section 6.3.5.
SURFACE AREA
A txiun fort]
^
Oft * O.OGG
PIVOT
REQUIRED
REDUCER SHAFT
HOBSEMRCN
oco SFT-Hf-
1000 tooo
000
000
TOO
1500 000
MASS TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT BOO
2000
30
2W - 26 360
20 300
TANK DEPTH X0Q
fleet!'
h fi = o oe ml
- 15 250
^ 25 - 4000
10
200
3
5000 6 150
20
- 6
5
15 700(1 -- -- 10Q
TO
ROOD P
IF
-- 4
H
3 70
•
ID .-
•
60
9 2 50
0 1,5
15000 40
36
l.D - - 30
T 2ODC0
25
it 2500C
20
4- 30000
ii
10
AOOQO
-COPYRIGHT .
BY ENVlflEK W4C 10
FIGURE 6- 40
DESIGN CHART FOR LOW SPEED MECHANICAL AERATORS IN NON- CIRCULAR

AERATION BASINS TO CALCULATE ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR
MEETING OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS
6.3.3.5 pH Reduction
The effect of increasing detention time on pH of sludge in the

aerobic digester during mesophilic temperature range operation is
shown on Figure 6 -41.
The drop in pH and alkalinity is caused by acid formation that

occurs during nitrification. Although at one time the low pH was
considered inhibitory to the process, it has been shown that the
6 -90
s y s t e m will acclimate a n d p e r f o r m j u s t a s w e l l a t t h e l o w e r p H
v a l u e s ( 1 8 6 , 1 9 2 , 2 1 3 ). I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t if nitrification
d o e s n o t t a k e p l a c e, p H will d r o p little if a t a l l. T h i s c o u l d
h a p p e n a t low l i q u i d t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d s h o r t s l u d g e a g e s o r in
t h e r m o p h i l i c o p e r a t i o n ( 203 ). Nitrifying bacteria a r e sensitive
t o h e a t a n d d o n o t s u r v i v e i n t e m p e r a t u r e s o v e r 1 1 3 °F ( 4 5 °C )
( 2 1 4 ).
.
8.0 rnmwt
7.0
6.0
3.0
10
SLUDGE AGE IN AEROBIC DIGESTERS - DAYS
FIGURE 6- 41
EFFECT OF SLUDGE AGE ON pH DURING AEROBIC DIGESTION
6.3 . 3.6 Dewatering
Although there are published reports of excellent operating

s y s t e m s ( 1 9 3 ) m u c h o f t h e literature o n f u l l-s c a l e o p e r a t i o n s
h a s indicated t h a t mechanical d e w a t e r i n g o f a e r o b i c a l l y d i g e s t e d
s l u d g e i s v e r y difficult ( 1 8 2,1 8 9 , 2 1 5 ). F u r t h e r m o r e , in m o s t
recent investigations , it is agreed that the dewatering
properties of aerobically digested sludge deteriorate with
i n c r e a s i n g s l u d g e a g e ( 1 8 1,1 1 , 1 8 9 , 2 1 6 ). U n l e s s p i l o t p l a n t d a t a
indicate otherwise, it is r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t conservative criteria
b e u s e d f o r d e s i g n i n g mechanical s l u d g e d e w a t e r i n g facilities f o r
a e r o b i c a l l y d i g e s t e d s l u d g e, A s a n e x a m p l e, a d e s i g n e r w o u l d
probably consider designing a rotary vacuum filter for a
6-9 1
production rate of 1.5 pounds of dry solids per square foot per
h o u r ( 7 . 4 k g/m2/ h r ) , a c a k e s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 1 6 p e r c e n t ,
with a FeClg dose of 140 pounds ( 63.5 kg ) , and a lime dose
( CaO ) of 240 pounds (109 kg ) , This assumes an aerobic solids
concentration of 2.5 percent solids , For more detailed
information on results of various types of dewatering systems,
see Chapter 9 .
.
6.3 4 Process Performance
.
6.3 4.1 Total Volatile Solids Reduction
Solids destruction has been shown to be primarily a direct

function of both basin liquid temperature and the length of
time during which the sludge was in the digester , Figure 6 42 -
is a plot of volatile solids reduction versus the parameter
degree days - .
Data were taken from both pilot and full scale -
studies on several types of municipal wastewater sludges .
-
Figure 6 42 indicates that, for these sludges, volatile solids
reductions of 40 t o 50 percent are obtainable under normal
aeration conditions .
</> 60
o
-
i
3 50
Q o oQo
OJ UA p
cc.
tn 40 o -po
Q n n X % X - PILOT PLANT REF ( 188 )
«
O
4 a • -
-
FULL SCALE REF
PILOT SCALE REF
( 194 )
( 178 )
W
LU
30 o
d * A
+-
- FULL SCALE REF ( 185 )
PILOT PLANT REF ( 208)
-
( * jimii
PILOT PLANT REF ( 211 )

< o - PILOT PLANT REF 1192 )
20
O
> • - FULL SCALE REF ( 196 )
-
I
Hi
O
tr
Ui
o - 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
TEMPERATURE °C x S L U D G E AGE, days
FIGURE 6- 42
VOLATILE SOLIDS REDUCTION AS A FUNCTION OF DIGESTER

LIQUID TEMPERATURE AND DIGESTER SLUDGE AGE
-
6 92
6.3.4.2 Supernatant Quality
The supernatant from aerobic digesters is normally returned

to the head end of the treatment plant , Table 6 - 22 gives
supernatant characteristics from several full-scale facilities
operating in the mesophilic temperature range , Table 6 - 23
summarizes the current design criteria for aerobic digesters.
TABLE 6- 22
CHARACTERISTICS OF MESOPHILIC
AEROBIC DIGESTER SUPERNATANT
d Q
Reference I96 Reference 199 Reference 213
-- - -
Turbidity JTU 120
NO N mg/1 40 30
TKN
-
rrmg/1 115 -
2.9 1 , 350
COD
- -
mg/1 700 -
24 25 ,500
PO. P mg/1 70 -
2.1 930 35
Filtered P
BODc “ mg/1
- mg/1
50 -
-
0.4 120
5 6 , 350 -
2 5
Filtered BOD <- - mg/1 -
3 280
Suspended
Alkalinity
solids
- -
mg/1
mg/1 CaC03
300 -
9 41 ,800 6.8
150
SO - mg/1 70
Silica
PH
- mg/1
6.8 5.7-8.0
26
6.8
aAverage of 7 months of data.

DRange taken from 7 operating facilities.
c Average values.
6.3.5 Design Example
Given
Using the information provided in Chapter 4, a design engineer

has determined that the following quantities of sludge will be
produced at a 0.5-MGD ( 22 1/s ) contact stabilization plant:
Total daily solids generation 1 , 262 pounds ( 572 kg )
Amount due to chemical sludge 0

Amount that will be volatile 985 pounds ( 447 kg )
Amount that will be nonvolatile 277 pounds ( 125 kg )
In addition , the designer has the following information:
• Estimated minimum liquid temperature ( winter ) in digester

is 50°F ( 10 °C ).
Estimated maximum liquid temperature ( summer ) in digester
is 77 °F ( 25°C ).
6 -93
System m u s t a c h i e v e -g r e a t e r t h a n 4 0 p e r c e n t v o l a t i l e
solids reduction during t h e winter.
A minimum o f t w o continuously o p e r a t e d t a n k s a r e required

( s e e F i g u r e 6 -3 6 ) . ( This is a state requirement for
p l a n t s u n d e r 1' M G D [ 4 4 1/s ] ).
E x p e c t e d w a s t e s l u d g e s o l i d s concentration t o t h e a e r o b i c
d i g e s t e r is 8, 0 0 0 m g/ 1 .
Expected thickened solids concentration for the
stabilized s l u d g e is t h r e e p e r c e n t (; 3 0,0 0 0 m g/1 ), based
o n d e s i g n e r ' s e x p e r i e n c e.
TABLE 6- 23
SUMMARY OF CURRENT AEROBIC DIGESTER DESIGN CRITERIA
Liquid
Days : temperature
Solids residence time required to achieve
40 percent volatile solids reduction 108 °
40 F
31 °
60 F
18 °
80 F
55 percent volatile solids reduction 386 °
40 F
109 °
60 F
64 °
80 F
2.0 pounds of oxygen per pound of volatile
Oxygen requirements
solids destroyed when liquid temperature
°
113 F or less
1.45 pounds of oxygen per pound of volatile
solids destroyed when liquid temperature
greater than 113 F
°
Oxygen residual 1.0 mg/1 of oxygen at worst design
conditions
Expected maximum solids concentration 2.5 to 3.5 percent solids when dealing with
achievable with decanting a degritted sludge or one in which no
chemicals have been added
Mixing horsepower Function of tank geometry and type of
aeration equipment utilized , Should
consult equipment manufacturer.
Historical values have ranged from 0.5
to 4.0 horsepower per 1,000 cubic feet
of tank volume
1 lb = 0.454 kg 3
1 hp/1,000 cu ft - 26.6 kw/1,000 m
Sludge Age Required
Figure 6 -42 ( presented previously ) offers a quick method for

c a l c u l a t i n g t h e n u m b e r o f d e g r e e d a y s r e q u i r e d t o achieve t h e
4 0 p e r c e n t v o l a t i l e s o l i d s reduction r e q u i r e d . T h e r e s u l t is
4 7 5 d e g r e e- d a y s. A t a basin t e m p e r a t u r e o f 5 0°F ( 1 0 °C ) t h e n:
4 7 5 d e g r e e-d a y s 47.5 d ays

10 degrees
6 -9 4
T h e r e f o r e , t h e volume o f t h e a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r m u s t b e a d e q u a t e
t o p r o v i d e 47.5 d a y s s l u d g e a g e t o m e e t minimum volatile solids
r e d u c t i o n d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r.
During t h e s u m m e r, t h e basin t e m p e r a t u r e will be 7 7 °F ( 2 5 ° C ):
2 5 °C x 4 7 . 5 d a y s l u d g e a g e = 1 ,1 7 5 d e g r e e-d a y s.
F r o m F i g u r e 6-4 2, a t 1 , 1 7 5 d e g r e e-d a y s, t h e r e w o u l d b e 4 9 p e r c e n t
v o l a t i l e s o l i d s r e d u c t i o n.
Volatile S o l i d s Reduction
For winter conditions, there would be a 40 percent volatile
solids ( VS ) reduction, The actual pounds of solids reduced
a r e:
985 lb VS l b V S r e d u c e d ( 1 7 9 k g /d a y )
day x 0.4 = 394 day
F o r s u m m e r c o n d i t i o n s, t h e r e w o u l d b e a 4 9 p e r c e n t v o l a t i l e
solids reduction . T h e a c t u a l p o u n d s of solids r e d u c e d a r e:
9 8 5 l b V S x 0 . 4 9 = 4 8 3 l b V S r e d u c e d ( 219 k g/d a y )
day day
Oxygen Requirements
Since nitrification is expected, provisions must be made to

supply 2.0 pounds of oxygen per pound of volatile solids
d e s t r o y e d ( 2 k g 02/k g v o l a t i l e s o l i d s d e s t r o y e d ).
Winter conditions: 394 lb VS dest x 2.0 lbs O2 _ 788 lbs Q2 ( 358 kg/day )
day lb VS dest. day
Summer conditions: 483 lb VS dest x 2.0 lbs O2 _ 966 lbs O2 ( 438 kg/day )
day lbs VS dest. day
During summer conditions, a minimum o f 1 . 0 m g /1 o x y g e n residual

m u s t b e p r o v i d e d.
Calculating Tank Volume

S l u d g e a g e in a n aerobic d i g e s t e r c a n b e defined a s f o l l o w s:
total lb SS aerobic digester

Sludge age - total lb ss i o s t p e r d a y f r o m a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r
w h e r e S S = s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s.
6-95
The suspended solids concentration in the digester will range
from the value of the influent suspended solids concentration or
8, 000 mg/1 to the maximum value of the thickened and stabilized
solids concentration of 30 , 000 mg / 1 , On the average , the
suspended solids concentration within the digester is equal to
70 percent of the thickened solids concentration, or 21 , 000 mg /1.
An average poundage of suspended solids in the supernatant
can be approximated by the following equation.
( SS concentration in supernatant )( 1-f )( 8.34 )( influent flow )
where f is the fraction of influent flow into the aerobic

digester that is retained , and 1- f is the fraction that leaves
as supernatant. The term f can be approximated by the following
equation.
_
£ = influent
-
SS concentration
X
fraction of solids
thickened SS concentration not destroyed
For winter conditions, the fraction of solids not destroyed is:
1 , 262 lb total solids - 394 lb of solids reduced 0.69

1 , 262 lb total solids
Then, the term f for this example , is:
8 , 000 mg/1
x 0.69 0.18
30 , 000 mg/1
Therefore , 18 percent of the influent flow into the aerobic

digester will be retained , and 82 percent will leave as
supernatant.
For a properly designed s o i i d s- i i q u i a s e p a r a t o r iunaer
200 gallons per day per sq ft [ 8.16 m 3/day /m 2 ] overflow rate ) ,
the suspended solids concentration would be approximately
300 mg/1.
The influent flow can be found by dividing the influent solids
load ( 1 , 262 pounds per day [ 572 kg / day ] by the i n f l u e n t
solids concentration [ 8,000 mg/1 ] ), The result is 18 , 914 gallons
per day ( 71.5 m 3/day ).
The pounds of suspended solids intentionally wasted per day from
the aerobic digestion system can now be approximated from the
following expression.
( SS concentration in thickened sludge )( f )( 8.34 )( influent flow ) .
All the terms in the above equation have been previously defined .
6 -96
It is now possible to solve for the required tank volume for any
given sludge age. In this example , winter conditions govern ,
and it was previously calculated that a 47.5 day minimum was-
required. From the values previously discussed:
47.5 days 21,000 mg/1)(8.34)(tank volume-million gallons)

= ((300(mg
-
/1)(1 0.18)+(30,000)(0.18))(8.34)(0.018915 mil gal)
'
Tank volume = 0.233 million gallons ( 881 m 3 )
Theoretical hydraulic detention time:

233 ,000 gallons
18 ,915 gallons per day
= 12.3 days
This is the minimum volume , to which must be added capacity for

weekend storage and precipitation requirements. For this design ,
two tanks will be provided , each to have a volume capacity of
-
233 ,000 gallons ( 881 m3 )(100 percent stand by capacity as per
state requirements ).
The actual dimensions of the tanks depend on the aeration
equipment utilized and are discussed in the following section.
Power Requirements
-
The designer has decided to use low speed mechanical aerators
for mixing and oxygen transfer in the aerobic digester.
Previous calculations have indicated that the maximum oxygen

requirement was 966 pounds oxygen per day ( 438 kg/day ). Af ter
making corrections for plant elevation , alpha and beta factors,
water temperature , and minimum residual requirements , the
engineer calculated an overall mass transfer coefficient KLa of
-
3.53 hr 3. From this value , in conjunction with Figure 6 -7 ,
power requirements will be calculated as follows.
Initially , a depth of 12 feet ( 3.65 m ) is selected. Since
each tank is to be 233 ,000 gallons ( 881 m 3 ), the surface area
-
with a 12 foot ( 3.65 m ) liquid depth would be 2 , 596 sq ft
( 241 m 2 ). A pivot point P is located by placing a straight -
-
edge across scales D and Kj a of Figure 6 40. Then a line is
drawn through pivot point p^ connecting scale As , tank surface
area , to the required reducer shaft horsepower scale , The
required shaft horsepower for one tank would be 19 horsepower
(14.1 kW ). Assuming a motor reducer efficiency of 92 percent ,
total motor horsepower would equal 19 4 0.92 , or 20.6 horse -
power ( 15.4 kW ). The aerator manufacturer recommends that a
minimum 10 horsepower unit ( 7.5 kW ) will be required to mix the
12 foot ( 3.65 m ) liquid depth. Each 10 horsepower unit ( 7.5 kW)
-
-
6 97
could mix an area 40 f e e t by 40 f e e t ( 1 2 . 1 m by 1 2 . 1 m )
making some calculations , the designer decides to use two
After .
1 0- h o r s e p o w e r ( 7 . 5 k W ) u n i t s i n e a c h t a n k , e a c h t a n k b e i n g
36 feet ( 10.9 m ) wide by 72 feet ( 24.5 m ) long and having a total
tank depth of 14 feet ( 4.2 m ) allowing 2 feet ( 0.61 m ) of
free board .F i g u r e 6- 4 3 s h o w s a v i e w o f t h e p l a n .
SUMMER CONDITIONS : 463 lbs VS REDUCED /DAY - 566 lbs OjAlay
WINTER CONDITIONS: 354 lbs VS REDUCED/DAY -
738 lbs 02/day
EACH TANK ; 72 ft LONG BY 36 ft WIDE x 12 ft: LIQUID DEPTH PLUS
? ft OF FREEBOARD
10 HP LOW SPEED MECHANICAL

AEROBIC DIGESTER # 1
i AERATOR
TANK VOLUME = 233,000 gal

18,915 gpd BACK TO SECONDARV
8,000 mg/ I £S TREATMENT
^
12'
15,510 gpd
300 mg/I $$
AEROBIC DIGESTER # 2
TANK VOLUME « 233 , 000 gal
ir
18 '
72*
-
*
RECYCLE 30,000 m 'l ss

^
1
1
-
gpd 0.00378 m3 / day
.
cu ft = Q 0I783 m3 WASTE STABILIZED
t ft 0.304 rn SLUDGE
30,000ing/i is
1 lb = 0.464 kg
FIGURE 6- 43
SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR AEROBIC DIGESTION DESIGN EXAMPLE
Clarifier Surface Area
Surface area was based on an overflow r a t e of 200 gallons per

s q u a r e f o o t p e r d a y ( 8 . 1 6 m 3/d a y /m 2 )
3
At an influent flow of .
18 ,915 gallons per day ( 71.5 m /day ) , the required surface
i s 95 square feet ( 8.8 m 2 ) .
The designer selected a 12
( 3.7 m ) diameter clarifier .
Supernatant Flow
I t was previously calculated that 82 percent of the influent

to the aerobic digester would leave as supernatant, Based on
a n i n f l u e n t o f 1 8 , 9 1 5 g a l l o n s p e r d a y ( 7 1 . 5 m3/ d a y ) , t h e
s u p e r n a t a n t f l o w w i l l b e 1 5 , 5 1 0 g a l l o n s p e r d a y ( 5 8 . 6 m 3/ d a y ) ,
plus any precipitation .
6 -9 8
.
6 '3.6 Cost
6.3 . 6.1 C a p i t a l Cost
A regression analysis of construction bids from 1 9 7 3-1 9 7 7

indicated t h a t , o n t h e b a s i s o f U S E P A M u n i c i p a l W a s t e w a t e r
Treatment Plant Construction Cost Index 2 n d q u a r t e r 1 9 7 7, t h e
c a p i t a l c o s t c o u l d be a p p r o x i m a t e d by E q u a t i o n 6-1 3 ( 1 9 8 ).
C = 1.47 x 105 Ql - 14 ( 6 -1 3 )
w h e r e:
C = c a p i t a l c o s t o f p r o c e s s in d o l l a r s
Q = plant design flow in million g a l l o n s o f w a s t e w a t e r
flow per day
T h e a s s o c i a t e d c o s t s i n c l u d e d t h o s e f o r e x c a v a t i o n, p r o c e s s
p i p i n g , e q u i p m e n t , c o n c r e t e, a n d s t e e l , I n a d d i t i o n, s u c h
costs as those for administrating and engineering are equal to
0 . 2 2 6 4 t i m e s E q u a t i o n 6 -1 3 ( 1 9 8 ).
.
6.3 6.2 O p e r a t i o n a n d Maintenance C o s t
Although there are many items that contribute to operation
a n d maintenance c o s t, i n m o s t a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n s y s t e m s , t h e t w o
m o s t p r e v a l e n t a r e s t a f f i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d p o w e r u s a g e.
Staffing Requirements
T a b l e 6-2 4 l i s t s l a b o r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r b o t h o p e r a t i o n a n d
maintenance, T h e l a b o r indicated includes: c h e c k i n g mechanical
e q u i p m e n t , t a k i n g d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n a n d s o l i d s a n a l y s e s, a n d
g e n e r a l m a i n t e n a n c e a r o u n d t h e clarifier.
Power Requirements
I n 1 9 7 9, t h e c o s t o f p o w e r f o r o p e r a t i n g a e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t h a s
b e c o m e a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r. I t is p o s s i b l e t o minimize p o w e r
c o n s u m p t i o n t h r o u g h t w o d e v e l o p m e n t s in environmental s c i e n c e.
M a k e s u r e t h a t t h e t a n k g e o m e t r y , a n d aeration e q u i p m e n t
a r e c o m p a t i b l e ( 2 1 2 ). The difference between optimized
and unoptimized design can mean as much as a 50 percent
difference in p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n .
P a c e d e v i c e s t o c o n t r o l o x y g e n ( p o w e r ) i n p u t ( 2 1 8 ).
B e c a u s e o f t e m p e r a t u r e e f f e c t s, o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s
for any given aerobic digestion system can vary as
6 -9 9
much as 20 to 30 percent between summer and winter.
One must design to meet the worst conditions ( summer ),
for without some type of oxygen controller, considerable
power is wasted during other times of the year.
TABLE 6- 24
AEROBIC DIGESTION LABOR REQUIREMENTS ( 217 )
Labor ,
man hours per year
Plant design flow ,
MGD Operation Maintenance Total
0.5 100 20 120
1 160 30 190
2 260 50 310
5 500 100 600
10 800 160 960
25 1, 500 300 1, 800
1 MGD = 3, 786 m'

Vday
Other Requirements
Besides manpower and power cost , the designer must consider

lubrication requirements . If mechanical aerators are being
used , each unit needs to have an oil change once, and preferably
twice, a year. Depending on horsepower size, this could be 5 to
40 gallons per unit per change ( 19-152 1/unit/change ). Further ,
the designer must make sure an adequate inventory of spare parts
are available.
6.4 Lime Stabilization

Lime stabilization is a very simple process , Its principal
advantages over other stabilization processes are low cost and
simplicity of operation , Evaluation of studies where lime
stabilization was accomplished at pH ranges of 10-11 , has shown
that odors return during storage due to pH decay , To eliminate
this problem and reduce pathogen levels , addition of sufficient
quantities of lime to raise and maintain the sludge pH to 12.0
for two hours is required , The lime-stabilized sludge readily
dewaters with mechanical equipment and is generally suitable for
application onto agricultural land or disposal in a sanitary
landfill.
No direct reduction of organic matter occurs in lime treatment.
This has two important impacts , First , lime addition does not
make sludges chemically stable ; if the pH drops below 11.0 ,
biological decomposition will resume, producing noxious odors.
Second , the quantity of sludge for disposal is not reduced , as it
is by biological stabilization methods. On the contrary , the
6 -100
mass of dry sludge solids is increased by the lime added and by
the chemical precipitates that derive from this addition. Thus ,
because of the increased volumes, the costs for transport and
ultimate disposal are often greater for lime-stabilized sludges
than for sludge stabilized by other methods.
6.4.1 Process Description
6.4.1 .1 History
Lime has been traditionally used to reduce odor nuisances from
open pit privies and the graves of domestic animals, Lime has
been used commonly in wastewater sludge treatment to raise the
pH in stressed anaerobic digesters and to condition sludge prior
to vacuum filtration . The original objective of lime condi -
tioning was to improve sludge dewaterability but , in time, it was
observed that odors and pathogen levels were also reduced. In
1954, T.R. Komline filed a patent ( No. 2 ,852, 584 ) for a method of
processing raw sludge in which heavy dosages of hydrated lime
( 6 to 12 percent of total dry solids ) were added specifically
to cancel or inhibit odors . However , only recently has
lime addition been considered a major sludge stabilization
alternative.
Many studies describe the effectiveness of lime in reducing
microbiological hazards in water and wastewater , but the
bactericidal value of adding lime to sludge has been noted only
recently ( 219 - 222 ). A report of operations at the Allentown,
Pennsylvania wastewater treatment plant states that lime
conditioning an anaerobically digested sludge to a pH of 10.2 to
11 , and then vacuum filtering and storing the cake, destroyed all
odors and pathogenic enteric bacteria ( 233 ). Kampelmacher and
Jansen reported similar experiences ( 224 ). Evans noted that lime
addition to sludge released ammonia and destroyed coliform
bacteria and that the sludge cake was a good source of nitrogen
and lime to the land ( 225 ).
Lime stabilization of raw sludges has been conducted in the

laboratory and in full-scale plants, Farrell and others ( 226 )
reported that lime stabilization of a primary sludge reduced
bacterial hazard to a negligible value , improved vacuum filter
performance, and provided a satisfactory means of stabilizing
sludge prior to ultimate disposal , Paulsrud and Eikum ( 227 )
determined the lime dosage required to prevent odors occurring
during storage of sewage sludges , Primary biological sludges ,
septic tank sludges, and different chemical sludges were used in
the study. An important finding was that lime dosages greater
than those sufficient to initially raise the pH of the sludges
were required to prevent pH decay and the return of odors during
storage. Laboratory and pilot scale work by Counts and Shuckrow
( 228 ) on lime stabilization showed significant reductions in
pathogen populations and obnoxious odors when the sludge pH was
6-101
g r e a t e r t h a n 1 2. Counts conducted g r o w t h studies o n g r e e n h o u s e
,
a n d o u t d o o r p l o t s w h i c h indicated t h a t t h e d i s p o s a l o f l i m e -
stabilized domestic sludge on c r o p l a n d w o u l d have no detrimental
e f f e c t o n p l a n t g r o w t h a n d s o i l characteristics , Disposal
of the lime-stabilized domestic sludge a t loading rates u p to
1 0 0 t o n s d r y solids p e r acre ( 224 t/h a ) o n g r e e n-h o u s e p l o t s and
.
4 0 t o n s dry solids p e r acre ( 9 0 t/h a ) o n o u t d o o r p l o t s had n o

detrimentatal e f f e c t o n p l a n t g r o w t h. a n d s o i l characteristics .
A f u l l - s c a l e lime stabilization f a c i l i t y w a s built a s p a r t
o f a 1 - M G D ( 43.8 1/ s ) w a s t e w a t e r treatment p l a n t in L e b a n o n ,
Ohio. Operation b e g a n in 1 9 7 6. A case s t u d y of lime t r e a t m e n t
a n d l a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f s l u d g e f r o m t h i s p l a n t , a l o n g with a
g e n e r a l economic comparison o f lime stabilization with anaerobic
digestion, is available ( 229 ).
6.4 . 1.2 Current S t a t u s
A s o f May 1 9 7 8 , lime treatment is being used t o stabilize t h e

s l u d g e from a t least 27 municipal wastewater treatment plants in
Connecticut. A v e r a g e w a s t e w a t e r f l o w s treated at these p l a n t s
v a r y f r o m 0 . 1 t o 31 M G D ( 4 . 4 t o. 1 3 5 8 1/ s ), I n m o s t of t h e
plants, incinerators have been either wholly or partially
abandoned. While few chemical o r bacterial d a t a are available , ’
qualitative observations indicate that treatment is satisfactory.
M o s t of t h e communities have indicated that t h e y will continue
with lime stabilization.
L a n d f i l l burial is t h e m o s t c o m m o n m e a n s o f d i s p o s a l f o r
lime-stabilized s l u d g e. H o w e v e r, lime- treated sludge f r o m eight
of the p l a n t s in Connecticut is applied o n t o land . At Enfield ,
Connecticut, dewatered s l u d g e is stockpiled in l a r g e m o u n d s, T h e
s l u d g e is s p r e a d o n t o cornfields w h e n application is compatible
w i t h c r o p c y c l e s a n d w e a t h e r conditions. F e w nuisances a r e
caused by t h e practice. O d o r s h a v e n o t been a problem , even w h e n
p i l e s h a v e b e e n o p e n e d f o r s p r e a d i n g o f t h e s l u d g e. . I n
Willimantic , Connecticut, lime-stabilized s l u d g e is mixed with
l e a v e s a n d g r a s s e s. A f t e r s t o c k p i l i n g , a p o r t i o n o f mixture
is screened and distributed t o local nurseries. T h e remainder is
used a s final cover for landfill.
6 . 4.1 . 3 Applicability
Lime stabilization c a n be a n effective alternative w h e n t h e r e is

a need t o provide:
o B a c k u p f o r existing stabilization facilities. A lime

stabilization s y s t e m can be started ( or s t o p p e d ) quickly .
Therefore, it can b e u s e d t o supplement existing s l u d g e
processing facilities when s l u d g e q u a n t i t i e s e x c e e d
design levels, o r t o r e p l a c e incineration during fuel
6-102
s h o r t a g e s. Full s l u d g e flows c a n be lime-treated w h e n
existing facilities a r e o u t o f service f o r cleaning o r
r e p a i r.
• Interim s l u d g e handling. Lime stabilization systems have

a comparatively low capital c o s t and , therefore, may b e
c o s t effective if t h e r e a r e p l a n s t o abandon t h e p l a n t o r
p r o c e s s within a f e w y e a r s.
• E x p a n s i o n o f e x i s t i n g facilities o r construction o f new

facilities t o improve odor and p a t h o g e n "control. Lime
stabilization is particularly applicable in s m a l l p l a n t s
or w h e n t h e plant will b e loaded o n l y s e a s o n a l l y.
I n all cases , a suitable site for disposal or use of stabilized

s l u d g e is required .
6 . 4.1 . 4 T h e o r y of t h e P r o c e s s
Lime addition t o s l u d g e r e d u c e s o d o r s a n d p a t h o g e n l e v e l s b y
creating a high p H environment hostile t o biological activity.
Gases containing nitrogen and sulfur that are evolved during
anaerobic decomposition of organic matter are the principal
s o u r c e o f o d o r s in s l u d g e ( 2 2 8 ). When lime is added , the
m i c r o o r g a n i s m s i n v o l v e d in t h i s d e c o m p o s i t i o n a r e s t r o n g l y
inhibited o r d e s t r o y e d in t h e h i g h l y a l k a l i n e e n v i r o n m e n t .
Similarly, pathogens are inactivated or destroyed by lime
addition.
High lime dosing o f s l u d g e a l s o affects t h e chemical and physical
characteristics o f s l u d g e . Although the complex chemical
reactions between lime a n d s l u d g e a r e n o t well understood , it
is likely t h a t mild reactions , s u c h a s t h e splitting of c o m p l e x
molecules by hydrolysis, saponification, and acid neutralization ,
occur in t h e high pH environments c r e a t e d in lime stabilization
( 2 2 8 ). T h e s e reactions r e d u c e t h e f e r t i l i z e r v a l u e o f t h e
stabilized s l u d g e , improve its dewaterability , and c h a n g e t h e
c h a r a c t e r of liquid sidestreams. T h e n a t u r e o f these chemical
c h a n g e s is described in Section 6 . 4.3.4 .
6 . 4. 2 D e s i g n Criteria
Three fundamental design p a r a m e t e r s m u s t be considered in t h e

d e s i g n o f a l i m e stabilization s y s t e m: p H, c o n t a c t t i m e,
and lime d o s a g e. A t this e a r l y s t a g e in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of the
p r o c e s s , t h e selection of t h e levels o f t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s h a s been
largely e m p i r i c a l , T h e results of earlier studies now can be
u s e d a s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t , b u t b e c a u s e of t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f
chemical interactions t h a t apparently occur in lime t r e a t m e n t o f
s l u d g e , b e n c h-s c a l e and p i l o t studies a r e recommended a s p a r t o f
d e s i g n i n g a l a r g e - s c a l e s y s t e m , p a r t i c u l a r l y if substantial
d e p a r t u r e s from t h e s e conditions a r e c o n t e m p l a t e d.
6-1 0 3
6.4 . 2.1 p H a n d Contact Time
The p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e o f l i m e stabilization is t o inhibit

bacterial decomposition and inactivate pathogenic organisms, T h e
e x t e n s i v e u s e o f lime is medicinal ; t h e m a s k i n g o f noxious
odors from decaying substances permits uncritical a c c e p t a n c e o f
its use for s l u d g e treatment . Nevertheless, evidence is needed
of its value and of t h e necessary dose levels and c o n t a c t times
for effective t r e a t m e n t.
T h e e f f e c t i v e f a c t o r in l i m e t r e a t m e n t is e v i d e n t l y t h e p H
level a n d n o t just t h e dose o f lime. A s with m o s t disinfection
p r o c e s s e s , t h e time o f e x p o s u r e ( t h e extensive factor ) is e q u a l l y
as important a s t h e p H ( t h e intensive f a c t o r ). Investigations by
F a r r e l l a n d o t h e r s ( 2 2 6 ), C o u n t s and S h u c k r o w ( 228 ), and Noland
and o t h e r s ( 2 2 9 ), h a v e established time , p H , and p r o c e s s i n g
c o n d i t i o n s f o r p r o d u c i n g s a t i s f a c t o r y lime s t a b i l i z a t i o n.
P r o c e s s p e r f o r m a n c e is d i s c u s s e d in a s u b s e q u e n t s e c t i o n
( Section 6 . 4.3 ).
T h e d e s i g n objective is t o maintain p H above 1 2 for about t w o
h o u r s t o e n s u r e p a t h o g e n destruction , a n d t o p r o v i d e e n o u g h
residual alkalinity s o that t h e pH d o e s n o t d r o p below 1 1 f o r
s e v e r a l d a y s, a l l o w i n g s u f f i c i e n t t i m e f o r d i s p o s a l o r u s e
without t h e possibility o f r e n e w e d putrefaction. T h e r e c o m m e n d e d
design criteria f o r accomplishing t h e s e objectives a r e:
• T r e a t s l u d g e in the liquid s t a t e.
• Bring the s l u d g e t o pH 12.5 by lime addition a n d maintain

p H a b o v e 1 2 . 5 f o r 3 0 minutes ( w h i c h k e e p s p H > 1 2 f o r t w o
h o u r s ).
F a r r e l l a n d o t h e r s ( 2 2 6 ) a t t e m p t e d t o determine w h e t h e r t h e
additions of lime t h a t would occur in conditioning of s l u d g e for
d e w a t e r i n g w o u l d p r o d u c e a d e q u a t e stabilization. T h e y m i x e d
liquid s l u d g e with l i m e f o r t w o minutes, and t h e n dewatered t h e
s l u d g e o n a B u c h n e r funnel , Their results indicated inadequate
b a c t e r i o l o g i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n, Later results by Strauch and
others ( 230 ) in D e n m a r k and unpublished results at Downington ,
Pennsylvania ( S e e Section 6 . 4.4 . 1 ) indicate that special reaction
conditions or intense mixing o f s l u d g e c a k e with lime can p r o d u c e
s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s.
6.4.2.2 Lime D o s a g e
T h e a m o u n t of lime required t o stabilize s l u d g e is determined b y
t h e t y p e o f s l u d g e, i t s c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n , and t h e s o l i d s
concentration. T a b l e 6- 2 5 summarizes t h e results o f p l a n t-s c a l e
t e s t s a t L e b a n o n, O h i o, and s h o w s t h a t lime additions ranging
from 6 t o 5 1 p e r c e n t of the total dry solids in t h e s l u d g e were
required t o raise t h e pH t o t h e levels indicated in the table.
T h e s e lime d o s a g e s were sufficient t o k e e p t h e s l u d g e p H a b o v e
6-1 0 4
12.0 for 30 minutes. Primary sludges required the lowest
dosages, while the highest average dosages were required to r a i s e
the pH level of waste-activated sludges, The results of studies
conducted by Paulsrud and Eikum ( 227 ) agree generally with the
Lebanon tests and are displayed in Table 6 - 26. Iron and alum
sludges required the highest dosages , Farrell, and others ( 226 )
also found that alum additionally increased the lime requirement
and suggested that part of the lime added to alum sludge may be
bound as a calcium-aluminum compound.
TABLE 6- 25
LIME REQUIREMENT TO ATTAIN pH 12 FOR 30 MINUTES

AT LEBANON , OHIO ( 228 )
Solids Lime dosage ,
concentration , lb Ca(OH) 2 pH , average
percent lb dry soUcTs
Sludge type Range Average Range Average Initial Final
Primary sludge3 -
3 6 4.3 0.06 - 0.17 0.12 6.7 12.7
Waste activated sludge 1- 1.5 1.3 0.21- 0.43 0.30 7.1 12.6
Anaerobically digested mixed
sludge 6-7 5.5 0.14 -0.25 0.19 7. 2 12.4
Septage 1-4.5 2.7 0.09 -0.51 0.20 7 .3 12.7
aincludes -
some portion of waste activated sludge.
1 lb/lb = 1 kg/kg .
TABLE 6- 26
LIME DOSES REQUIRED TO KEEP pH ABOVE 11.0

AT LEAST 14 DAYS (226 )
Lime dose ,
lb Ca(OH)2/lb
Type of sludge suspended solids
Primary sludge 0.10

Activated sludge 0.30 0.50
Septage 0.10 0.30
a
--
Alum sludge
Alum sludge plus pri-
0.40
mary sludge 0.25 - 0.40

-
Iron sludgea 0.35 - 0 , 60
a
Precipitation of primary treated effluent.
Ecrual proportions by weight of each type
of sludge.
1 lb/lb 1
6-105
F i g u r e 6-4 4 d i s p l a y s t h e g e n e r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l i m e d o s a g e
and pH for a typical municipal sludge a t several solids concen
. - -
trations Table 6 26 calculated from data on Figure 6 44, shows
that the lime dose per unit mass of sludge solids required to
-
a t t a i n a p a r t i c u l a r pH l e v e l i s r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t, That is,
lime requirements are more closely related to the t o t a l mass of
sludge solids , rather than the sludge volume , Consequently ,
reduction in volume by thickening may have l i t t l e or no effect
on the amount of lime required , because the mass of sludge solids
is not changed .
13
12
11
10
X
a
9
o 1.0% SOLIDS
A 2.0% SOLIDS
8 o 3.0% SOLIDS
3.5% SOLIDS
7
*
4.4% SOLIDS
6 1
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8, 000 10.000
Ca ( OH ) 2 DOSE , mg /I
FIGURE 6- 44
LIME DOSES REQUIRED TO RAISE pH OF A MIXTURE OF PRIMARY SLUDGE

AND TRICKLING FILTER HUMUS AT DIFFERENT SOLIDS CONCENTRATIONS ( 228 )
Lime a d d i t i o n s must be s u f f i c i e n t t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e pH of sludge

does not drop below the desired level after prolonged storage .
I f i n s u f f i c i e n t lime i s added , the pH w i l l decay a s t h e t r e a t e d
sludge ages ( 2 27 - 2 29 ) . This phenomenon i s displayed on
Figure 6 45 - . Notice that higher lime dosages not only raise the
i n i t i a l pH b u t , more i m p o r t a n t l y , p r e v e n t , o r a t l e a s t d e l a y , t h e
drop i n pH l e v e l s . Consequently , in practice , lime doses must be
g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t s u f f i c i e n t t o r a i s e t h e pH t o t h e d e s i r e d
value . I n most c a s e s , s i g n i f i c a n t pH decay w i l l n o t occur i f
enough lime i s added t o r a i s e t h e s l u d g e pH t o 1 2 . 5 and maintain
that value for a t least 30 minutes ( 229 ) .
-
6 106
0, 2S lb LIME DOSAGE Ca { QH ) /ibSS
> -* 2
12
10
xft
8
0.056
6
SS= 5.07% , VSS/SS=74.69fc 0.028
°
TEMP =68 F ( 20 ° )
4
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
DAYS OF STORAGE
llb / lb = 1 kg /kg
FIGURE 6- 45
CHANGE IN pH DURING STORAGE OF PRIMARY SLUDGE

USING DIFFERENT LIME DOSAGES
S e v e r a l mechanisms of pH decay have been proposed and some have

been documented ( 227 , 228 ) .
The i n i t i a l pH drop r e s u l t s from t h e
u p t a k e o f a t m o s p h e r i c CO2 a n d s l o w r e a c t i o n s o f h y d r o x y l i o n s
with sludge solids .
The r a t e o f pH r e d u c t i o n i s a c c e l e r a t e d o n c e
t h e pH reaches a p o i n t a t which b a c t e r i a l a c t i o n can resume
production of organic acids through anaerobic microbial
degradation .
The foregoing discussion makes i t clear that a dose level cannot
be defined without reference to the specific sludge Actual .
d o s e l e v e l s w i l l h a v e t o b e d e t e r m i n e d i n b e n c h -s c a l e t e s t s .
Approximate levels can be selected from the information above in
order to establish size of equipment and to estimate costs .
6.4 .3 Process Peformance
Lime stabilization reduces odors and odor production potential in
sludge , reduces pathogen levels, and alters dewatering, settling ,
and chemical characteristics of the sludge , The nature and
extent of the effects produced are described in the following
paragraphs .
6 -1 0 7
6.4.3.1 Odor Control
Lime treatment deodorizes sludge by c r e a t i n g a h i g h p H
environment in the sludge, thus eliminating or suppressing the
growth of microorganisms that produce malodorous gases , I n one
laboratory study ( 228 ), the threshhold odor number of raw mixed
primary and trickling filter sludges was 8, 000, while that of
lime- treated sludges ranged between 800 and 1300. T h e threshold
odor number defines the greatest dilution of the sample with
odor- free water to yield the least definitely perceptible odor
( 231 ). Sufficient lime must be added to retard pH decay because
odor generation will generally resume once the pH of the sludge
falls below pH 11.0 ( 220 , 228 ).
Hydrogen sulfide ( H 2 S ), a malodorous gas present in dissolved

form in sludge , is a major cause of sludge odors. Figure 6 -46
shows that , as the pH of sludge is raised , the fraction of total
sulfide in the H 2 S form decreases from about 50 percent at
pH 7 to essentially zero at pH 9. Consequently , above this pH ,
there is no longer any H 2 S odor.
100
in
Li. 80
->
z
J
-
H$
< 60
t-
o
i-
ix.
O 40 TO 3 MOLAR SOLUTION
-
l
z- H S
a
LU ^ g=
a: 20
LU
CL.
0
6 7 8 9
pH
FIGURE 6- 46
EFFECT OF pH ON HYDROGEN SULFIDE- SULFIDE EQUILIBRIUM
During full-scale operations at the Lebanon plant ( 229 ), odor was

intense when septic raw sludge was first pumped to the lime
stabilization mixing tank , O d o r intensity increased w h e n
diffused air was applied for mixing , W h e n lime was added , the
sludge odor was masked by the odor of ammonia t which was stripped
from the sludge by the air bubbled through the mixture. T h e
6-108
ammonia o d o r w a s m o s t intense with anaerobically digested s l u d g e
a n d w a s s t r o n g e n o u g h t o c a u s e n a s a l irritation , As m i x i n g
p r o c e e d e d , t h e treated s l u d g e acquired a m u s t y , mucus- like o d o r.
6.4 . 3.2 P a t h o g e n Reduction
Significant p a t h o g e n reductions c a n b e achieved in s l u d g e s t h a t

have been lime- treated t o p H 12.0 ( 2 2 8 , 2 2 9 ) .
T a b l e 6 - 2 7 lists
b a c t e r i a l e v e l s m e a s u r e d d u r i n g t h e f u l l - s c a l e studies a t
Lebanon and shows that lime stabilization o f raw sludges reduced
total coliform , f e c a l coliform , and f e c a l s t r e p t o c o c c i c o n c e n t r a-
tions by more t h a n 9 9 . 9 p e r c e n t. T h e n u m b e r s of Salmonella a n d
Pseud omonas aeruginosa were reduced below the level of
d e t e c t i o n. T a b l e 6 - 2 7 a l s o s h o w s that p a t h o g e n concentrations in
lime-stabilized s l u d g e s r a n g e d from 1 0 t o 1 , 000 times l e s s t h a n
those in anaerobically digested sludge f r o m the same p l a n t.
TABLE 6- 27
BACTERIA IN RAW , ANAEROBICALLY DIGESTED , AND

LIME STABILIZED SLUDGES AT LEBANON , OHIO (228 )
Bacterial density , number/100 ml

Total Fecal Feca 1 c Ps.
Sludge type coliforma coliform streptococci Salmonella aeruginasa
Raw
>
Primary
Waste-activated
Septage
Mixed primary and
2.9 x 10
8.3 x 10°:
2.9 x 108-^ 8 . 3 x 1 08
2 . 7 x 10
1 . 5 x 1 07
Z
3.9 x 10
-
1.0 x J j f c
6.7 4f io 5
'
62
6
6
5.5 x
195
754
103
-
waste activated 2.8 x 10
1 1.5 x 106 2.7 x 105 6 42
Lime stabilized
Primary
^ 1.2 x 10 5.9 x 103 1.6 x 10 * <3 <3
-
Waste activated
Septage
2.2 x 101
2.1 x 103
1.6 x 10
265
6.8 x 1 CT
665
<3
<3
13
<3
Anaerobically
digested 18 18 8.6 x 103 <3 <3
< «AH ii»
***•“ *
#
aMillipore
septage.
-
filter technique used for waste activated sludge and
MPN technique used for other sludges.
^
c
To pH equal to or greater than 12.0.
,
Detection limit = 3 .
•
Information on virus destruction in s l u d g e by lime stabilization

is s c a n t . There are numerous investigations on removal of
viruses from wastewater by lime flocculation but little on
destruction of viruses by elevated p H . A s t u d y by B e r g ( 2 3 3 )
m e a s u r e d t h e s t r u c t u r e of a polio virus in w a t e r by p H adjustment
alone, and indicate very rapid destruction a b o v e p H 1 1. Similar
e f f e c t s would be e x p e c t e d for o t h e r animal viruses.
6-1 0 9
Qualitative observation under a microscope has shown substantial
survival of higher organisms , such as hookworms, amoebic cysts ,
and Ascaris ova , after contact times of 24 hours at high
pH ( 226 ). It is not known whether long - term contact would
eventually destroy these organisms , A more complete discussion
of sludge disinfection is contained in Chapter 7.
6.4 . 3.3 Dewatering and Settling Characteristics

Lime has been used extensively as a conditioning agent to improve
the dewaterabi 1 ity of sludge , Trubnick and Mueller ( 234 )
presented detailed procedures to be followed in conditioning
sludge for filtration , using lime with and without ferric
chloride. Sontheimer ( 235 ) described the improvements in sludge
fi 1 terabi 1 ity produced by lime addition , A more detailed
discussion of lime conditioning is contained in Chapter 8.
The addition of lime has been shown to improve the filterability
of alum and iron primary sludges ( 226 ). Specific resistance was
reduced by a factor of approximately four, and filter yield was
increased by a factor of two when lime conditioning was used .
Counts and Shuckrow ( 228 ) studied the effect of lime treatment on
the fi 1 terabi 1 ity of primary sludge and trickling filter sludge
but could not detect any consistent trend .
The impact of lime stabilization on sand bed drying of sludge

has been examined by several researchers ( 226 , 228 , 229 ). Lime
additions to raw sludge increased the rate of drying at least
initially and , in one study , produced a drier final cake .
However , lime - treated primary sludge did not dry as fast as
either lime- treated or untreated anaerobically digested sludge
( 229 ).
The settling of lime-stabilized primary and mixed sludges was

enhanced in one study ( 228 ), indicating that gravity thickening
after lime treatment may be used to reduce the volume of sludge
to be dewatered .
6.4 . 3.4 Chemical Characteristics

Lime stabilization causes chemical changes in the sludge, The
nature of these changes is illustrated in Tables 6- 28 and 6-29 ,
which compile chemical data from two studies. The general effect
of lime addition is a reduction in component concentration. This
is caused by both dilution with lime slurry and loss of some
volatile sludge components to the atmosphere.
Lime - stabilized sludges have lower concentrations of soluble
phosphate, ammonia nitrogen, and total Kjeldahl nitrogen than
anaerobically digested sludge from the same plant , as shown in
Table 6 - 28. These lower nutrient levels reduce the agricultural
value of the sludge but , assuming nitrogen limits the rate - at
6-110
which s l u d g e c a n be applied , w o u l d allow more sludge t o be
applied per acre of land . A reduction in the soluble ( filter-
able ) phosphate concentration is caused by the reaction between
lime a n d dissolved o r t h o p h o s p h a t e t o f o r m calcium - p h o s p h a t e
precipitate. For this reason, residual phosphate in the super-
natant/filtrate after lime treatment is believed t o be largely
organic in n a t u r e ( 228 ). Nitrogen levels can be reduced during
lime stabilization if g a s e o u s a m m o n i a is stripped during a i r
mixing of the treated sludge. As the pH of the s l u d g e increases
from near neutral t o 12 , the predominant form of ammonia shifts
from t h e ammonium ion ( NH 4 + ) t o dissolved ammonia g a s ( NH 3 ).
Some of this g a s is carried off by t h e air bubbled through the
sludge for mixing.
TABLE 6- 28
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SLUDGES AT LEBANON, OHIO, BEFORE AND

AFTER LIME STABILIZATION ( 228 )
Concentration, average , mg/1
Total Total Volatile

Total . Soluble Total Soluble Kjeldahl Ammcnia suspended suspended
Sludge type Alkalinity COD COD phosphate phosphate nitrogen nitrogen solids solids
Primary
Before lime addition 1, 885 54 ,146 3,046 350 69 1, 656 22 3 48 , 700 36 , 100
After lime addition 4 , 313 41,180 3,556 283 36 1, 374 145 38 , 370 23 , 480
Waste activated
Before lime addition 1, 265 12 ,810 1,043 218 85 711 51 12 , 350 10,000
After lime addition 5,000 14 , 700 1, 619 263 25 1, 034 64 10 , 700 7 , 136
mixed sludge
Before lime addition 3, 593 60,372 1 ,011 580 15 2 , 731 709 61,140 33, 316
After lime addition 8 , 467 58,670 1, 809 381 2.9 1, 780 494 66 , 350 26 , 375
Septage
Before lime addition " 1, 897 24 ,940 1, 223 172 25 820 92 21,120 12 ,600
After lime addition 3 , 475 17 , 520 1 ,537 134 2.4 597 110 23 , 190 11, 390
A direct r e s u l t o f adding lime t o s l u d g e is t h a t t h e total

a l k a l i n i t y will rise t o a high value . This can affect t h e
suitability of t h e t r e a t e d s l u d g e f o r l a n d a p p l i c a t i o n , T h e
input can be positive or negative , depending o n soil conditions
a t t h e application site , D a t a in T a b l e 6 - 2 8 indicates t h e
magnitude of change in alkalinity.
Biochemical o x y g e n demand , chemical o x y g e n demand , and t o t a l

organic carbon concentrations increase in the liquid fraction of
wastewater sludges when lime is added ( 228 , 229 ). Organic m a t t e r
is dissolved in t h e high pH environment. Possible reactions
involved include saponification of fats arid oils, hydrolysis and
dissolution of proteins , and decomposition of proteins t o form
methanol ( 228 ).
Lime stabilization usually d o e s not p r o d u c e the substantial
reductions in volatile m a t t e r associated with anaerobic a n d
aerobic sludge digestion. However , volatile solids concentra-
tions decreased by 1 0 t o 35 p e r c e n t after lime additions in the
6-111
p l a n t -s c a l e studies a t L e b a n o n ( 2 2 9 ), a s s h o w n i n T a b l e 6- 2 8 .
R e d u c t i o n s i n t o t a l solids concentration a f t e r lime stabilization
w e r e m e a s u r e d by C o u n t s a n d S h u n c k r o w ( 2 2 8 ). T h e s e reductions,
displayed in T a b l e 6- 2 9 , a r e g r e a t e r t h a n c a n be a c c o u n t e d f o r
s i m p l y by dilution with lime s l u r r y. I t m a y be simply t h a t t h e
l i m e i n t e r f e r e d w i t h t h e v o l a t i l e s o l i d s a n a l y s i s , H o w e v e r,
reactions b e t w e e n lime a n d n i t r o g e n o u s o r g a n i c m a t t e r m a y c a u s e a
l o s s o f s l u d g e solids. H y d r o l y s i s o f p r o t e i n s a n d d e s t r u c t i o n o f
amino acids a r e k n o w n t o occur by r e a c t i o n with s t r o n g b a s e s.
Volatile s u b s t a n c e s s u c h as ammonia , w a t e r, a n d l o w m o l e c u l a r
weight amines o r o t h e r volatile o r g a n i c s m a y possibly b e f o r m e d
a n d l o s t t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e.
6 . 4.4 Process Design
A lime stabilization o p e r a t i o n is divided i n t o t w o o p e r a t i o n s:

lime handling and sludge mixing , Lime handling comprises
facilities for receiving storing, transporting, feeding , and
" s l u r r y i n g " o f t h e lime. T h e s l u d g e m i x i n g o p e r a t i o n consists o f
a h o l d i n g t a n k p r o v i d e d w i t h m i x i n g. A d i s c u s s i o n o f d e s i g n
considerations f o r t h e s e t w o o p e r a t i o n s f o l l o w s.
6.4.4.1 D e s i g n o f Lime H a n d l i n g F a c i l i t i e s
L i m e , in i t s v a r i o u s f o r m s , i s t h e p r i n c i p a l a n d l o w e s t c o s t
alkali used in industry a n d w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t. A s a r e s u l t , a
substantial b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e h a s e v o l v e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e m o s t
e f f i c i e n t h a n d l i n g o f l i m e. O n l y t h e b a s i c e l e m e n t s o f l i m e
s y s t e m d e s i g n a r e described in this m a n u a l. Detailed i n f o r m a t i o n
is contained in s e v e r a l r e f e r e n c e s t h a t f o c u s o n t h e selection,
h a n d l i n g , a n d u s e o f l i m e ( 2 3 6-2 3 9 ).
L i m e Characteristics
Lime is a g e n e r a l t e r m a p p l i e d t o s e v e r a l c h e m i c a l c o m p o u n d s t h a t
s h a r e t h e c o m m o n characteristic o f b e i n g h i g h l y alkaline , The
t w o f o r m s commercially available are q u i c k l i m e ( C a O ) a n d hydrated
l i m e ( C a( O H ) 2 ) • The characteristics of these two chemicals
a r e summarized in T a b l e 6-3 0 . L i m e i s a caustic m a t e r i a l a n d c a n
c a u s e s e v e r e i n j u r y t o t i s s u e, p a r t i c u l a r l y t o e y e s , E q u i p m e n t
m u s t b e d e s i g n e d with s a f e h a n d l i n g in mind ; e y e w a s h fountains
and safety showers should be provided, and operating procedures
should mandate use of proper handling procedures and protective
c l o t h i n g.
Quicklime is derived from limestone by a high temperature

calcination process, It consists primarily of the oxides of
calcium a n d magnesium , T h e g r a d e of q u i c k l i m e m o s t c o m m o n l y used
in w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t c o n t a i n s 8 5 t o 9 0 p e r c e n t C a O.
6-112
TABLE 6- 29
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SLUDGE AND SUPERNATANT
BEFORE AND AFTER LIME STABILIZATION3 ( 227 )
Primary Trickling filter Mixed

Parameter sludge humus sludge
Whole sludge
PH
Before lime addition 6.0 6.3 6.1
After lime addition . 12.1 12.3 12.0
Total solids (wt percent)
Before lime treatment 3.6 3.0 3.6
After lime treatment 3.2 2.7 3.3
Total alkalinity ( mg/1 as
CaC03)
Before lime addition 1 ,141 1, 151 1 , 213
After lime addition 6 ,920 6 ,240 5,760
Ammonia nitrogen (mg N/l)
Before lime addition 211 274 192
After lime addition 91 148 87
Organic nitrogen (mg N/l)
Before lime addition 1,066 1 ,179 1, 231
After lime addition 1,146 995 1,099
Nitrate nitrogen (mg N/l )
Total phosphate ( mg P/1)
Before lime addition •
342 305 468
Filterable phosphate (mg P/1 )
Supernatant
TOC (mg/1)
Before lime addition 1 , 000 917 1 , 175
After lime addition 2 ,083 1 ,883 2, 250
BOD (mg/1)
Before lime addition 1,120 964 1,137
After lime addition 1 ,875 1 ,981 2,102
Threshhold odor number*5
Before lime addition 4 , 889 5, 333 933

Total solids (wt percent)
Before lime addition 0.1 0. 1 0.2
After lime addition 0.6 0.5 0.7
aValues in this table are averages of three tests for each sludge type.
^ -
The greatest dilution with odor free water to yield the least perceptible odor.
Quicklime is rarely applied directly ( that is , in a dry

condition ) to the sludge. First it is concerted to hydrated lime
by reaction with water in an exothermic reaction called slaking.
CaO + H2O > Ca(OH j 2 + Heat
6-113
During slaking , t h e generally coarse C a O p a r t i c l e s a r e r u p t u r e d ,
splitting into m i c r o p a r t i c l e s of Ca (0H )2 * T h e s e smaller p a r-
t i d e s h a v e a large t o t a l s u r f a c e a r e a a n d a r e highly reactive.
T h e s l a k i n g reaction is carried o u t u n d e r c l o s e l y c o n t r o l l e d
conditions t o p r o m o t e maximum lime reactivity.
TABLE 6- 30
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUICKLIME AND HYDRATED LIME

Common name/ Available Containers and Appearance and Weight , lb/cu ft Commercial Solubility
formula forms requirements properties (bulk density) strength in water
Quicklime/
CaO
Pebble
Crushed
-
80 100 lb moisture
proof bags , wooden
- White (light grey ,
tan) lumps to
55 to 75; to calcu
late hopper capa
-
-
70 to 96 percent CaO Reacts to form Ca(OH)2
(Below 88 percent each lb of quicklime
Lump
Ground
barrels , and car
loads. Store dry ;
- powder. Unstable ,
caustic irritant.
city --
use 55; Sp.
G., 3.2 3.4.
can be poor quality) will form 1.16 to
1.32 lb of Ca(OH)2,
Pulverized maximum 60 days in Slakes to hydrox - with 2 to 12 percent
tight container
3 months in mois-
- ide slurry evolving
heat (490 Btu/lb).
grit, depending on
purity.
-
ture proof bag. Air slakes to
CaC03. Sat. sol.
approximately pH
12.5
Hydrated lime/
Ca(OH)2
Powde r
(Passes 200
50 lb bags , 100 lb
barrels, and car - -
powder free of
-
White , 200 400 mesh ; 25 40; to calculate
hopper capacity -
Ca(OH )2- 82 to 98
percent; CaO -
62
10 lb/1,000 gal at
°
7Q F
mesh) loads. Store dry ; lumps; caustic , use 30; Sp. G., to 74 percent (Std. 5.6 lb/1 ,000 gal at
maximum one year. dusty irritant ; ab-
sorbs H2O and CO2
-
2.3 2.4 70 percent) 175 F
°
from air to form
Ca(HCO3)2. Sat.
sol. approximately
pH 12.4.
1 lb ^ 0.454 kg
-
100 Btu/lb = 55 kg cal/kg
1 lb/cu ft = 16 kg/m 3
1 lb/1,000 gal = 0.120 g/1
If slaking is d o n e by t h e lime manufacturer, h y d r a t e d lime is

delivered t o the w a s t e w a t e r treatment plant. T h e manufacturer
adds o n l y enough w a t e r for hydration, producing a d r y Ca ( 0H )2
p o w d e r. At the w a s t e treatment plant, t h e p o w d e r is then s l u r-
ried with more water prior t o mixing with s l u d g e. Alternatively ,
slaking may b e carried o u t a t t h e wastewater treatment p l a n t ; t h e
delivered p r o d u c t is , t h e r e f o r e, quicklime. I n this case, t h e
l i m e i s s l a k e d , t h e n d i l u t e d ( if n e c e s s a r y ) p r i o r t o p r o c e s s
application.
Direct addition of d r y quicklime to s l u d g e and without t h e use
o f a s e p a r a t e s l a k e r , is p r a c t i c e d in D e n m a r k in a t l e a s t
t e n S w e d i s h t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s. P o t e n t i a l a d v a n t a g e s a r e t h e
elimination of slaking equipment and the generation of heat,
w h i c h c a n i m p r o v e p a t h o g e n reduction a n d s p e e d d e w a t e r i n g
t h r o u g h e v a p o r a t i o n. I n o n e c a s e ( 2 3 0 ) , d i r e c t additions o f
d r y quicklime were m a d e t o raise s l u d g e pH a b o v e 1 3 . 0 and bring
t h e t e m p e r a t u r e t o 1 7 6 ° F ( 8 0° C ). S a l m o n e l l a a n d i n t e s t i n a l
p a r a s i t e s w e r e k i l l e d within t w o h o u r s. H e a t g e n e r a t e d by
slaking of quicklime d o e s not raise t e m p e r a t u r e significantly
u n l e s s t h e s l u d g e is dewatered and t h e lime d o s e is high --o n the
o r d e r o f 4 0 0 t o 8 0 0 lb p e r t o n d r y solids ( 2 0 0- 4 0 0 kg /t ).
T h e d e c i s i o n w h e t h e r t o p u r c h a s e q u i c k l i m e o r h y d r a t e d lime
in a p a r t i c u l a r situation is influenced by a number of factors
s u c h a s size of t r e a t m e n t facility , material c o s t, a n d s t o r a g e
6-1 1 4
requirements. The cost of hydrated lime is about 30 percent
greater thanthe cost of quicklime with an equivalent calcium
oxide content. The difference is due to the higher production
and transportation costs for hydrated lime , Nevertheless ,
-
hydrated lime is preferred for small scale operations mainly
because its use eliminates the labor and equipment required for
slaking . Hydrated lime is also more stable and therefore is
easier to handle and to store. When lime use exceeds three to
four tons per day ( 3 , 000 - 4 , 000 kg / day ) , quicklime should be
considered because of its inherent economy ( 236 ). Selection
of the type of lime to be used should be based on a detailed
economic analysis, taking into account all the unique factors of
the particular application.
Both quicklime and hydrated lime react spontaneously with
atmospheric CO 2.
CaO + CO 2 — » CaC03
Ca ( OH ) 2 + C02 > CaC03 + H 20
In addition , quicklime can be slaked by the water vapor in the

air.
These reactions cause two problems:
• Lime quality is degraded because the reaction product ,

CaC03 , is ineffective in raising pH.
• The partial reaction with CO 2 > and in the case of CaO ,

with water vapor , causes caking. This interferes with
lime slaking and feeding .
Thus , lime storage , slaking , and feeding equipment should be
sealed to as great a degree as possible to prevent contact of
lime with atmospheric CO 2 and water vapor.
Delivery and Storage of Lime
Lime can be delivered either in bags or in bulk . The choice
depends mostly on the rate of chemical use at the treatment
plant. Bagged lime costs about 20 percent more than bulk lime ,
but it is generally preferred where daily requirements are less
than 1000 to 1500 pounds of lime per day ( 236 ). At this small
scale, handling and storage of bagged lime is relatively simple ,
involving manual labor or simple mechanical aids. As the scale
of operation increases , it becomes more efficient and economical
to use bulk lime , which can be delivered in large quantities ,
transported in mechanical or pneumatic conveying systems, and
stored in weather- tight bins or silos.
Bagged lime must be stored under cover to prevent rain from
wetting the bags. Proper handling is especially important when
'
quicklime is used , because it is highly reactive with water ,
6-115
producing heat and swelling that can cause the bags to burst .
B e c a u s e h e a t c a n b e g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g accidental slaking o f
q u i c k l i m e , b a g s s h o u l d never be s t o r e d close t o combustible
materials.
Hydrated lime may be stored under dry conditions for periods up
to a year without serious deterioration by reaction with atmos-
pheric CC> 2 ( recarbonation ). Quicklime deteriorates more rapidly .
Under good storage conditions , with multiwall moisture- proofed
bags , quicklime may be held as long as six months , but in general
should not be stored for more than three months ( 236 ).
Bulk quicklime and hydrated lime can be stored in conventional

steel or concrete silos or bins. The storage facilities must be
airtight to prevent slaking and recarbonation. Pebble quicklime
is free-flowing and will discharge readily from storage bins if
the hopper bottoms have a minimum slope of 60 degrees from the
horizontal. Pulverized quicklime and especially hydrated lime
have a tendency to arch and therefore require some type of
mechanical or aeration agitation to ensure uniform discharge from
storage bins. Detailed descriptions of the various types of
flow-aiding devices can be found elsewhere ( 236 , 240 ).
Storage facilities should be sized on daily lime demand , type and
reliability of delivery , future chemical requirements , and an
allowance for flexibility and expansion , As a minimum , storage
should be provided to supply a seven-day lime demand ; however ,
sufficient storage to supply 1 ime for two to three weeks is
desirable. In any case , the total storage volume should be
at least 50 percent greater than the capacity of the delivery
railcar or truck to ensure adequate lime supply between
shipments ( 236 ).
Lime Feeding
Lime is nearly always delivered to the sludge mixing vessel as a
Ca ( OH ) 2 slurry ( milk-of -1 ime ). This facilitates transport t o
the point of application and improves lime dispersion and
reaction efficiency. The exact series of steps through which dry
lime is wetted and introduced to the sludge varies according to
such factors as the scale of the operation , the type of lime
purchased , and the method of storage , T h e following paragraphs
outline the basic lime - feeding schemes , T h e discussion is
largely derived from a bulletin published by the National Lime
,
Association ( 236 ) which should be referred to for more detail.
Feeding of Hydrated Lime - In small treatment plants where bagged

hydrated lime is purchased , the dry chemical is simply mixed with
water in a batch tank and metered t o t h e s l u d g e mixing tank as
require d. Solutions of lime a r e n o t corrosive , s o t h a t a n
unlined steel tank is sufficient for mixing and storage of the
slurry. Hydrated lime is fed as a 6 to 18 percent Ca ( OH ) 2
slurry by weight , the percentage depending on the application and
6-116
on o p e r a t o r p r e f e r e n c e. T h e milk-of- lime can be discharged t o
t h e s l u d g e in o n e b a t c h o r m e t e r e d c o n t i n u o u s l y t o t h e b a s i n
t h r o u g h a solution feeder.
In larger operations, where h y d r a t e d lime is stored in bulk , a

more automated mixing and feeding s c h e m e is appropriate , A dry
chemical feeder is used for continuous delivery of a m e a s u r e d
amount of dry lime to a dilution tank , T h e f e e d e r is o f t e n
positioned directly at the base of the bulk storage bin to
minimize dry lime t r a n s p o r t distance.
T w o g e n e r a l t y p e s of automated d r y feeders are available:
• V o l u m e t r i c f e e d e r s , which d e l i v e r a c o n s t a n t , p r e s e t
v o l u m e o f c h e m i c a l in a u n i t o f time , r e g a r d l e s s o f
c h a n g e s in material density.
• Gravimetric feeders, which discharge a c o n s t a n t weight o f

chemical in a unit o f time.
Gravimetric feeders cost roughly twice as much as volumetric
feeders with an equivalent capacity and require more maintenance,
but t h e y a r e more a c c u r a t e, M o s t manufacturers of gravimetric
f e e d e r s will g u a r a n t e e a minimum accuracy o f within o n e p e r c e n t ,
by w e i g h t, o f t h e s e t r a t e, Volumetric f e e d e r s, o n t h e o t h e r
h a n d , m a y h a v e a n e r r o r o f 3 0 p e r c e n t by w e i g h t , d u e t o t h e
varying bulk density of hydrated lime , Gravimetric feeders are
p r e f e r r e d because of their g r e a t e r accuracy and dependability ,
but t h e less expensive volumetric t y p e may be sufficient w h e n
l i m i t e d f u n d s a r e a v a i l a b l e , w h e n g r e a t e r chemical f e e d i n g
a c c u r a c y is n o t required , o r w h e n a r e d u c e d d e g r e e o f maintenance
is desirable.
D r y hydrated lime is delivered t o a dilution tank t h a t is often

fitted directly o n t o the f e e d e r. T h e t a n k is agitated by either
c o m p r e s s e d air, w a t e r jets , o r impeller type mixers. T h e lime
s l u r r y is t h e n transferred t o the s l u d g e mixing basins. This
t r a n s f e r operation is the m o s t troublesome s i n g l e operation in
the lime h a n d l i n g p r o c e s s . T h e milk - -
o f l i m e r e a c t s w i t h
a t m o s p h e r i c COg o r c a r b o n a t e s in t h e d i l u t i o n w a t e r t o f o r m
h a r d , t e n a c i o u s CaCOg s c a l e s which , , with time , c a n p l u g t h e
t r a n s f e r line. B e c a u s e t h e m a g n i t u d e o f this p r o b l e m is in
direct proportion t o t h e distance over which the s l u r r y must be
transferred , lime f e e d e r facilities should be located a s close as
possible t o t h e lime/ s l u d g e mixing t a n k s. Pumping of the lime
s l u r r y should be avoided ( if possible, gravity transfer should be
u s e d ) , a n d a l l a p p a r a t u s s h o u l d b e accessible f o r c l e a n i n g.
S c a l i n g in lime s l u r r y s y s t e m s h a s b e e n p r e v e n t e d t h r o u g h
t h e u s e o f a c h e m i c a l additive t h a t i n t e r f e r s with c r y s t a l
f o r m a t i o n. Design features and operating techniques used
s u c c e s s f u l l y for milk -of-lime transfer are described in detail in
reference 236 .
6-117
Direct addition of d r y hydrated lime t o centrifuge c a k e w a s
tested in a pilot -scale study at the wastewater treatment plant
in Downington , Pennsylvania. An undigested mixture of primary
and secondary sludges was dewatered t o a solids concentration of
20 p e r c e n t , and t h e n blended with p o w d e r e d Ca( OH )2 for t e n
minutes in a twin- p a d d l e mixer. Addition of 2 0 0 p o u n d s o f
hydrated lime per ton dry ( 1 0 0 kg /t ) raised sludge pH t o 11.8 ,
r e d u c e d p a t h o g e n levels t o below t h e detection limit , and
controlled odor and fly problems.
Slaking and Feeding of Q u i c k l i m e - Feeding of q u i c k l i m e is

similar t o t h a t for h y d r a t e d lime , e x c e p t t h a t t h e r e is a n
additional step , slaking , in which the quicklime reacts s p o n t a n-
eously with water t o form hydrated lime. Bagged quicklime can be
slaked in batches by simply mixing one p a r t quicklime with two t o
three p a r t s water in a steel trough while blending with a hoe.
Proportions should be adjusted s o that the heat of the reaction
maintains the temperature of the reacting mass near 200 ° F ( 9 3° C ).
T h e r e s u l t i n g thin p a s t e s h o u l d be h e l d f o r 3 0 minutes a f t e r
mixing to complete hydration. Manually operated batch slaking is
a potentially h a z a r d o u s o p e r a t i o n and s h o u l d be avoided if
possible. Uneven distribution of water can produce explosive
boiling a n d s p l a t t e r i n g of lime s l u r r y , U s e of p r o t e c t i v e
equipment should be mandatory , For small plants, the potential
gain in using the lower-priced quicklime is smaller, because lime
consumption is smaller. Use of slaked lime is safer, simpler,
and requires less labor.
Continuous slaking is accomplished in automated machines that

a l s o d i l u t e and degrit t h e lime s l u r r y , Several types of
continuous s l a k e r s a r e available , T h e y v a r y mainly in t h e
proportion of lime t o water mixed initially , A volumetric or
gravimetric dry chemical feeder is used t o measure quicklime as
it is moved from bulk storage t o the slaker. Since quicklime is
available in a wide range of particle sizes, it is important t o
match the dry feeder with the t y p e of quicklime t o be used in t h e
particular application.
6.4 . 4.2 Mixing Tank Design
A tank must be provided for mixing raw s l u d g e with lime slurry

and t h e n holding t h e mixture for a minimum contact time. Many o f
the currently operating lime stabilization facilities d o not have
tanks with sufficient capacity t o hold sludge for more than a
f e w minutes. A l t h o u g h t h e s e operations g e n e r a l l y h a v e b e e n
successful , the acceptability of very short detention times has
n o t been conclusively demonstrated , Because of the uncertainty
s u r r o u n d i n g this p r a c t i c e , it is recommended t h a t a l l lime
stabilization facilities include a tank large enough t o hold the
lime s l u d g e mixture f o r 30 minutes , T h e pH o f t h e r e a c t e d
mixture should exceed 12.5 during this period.
6 -1 1 8
T h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s discuss t w o a s p e c t s o f m i x i n g t a n k
design - tank sizing and mixing , T o d e t e r m i n e t a n k s i z e, a
designer m u s t first select a flow m o d e, T h e following section
o n t a n k sizing describes flow modes. T h e s u b s e q u e n t section o n
t a n k mixing c o v e r s the g e n e r a l t y p e s o f mixers a n d s u g g e s t s
criteria for sizing mixing s y s t e m s.
Tank Sizing Considerations

M i x i n g t a n k s c a n b e o p e r a t e d a s either a b a t c h p r o c e s s o r
continuous flow process , I n the batch mode, t h e t a n k is filled
with s l u d g e, and t h e n sufficient lime is added t o maintain the p H
o f the s l u d g e- lime mixture a b o v e 1 2 . 5 f o r t h e next 3 0 minutes.
A f t e r this minimum c o n t a c t time, the stabilized s l u d g e can b e
transferred t o dewatering facilities o r t o either tank trucks o r
a pipeline for land application, Once the holding tank is
emptied , t h e c y c l e begins a g a i n.
In the continuous flow mode, t h e p H a n d volume o f s l u d g e in t h e

holding tank a r e held c o n s t a n t. Entering raw s l u d g e displaces a n
equal volume of treated s l u d g e. Lime is added continuously , in
p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e f l o w o f i n c o m i n g r a w s l u d g e , a n d t h u s, t h e
holding time would v a r y . T h e lime d o s e m u s t be sufficient t o
k e e p t h e c o n t e n t s o f the tank at a pH o f 12.5. O f t e n t h e daily
c y c l e of s l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n d o e s n o t m a t c h t h e p a t t e r n o f s l u d g e
disposal. I n this case, a s y s t e m could be o p e r a t e d o n a semi-
c o n t i n u o u s b a s i s, w h e r e t h e q u a n t i t y o f s l u d g e in t h e t a n k
fluctuates through the day . Here the treatment tank would be
used a s a buffer between s l u d g e production and disposal.
I t is m o s t common t o o p e r a t e lime stabilization s y s t e m s in t h e

batch flow mode . B a t c h o p e r a t i o n s are v e r y simple and a r e w e l l
suited f o r s m a l l-s c a l e, manually o p e r a t e d s y s t e m s. W h e n a d e q u a t e
c a p a c i t y is p r o v i d e d , t h e m i x i n g t a n k s can a l s o be u s e d t o
gravity thicken t h e lime-t r e a t e d s l u d g e before d i s p o s a l . I n very
s m a l l t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s, t a n k c a p a c i t y s h o u l d b e a d e q u a t e t o
t r e a t t h e maximum-d a y s l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n in o n e b a t c h. This is
because small p l a n t s are generally o p e r a t e d only during t h e d a y ,
and it is u s u a l l y desirable t o stabilize the entire d a y 's s l u d g e
in one batch . L a r g e r p l a n t s are more likely t o b e manned round-
.
t h e- c l o c k B e c a u s e s l u d g e can be p r o c e s s e d o v e r t h e whole d a y ,
stabilization t a n k s c a n b e relatively smaller.
Continuous-flow stabilization s y s t e m s require automated control

of lime feeding and t h e r e f o r e are u s u a l l y not c o s t- effective f o r
small- s c a l e o p e r a t i o n s. T h e primary a d v a n t a g e of continuous- flow
s y s t e m s o v e r batch s y s t e m s is t h a t a smaller t a n k size may b e
possible. Capacity d o e s n o t h a v e t o be provided f o r s t o r a g e o f
s l u d g e b e t w e e n batches, I n s t e a d , t h e mixing tank m u s t o n l y b e
large enough to ensure that all sludge particles are held
a t h i g h p H f o r a c o n t a c t t i m e sufficient t o i d e s t r o y o d o r a n d
disease- producing organisms. %
6 -1 1 9
T h e m o s t important d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r for a continuous flow ,
w e l l- mixed r e a c t o r is the nominal detention time ( defined as tank
volume divided by volumetric input flow r a t e ), Unlike a batch
t a n k , where c o n t a c t time of a l l p a r t i c l e s is t h e s a m e , some
particles in a well- mixed , continuously fed tank escape after
relatively short contact, Thus, 30 minutes of pH a t 12.5 in a
batch mixer might not be the same as 3 0 minutes residence time
in a well- mixed , continuously fed r e a c t o r.
In making a recommendation for detention time , the nature of the
t r e a t m e n t t h a t o c c u r s m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d . Unlike some
t r e a t m e n t s , s u c h a s irradiation , t h e t r e a t m e n t d o e s n o t s t o p
after the treated sludge leaves the vessel. If pH is 12.5 as
the sludge leaves the mixing t a n k , it remains a t this pH after
l e a v i n g. C o n s e q u e n t l y , a 3 0 - m i n u t e d e t e n t i o n t i m e in a
continuously fed , well- mixed reactor is adequate, provided the pH
is measured in an exit line. If pH of the limed sludge appears
t o fall too rapidly upon standing , it is a simple matter t o move
the pH sensor and t o control lime feed rate t o a position further
downstream.
Thickening of raw sludge before lime addition will reduce the

mixing t a n k capacity requirement in direct proportion t o t h e
reduction in sludge volume , However, the lime requirement will
be reduced only slightly by prethickening , since most o f the lime
demand is associated with the solids ( 2 2 7 ) , and total solids mass
is not changed by thickening.
Tank Mixing
Lime/s l u d g e mixtures c a n be mixed with either diffused air o r
mechanical mixers. T h e agitation should be g r e a t enough to k e e p
sludge solids suspended and t o distribute the lime slurry evenly
and rapidly . B o t h diffused air and mechanical s y s t e m s can
provide a d e q u a t e mixing , a l t h o u g h the f o r m e r has been m o r e
commonly used in pilot studies and full scale operations. In
addition t o their mixing function, sparger air systems supply
oxygen and , thereby , can be used for sludge aeration before the
s l u d g e is d o s e d with lime. I f s t o r a g e of unlimed s l u d g e is
contemplated , the designer should check that the air requirement
for mixing is sufficient to meet the oxygen demand of the sludge.
O x y g e n requirements are discussed in t h e section o n aerobic
digestion.
There are disadvantages to both types of mixing systems .

Mechanical mixers are subject t o fouling with rags , string , and
o t h e r debris in t h e s l u d g e. A l t h o u g h a i r s p a r g e r s may c l o g ,
fouling problems are greatly reduced by mixing with air. Ammonia
will be s t r i p p e d from t h e s l u d g e w h e n mixing is d o n e with
diffused air, producing odors and reducing the fertilizer value
of the treated s l u d g e , However, if nitrogen levels limit land
application rates, this stripping of ammonia will reduce land
requirements for disposal. A further, although probably minor,
-
6 120
problem with air mixing is that CO 2 is absorbed by the sludge/
lime mixture , tending to raise the quantity of lime required to
reach the desired pH. The selection of the method of mixing
should be based on the factors described above , coupled with an
economic evaluation.
With air mixing , coarse bubble diffusers should be used , mounted
pattern.
-
along one of the tank walls to induce a spiral roll mixing '
An air supply of 20 to 30 scfm per 1 ,000 cubic feet

-
( 20 30 m /min /1 ,000 m ) is required for adequate mixing ( 241 ).
^ ^
If the mixing tank is enclosed , ventilation should be sufficient
to remove odorous gases stripped from the sludge during mixing.
In many cases , these gases should be treated in an odor control
unit before being discharged into the atmosphere.
Mechanical mixer specifications for various tank sizes are
presented in Table 6 31. - Sizing is based on two criteria:
maintaining the bulk fluid velocity ( defined as the turbine
agitator pumping capacity divided by the cross sectional area of
the mixing vessel ) above 26 feet per minute ( 8.5 m/min ), and
using an impeller Reynolds number greater than 1 ,000. The
-
tank/mixer combinations in Table 6 31 are adequate for mixing
sludges with up to 10 percent dry solids and viscosity of
1 ,000 cp. Impellers on mechanical mixers should be designed to
minimize fouling with debris in the sludge .
6.4.5 Costs and Energy Usage
Engineering decisions are commonly based on a comparison of costs
for feasible solutions. Energy considerations are now also
-
becoming important in the decision making process , This section
discusses costs and energy usage for lime stabilization systems.
6.4.5.1 Capital and Operating Costs

Cost estimates for the construction and operation of three
different size lime stabilization systems are summarized in
-
Table 6 32. A comparison of these costs shows that there is
a large economy of scale , especially for the capital costs.
Operation and maintenance expenses, particularly those for lime ,
are more closely related to the quantity of sludge treated.
Comparisons of the cost of lime treatment with other
stabilization methods must take into account that the addition
of l i m e increases the quantity of solids to be handled after
stabilization. In contrast , s.ludge solids actually decrease
during anaerobic and aerobic digestion , This difference between
stabilization methods can have an important effect on costs
for final disposal of sludge. The magnitude of this cost
-
differential is site specific and depends on such factors as the
method of disposal and the distance to the disposal site.
6-121
TABLE 6- 31
MECHANICAL MIXER SPECIFICATIONS FOR SLUDGE SLURRIES ( 228 )

Tank size , Tank diameter , Motor size , Shaft speed , Turbine
gal ft hp rpm diameter , ft
5,000 9.5 7.5 125 2.7
5 84 3.2
3 56 3.6
15,000 13.7 20 100 3.7

15 63 4.4
10 45 5.3
7.5 37 5.6
30 ,000 17.2 40 84 4.8

30 68 5.1
25 56 5.5
20 37 6.8
75 ,000 23.4 100 100 5.2
75 68 6.2
60 56 6.6
50 45 7. 3
100,000 25.7 125 84 6.0

100 68 6. 5
75 45 7.8
Assumptions:
Bulk fluid velocity > 26 ft/min. (8.5 m/min.).
Impeller Reynolds number > 1 ,000.
Mixing tank configuration.
Liquid depth equals tank diameter.
Baffles with a width of 1/12 the tank diameter ,
placed at 90 degrees spacing.
Mixing theory and equations after References 155 and 242.
1 gal = 3.785 1
1 ft 0.305 m
1 hp = 0.746 kW
6.4 . 5.2 Energy Usage

Energy is required during both the construction and operation
of a lime stabilization system. During operation of a lime
stabilization facility , the principal direct use of energy is
electricity for mixing the lime/sludge mixture. A rough estimate
of the annual energy requirement for mixing with diffused air is
290 kWh per year per cfm of blower capacity ( based on continuous
duty ). This estimate was made assuming a six psig ( 0.4 kg/m )
pressure boost , standard inlet conditions , and an overall ^
compressor/motor efficiency of 60 percent. One horsepower of
mechanical mixing requires about 6 ,500 kWhr of electricity per
year. These mixing energy demands can be expressed in terms of a
primary fuel requirement ( that is , fuel oil , coal , natural gas )
by applying a conversion factor of 10 ,700 Btu ( 2 ,700 kg cal) per
kWh of electricity . This factor assumes a fuel conversion
-
efficiency of 35 percent at the power plant and a transmission
efficiency of 91 percent.
-
6 122
TABLE 6- 32
ESTIMATED AVERAGE ANNUAL COSTS FOR LIME

STABILIZATION FACILITIES 3 ( 228 )
Treatment plant
capacity , mgd
Item 1 4 40e
Capital ^
Operation and main-
10 ,500 30 ,100 87 , 200
tenance0 12 ,600 35 ,900 257 ,400
Total 23 ,100 66 ,000 344 ,600
Unit cost , ^
(dollars/ton dry
sludge solids) 54.17 39.27 20.51
aAll costs expressed in 1978 dollars.

Amortized over 30 years at 7 percent.
Includes cost of all buildings , equip-
ment , and piping for lime storage and
funding , and for sludge mixing and
lagoon storage , except as noted.
CAverage lime dose of 0.2 lb Ca( OH)2/lb
dry solids. Hydrated lime (47 percent
CaO , $44.50/ton) used in the 1-mgd
system , otherwise , quicklime (85 per -
cent CaO , $40/ton). All labor at
$6.50/hr. Does not include cost for
transport and disposal.
d
Primary plus waste-activated sludge ,
2 ,300 lb dry sludge solids produced/
mil gal of wastewater treated ( 1.20
x 10 -^ Kg/m ).
^
0
Includes sludge thickening but not
lagoon storage.
Large amounts of energy are used in the production of quicklime.
Quicklime ( CaO ) is produced by burning limestone ( CaCOg ) in
kilns. This process , termed calcination , is illustrated in the
following reaction:
heat
CaCOg CaO + CO 2
The current national average energy consumption for all quicklime

production is about 7.0 million Btu per ton of quicklime ( 1.9 x
1 0 6 kg cal/metric ton ) ( 243 ). This figure is decreasing since
-
-
6 123
modern p l a n t s, using large a n d more efficient kilns, should be
a b l e t o p r o d u c e one t o n o f q u i c k l i m e w i t h about 5.5 million B t u
( 1.5 x 106 kg -cal/metrie t o n ).
6 . 4.6 Design E x a m p l e
This section illustrates the layout and sizing of the major
c o m p o n e n t s in a lime stabilization s y s t e m. F o r this e x a m p l e ,
it is a s s u m e d t h a t t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t h a s a c a p a c i t y o f
approximately 8 M G D ( 3 5 0 1/s ) and provides secondary t r e a t m e n t t o
typical municipal wastewater. A mixture of primary s l u d g e a n d
thickened w a s t e- activated s l u d g e is t o be stabilized with lime ,
t h e n mechanically dewatered , a n d ultimately s p r e a d o n t o land.
6.4 . 6.1 Design Loading

S l u d g e production estimates f o r t w o flow conditions , average and
peak d a y , a r e listed in T a b l e 6- 2 0 ( provided previously in t h e
a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n s e c t i o n ), T h e p e a k - l o a d i n g is l i s t e d
because critical c o m p o n e n t s must be sized t o m e e t this critical
condition. C h a p t e r 4 p r o v i d e s a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p r o c e d u r e
t o determine s l u d g e production values. S l u d g e solids c o n c e n t r a-
tions a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g s l u d g e v o l u m e s a r e a l s o included in
Table 6 - 2 0.
6.4.6 . 2 S y s t e m Description
The conceptual design for the lime stabilization system is

presented o n F i g u r e 6- 4 7. Prior t o stabilization, a l l s l u d g e is
passed t h r o u g h a n inline g r i n d e r. T h i s conditioning improves
s l u d g e m i x i n g a n d f l o w characteristics , p r o t e c t s d o w n s t r e a m
p u m p i n g a n d d e w a t e r i n g e q u i p m e n t, a n d e l i m i n a t e s u n s i g h t l y
conditions ( s u c h a s rags , sticks, plastic ) a t t h e d i s p o s a l site.
T w o batch mixing tanks are provided , each with the capacity t o
treat t h e total s l u d g e p r o d u c e d in a n eight- h o u r shift during
p e a k d a y conditions , W h i l e o n e t a n k is f i l l i n g , s l u d g e in
t h e o t h e r i s d o s e d w i t h l i m e , mixed f o r 3 0 m i n u t e s , a n d t h e n
discharged t o t h e dewatering equipment. Since the mixing t a n k s
a r e sized f o r p e a k conditions , t h e y c a n provide some short- t e r m
s t o r a g e f o r t r e a t e d s l u d g e d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f l o w e r l o a d i n g.
Design of an actual facility should take into consideration the
operating schedule for dewatering and disposal.
In this example, it is assumed that dewatering is operated
c o n t i n u o u s l y a n d t h e r e f o r e o n l y m i n i m a l i n l i n e s t o r a g e is
required. H o w e v e r , if d e w a t e r i n g e q u i p m e n t w a s o p e r a t e d f o r t w o
shifts , and serviced during t h e third , a t l e a s t eight h o u r s o f
s t o r a g e would be r e q u i r e d .
Air d i s c h a r g e d t h r o u g h coarse bubble diffusers is used t o mix t h e

s l u d g e with t h e lime s l u r r y. Air mixing is started a s r a w s l u d g e
6 -1 2 4
is first added to the tank to keep the sludge from turning septic
and producing odors. When the tank is filled , lime is added and
mixing is continued for at least 30 minutes.
QUICKLIME
STORAGE
SILO
ODOR CONTROL UNIT

7
S
. /*'
AUGERS
VOLUMETRIC " - ”
R
n \
fN
FEEDERS
J. / SLAKERS
PRIMARY GRINDER
>
3k lOJ
SLUDGE
WASTE
£
a- * - MIXING TANK 1
!>
MIXING TANK 2
7M
L
/
PROGRESSING
CAVITY PUMP
S <1 &
ACTIVATED *
o_ p—
e o o TO DEWATERING
SLUDGE
.
)«
n n n n XJ EQUIPMENT
/
COARSE AIR ’
BUBBLE DIFFUSERS /
Ki
FIGURE 6- 47
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN FOR A LIME STABILIZATION FACILITY
To reduce odors , the mixing tanks are covered , and gases stripped
from the sludge during mixing are removed in an odor control
unit. This unit is a packed bed scrubber. The scrubbing
solution is dilute sulfuric acid , Ammonia gas is absorbed by the
sulfuric acid solution , All wetted parts are constructed of
-
acid resistant materials.
Quicklime is used in this installation , A bulk storage silo,
with capacity to hold a 30 day lime requirement under average -
conditions , supplies lime to two volumetric feeders , Each feeder
measures out quicklime to a slaker, where the lime is hydrated ,
slurried , and discharged into the mixing tank. The lime dose is
sufficient to maintain the sludge above pH 12.5 for 30 minutes.
6 125-
6.4.6.3 Component Sizing
Mixing Tank
Sizing criterion:
Conditions.
Volume requirement ( V ):
Peak- day sludge production shown in Table 6 - 21.
V § hr/tank ( 6010 cu ft/ day + 3430 cu ft/day )

24 hr/ day
3,150 cu ft/tank
^
( 89 m /tank )
Tank surface area ( A ):

( Assume 10 feet liquid depth )
A 3 ,150 cu ft 315 ft 2
10 ft
39.3 m 2
Tank dimensions:
( Assume 2 feet freeboard )
18 ft x 18 ft x 12 ft
( 5.4 m x 5.4 m x 3.7 m )
Air mixing system

Sizing criterion :
30 cfm/1 ,000 cu ft
Blower capacity ( Q ):
( One blower per tank )
Q ( 3 ,150 cu ft ) ( 3 o cfm/1 , 000 cu ft )
tank
95 cfm/blower
^
( 2.6 m / min/ blower )
Lime Storage
Sizing criterion:
30-day storage during average loading.
Quicklime characteristics:
Purity - 90 percent CaO

Bulk density - 55 lb/cu ft
6 -126
-
«w»
Lime dosage:
Primary sludge
Activated sludge
-- 0.12 lb Ca(0H )2/lb dry
0.30 lb Ca(0H ) /lb dry
solids
solids
2
Average daily lime requirement (W ):
Expressed as hydrated lime -
wCaOH2
(- Tb)
( 10 ,000 lb/day ) 12
2 ,700 lb Ca( OH )2/day

+ (5 ,000 lb/day ) / 30 lb\
V lb )
( 1 ,230 kg/day )
Expressed as purchased quicklime (90 percent purity ) -
WCaO ( 2 ,700 lb Ca(OH )2 day )
2 ,270 lb CaO/day
( 56 lb CaO/Mole
74 lb Ca(OH )2/mole ) (r )
(1 ,030 kg/day )
Storage requirement ( Vs ):
vs 2 ,270 lb/day ( 30 days )

55 lb/cu ft
1,240 cu ft
(35 m3 )
Slaker:
Sizing criterion :
Ability to dose one batch in 15 minutes.
Slaker capacity (C ):
C 2 ,270 lb CaO/day (1 batch )
3 batchs/day ( 15 min)
50 lb CaO/min
( 23 kg/min )
6.5 Chlorine Stabilization

Stabilization by chlorine addition was developed as a proprietary
process and is marketed under the registered trademark "Purifax. "
The chlorine stabilization process is applied to wastewater
treatment plant sludges and sidestreams to reduce putrescibility
and pathogen concentration , The process has also been used to
improve the dewaterability of digested sludge and to reduce the
impact of recycled digester supernatant on the wastewater treat
ment systems. Because chlorine reactions with sludge are very
-
-
6 127
rapid , r e a c t o r volumes a r e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l, r e d u c e d s y s t e m s i z e
a n d i n i t i a l c o s t s. The process results in no appreciable
destruction o f volatile solids, a n d unlike anaerobic d i g e s t i o n,
y i e l d s n o m e t h a n e g a s for energy g e n e r a t i o n a n d l i t t l e s l u d g e
m a s s r e d u c t i o n.
C h l o r i n e- s t a b i l i z e d s l u d g e s a r e b u f f - c o l o r e d , w e a k i n o d o r ,
s t e r i l e, a n d g e n e r a l l y e a s y t o d e w a t e r , either m e c h a n i c a l l y o r o n
d r y i n g b e d s. T h e s t a b i l i z e d s l u d g e h a s b e e n u s e d a s a s o i l
conditioner. H o w e v e r, t h e r e is concern a b o u t its u s e o n c r o p l a n d
and its disposal in landfills because o f its high acidity , h i g h
c h l o r i d e c o n t e n t, a n d p o t e n t i a l f o r r e l e a s i n g c h l o r i n a t e d
h y d r o c a r b o n s a n d h e a v y m e t a l s. The stabilized sludges are
corrosive unless pH has been adjusted. Process equipment that
c o m e s into c o n t a c t with s l u d g e s t h a t h a v e n o t b e e n neutralized
m u s t b e c o n s t r u c t e d o f acid - resistant materials o r b e c o a t e d w i t h
p r o t e c t i v e films.
6 . 5.1 Process Description

Chlorine t r e a t m e n t stabilizes s l u d g e b y both r e d u c i n g t h e n u m b e r
of o r g a n i s m s available t o c r e a t e u n p l e a s a n t or malodorous condi-
t i o n s a n d m a k i n g o r g a n i c s u b s t r a t e s l e s s suitable f o r bacterial
m e t a b o l i s m a n d g r o w t h, Some of the mechanisms responsible are
o x i d a t i o n, a d d i t i o n o f c h l o r i n e t o u n s a t u r a t e d c o m p o u n d s, a n d
d i s p l a c e m e n t o f h y d r o g e n b y chlorine.
T h e immediate reaction f r o m addition of g a s e o u s chlorine t o w a t e r
is s h o w n b e l o w:
Cl 2 + H 20 > H O C 1 + H + C l" ( 6-1 4 )
I n t h e c h l o r i n e s t a b i l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s, s u f f i c i e n t acid is
p r o d u c e d t o r e d u c e t h e p H o f t h e s l u d g e t o a r a n g e o f 2 t o 3.
D i s s o c i a t i o n o f H 0 C 1 t o H + a n d 0 C 1“ i s s u p p r e s s e d b y l o w p H
and therefore is not significant, C 12 a n d H O C 1 a r e h i g h l y
reactive a n d p o w e r f u l bactericides a n d viricides. T h e chloride
ion h a s n o disinfection capability.
T h e p r o c e s s s t r e a m i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g t h e chlorine a d d i t i o n
is substantially a chlorine solution containing sludge , The
s o l u t i o n contains ( in m o l e c u l a r f o r m ) a s m u c h a s t e n p e r c e n t o f
t h e t o t a l chlorine s p e c i e s p r e s e n t , T h e p r e d o m i n a n t s p e c i e s in
s o l u t i o n is undissociated H0C 1. H O C l a n d C l 2 r e a c t w i t h s l u d g e
t o oxidize ammonia t o chloramines a n d o r g a n i c n i t r o g e n t o o r g a n i c
c h l o r a m i n e s. O t h e r r e d u c e d i o n s , s u c h a s F e + 2 a n d S- 2 , a r e
o x i d i z e d a t t h e s a m e t i m e. S o m e o f t h e o x i d i z e d e n d p r o d u c t s,
s u c h a s c h l o r a m i n e s a n d o r g a n i c chloramines, a r e g e r m i c i d a l a n d
viricidal ( 2 4 4 ) .
T h e c h l o r i n e stabilization unit consists o f a d i s i n t e g r a t o r , a
recirculation p u m p, t w o r e a c t i o n t a n k s, a chlorine e d u c t o r, a n d a
p r e s s u r e c o n t r o l p u m p. A c h l o r i n e e v a p o r a t o r a n d /o r a
6-1 2 8
chlorinator , feed pump, and i n l e t flow meter can be purchased
with the unit or separately .
The unit i s often supplied by the
manufacturer as a complete package mounted on a skid plate and
ready for installation .
A detailed diagram of the unit i s
shown on Figure 6 48 - .
FIRST SECOND CONDITIONED
^
REACTOR REACTOR
SLUDGE
PRESSURE
EDUCTOR CONTROL
PUMP
RECIRCULATION CHLORINE
SUPPLY
METER
CHLORINATOR EVAPORATOR
DISINTEGRATOR
SLUDGE
SUPPLY
PUMP
FIGURE 6- 48
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A CHLORINE OXIDATION SYSTEM
In the f i r s t operating s t e p , sludge i s pumped through a

disintegrator which reduces particle size and therefore, provides
greater sludge surface area for contact with the chlorine .
Chlorinated sludge from the f i r s t reactor i s mixed with raw
sludge j u s t p r i o r t o reaching the r e c i r c u l a t i o n pump , The
combined flow then passes through the f i r s t reaction tank .
Chlorine i s added via an eductor located in the recirculating
loop . Recirculation aids mixing and efficient chlorine use .
The r a t i o of recirculated reacted product to raw sludge a t design
capacity is about 7 to 1 .
System pressure i s maintained in the
^
30 t o 3 5 p s i ( 210 t o 240 kN/cm ) r a n g e , by a p r e s s u r e c o n t r o l
pump located a t the discharge of the second r e a c t o r The .
pressure provides a driving force to ensure penetration of
chlorine into the sludge particles. The second reactor tank
increases system detention time, allowing a more complete
r e a c t i o n between the sludge and the c h l o r i n e .
Flow patterns within the two reactor tanks are high , in the form
of velocity spirals, with tangential discharges The tanks are .
-
6 129
oriented with the spiral axis o f the first in a horizontal plane
a n d t h e s e c o n d in a vertical p l a n e. Solids t h a t s e t t l e ‘d u r i n g
periods of n o n-operation a r e easily r e s u s p e n d e d when t h e p r o c e s s
is s t a r t e d a g a i n , T h e s y s t e m is n e i t h e r d r a i n e d n o r c l e a n e d
between operating periods , A holding tank should be provided for
feed s t o r a g e and f o r flow equalization , Blending d o n e in t h e
tank also helps to maintain feed uniformity, thus providing
sludge of uniform chlorine demand and minimizing the need to
frequently adjust chlorine d o s e. S l u d g e blending is particularly
valuable for processing of primary s l u d g e s, which t e n d t o be more
concentrated when initially pumped from the sedimentation t a n k
t h a n a t the e n d of t h e pumping c y c l e. Similarly , where primary
and s e c o n d a r y s l u d g e s a r e t r e a t e d t o g e t h e r, b l e n d i n g c a n b e
accomplished in t h e holding t a n k. Continuously w a s t e d activated
s l u d g e, h o w e v e r , m a y be a d e q u a t e l y t r e a t e d w i t h o u t p r i o r
blending , provided that solids concentration is n e a r l y c o n s t a n t
w i t h t i m e. M i x i n g is u s u a l l y d o n e by m e c h a n i c a l o r a i r
agitation. Air mixing is p r e f e r a b l e , b e c a u s e it enhances aerobic
conditions, reduces o d o r s, a n d a v e r t s p r o b l e m s with fouling o f
t h e i m p e l l e r s by r a g s a n d s t r i n g s. O d o r can b e controlled in t h e
holding t a n k if a portion of t h e filtrate o r s u p e r n a t a n t from t h e
dewatering p r o c e s s is returned t o it.
If the chlorine demand of t h e liquid fraction of t h e sludge is

high, separation of some of t h e liquid f r o m solids by thickening
prior to chlorination may substantially reduce total sludge
chlorine d e m a n d. I f , h o w e v e r , t h e c h l o r i n e d e m a n d is l o w ,
thickening will n o t be beneficial , F o r more detailed discussion
of chlorine demands exerted by sludge solids and liquid
f r a c t i o n s, s e e S e c t i o n 6 . 5.3 . Solids concentrations above
certain defined limits should not be exceeded , because the
diffusion r a t e of chlorine t h r o u g h t h e s l u d g e i s hindered a n d
processing r a t e s m u s t be reduced t o provide additional time for
t h e chlorine t o r e a c h reaction sites. Normally , processing r a t e s
are n o t affected if solids concentrations a r e below the following
values:
• Primary sludge or primary p l u s trickling filter humus -

four p e r c e n t.
• P r i m a r y p l u s w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d sludge f o u r p e r c e n t.
• W a s t e-activated sludge - 1.5 p e r c e n t.
Processing r a t e s for higher concentrations must be determined o n

a case- by-c a s e basis.
Use of a holding tank downstream of the chlorine oxidation

p r o c e s s a l l o w s s u b s e q u e n t processes t o run independently and a t
their o w n b e s t r a t e. Solids settling m a y occur in t h e t a n k after
a n initial period of flotation. T h e t a n k c a n, t h e r e f o r e , be used
t o s e p a r a t e t h e solid a n d l i q u i d f r a c t i o n s o f t h e stabilized
p r o d u c t.
6-1 3 0
. 6 . 5.2 U s e s , A d v a n t a g e s, a n d Disadvantages
Chlorine oxidation has been used to treat raw and digested
p r i m a r y s l u d g e , r a w a n d d i g e s t e d s e c o n d a r y s l u d g e s , s e p t a g e,
d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t s, a n d sidestreams from d e w a t e r i n g p r o c e s s e s.
The chlorine stabilization process has several attractive
features . It can be operated intermittently , so long as
sufficient s t o r a g e v o l u m e is a v a i l a b l e p r i o r t o a n d f o l l o w i n g t h e
unit. U n l i k e b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e p r o c e s s i n g s y s t e m s , t h e p r o c e s s
c a n b e s t a r t e d u p , r u n f o r a f e w h o u r s , a n d t u r n e d o f f. A
c o n s t a n t s u p p l y o f p r o c e s s feed is n o t required. A s a r e s u l t,
o p e r a t i n g c o s t s a r e directly d e p e n d e n t u p o n p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s, a n d
c o s t s attributable t o o v e r c a p a c i t y a r e eliminated .
C h l o r i n e o x i d a t i o n i s a c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s a n d i s t h u s o p e r a-
tionally insensitive t o factors s u c h a s toxic materials in t h e
s l u d g e, which a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t b i o l o g i c a l stabilization s y s t e m s .
I t c a n a l s o p r o c e s s feed s t r e a m s o f w i d e l y v a r y i n g c h a r a c t e r ,
s u c h a s d i g e s t e d s l u d g e a n d d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t , within a s h o r t
p e r i o d o f t i m e. This flexibility is not characteristic of
anaerobic o r aerobic d i g e s t i o n p r o c e s s e s.
Disadvantages of the chlorine stabilization process center
o n c h e m i c a l , o p e r a t i o n a l , a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s. F r o m a
chemical s t a n d p o i n t , t h e l o w p H o f c h l o r i n e- stabilized s l u d g e
may require the sludge to be partially neutralized prior to
m e c h a n i c a l d e w a t e r i n g o r b e f o r e b e i n g a p p l i e d t o a c i d s o i l s.
C o s t s of neutralization a r e in addition t o chlorine c o s t s. T h e s e
a r e discussed i n S e c t i o n 6 . 5.5 . 1. A s mentioned earlier, chlorine
stabilization d o e s n o t r e d u c e s l u d g e m a s s nor p r o d u c e m e t h a n e g a s
a s a b y - p r o d u c t f o r e n e r g y g e n e r a t i o n. T h e p r o c e s s c o n s u m e s
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e a m o u n t s o f c h l o r i n e. Special safety and
h a n d l i n g p r e c a u t i o n s must b e used w h e n h a n d l i n g t h i s g a s. If
high alkalinity w a s t e s — f o r e x a m p l e , d i g e s t e d s l u d g e , d i g e s t er
superna tants— a r e p r o c e s s e d , CC > 2 g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g chlorination
m a y p r o m o t e cavitation in d o w n s t r e a m p u m p s.
T h e r e is concern t h a t chlorine o x i d a t i o n o f s l u d g e s, s e p t a g e,
and sidestreams from sludge treatment processes could result
i n i n c r e a s e d l e v e l s o f t o x i c chlorinated o r g a n i c s i n t h e
t r e a t e d m a t e r i a l s ( 2 4 5 ). D a t a a v a i l a b l e a r e i n c o n c l u s i v e.
Investigations are underway that will help clarify this
issue. I n t h e meantime,- m e a s u r e s- s h o u l d b e t a k e n t o m i t i g a t e
environmental c o n c e r n s w h e n t h e chlorine oxidation p r o c e s s e s is
u s e d. T h e s e a r e:
P r o v i s i o n s s h o u l d b e m a d e t o d e a l w i t h t h e f i l t r a t e,
c e n t r a t e , o r d e c a n t f r o m t h e p r o c e s s, i n c l u d i n g r e t u r n
t o t h e w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t, u n l e s s t h i s p r a c t i c e
leads to wastewater treatment plant upset or to
violations of effluent standards ; or to treat by
a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n a b s o r p t i o n o r o t h e r m e a n s.
6 -1 3 1
• If the treated sludge leaving the pressurized chlorinator
is discharged to a tank sparged with air , the gases from
the tank should be vented away from workers.
• Treated solids should be disposed of with care , Consid -

eration should be given to:
1. Using secured landfills or landfills located at
hydrogeographically isolated sites.
2. Treating leachates from secured landfills to prevent
contamination of surface or groundwaters.
3. Directly incorporating the solids into soils at rates
sufficiently low to minimize leachate production .
Direct incorporation as opposed to surface spreading
should be used to prevent consumption of solids by
grazing animals.
4. Using erosion control measures to prevent runoff
contaminated with toxic chlorinated compounds from
entering surface waters.
5. Providing adequate monitoring of facilities to assure
detection of unexpected problems.
6.5.3 Chlorine Requirements

Chlorine demand varies with the characteristics of each waste
stream. Demand can be estimated from Table 6-33 for cases in
which a combination of sludges and/or sidestreams makes up the
process feed . The demand of a sludge produced by combining two
streams is the weighted average of the demands of the individual
streams. For example, using Table 6-33 one estimates that the
demand of a sludge composed of five volumes of 0.7 percent
waste- activated sludge and one volume of four percent primary
sludge is about ( 17 + 5 [ 7 ] )/6 9 pounds per thousand gallons
( 1 kg/1 000 1 .
, )
If a chlorine residual is desired to provide added protection

against septicity , then additional chlorine should be added in
an amount equal to the required residual. For instance , if
a residual of 200 mg / 1 chlorine is required for the waste -
activated / primary sludge combination just discussed , then
an additional ( 200 mg/1 )( 0.00834 lb/thousand gal ) = 1.7 pounds of
mg/1
chlorine per 1 ,000 gallons of sludge ( 0.20 kg /1 ,000 1 ) should
be added , bringing the total chlorine addition to 10 to 11 pounds
per 1 , 000 gallons ( 1.2 to 1.3 kg/1,000 1 ) of sludge.
BIF Division of General Signal ( 246 ) states that , for solids
concentrations other than those shown , the chlorine demand
per gallon varies in proportion to the solids concentration. For
example , if the solids concentration were to double, chlorine
demand would also double.
6-132
TABLE 6- 33
ESTIMATED CHLORINE REQUIREMENTS FOR

SLUDGE AND SIDESTREAM PROCESSING3
Suspended solids , Chlorine requirement,

Feed stream percent lb/1 , 000 gal
Primary sludge 4.0 17
-
With prior primary treatment 0.7 7
No primary treatment 0. 7 7
From contact stabilization 0.7 7
Sludge from low and high rate
trickling filters 1.0 10
Digester supernatant
Septage
0.3
1.2
2 -6 1 0
information obtained from R. C. Neal of BIF.
1 lb/1 , 000 gal
- 0.12 kg/1
6 . 5.4 Characteristics of Chlorine-Stabilized Materials
6.5.4.1 Stabilized S l u d g e
Characteristics of freshly treated s l u d g e a r e a p H of 2 t o 3 and
a chlorine residual o f approximately 2 0 0 m g/1. Retention in a
downstream holding tank allows the chlorine residual t o d r o p t o
z e r o a n d t h e p H t o r i s e t o b e t w e e n 4.5 a n d 6 . 5 . N o r m a l l y , a
s l i g h t m e d i c i n a l o d o r is p r e s e n t. After adequate addition
o f c h l o r i n e, t h e c o l o r o f t h e s l u d g e c h a n g e s f r o m b l a c k t o
light brown.
Chlorine oxidation generally improves the sand bed dewaterability

o f m a n y s l u d g e s a n d s e p t a g e s. If p r o p e r l y c h l o r i n a t e d , t h e
sludges are stable and do not undergo anaerobic activity for
a t l e a s t 2 0 d a y s. W h e n p r o p e r l y d i s p o s e d i n l a n d f i l l s o r o n
t h e s o i l , t h e c h l o r i n a t e d s l u d g e d o e s n o t exhibit s e p t i c i t y
d u r i n g h a n d l i n g a n d d i s p o s a l. If s t o r e d in l a g o o n s , t h e
s l u d g e - liquid mixture must be sufficiently aerated t o avoid odor
and septicity p r o b l e m s, especially in w a r m w e a t h e r.
Production of chlorinated hydrocarbons by the chlorine

stabilization p r o c e s s has b e e n t h e subject of research efforts
since the process was conceived. E a r l y studies ( 1 9 7 1 ) by Metcalf
and E d d y , for the BIF Company by then-current technology were
aimed a t t h e d e t e c t i o n o f s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i o n a b l e c o m p o u n d s .
This w o r k indicated t h a t , r a t h e r t h a n producing the c o m p o u n d s ,
chlorine stabilization actually seemed t o lower their c o n c e n t r a-
tions in m o s t instances. L a t e r w o r k ( 1 9 7 8 ) using more advanced
g a s c h r o m a t o g r a p h- m a s s s p e c t r o m e t r y techniques h a s revealed t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f 0 . 9 t o 1 p e r c e n t b y w e i g h t o r g a n i c chlorine in
several sludges stabilized by the chlorine oxidation process
6 -1 3 3
( 245 ). These results indicate that as much as 1 0 t o 20 p e r c e n t o f
initial s l u d g e solids had chemically reacted with t h e chlorine .
Additional studies by ASTRE for the BIF Company s u g g e s t e d that
total identifiable chlorinated organic c o m p o u n d s nearly doubled
w h e n t h e particular raw s l u d g e s studied were t r e a t e d by a
chlorine oxidation process. A six- fold increase was found in the
amount of chlorinated organic Consent Decree toxics ( see 43 FR
4109, January 31 , 1978 for Consent Decree list of toxic
s u b s t a n c e s ) following chlorine oxidation and a n eight - fold
increase in the amount of total organic Consent D e c r e e toxics .
6.5 . 4.2 Supernatant /Filtrate/Subnatant Quality
T h e s e p r o c e s s s t r e a m s a r e p r o d u c e d by t h i c k e n i n g a n d / o r
dewatering operations after chlorine treatment. Filtrates from
sandbed dewatering are typically clear and colorless. T h e pH
varies from 4 to 6 , and no residual chlorine remains. Filtrate
from chlorine- treated sludge generally contains lower suspended
solids and B O D 5 t h a n t h e filtrate p r o d u c e d w h e n filtering
digested sludges. Typical filtrate composition is 5 0-1 5 0 mg/ 1
suspended solids and 100- 300 mg/1 B O D5 with low turbidity and
color.
I n bench-scale studies simulating t h e chlorine oxidation process ,

O l v e r, a n d others f o u n d t h a t acidic conditions e n h a n c e d t h e
release of heavy metals from sludges ( 247 ).
Sukenik and o t h e r s ( 2 4 8 ) n o t e d a n increase in s u p e r n a t a n t

chemical oxygen demand ( COD ) after sludge treatment by chlorine
oxidation. Though the reason for t h e increase is undetermined ,
t h e s u g g e s t i o n w a s m a d e t h a t chlorine m a y solubilize t h e
oxygen-demanding material rather than oxidize it. Biochemical
oxygen demand of the s u p e r n a t a n t is generally comparable t o that
of raw wastewater. D a t a collected a t Alma , Michigan , indicates
that chemically precipitated phosphate is not redissolved by t h e
chlorine oxidation process ( 246 ).
A 1 9 7 8 report indicated that chlorinated organics were present in

t h e c e n t r a t e f r o m s e v e r a l chlorinated s l u d g e s a m p l e s ( 2 4 5 ).
A l t h o u g h l e s s t h a n o n e half of o n e p e r c e n t o f t h e o r g a n i c
c o m p o u n d s a s s u m e d t o be p r e s e n t could be identified , e i g h t
chlorinated c o m p o u n d s on t h e C o n s e n t D e c r e e list o f toxic
s u b s t a n c e s w e r e detected , i n c l u d i n g t h r e e k n o w n o r s u s p e c t e d
carcinogens.
6 . 5.5 Costs
Data reported herein were derived by Purifax from actual

installations .
6-1 3 4
.
6.5 5.1 Operating Costs
Because the chlorine stabilization process can be operated
intermittently , annual operating costs are proportional to the
quantity of material processed , Table 6 34 displays operating
cost data. Chlorine , the major expense factor , historically has
-
cost between 9 and 14 cents per pound (19.8 to 30.9 cents per
kg ). Chlorine unit costs vary with annual usage , method of
transportation and transportation distances, and competition , In
the last few years , prices have decreased because of an increased
demand for sodium hydroxide ( chlorine is a by product of sodium
hydroxide production ).
- »
•4
TABLE 6- 34
ACTUAL OPERATING COSTS FOR CHLORINE STABILIZATION SYSTEM3

Cost, dollars/ton of
Chlorine dry solids
Process stream and Dosage , lb/ton Cost , b
Chlorine
year reported of dry solids cents/lb Chlorine Power and power
Primary and waste-activated

sludge
Ravena-Coeymans , NY ,
1974 167 11.35 18.95 1.90 20.85
Plainfield , CT, 1973 148 14.00 20.72 2.07 22.79
Extended aeration
Plainfield , CT, 1975 180 14.00 25.20 2.52 27.72
-
Waste activated sludge only
Fair Lawn, NJ 211 9.85 20.78 2.08 22.86
information obtained from D. L. Moffat of BIF.

Êstimated at 10 percent of chlorine cost.
Note: Estimated operation and maintenance (6 ).
Operation
Maintenance
-2 hr/shift.
$ 200/yr.
1 lb/ton = 0.504 kg/tonne

1 cent/lb = 2.20 cents/kg
1 dollar/ton = 1.10 dollars/tonne
Although it is not related to the cost of chlorine stabilization

of sludge , additional chemical costs can result if chemical
conditioning is necessary prior to mechanical dewatering.
-
Chemical conditioning of chlorine stabi 1 ized sludge consists
of adding sodium hydroxide or lime to raise the pH to between
4.5 and 5.5 and then adding the proper dosage of an appropriate
coagulant. Although more expensive , sodum hydroxide is generally
preferred to lime because it reacts faster , Neutralizing
-
can be done in line , without need of an intermediate detention
tank. Sodium hydroxide requirements range from 20 to 30 pounds
per ton of dry solids (10 to 15 kg/t ) for primary sludge to 10 to
20 pounds per ton of dry solids ( 5 to 10 kg/t ) for secondary
sludge. At a 1976 cost of eight cents per pound ( 18 cents/kg )
-
6 135
this is equivalent to a cost $ 0.80 to $ 2.40 per ton ( $ 0.88 to
$ 2.65/t ) of dry solids , Polymer costs are equivalent to those
required for dewatering of sludges stabilized by other means and
are generally greater than the cost of pH adjustment .( See
.
Chapter 8 )
Costs for neutralizing chiorine - stabi 1 ized sludge prior to

spreading it on acid soils are about $ 0.60 to $ 0.90/ton ( $ 0.66 to
$ 0.99/t ), assuming that 20 to 30 pounds of Ca ( OH ) 2 are required
per ton ( 10 to 15 kg/t ) of stabilized sludge solids and Ca ( OH )2
costs are $ 0.03 per pound ( $ 0.07/kg ).
Power costs of operating the stabilization system are estimated

at ten percent of chlorine costs , Additional power costs are
incurred if mixing is used in the holding tank upstream from the
stabilization process.
Labor costs are incurred only for daily start - up, shutdown ,
periodic checks, and maintenance, and are small in comparison to
other operating costs.
6.5.5.2 Capital Costs
Capital costs for chlorine stabilization systems tend to be

less than for conventional anaerobic digestion systems of equal
capacity. Normally , the system is furnished by the manufacturer
on a skid - plate and in a ready-to- install condition. Table 6 - 35
shows actual 1979 capital costs for systems of specified capacity
for two different feed sludges.
6 -136
TABLE 6- 35
CHLORINE STABILIZATION CAPITAL COSTS , 1979 a
Capacity , gal/hr
Primary and
waste
activated
- Waste -
activated
Budgetary
cost ,d
sludge 3 * sludge onlyc dollars
660 960 82 , 000

1,320 1,800 137 ,000
2,940 4 , 200 175 ,000
5 ,880 8 , 520 228 , 000
13,080 18 ,300 307 ,000e
..
L .' *
fc i * * v
ainformation obtained from R. C. Neal of BIF.

Solids concentration 3 percent by weight ,
Q
Solids concentration 1.5 percent by weight.
^ Budgetary costs based on an ENR 20 cities
average construction cost index of 2869 for
December 1978. Costs include chemical
oxidizer , sludge macerator , sludge feed
pump , motor starters , vacuum-type
chlorinator , freight and start-up service ,
e
Budgetary cost includes chlorine
evaporator.
1 gal/hr = 3.79 1/hr
-
6 137
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199 . Ahlberg, N R ..
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200 . R i t t e r , L.E. " Design and Operating Experiences Using
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201 . F o l k , G. " Aerobic D i g e s t i o n of W a s t e Activated S l u d g e."
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202 . P a r e d e s, M. "S u p e r n a t a n t D e c a n t i n g o f A e r o b i c a l l y D i g e s t e d
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204 . S u r u c u , G . A ., E.S.K . C h a i n, a n d R.S. E n g e l b r e c h t. " A e r o b i c
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J o u r n a l W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l Federation. V o l. 4 8, # 4 ,
P - 6 6 9. 1 9 7 6.
6 -1 5 3
2 0 5. R a n d a l l, C.W • r J . B. Richards, and P.H. K i n g. "T e m p e r a t u r e
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m e n t a l E n g i n e e r i n g D i v i s i o n A S C E. 7 9 5.
O c t o b e r 1 9 7 5.
~
V o l, 101, P
-
2 0 6. B e n e f i e l d , L.D. a n d C.W. R a n d a l l. "D e s i g n R e l a t i o n s h i p s
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207 . P o p a l , F. V . a n d C . O h n m a c h t . "T h e r m o p h i l i c B a c t e r i a l
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-
2 0 8. S m i t h , J .E . , J r. " B i o l o g i c a l O x i d a t i o n a n d Disinfection of
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A p r i l 1 9 6 0.
210. U S E P A. T h e r m o p h i 1 ic Aerobic D i g e s t i o n o f O r g a n i c S o l i d
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W a s t e s E n g i n e e r i n g . F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 8.
2 1 6. B i s o g n i, J .J . a n d A.W. L a u r e n c e. "R e l a t i o n s h i p B e t w e e n
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i s t i c s o f A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e." W a t e r R e s e a r c h . V o l. 5 ,
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-
2 1 7. U S E P A. S l u d g e H a n d l i n g a n d C o n d i t i o n i n g. O f f i c e o f W a t e r
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218 . Design Procedures for Dissolved Oxygen Control of Activated
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' '
.
219 . R i e h1, M L
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" E f f e c t o f L i m e -T r e a t e d W a t e r o n S u r v i v a l
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220 . Buzzell, J C , Jr . .
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221. Grabow , W 0 K . . .
"The B a c t e r i c i d a l E f f e c t of Lime
Flocculation Flotation as a Primary Unit Process in a
Multiple System for the Advanced Purification of Sewage
Works Effluent " Water Resources . Vol 3, p. 943 1969 . . . .
222. USEPA .
Lime D i s i n f e c t i o n of Sewage B a c t e r i a a t Low
Temperature .
Environmental Protection technology Series .
Cincinnati , Ohio 45268 .
E P A- 6 6 0 / 2 - 7 3- 0 1 7 Sept 1973 . . .
223 . "H o w S a f e i s S l u d g e ? " Compost Science . M a r c h -A p r i l 1 9 7 0 .
224 . K a m p e1m a c h e r , and N
E .H . .
Van Noorle Jansen , L M . .
"R e d u c t i o n o f B a c t e r i a i n S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t " J o u r n a l W a t e r .
Pollution Control Federation Minwv
Vol 44 , P 309 . 1972
- . .
225 . . .
E v a n s , S C , "S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t a t L u t o n " J o u r n a l I n d u s t r i a l
Sewage Purification . . . .
Vol 5 p 381 1961 .
226. Farrell, J .R • J .E . S m i t h , J r . a n d S .W. H a t h a w a y .
r "Lime
S t a b i l i z a t i o n of Primary Sludges. " Journal Water Pollution
C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. Vol. 46 , P - 113. 1974.
2 2 7 . P a u l s r u d , B . a n d A .S . E i k u m. " L i m e S t a b i l i z a t i o n o f S e w a g e
Sludges. " Water Research.
-
V o l . 9 , P 2 9 7 . 1 9 7 5.
228 . USEPA. Lime Stabilized Sludge : I t s _S t a b i1i t y a n d E f f e c t

on Agricultural Land. N a t i o n a l Environmental Research
Center. Washington, D. C. 20460 . E P A - 6 7 0 / 2- 7 5 - 0 1 2 . April
1975.
2 2 9 . USEPA. F u l l S c a l e D e m o n s t r a t i o n o f Lime S t a b i l i z a t i o n.
Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Technology S e r i e s. Cincinnati,
O h i o 4 5 2 6 8 . E P A- 6 0 0 / 2 - 7 7- 2 1 4 . N o v e m b e r 1 9 7 7 .
2 3 0 . S t r a v c h , D . , H . S c h w a b , T . B e r g , a n d W . K o n i g . "V o r l a u f i g e
Mitleilung f o r Frage Der Entseuchenden Wirkung Von
Kalkstickstoff Und Kalk I n Der Abwassertechnik . " K o r r e s-
pondenz Abwasser. V o l 2 5. P. 3 8 7. 1 9 7 8 .
231. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water a nd ___
Wastewater .
T4 1 h e d i t i o n *
American P u b l i c H e a l t h .
Association, Washington, D C 1975 .. .
232 . Sawyer , C N . .
and McCarty , P L Chemistry . . for Sanitary
Engineers .
M c G r a w -H i l l New York 1967 . . .
-
6 155
2 3 3. B e r g , G • r R.B. D e a n , a n d D.R. D a h l i n g. " R e m o v a l o f P o l i o
V i r u s 1 f r o m S e c o n d a r y E f f l u e n t s b y Lime F l o c u l a t i o n a n d
R a p i d S a n d F i l t r a t i o n. " J o u r n a l o f t h e A m e r i c a n W a t e r
W o r k s Association. V o l. 6 0, P 1 9 3. 1 9 6 8.
-
2 3 4. T r u b n i c k , E .H . a n d P . K . M u e l l e r. "S l u d g e D e w a t e r i n g
Practice." S e w a g e a n d I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e s. V o l. 3 0 ,
P 1 3 6 4. 1 9 6 7.
-
2 3 5. S o n t h e i m e r , H. " E f f e c t s o f S l u d g e C o n d i t i o n i n g w i t h Lime
o n D e w a t e r i n g ." A d v a n c e s in W a t e r P o l l u t i o n R e s e a r c h ,
P r o c e e d i n g s a n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e W a t e r Pollution
R e s e a r c h. M u n i c h. 1 9 6 7.
2 3 6. Lime: Handling, Application and Storage in Treatment

P r o c e s s e s. N a t i o n a l L i m e A s s o c i a t i o n, W a s h i n g t o n, D.C.
1 9 7 7. Bulletin 2 1 3.
2 3 7. L i m e f o r W a t e r a n d W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t s. B.I.E. Unit o f
G e n e r a l S i g n a l P r o v i d e n c e , R h o d e I s l a n d. 02901 R e f.
N o. 1 . 2 1 - 2 4. J u n e 1 9 6 9 .
2 3 8. U S E P A. Lime U s e in W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t: Design a n d C o s t
D a t a. M u n i c i p a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y.
C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o 4 5 2 6 8, E P A- 6 0 0/2- 7 5- 0 3 8. O c t o b e r 1 9,7 5.
239 . U S E P A. Process Design Manual for Suspended Solids
R e m o v a l. T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r. Cincinnati , O h i o 4 5 2 6 8.
E P A 6 2 5/l- 7 5- 0 0 3 a. J a n u a r y 1 9 7 5.
2 4 0. K r a u s, M.N. " Pneumatic C a r r y i n g -G e n e r a l Considerations,
Equipment and C o n t r o l s, " C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g. April
1 9 6 5.
2 4 1. W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. M a n u a l of Practice
.
N o 8. W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t P l a n t D e s i g n W a t e r Pollution
Control Federation . W a s h i n g t o n , D . C. 1 9 7 7.
2 4 2. H i c k s, R.W., J .R. M a r t o a, a n d J .G. F e l i c "H o w t o D e s i g n

A g i t a t o r s f o r D e s i r e d P r o c e s s R e s p o n s e. Chemical
E n g i n e e r i n g , A p r i l 1 9 7 6.
2 4 3. U S E P A. Energy Requirements f o r Municipal Control Facil-

ities. Office of W a t e r P r o g r a m Operations. Washington,
D.C. 2 0 4 6 0 . M a r c h 1 9 7 7.
2 4 4. S a u n i e r , B .M . Kinetics of Breakpoint Chlorination and

D i s i n f e c t i o n. P h . D. T h e s i s. Department of Civil
E n g i n e e r i n g , U n i v e r s i t y o f California, B e r k e l e y , C a l i f o r n i a
9 4 7 2 0. 1 9 7 6.
2 4 5. U S E P A. Partial Characterization o f C h l o r i n a t e d O r g a n i c s i n
S u p e r c h l o r i n a t e d S e p t a g e s a n d M i x e d S l u d g e s. O f f i c e o f
Research and Development . C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o, 4 5 6 2 8 .
E P A- 6 0 0/ 2- 7 8-0 2 0. M a r c h 1 9 7 8.
6-1 5 6
246. Williams, T.C. "Phosphorous Removed at Low Cost." Water
and Wastes Engineering. Vol. 13. 1975.
247. Oliver, J.W., W.C. Kreye , and P.H. King. " Heavy Metal
Release by Chlorine Oxidation of Sludges." Journal of the
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Water Pollution Control Federation. Vol. 47 , P 2490.
1975.
248. Sukenik, W.H., P.H. King , and J.W. Oliver. "Chlorine and
Acid Conditioning of Sludge." Journal of the Environmental
-
Engineering Pivision-ASCE. Vol. 6, P 1013. 1977.
6-157
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 7. Disinfection


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 7
DISINFECTION
7.1 Introduction
W a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e disinfection , t h e destruction o r inactivation
of pathogenic organisms in t h e s l u d g e, is carried o u t principally
t o minimize public health concerns. Destruction is t h e physical
disruption or disintegration of a pathogenic organism, while
i n a c t i v a t i o n , a s u s e d h e r e , i s t h e r e m o v a l o f a p a t h o g e n' s
ability t o infect. A n important but s e c o n d a r y concern may b e t o
minimize the e x p o s u r e of domestic animals t o p a t h o g e n s in t h e
s l u d g e. A t t h e p r e s e n t time in t h e United S t a t e s , t h e u s e of
procedures to reduce the number of pathogenic organisms is a
requirement before s a l e o f s l u d g e o r s l u d g e-containing p r o d u c t s
t o t h e public a s a soil a m e n d m e n t , o r before recycling sludge
directly t o c r o p l a n d s , forests , o r p a r k s. Since t h e final u s e o r
disposal of sludge may differ greatly with respect to public
health concerns , a n d since a g r e a t n u m b e r of t r e a t m e n t o p t i o n s
effecting various d e g r e e s o f p a t h o g e n reduction are available ,
t h e s y s t e m c h o s e n f o r reduction o f p a t h o g e n s should be tailored
t o the d e m a n d s o f t h e particular situation.
This chapter identifies the major pathogenic organisms

found in w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s; b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e s t h e p a t h o g e n
characteristics , including size, life and reproductive
requirements, occurrence in s l u d g e, a n d survival u n d e r different
environmental conditions ; a n d d i s c u s s e s m e t h o d s f o r r e d u c i n g
the number of pathogenic organisms in sludge , The effect of
conventional s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t processes o n p a t h o g e n reduction
will b e reviewed . T w o t y p e s o f p r o c e s s e s d e s i g n e d s p e c i f i c a l l y
f o r t h e r e d u c t i o n o f p a t h o g e n i c o r g a n i s m s in s l u d g e a r e h e a t
pasteurization and high-energy irradiation , and they will be
developed in detail . O t h e r processes such as long - t e r m s t o r a g e
and composting will a l s o be discussed .
7.2 Pathogenic Organisms
A p a t h o g e n o r pathogenic a g e n t is any biological species t h a t c a n

cause disease in the host organism. The discussions in this
c h a p t e r will be confined t o p a t h o g e n s t h a t p r o d u c e disease in m a n
a n d c o m p l e t e their life c y c l e s in N o r t h America . T h e s e o r g a n i s m s
o r a g e n t s f a l l i n t o f o u r b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s: viruses , bacteria ,
p a r a s i t e s , a n d fungi. Within t h e p a r a s i t e c a t e g o r y , t h e r e a r e
p r o t o z o a , n e m a t o d e s , a n d helminths , V i r u s e s, b a c t e r i a, a n d
p a r a s i t e s a r e primary p a t h o g e n s t h a t a r e p r e s e n t a t some l e v e l i n
7 -1
s l u d g e a s a r e s u l t o f h u m a n activity u p s t r e a m from t h e wastewater
treatment plant. Fungi are secondary pathogens and are only
numerous in sludge w h e n given t h e opportunity t o g r o w during some
t r e a t m e n t o r s t o r a g e process.
7 . 2.1 Pathogen Sources
Pathogens enter wastewater treatment systems from a number of

sources:
Human wastes, including feces, urine, and oral and

n a s a l discharges.
F o o d w a s t e s f r o m h o m e s a n d commercial establishments.
Industrial w a s t e s f r o m f o o d p r o c e s s i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y
m e a t packing p l a n t s.
Domestic p e t f e c e s and urine.

Biological laboratory wastes such as those from
hospitals.
In addition , where combined sewer systems are used , ground

s u r f a c e a n d s t r e e t runoff m a t e r i a l s , especially animal w a s t e s ,
m a y e n t e r t h e sewers a s s t o r m f l o w . V e c t o r s s u c h a s r a t s t h a t
inhabit some sewer s y s t e m s m a y a l s o add a substantial number o f
p a t h o g e n s.
7 . 2. 2 P a t h o g e n Characteristics
Viruses , bacteria , parasites , a n d fungi differ in size , physical

composition , reproductive requirements , occurrence in the United
S t a t e s population , and p r e v a l e n c e in w a s t e w a t e r.
7.2 . 2.1 Viruses

Viruses are obligate parasites and can only reproduce by
dominating t h e internal p r o c e s s e s of h o s t c e l l s and using t h e
h o s t's resources t o p r o d u c e more viruses. Viruses a r e v e r y s m a l l
particles w h o s e protein surface c h a r g e c h a n g e s in magnitude and
sign with p H . In t h e natural pH r a n g e of w a s t e w a t e r a n d s l u d g e s,
m o s t viruses h a v e a negative surface c h a r g e , T h u s , t h e y will
adsorb to a variety of material under appropriate chemical
c o n d i t i o n s. Different viruses show varying resistance to
environmental f a c t o r s s u c h a s h e a t and moisture. Enteric viruses
a r e acid -resistant a n d m a n y s h o w tolerance t o t e m p e r a t u r e s a s
high a s 1 4 0 ° F ( 6 0 ° C ) .
Many of the viruses t h a t c a u s e disease in m a n e n t e r t h e sewers

w i t h f e c e s o r o t h e r d i s c h a r g e s a n d h a v e b e e n identified , o r
a r e s u s p e c t e d o f b e i n g , in s l u d g e . T h e m a j o r v i r u s s u b t y p e s
7-2
-
transmitted in feces are listed in Table 7 1 together with the
disease they cause , Viruses are excreted by man in numbers
several orders of magnitude lower than bacteria , Typical
total virus concentrations in untreated wastewaters are
-
1 ,000 to 10 ,000 plaque forming units ( PFU ) per 100 ml ; effluent
concentrations are 10 to 300 PFU per 100 ml . Wa s tewa te r
treatment , particularly chemical coagulation or biological
processes followed by sedimentation , concentrates v i r u s e s
in sludge. Raw primary and waste- activated sludges contain
10 ,000 to 100 ,000 PFU per 100 ml.
TABLE 7- 1
PATHOGENIC HUMAN VIRUSES POTENTIALLY IN

WASTEWATER SLUDGE
Name Disease
Adenoviruses Adenovirus infection
Coxsackie virus , Coxsackie infection ;
Group A viral meningitis ;
AFRIa , hand , foot ,
and mouth disease
Coxsackie virus , Coxsackie infection ,
Group B viral meningitis ;
viral carditis , end
emic pleurodynia ,
-
AFRIa
ECHO virus , ( 30 ECHO virus infection ;
types) aseptic meningitis ;
AFRIa
Poliovirus ( 3 types) Poliomyelitis
Reoviruses Reovirus infection
Hepatitis virus A Viral hepatitis
Norwalk agent Sporadic v.iral gastro-
enteritis
Rotavirus Winter vomiting dis-
ease
aAFRI is acute febrile respiratory illness.
7.2.2.2 Ba cteria
Bacteria are single- celled organisms that range in size from

slightly less than one micron ( M ) in diameter to 5M wide by
1 5 M long . Among the primary pathogens , only bacteria are able
to reproduce outside the host organism . They can grow and
-
7 3
reproduce under a variety of environmental conditions , Low
temperatures cause dormancy , often for long periods , High
temperatures are more effective for inactivation , although some
species form heat- resistant spores. Pathogenic bacterial species
are heterotrophic and generally grow best at a pH between 6.5 and
7.5. The ability of bacteria to reproduce outside a host is an
important factor. Although sludge may be disinfected , it can be
reinoculated and recontaminated.
Bacteria are numerous in the human digestive tract ; man excretes
up to 10 3 coliform and
^ ^^
10 - other bacteria in his feces every
day. The most important of the pathogenic bacteria are listed in
Table 7 - 2 , together with the diseases they cause.
TABLE 7- 2
PATHOGENIC HUMAN BACTERIA POTENTIALLY

IN WASTEWATER SLUDGE
Species Disease
Arizona hinshawii Arizona infection
Bacillus cereus B. cereus gastroenteritis; food poisoning
Vibrio cholerae
'
Cholera
Clostridium perfringens C. perfringens gastroenteritis ; food
poisoning
Clostridium tetani Tetanus
Escherichia coli Enteropathogenic E. coli infection ; acute
diarrhea
Leptospira sp Leptospirosis; Swineherd 's disease
Mycobacterium tuberculosis Tuberculosis
Salmonella paratyphi, A , B , C Paratyphoid fever
Salmonella sendai Paratyphoid fever
Salmonella sp (over 1,500 Salmonellosis; acute diarrhea
serotypes)
Salmonella typhi Typhoid fever
Shigella sp Shigellosis ; bacillary dysentery ; acute
diarrhea
Yersinia enterocolitica Yersinia gastroenteritis
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Mesenteric lymphadenopathy
1 . 2 .2 . 3 Parasites
Parasites include protozoa, nematodes, and helminths , Pathogenic
protozoa are single- celled animals that range in size from 8 M to
25M . Protozoa are transmitted by cysts , the nonactive and
environmentally insensitive form of the organism , Their life
cycles require that a cyst be ingested by man or another
host. The cyst is transformed into an active organism in the
intestines , where it matures and reproduces , releasing cysts in
the feces , Pathogenic protozoa are listed in Table 7 - 3 , together
with the diseases they cause .
Nematodes are roundworms and hookworms that may reach sizes up to

14 inches ( 36 cm ) in the human intestines ( 1 ). The more common
roundworms found in man and the diseases they cause are listed in
7- 4
Table 7 -3. They may invade tissues o t h e r than the intestine .
This situation is especially common when man ingests the ova
of a roundworm common t o another species such as the dog . The
nematode does not s t a y in the intestine but migrates t o other
body tissue such as the eye and encysts. T h e cyst, similar to
t h a t formed by p r o t o z o a , c a u s e s inflammation and fibrosis in
the host tissue. Pathogenic nematodes cannot spread directly
f r o m m a n t o m a n. T h e o v a discharged in f e c e s m u s t first
embryonate at ambient temperature, usually in the soil , for a t
least two w e e k s.
TABLE 7- 3
PATHOGENIC HUMAN AND ANIMAL PARASITES

POTENTIALLY IN WASTEWATER SLUDGE
Species Disease
A. Protozoa
Acanthamoeba sp Amoebic meningoencephalitis
Balantidium coli Balantidiasis , Balantidial dysentery
Dientamoeba fragilis Dientamoeba infection
Entamoeba histolytica Amoebiasis ; amoebic dysentery
Giardia Iambiia Giardiasis
Isospora bella Coccidiosis
Naegleria fowleri Amoebic meningoencephalitis
Toxoplasma gordii Toxoplasmosis
B. Nematodes
Ancyclostoma dirodenale Ancylostomiasis; hookworm disease
Ancyclostoma sp Cutaneous larva migrans
Ascaris lumbricoides Ascariasis; roundworm disease ; Ascaris
pneumonia
Enterobius vermicularis Oxyuriasis ; pinworm disease
Necator americanus Necatoriasis ; hookworm disease
Strongyloides stercoralis Strongyloidiasis; hookworm disease
Toxocara canis Dog roundworm disease , visceral larva
migrans
Toxocara cati Cat roundworm disease ; visceral larva
migrans
Trichusis trichiura Trichuriasis ; whipworm disease
C. Helminths
Diphyllobothrium latum Fish tapeworm disease
Echinococcus granulosis Hydated disease
Echinococcus multilocularis Aleveolar hydatid disease
Hymenolepis diminuta Rat tapeworm disease
Tymenolepis nana Dwarf tapeworm disease
Taenia saginata Taeniasis; beef tapeworm disease
Taenia solium Cysticercosis ; pork tapeworm disease
Helminths are f l a t w o r m s , s u c h a s t a p e w o r m s , t h a t m a y be m o r e
than 1 2 inches ( 30 cm ) in length. The most common types in the
United S t a t e s ( listed in Table 7 -3 ) are associated with beef ,
p o r k , a n d r a t s . Transmission o c c u r s w h e n m a n i n g e s t s r a w o r
inadequately cooked m e a t o r the eggs of the t a p e w o r m. In the
l e s s serious form , t h e t a p e w o r m d e v e l o p s in t h e intestine ,
maturing a n d r e l e a s i n g eggs. I n t h e m o r e s e r i o u s f o r m , it
localizes in the ear, eye , heart , or central nervous s y s t e m.
7-5
7.2.2.4 Fungi
Fungi are single - celled non- photosynthesizing plants that

reproduce by developing spores, which form new colonies when
released. Spores range in size from 10 to 100 They are
secondary pathogens in wastewater sludge, and large numbers have
been found growing in compost ( 2 ). The pathogenic fungi, listed
in Table 7- 4, are most dangerous when the spores are inhaled by
people whose systems are already stressed by a disease such
as diabetes, or by immunosuppressive drugs. Fungi spores,
especially those of Aspergillus fumigatus, are ubiquitous in the
environment and have been found in pasture lands , hay stacks,
manure piles, and the basements of most homes ( 2 ).
TABLE 7- 4
PATHOGENIC FUNG! POTENTIALLY IN

WASTEWATER SLUDGE
Species
Actinomyces sp Actinomycosis
Aspergillus sp Aspergillosis ; Asper-
gillus pneumonia
Otomycosis
Candida albicans
11«
Moniliasis ; candidiasis
oral thrush
7.2.3 Pathogen Occurrence in the United States
Information on pathogen occurrence and associated morbidity and

mortality data vary greatly with pathogenic species, Available
data, complied by the Center for Disease Control ( CDC ) of the
United States Public Health Service, indicates that enteric
viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections annually affect tens
of thousands of people in the United States ( 3 - 7 ). Data on
the occurrence of bacterial disease in the United States are
scarce. However, the frequent detection of enteropathic bacteria
( bacteria which affect the intestinal tract ), such as E_ coli,
^
Salmonella, fecal streptococci, Shigella, and others in untreated
wastewater and wastewater sludges indicates that these pathogens
and their associated diseases are endemic to the United States.
'
As recently as 1977, over 12 percent of stool samples checked by

state and territorial public health laboratories were positive
7 -6
for one or more pathogenic parasites, A. lumbricoides, which
produces a resistant ova , was found in over two percent of the
samples ( 6,7 ).
The frequent occurrence of enteric pathogens in the United States
population indicates that pathogens should be expected in all
wastewaters and sludges.
7.3 Pathogen Survival During Sludge Stabilization Processes
Sludge stabilization processes are ideally intended to

reduce putrescibi 1 ity , decrease mass , and improve treatment
characteristics such as dewaterabi 1 ity. Many stabilization
processes also accomplish substantial reductions in pathogen
concentrations.
7.3.1 Pathogen Reduction During Digestion
Sludge digestion is one of the major methods for sludge

stabilization in the United States, Well-operated digesters can
substantially reduce virus and bacteria levels but are less
effective against parasitic cysts.
7.3.1.1 Viruses
Viruses are removed most readily in wastewater treatment

processes when attached to larger particles such as chemical or
biological floes. Sagik has reported primary treatment virus
removal from three percent to extensive ( 8 ). Metcalf has
measured primary treatment removals of 60 to 95 percent with a
one-hour detention time ( 9 ). Sagik and Moore have reported 70 to
99 percent removals with activated sludge ( 8 , 10 ).
Virus concentration ranges for raw and anaerobically digested

sludges are given in Table 7-5 . The large difference between the
high and low value for the number of viruses in untreated
sludge results from several factors , including variation in virus
occurrence in the human population , differing treatment plant
removal efficiencies , and disparity in viral preconcentration and
assay techniques. Anaerobic digestion has been shown to reduce
the concentration of detectable viruses by one to several orders
of magnitude. Moore and others reported a reduction by four
orders of magnitude for poliovirus by anaerobic digestion for
30 days at 85° F ( 30°C ) ( 10 ). Ward and Ashley reported four log
inactivation of poliovirus in four days at 82 °F ( 28 ° C ) ( 17 ).
Ward also found that naturally occurring ammonia ( NH 3 ) was a
viricidal agent for poliovirus , Coxsackie , and ECHO ( 18 ).
However , it was less effective against reoviruses. Digester
detention time , operating temperature, and method of operation
7-7
are apparently t h e m o s t important factors affecting virus
r e m o v a l. S t e r n and Farrell r e p o r t almost 5 0 p e r c e n t virus
inactivation with sludge storage at 6 7° F ( 20° C ) for two weeks
u n d e r laboratory conditions ( 1 1 ). Reduction continued with
longer storage. Increased operating temperature also improves
reduction.
TABLE 7- 5
PATHOGEN OCCURRENCE IN
LIQUID WASTEWATER SLUDGES
Concentration , number/100 ml
Unstabilized raw ,
Pathogen Name or species sludge 3 Digested sludge a b Reference
Virus Various 2.5 x 103 - 7 x 104 100 - 103 9 , 10 , 11
Bacteria ClQ 5 tridia sp 6 x 106 2 x 10 7 12
x 1093
Bacteria Fecal coliform 3 x 104 - 6 x 106 13, 12
Bacteria Salmonella sp. 8 ioJ BDL - 62 11
Bacteria Streptococcus faecalis 3 x 107 4 x 104 - 2 x 10° 11
Bacteria Total coliforms 5 x 109 6 x 104 7 x 10 7 II
Bacteria Mycobacterium tubercu - 107 106 14
losis
Parasites Ascaris lumbricoides 200 - 1,000 0 1,000 15

Parasites Helminth eggs 200 - 700 30 - 70 16
aType of sludge usually unspecified .

Ânaerobic digestion ; temperature and detention times
varied.
CBDL is below detection limits , < 3/100 ml.
Thermophilic anaerobic d i g e s t i o n of s l u d g e at a t e m p e r a t u r e
o f 1 2 1 ° F ( 5 0 ° C ) with a 20 - d a y retention time a t t h e City o f
L o s A n g e l e s Hyperion T r e a t m e n t Plant s h o w e d a two log g r e a t e r
virus reduction than for comparable mesophilic digestion at a
t e m p e r a t u r e of 9 4° F ( 3 5° C ) and t h e same time period ( 19 ). Half
t h e thermophilic s a m p l e s , however , still showed measurable
viruses , which was unexpected ; this may be due t o t h e way that
digesters are operated , P l a n t - s c a l e digesters are usually
o p e r a t e d o n a fil 1- and - draw basis, If the digesters are mixed
continuously , the daily fraction of sludge which is removed t o
make room for the addition of raw sludge will contain s l u d g e t h a t
has been in the process for only a short time. Considering this
fact , t h e appearance of viable pathogens in digested s l u d g e is
not surprising .
7.3.1.2 Bacteria
Most bacteria in wastewater are readily sampled and measured.
Commonly found concentrations and types o f bacteria are shown in
Table 7 -5. The sensitivity o f assay techniques for different
7 -8
bacterial species do vary , from 3 MPN per 100 ml for Salmonella
to 1 , 000 MPN per 100 ml for total coliform , fecal coliform ,
and fecal streptococcus . In general , anaerobic digestion
reduces bacterial counts by one to four logs , Work conducted
at Hyperion , in parallel with the virus studies discussed
previously , showed thermophilic anaerobic digestion of sludge
decreased bacterial counts by two to three logs over mesophilic
d igest ion ( 19 ) . Increasing both the temperature and the
detention time increases bacterial inactivation. Fill- and -draw
operation , however, prevents digestion from removing as large a
fraction of the bacteria as it might in another operating mode.
Farrell and Stern reported the following bacterial concentrations
in an aerobically digested waste- activated sludge ( 13 ):
fecal coliform 7 x 107 MPN per 100 ml

Salmonella 1.5 x lO ^ MPN per 100 ml
The Salmonella values are higher than the upper end of the
typical range of values given for anaerobically digested sludge
in Table 7- 5.
For thermophilic oxygen- aerobic digestion , Ornevich and Smith
reported that increasing temperature decreased the time required
for bacteria inactivation ( 20 ) . At 113° F ( 45 ° C ) Salmonella and
Pseudomonas were reduced to below detectable limits in 24 hours ;
at 140 ° F ( 60° C ), the time was reduced to 30 minutes.
7.3.1.3 Parasites
There is a wide variation in the apparent level of parasite
infestation from region to region in the United States ( 6 , 7, 21 ).
Protozoa cysts should not survive anaerobic digestion , but
helminth ova definitely do and should be expected in digested
wastewater sludge unless testing proves the contrary .
The data for parasite occurrence and persistence during

wastewater treatment are much more limited than those for
bacteria. Cysts of the protozoa Entamoeba histolytica , have been
reported at about four per liter in untreated wastewater ( 16 ).
Protozoan cysts have a low specific gravity and are not likely
to be removed to any great degree in primary sedimentation .
Secondary treatment by the activated sludge process is reported
to incompletely remove all cysts , Trickling filters can
remove up to 75 percent of cysts ( 8 ). E . histolytica are easily
inactivated by well-operated mesophilic sludge digestion .
Data for helminths are also sparse ; limited data for sludges,
reported in Table 7-5, indicate that digestion can cause some ova
reduction. Stern and Farrell reported that Ascaris ova survived
thermophilic ( 121° F , [ 50° C ] ) digestion at the Hyperion Treatment
Plant ( 11 ).
7 -9
7.3.2 Long Term Storage
Pathogen reduction has been recognized for years as a side

benefit of sludge storage in lagoons. Hinesley and others have
reported 99.9 percent reduction in fecal coliform density after
30 - days storage ( 22 ). For an anaerobically digested sludge
stored in anaerobic conditions for 24 weeks at 39 ° F ( 4 ° C ) , Stern
and Farrell reported major reductions in fecal coliform , total
coliform , and Salmonella bacteria ( 11 ). In similar tests at 68 ° F
( 20° C ) , the same bacteria could not be measured after 24 weeks.
Viruses were reduced by 67 percent at 39° F ( 4° C ) and to below
detectable limits at 68 ° F ( 20 °C ) in the same time period. Recent
work by Storm and others showed fecal coliform reductions of one
to three orders of magnitude during long - term storage of an
anaerobically digested mixture of primary and waste- activated
sludge in facultative lagoons ( 23 ).
7.3 .3 Chemical Disinfection

A number of chemicals used for wastewater sludge stabilization,
including lime and chlorine , also reduce the number of pathogenic
organisms in sludge.
7.3 . 3.1 Lime
Lime treatment of wastewater sludge is discussed in detail in

Chapter 6 . Plant- scale liming of wastewater sludge was evaluated
at Lebanon, Ohio ( 24 ). Two chemical- primary sludges, one with
alum and one with ferric chloride , were limed to pH 11.5 and
placed on drying beds . After one month , Salmonella sp . and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa were undetectable. Bench testing was also
conducted on ferric chloride- treated wastewater raw sludges that
were limed to pH 10.5 , 11.5 and 12.5 ; these sludges were sampled
after 0.5 hours and 24 hours and bacterial tests performed ( 24 ) .
Pathogenic bacteria reduction improved with time and was
substantially better at pH values of 11.5 and 12.5. Qualitative
checks for higher life forms such as Ascaris ova indicated that
they survived 24 hours at a pH greater than 11.0. Virus studies
on limed sludges have not been reported , but a pH in excess of
11.5 should inactivate known viruses ( 11 ).
7.3 .3.2 Chlorine
Chlorine is a strong oxidizing chemical used for disinfecting

drinking water and wastewater effluents. It is effective for
bacteria and virus inactivation if applied in sufficient quantity
to develop a free chlorine residual in the solution being
treated . Chlorine is less effective in disinfecting solutions
with a high suspended solids concentration .
Cysts and ova of
parasites are very resistant to chlorine. The use of chlorine
for wastewater sludge treatment is presented in Chapter 6. Few
7 -10
d a t a are available o n the potential of chlorine for reducing t h e
n u m b e r o f p a t h o g e n i c o r g a n i s m s i n s l u d g e , S o m e samples o f sludge
treated with large d o s e s o f chlorine in S o u t h Miami , Florida,
and H a r t l a n d , W i s c o n s i n, s h o w e d l a r g e r e d u c t i o n s in b a c t e r i a
and coliphages ( 25 ). Chlorine doses o f 1 ,000 mg/1 applied t o
w a s t e- activated s l u d g e ( W A S ) with a 0 . 5 p e r c e n t solids c o n c e n t r a-
tion reduced total bacteria counts by four to seven logs and
coliform bacteria and coliphage to below detection limits.
Primary s l u d g e with a 0 . 5 t o 0 . 8 5 p e r c e n t solids concentration
w a s t r e a t e d with 1 , 0 0 0 m g / 1 c h l o r i n e , a n d t o t a l a n d f e c a l
coliform c o u n t s were reduced below detectable limits.
7.3 . 3.3 O t h e r Chemicals
O t h e r s t r o n g oxidizing chemicals such as o z o n e are sometimes u s e d

for drinking w a t e r and wastewater disinfection. While they may
p r o v e useful f o r s l u d g e disinfection , t h e y a r e a s y e t untried .
7.4 P a t h o g e n Survival in t h e Soil
An objective of reducing the number of pathogens in wastewater

t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s l u d g e is t o p r o d u c e a p r o d u c t t h a t m a y be
beneficially utilized . A s such, t h e behavior of sludge pathogens
in t h e s o i l i s i m p o r t a n t . S l u d g e is r e t u r n e d t o t h e soil by
spray irrigation, surface flooding , wet or dry surface spreading ,
o r subsurface injection . These techniques expose the sludge t o
the sun, air, water , and soil in different ways that may strongly
affect pathogen survival.
7.4.1 Viruses
Data f o r the survival of viruses , bacteria , and p a r a s i t e s in soil
a r e summarized in T a b l e 7 -6. F a c t o r s t h a t have b e e n found t o
affect survival include soil t e m p e r a t u r e, p H , c l a y concentration ,
cation exchange capacity , specific surface area, and organic
content. V i r u s a d s o r p t i o n t o soil p a r t i c l e s is t h e c h i e f
mechanism f o r their retention w h e n applied t o t h e l a n d , Virus
a d s o r p t i o n in s o i l is reversible , Viruses s u r v i v e b e s t a t
s l i g h t l y a l k a l i n e p H 's , C o o l e r t e m p e r a t u r e s p r o l o n g virus
i n f e c t i v e n e s s, a s d o e s a m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t b e t w e e n 1 5 a n d
2 5 p e r c e n t ( 8 ).
7 . 4. 2 Bacteria
Maximum recorded bacterial survival times vary with species , from
a little o v e r one m o n t h t o a l m o s t a year , a s s h o w n in Table 7 -6.
T h e i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s in b a c t e r i a survival a r e m o i s t u r e
c o n t e n t , moisture holding capacity , t e m p e r a t u r e , p H , sunlight ,
o r g a n i c m a t t e r , a n d c o m p e t i t i o n o r p r e d a t i o n ( 2 6 ) . Moisture
c o n t e n t is m o s t i m p o r t a n t , since desiccation o f t e n l e a d s t o
7 -1 1
cellular death. Lower temperatures prolong survival, and a lower
pH increases the rate of inactivation , The presence of organics
may promote survival or even regrowth.
TABLE 7- 6
PATHOGEN SURVIVAL IN SOILS
Pathogen Name or species Length of survival ,

type days Reference
Virus Poliovirus Up to 84 8
Virus Poliovirus 1 Up to 170 10
Virus ECHO 7 Up to 170 10
Virus ECHO 9 Up to 170 10
Virus Coxsackie B3 Up to 170 10
Bacteria Clostridium sp Up to 210 15
Bacteria Leptospira sp Up to 43 27
Bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis More than 180 27
Bacteria Salmonella sp. Up to 570 28
Bacteria Salmonella typhi Up to 120 27
Bacteria Sh lgella sp. Up to 210 15
Bacteria Streptococcus faecalis Up to 210 15
Bacteria Total collform Up to 210
Parasite Entamoeba histolytica Up to 8 27
Parasite Ascaris lumbricoides Up to 2 ,550 27
Parasite Hookworm larvae Up to 42 27
Burge reported that sludge applied by subsurface injection tends

to maintain its identity in clumps ( 29 ). Since bacteria and
viruses in sludge are associated with the solids , they may be
protected from natural predation and other environmental factors
in the sludge, Burge also stated that ammonia in sludge may be
bactericidal.
If sludge is applied by a surface method and allowed to dry
before incorporation into the soil , considerable bacterial
reduction can be achieved , This potential advantage of surface
applications must be weighed against the associated odor risk and
the cost of subsurface injection.
7.4.3 Parasites
Protozoa cysts are reported to be destroyed in eight days after
land application , Helminth ova , however , are very durable and
may survive up to seven years , Hookworm larvae may be viable for
over a month.
7.5 Potential Human Exposure to Pathogens

Man may be exposed to pathogens in wastewater sludge in a variety
of ways and at greatly varying concentrations , Figure 7-1 lays
out in simplified form some of the potential pathways. There is
7 -12
no firm scientific evidence to document a single confirmed case
where human disease i s d i r e c t l y linked t o exposure t o pathogens
from wastewater sludge, Viable pathogens have, however, been
isolated from intermediate points in the sludge management
system, such as from surface runoff from sludge treated fields .
These factors should be considered in the selection and design of
a process for reducing the number of pathogenic organisms .
M \ IK
* ANIMALS
ENVIRON - MEAT
MENTAL
SOURCES
I
CROSS CONTAMINATION
EDIBLE
,r
JI
INGESTION
PLANTS
HUMAN .
KJB iitm » f « 1 wnsnBBc un
vj. HANDLING
SLUDGE INGESTION , DIRECT CONTACT, INHALATION
OR
ANIMAL
SLUDGE - TREATMENT
mmmrnffm SOIL wmrnmmmMm m MAN
*
SOURCES PROCESSES UUU -
INGESTION
ma
AQUATIC INTERMED -
* BIOTA IATE HOST
SURFACE INGESTION
| WATER
DIRECT CONTACT
GROUND- INGESTION
WATER
DIRECT CO NT ACT / INHALATION
FIGURE 7- 1
POTENTIAL PATHOGEN PATHWAYS TO MAN
7.6 Heat Disinfection Processes
The number of pathogenic organisms in wastewater sludge can be

effectively reduced by applying heat to untreated or digested
sludges .
Heat may be used s o l e l y f o r pathogen reduction a s
in pasteurization or as one step in a processes designed to
stabilize sludge, improve treatability or reduce mass The focus .
of this section will be on sludge pasteurization Other heating .
processes , such as thermal processing and incineration , are
developed in Chapters 8 and 11 and will only be reviewed briefly
here .
-
7 13
7 . 6.1 Sludge Pasteurization
Man has recognized for many years that heat will inactivate
m i c r o o r g a n i s m s a s w e l l a s t h e e g g s a n d c y s t s o f p a r a s i t e s.
Different s p e c i e s a n d their s u b s p e c i e s s h o w different sensitiv-
ities t o e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d d u r a t i o n o f e x p o s u r e.
R o e d i g e r , S t e r n, a n d W a r d a n d B r a n d o n h a v e d e t e r m i n e d t h e
time-t e m p e r a t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r disinfection o f w e t s l u d g e s
with h e a t ( 3 0-3 2 ). T h e i r r e s u l t s , summarized f o r a n u m b e r o f
m i c r o o r g a n i s m s i n T a b l e 7 - 7, i n d i c a t e t h a t p a s t e u r i z a t i o n a t
1 5 8° F ( 7 0° C ) f o r 3 0 m i n u t e s inactivates p a r a s i t e o v a a n d c y s t s
and reduces population of measurable pathogenic viruses and
bacteria b e l o w d e t e c t a b l e l e v e l s . F o r bacteria, W a r d a n d B r a n d o n
found t h a t f e c a l s t r e p t o c o c c i w e r e m o s t h e a t-resistant , f o l l o w e d
b y coliforms and t h e n S a l m o n e l l a ( 3 2 ). N i c h o l s o n indicates t h a t
a h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e f o r a s h o r t e r t i m e period ( 1 9 5°F [ 9 1° C ],
1 0 minutes ) a l s o d e s t r o y s a l l p a t h o g e n s ( 3 3 ).
TABLE 7- 7
TIME AND TEMPERATURE TOLERANCE FOR

PATHOGENS IN SLUDGE ( 30, 31, 32 )
Exposure time for

organism
inactivation , min
Species o
Temperature , C
50 55 60 65 70
Viruses 25
_
Mycobacterium
*
—
«>
losis
.. . tubercu
Micrococcus pygogenes
— - 20
20
5
Escherichi coll 60
Salmonella typhi 30 4
Fecal streptococci 60
Fecal coliforms 60
Corynebacterium dipth
eriae
- 45 4
Brucella abortus 60 3
Cysts of Entamoeba his-
tolytica 5
Eggs of Ascaris lumbri
coides
- 60 7
Aspergillus flavus
conidia 60
°F - 1.8 °C + 32
7 -1 4
7.6 . 1.1 Process Description
The c r i t i c a l requirement for pasteurization i s that a l l sludge be

held above a predetermined temperature f o r a minimum time period .
Heat transfer can be accomplished by steam injection or with
exter nal or internal heat exchangers Steam injection i s .
preferred because heat transfer through the sludge slurry i s slow
and undependable .
Incomplete mixing will either increase heating
time , reduce process effectiveness , or both Overheating or .
extra detention are not desirable , however , because trace metal
mobilization may be increased , odor problems w i l l be exacerbated ,
and unneeded energy will be expended Batch processing i s .
preferable to avoid reinoculations if short circuiting occurs .
TO THE VACUUM PUMPS
I /" °
3 F TO THE VACUUM PUMPS
PREHEATER 1.45 p$i
>
r; ^-
I
C
an
SLUDGE
EATER,/
d
Ol 4.5 psiC
- RECUPERATOR •
_
1 , 45 pst
BLOW -OFF
Ii
t CONDENSER
f. \ TANKS *
s >
I |b l \'
• **
86 ^F
l COOLING WATER
STEAM l 95° F
CONCENTRATED FROM INLET
TO 157 u f
DIGESTED SLUDGE
\ 64° F
A i TIME
3C MIN
1 ^
.0,83
Psi
V
* •
* 4 i
OUTLET
PASTEURIZED
/ V SLUDGE
/ /
100° F
/
/
°
95 F /
/
TO TANKER
/
/ /
HOLDING
e
/ /
/ TANK r >
STORAGE BASIN PUMPS PUMP STORAGE BASIN PUMP
SLUDGE TO CONVERT DEGREES FAHRENHEIT TO DEGREES CENTIGRADE ,

HEATING STEAM SUBTRACT 32 AND THEN DIVIDE BY 1.8.
——— —
•
VAPORS
VACUUM ( AIR )
WATER
TO CONVERT LB PER S Q U A R E INCH TO kN / m 2 ,
MULTIPLY BY 6.9.
FIGURE 7- 2
FLOW SCHEME FOR SLUDGE PASTEURIZATION WITH

SINGLE - STAGE HEAT RECUPERATION ( 11)
The flow scheme for a typical European sludge pasteurization

s y s t e m w i t h a one-s t a g e h e a t r e c u p e r a t i o n s y s t e m i s shown on
Figure 7 2 - . Principal system components include a steam boiler,
a p r e h e a t e r , a s l u d g e h e a t e r , a h i g h- t e m p e r a t u r e h o l d i n g t a n k ,
blowoff tanks, and storage basins for the untreated and treated
sludge . Sludge for pasteurization enters the preheater where the
7 -1 5
t e m p e r a t u r e is raised from 6 4 to 1 0 0 °F ( 1 8 t o 3 8 °C ) by v a p o r s
f r o m t h e blow-o f f t a n k ; 3 0 t o 4 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l required
h e a t is t h u s p r o v i d e d by recovery . N e x t , direct s t e a m injection
raises t h e t e m p e r a t u r e t o 1 5 7 ° F ( 7 0 °C ) in t h e p a s t e u r i z e r where
t h e s l u d g e resides for at least 30 minutes. Finally t h e s l u d g e
is t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e blow-off t a n k s , w h e r e it is cooled first t o
113 °F ( 45 °C ) a t 1.45 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e inch ( 1 0 k N/ m 2 ) and t h e n
t o 9 8 °F ( 3 5 ° C ) a t 0 . 7 3 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e inch ( 5 k N/m 2 ) ( 3 1 ).
F o r s l u d g e flows o f 0 . 0 5 t o 0.07 M G D ( 2 t o 3 1/s ), a single-s t a g e

h e a t r e c u p e r a t i o n s y s t e m is considered e c o n o m i c a l In the.
0.11 t o 0.13 M G D ( 4.8 t o 5.7 1/s ) f l o w r a n g e a t w o-s t a g e heat
r e c u p e r a t o r is considered economical. F o r flows over 0.26 M G D
( 1 1 1/ s ), a t h r e e - s t a g e h e a t r e c u p e r a t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d
economically attractive.
7 . 6.1.2 Current S t a t u s
There is o n l y o n e o p e r a t i n g m u n i c i p a l s l u d g e p a s t e u r i z a t i o n
facility in t h e United S t a t e s t o d a y , a h e a t conditioning s y s t e m
converted for pasteurization, P a s t e u r i z a t i o n is o f t e n u s e d
in E u r o p e a n d is r e q u i r e d in G e r m a n y a n d S w i t z e r l a n d b e f o r e
a p p l i c a t i o n of s l u d g e t o p a s t u r e lands during t h e spring -summer
,
growing season. Based o n E u r o p e a n experience , heat pasteuriza-

tion is a proven technology, requiring skills such as boiler
operation and understanding of high temperature and pressure
p r o c e s s e s. Pasteurization c a n be applied t o either u n t r e a t e d
o r d i g e s t e d s l u d g e with minimal p r e t r e a t m e n t , Digester gas,
a v a i l a b l e in m a n y p l a n t s , is a n i d e a l f u e l a n d i s u s u a l l y
p r o d u c e d in sufficient quantities t o disinfect locally p r o d u c e d
s l u d g e. Potential disadvantages include odor problems and
t h e n e e d f o r s t o r a g e facilities following t h e p r o c e s s-- w h e r e
bacterial p a t h o g e n s may r e g r o w if s l u d g e is reinoculated.
, 7.6.1.3 Design Criteria
A pasteurization s y s t e m should be designed t o provide a uniform

m i n i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e o f 1 5 7 ° F ( 7 0 ° C ) f o r a t l e a s t 3 0 m i n u t e s.
Batch processing is necessary t o p r e v e n t short circuiting and
,
recontamination , especially by bacteria. I n- line mixing of s t e a m

and s l u d g e should be considered a s a possible aid t o increase
h e a t transfer efficiency and a s s u r e uniform heating. I n- line
mixing will a l s o eliminate t h e n e e d t o mix t h e s l u d g e while it is
held a t t h e pasteurization t e m p e r a t u r e. T h e s y s t e m should be
sized t o h a n d l e p e a k f l o w s o r s l u d g e s t o r a g e s h o u l d be used
t o r e d u c e p e a k f l o w s. Sizing of storage capacity and the
pasteurization s y s t e m will d e p e n d on t h e t y p e of s l u d g e t r e a t e d ,
t h e a v e r a g e s l u d g e f l o w , a n d t h e e n d u s e of t h e s l u d g e. I f
d i g e s t e d s l u d g e is t o b e p a s t e u r i z e d , t h e d i g e s t e r s m a y h a v e
s u f f i c i e n t v o l u m e t o h o l d s l u d g e d u r i n g minor m e c h a n i c a l
breakdowns o r w h e n inclement w e a t h e r p r e v e n t s a n end use s u c h a s
land a p p l i c a t i o n.- If s l u d g e is t o be s t o r e d a f t e r t r e a t m e n t and
7-1 6
prior to pasteurization , a minimum storage volume should be two
days average flow. Storage facilities must be equipped for odor
control or with aeration capacity to prevent septic conditions.
Storage capacity for pasteurized sludge should be adequate to
hold at least four days' amount of processed sludge at average
flow . Odor control must be provided , and pilot- scale testing may
be needed to determine the best odor control process design.
Sludge thickening prior to pasteurization may be cost- effective
for increasing overall energy efficiency , but the value of
thickening should be determined on a case - by - case basis.
Piping , pumps , valves, heat exchangers, flow meters , and other
mechanical equipment should , at a minimum , be comparable to those
for thermophilic digesters. The tanks for holding sludge during
pasteurization should be corrosion- resistant.
7.6 .1.4 Instrumentation and Operational Considerations

Temperature monitoring at several points in each pasteurization
system is a minimum requirement , Flow metering devices ,
boiler controls , emergency pressure relief valves, and level
sensors in tanks should also be considered ( see Chapter 17 ,
Instrumentation ).
Heat pasteurization has flexibility to respond to variable
solids concentrations and flow rates, provided there is enough
basic system capacity , Expansion of facilities with parallel
modules should work well ; multiple modules also improve system
reliability .
7.6.1.5 Energy Impacts

Pasteurization requires both electricity for pumping and fuel for
heating the sludge , Energy requirements for pasteurization
processes, with and without heat recovery , have been estimated
for secondary activated sludge plants where either raw or
digested sludge is pasteurized ( 34 ). A combination of primary
and waste- activated sludge with 4 ,800 gallons of untreated sludge
per 1,000 , 000 gallons ( 4.8 1/ m 2 ) raw sewage or with 3 ,100 gallons
of digested sludge per 1 ,000 ,000 gallons ( 3.1 1/ m 2 ) raw sewage ,
with a solids content of five percent and a specific heat of one
Btu per ° F ( 1900 J /° C ) were assumed. The process allowed for
10 percent heat loss and a 100 to 125 pounds per square inch
( 690 to 860 kN/ m 2 ) boiler with an 80 percent efficiency , Steam
injection heats the sludge to 157° F ( 70 °C ) , where it is held for
45 minutes with steam reinjection to maintain the temperature.
The energy requirements for processes with a range of wastewater
flows are summarized on Figure 7 -3.
7.6 . 1.6 Cost Information

The only sludge pasteurization process operating in the United
States was not initially designed for pasteurization , Thus no
actual cost data are available. Costs have been estimated for
7 -17
the processes discussed under " Energy Impacts 11 ( 34 ) . It was
assumed that the processes would have parallel pasteurization
reactors and four-day storage volume for the pasteurized sludge.
The use ( volume of throughput per given size ) for the processes
increases with increasing system size.
1,000 100
0
8
7
6
5
>-
4
>
LfJ T3
o 3
_
k
UT5
> ~ <0
2
a
03
k
>
3
*
% m
I
& 100 10
9 o
1 *
0?
>
O
o
1
JC.
l e
fD
>
H
6 0J
JC:
_oc 4
h-
u
LJJ
£ 5
u
J
LU
3
-J
UJ
3 3
UL u.
10 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 789
1 10 100
PLANT CAPACITY, MGD of wastewater ( 1 MGD = 0,044 m3/s)
FIGURE 7- 3
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR SLUDGE PASTEURIZATION SYSTEMS ( 34 )
Cost estimates were made in June 1977 for construction materials ,

labor , equipment , normal excavation , contractor overhead and
profit , operating and maintenance labor , materials and supplies ,
and energy . Summary graphs for these estimates are given on
Figures 7-4 through 7 -7.
7 -18
6
1/5
4
ow
Lft
o
UNTREATED SLUDGE
H
to
O
u 3
2!
O
rr
O
D
cc
to
;z:
O 2
a
DIGESTED SLUDGE
0
5 10 20 30 40 50 . 60 70 80 90 100
PLANT CAPACITY, MGD of wastewater { 1 MGD = 0,044 m3 / s)
FIGURE 7 - 4
CONSTRUCTION COSTS FOR SLUDGE PASTEURIZATION

SYSTEMS WITHOUT HEAT RECOVERY ( 34 )
These graphs were used to estimate unit pasteurization costs

f o r a 5 0 -M G D ( 2 . 2 - m / s ) s e c o n d a r y w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t
^ .
Additional assumptions made were that yard piping f o r the system
would cost 15 percent of the t o t a l construction cost , electricity
would cost three cents per kilowatt hour , fuel would cost
$ 3 . 0 0 p e r m i l l i o n B t u ' s ( $ 2 . 8 4 /G J ) , l a b o r w o u l d c o s t $ 1 0 . 0 0 p e r
hour , and capital was amortized over 20 years a t seven percent .
T h e r e s u l t i n g p a s t e u r i z a t i o n c o s t w a s $ 1 5 . 0 0 p e r t o n ( $ 1 6 . 5 0/ t )
of dry solids with heat recovery . A similar calculation was made
f o r a 1 0 -M G D ( 0 . 4 4 - m 3 / s ) s e c o n d a r y p l a n t w i t h n o h e a t r e c o v e r y ,
a c o s t o f $ 3 3 . 0 0 p e r t o n ( $ 3 6 . 4 0/ t ) o f d r y s o l i d s w a s e s t i m a t e d .
7 -19
7
£0 5
<
~O
o UNTREATED SLUDGE
LA
o
H
in
O
CJ 4
o
u
D
IX
\—
tn
O
3
L>
DIGESTED SLUDGE
1
5 10 20 30 SO 60 70 80 90100
PLANT CAPACITY, MGD of wasttwater ( 1 MGD = 0.044 m3 / s)
FIGURE 7- 5
CONSTRUCTION COSTS FOR SLUDGE PASTEURIZATION

SYSTEMS WITH HEAT RECOVERY ( 34 )
.
7.6 1.7 Design Example
To establish the equipment requirements and layout for a typical

pasteurization system , digested combined primary and waste -
-
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e f r o m a 5 0 M G D ( 2 . 2 m 3/ s ) a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t
are to be pasteurized prior to reuse by direct injection , If the
sludge i s produced a t a rate of 2 , 000 pounds of solids per
m i l l i o n g a l l o n s ( 0 . 2 4 k g /m3 ) , a n d 4 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e s o l i d s a r e
-
7 20
destroyed during digestion, the resulting digested sludge has
2.4 percent solids . The sludge flow rate i s about 4 ,800 gallons
per million g a l l o n s (
t h e f l o w r a t e i s 0 . 3 MGD - ^ .
4 . 8 l/m )
(
F o r t h e 5 0 -M G D ( 2 . 2 m / s ) p l a n t ,
1 3 . 0 1/ s ) . If the pasteurization
^
facility i s run 24 hours p e r day , five days per week , the flow
r a t e i s 0 . 4 2 M G D 1 8 . 9 1/ s
( ) o r about 300 gallons per minute
( 1 8 . 9 1/ s ).
12
10
>
WITH HEAT
% RECOVERY
CL
2 6
5
WITHOUT HEAT
RECOVERY
4
0 I I
5 10 20 30 50 6-0 70 B0 90 100
PLANT CAPACITY , MOD of wastewatw ( 1 MGQ = 0.044
FIGURE 7- 6
LABOR REQUIREMENTS FOR SLUDGE

PASTEURIZATION SYSTEMS ( 34 )
-
7 21
16
14
ID
12
I
%
UNTREATED SLUDGE
_i*•
<
cc
ILI
-
(
<c
10
5
DIGESTED SLUDGE
J
6
5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100
PLANT CAPACITY , MGD of wastewater ( 1 MGD = 0, 044 m3/s)
FIGURE 7- 7
MAINTENANCE MATERIAL COSTS FOR SLUDGE

PASTEURIZATION SYSTEMS ( 34 )
To select the reactor size, assume that there are two parallel
units and each can be charged , held , and emptied , in 1.5 hours .
D e t e r m i n i n g t h e volume p e r r e a c t o r:
SC
V
NH
where:
S t o t a l sludge volume per week , gallons;

C = cycle time, hours;
N = number o f r e a c t o r s/c y c l e ;
-
7 22
H = total operating hours.
For this example ,
^
V = ( 2.1 x 10 gallons )(1.5 hr/cycle ) = 13,125 gallons ( 49.7 m3 )
( 2 reactors/cycle )( 120 hr)
Assume a 13 , 500 gallon ( 51 m 3 ) storage tank will be used to

store this sludge. Set prepasteurization storage at 2.5 times
the average daily flow , or at one million gallons ( 3780 m 3 ).
Set post pasteurization storage at four times the average daily
flow or 1.7 million gallons ( 6350 m 3 ). Three heat exchangers
in series heat the digested sludge from 68° F to 131° F ( 20 ° to
5 5 0 C ); the boiler supplies steam to raise the temperature to
157° F ( 7 0° C ). The heat exchangers can be either sludge to sludge
or sludge to water to sludge. Sludge-to- sludge exchangers should
be carefully specified as they have a history of fouling.
The sludge pumps should be sized and piped either to fill or

empty a 13 , 500 gallon tank ( 51 m 3 ) in 30 minutes , equivalent to
450 gallons per minute ( 28 1/s ). At least three pumps are
needed ; providing one pump on standby .
The required boiler capacity is calculated with the equation:
E AT h W
e t
where:
E = energy required in Btu per hour
AT - the temperature difference between sludge from the heat

exchanger and sludge in the reactor ;
h = heat capacity of the sludge, Btu/lb° F ;
W = wet sludge weight , lb ;

time for heating ;
e = boiler conversion efficiency .

If h is one Btu per lb ° F ( 864 J /kg ° C ); e = 80 percent ; T = 63° F
0
( 3 5 C ); W = ,
112 600 lb ( 51 , 200 kg ) ; and t = 0.5 hr ; then ,
( 63 )( 1 )( 112 ,600 ) = 17 , 700 , 000 Btu/hr ( 3.9 GJ/hr )

E ( 0.5 )( 0.8 )
7- 23
An a d d i t i o n a l allowance of t e n p e r c e n t should be added t o
maintain the reactor temperature for 30 minutes, giving a total
o f 1 9 . 5 m i l l i o n B t u/ h r ( 4 . 3 G J / h r ) o r a b o u t 6 0 0 h o r s e p o w e r .
F i g u r e 7 -8 p r o v i d e s a s c h e m a t i c l a y o u t f o r t h e m a j o r p r o c e s s
components .
PASTEURIZATION
REACTORS
°
157 F
^CXJTCXJ»- °
157 Is
^
\ TC 'C )
UNTREATED
OR
DIGESTED
SLUDGE RAW
es°F mDc\ SLUDGE
F ROM F ED
STORAGE PUMPS
Ci
LU
_- _r
HEAT
1
PASTE U R • Q UJ
N uiQ EXCHANGER
H G LH 1ZED
D a w SLUDGE
UJ
H PUMPS j Z V}
Lb
<_
Q
f
1 INLINE
•Mkaa>
PREHEATED STEAM
PASTEURIZED SLUDGE 131 CF (55 C1° [J * 345°f SOILER
SLUDGE 125 psi
STORAGE ( 175 C
° _
8S0 kN / m^>
SLUDGE
FOR
UTILIZATION
FIGURE 7- 8
SYSTEM COMPONENT LAYOUT FOR SLUDGE

PASTEURIZATION WITH HEAT RECOVERY
.
7.6 2 Other Heat Processes
The reduction of pathogenic organisms i n sludge may be an added

benefit of other sludge treatment processes, In this chapter
heat processes are subdivided into heat conditioning , heat - -
drying , high temperature combustion, and composting .
7 -2 4
M
-
«wsnw >w
7 . 6.2 . 1 H e a t-Conditioning
H e a t- c o n d i t i o n i n g includes p r o c e s s e s w h e r e w e t w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e
is pressurized with or without oxygen and the temperature is
r a i s e d t o 3 5 0 ° t o 4 0 0 ° F ( 1 7 7° t o 2 4 0 ° C ) a n d h e l d f o r 1 5 t o
4 0 minutes. T h e s e p r o c e s s e s d e s t r o y a l l p a t h o g e n s in s l u d g e, a n d
a r e discussed i n d e t a i l in C h a p t e r 8.
7 . 6. 2 . 2 H e a t-Drying
H e a t-d r y i n g i s g e n e r a l l y d o n e w i t h a f l a s h d r i e r o r a r o t a r y
kiln . Limited d a t a f r o m a n a l y s e s o n Milwaukee, Wisconsin's dried
s l u d g e , M i l o r g a n i t e, p r o d u c e d w i t h a d i r e c t- i n d i r e c t r o t a r y
c o u n t e r f l o w kiln t y p e d r y e r, indicates it is bacteriologically
s t e r i l e ( 1 3 ). D a t a o n s a m p l e s o f f l a s h- d r i e d s l u d g e t a k e n
in H o u s t o n, C h i c a g o, Baltimore, a n d G a l v e s t o n, s h o w e d n o coliform
b a c t e r i a i n t h e H o u s t o n s l u d g e a n d n o g r e a t e r t h a n 1 7 M P N/ g m
d r y s l u d g e in t h e o t h e r s l u d g e s. T o t a l n o n- c o n f i r m i n g l a c t o s e
f e r m e n t e r s ( s p o r e f o r m e r s ) r a n g e d f r o m 1 4 M P N t o 2 4 0, 0 0 0 M P N p e r
g m ( 3 5 ). N o t e s t s w e r e m a d e f o r v i r u s e s o r p a r a s i t e s ; o t h e r
p a t h o g e n s m a y a l s o s u r v i v e if s o m e bacteria d o.
D a t a f o r t h e C a r v e r-Greenfield p r o c e s s g a t h e r e d d u r i n g t e s t i n g by
L A/O M A s h o w e d a s e v e n o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e reduction f o r t o t a l a n d
fecal coliform, to a detectable level of less than one organism
p e r g r a m ( 3 6 ). Fecal streptococci were reduced six orders of
m a g n i t u d e t o t w o M P N p e r g r a m a n d S a l m o n e l l a f r o m 5 0, 0 0 0 M P N p e r
g r a m t o less t h a n 0 . 2 M P N p e r g r a m , Ascaris o v a w e r e r e d u c e d t o
l e s s t h a n 0 . 2 o v a p e r g r a m.
7 . 6 .2 . 3 High Temperature Processes
H i g h t e m p e r a t u r e p r o c e s s e s i n c l u d e incineration, p y r o l y s i s, o r a
combination t h e r e o f ( s t a r v e d -a i r combustion ). These processes
r a i s e t h e s l u d g e t e m p e r a t u r e a b o v e 9 3 0° F ( 5 0 0°C ) d e s t r o y i n g
t h e physical s t r u c t u r e o f a l l s l u d g e p a t h o g e n s a n d e f f e c t i v e l y
s t e r i l i z i n g t h e s l u d g e. The product of a high temperature
process is sterile unless shortcircuiting occurs within the
p r o c e s s.
7 . 6. 2 . 4 Composting
C o m p o s t i n g is considered h e r e a s a h e a t p r o c e s s b e c a u s e a m a j o r
aim o f s l u d g e c o m p o s t i n g o p e r a t i o n s is t o p r o d u c e a p a t h o g e n- f r e e
c o m p o s t b y a c h i e v i n g a n d h o l d i n g a t h e r m o p h i l i c t e m p e r a t u r e.
A v a i l a b l e d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t a w e l l- r u n c o m p o s t i n g p r o c e s s
g r e a t l y r e d u c e s t h e n u m b e r s o f p r i m a r y p a t h o g e n s ( 3 7 - 4 0 ).
H o w e v e r, windrow o r a e r a t e d p i l e o p e r a t i o n s h a v e n o t achieved a
sufficiently uniform internal temperature to inactivate all
p a t h o g e n s. A d v e r s e environmental conditions , p a r t i c u l a r l y h e a v y
r a i n s , c a n s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r c o m p o s t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s. An
7- 2 5
additional problem with composting is the potential regrowth of
bacteria. This is particularly true with windrows where mixing
moves material from the outside of the mound to the center ( 40 ).
However , storage of compost for several months following windrow
or pile composting helps to further reduce pathogen levels .
Secondary pathogens , particularly heat - resistant fungi such
as Aspergillus , have been found to propagate rapidly during the
composting of wastewater sludges. Aspergillus apparently will
die out during storage of several months or more ( 22 ).
Enclosed mechanical composting systems may achieve sufficient
temperature , 157 ° F ( 70° C ) or greater , for an adequate time ; more
research can verify the efficiency of mechanical systems for
pathogen reduction.
7.7 Pathogen Reduction With High-Energy Radiation
The use of high - energy radiation for wastewater sludge

disinfection has been considered for over 25 years. Two energy
sources, beta and gamma rays , offer the best potential system
performance. Beta rays are high-energy electrons , generated with
an accelerator for use in disinfection , while gamma rays are
high- energy photons emitted from atomic nuclei. Both types of
rays induce secondary ionizations in sludge as they penetrate .
Secondary ionizations directly inactivate pathogens and produce
oxidizing and reducing compounds that in turn attack pathogens.
7.7.1 Reduction of Pathogens in Sludge With

Electron Irradiation
High-energy electrons , projected through wastewater sludge by

an appropriate generator , are being pilot tested as a means for
inactivating or destroying pathogens in sludge at the Deer Island
Wastewater Treatment Plant in Boston , Massachusetts ( 41 ). The
electrons produce both biological and chemical effects as they
scatter off material in the sludge , Direct ionization by the
electrons may damage molecules of the pathogen , particularly the
DNA in bacteria cell nuclei and the DNA or RNA of the viruses.
The electrons also cause indirect action by producing e q
( hydrated electrons ) and H and OH free radicals that react with ^
oxygen and other molecules to produce ozone and hydroperoxides.
These compounds then attack organics in the sludge-- including
pathogens -- promoting oxidation , reduction , dissociation , and
other forms of degradation.
The pathogen- reducing power of the electron beam ( e - beam ) depends

on the number and the energy of electrons impacting the sludge.
E- beam dose rates are measured in rads ; one rad is equal to the
absorption of 4.3 x 10- 6 Btu per pound ( 100 ergs/ gm ) of material.
Since the radiation distributes energy throughout the volume
of material regardless of the material penetrated , the degree
7 - 26
o f d i s i n f e c t i o n with a n irradiation s y s t e m i s e s s e n t i a l l y
i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e s l u d g e s o l i d s concentration within t h e m a x i m u m
effective p e n e t r a t i o n d e p t h o f t h e radiation , T h e penetrating
p o w e r of electrons is limited , with a maximum r a n g e of 0 . 2 inches
( 0.5 c m ) in w a t e r or sludge slurries, when the electrons h a v e
been accelerated by a p o t e n t i a l o f one million volts ( MeV ).
F o r e- b e a m disinfection t o b e effective , s o m e minimum d o s a g e

m u s t b e achieved for all s l u d g e being t r e a t e d , This effect
is attained by dosing a b o v e the a v e r a g e d o s a g e desired f o r
disinfection. O n e method u s e d t o ensure a d e q u a t e disinfection
is t o limit t h e thickness of t h e sludge layer radiated s o t h a t
ionization intensity o f electrons exiting t h e t r e a t e d sludge is
about 50 percent of the maximum initial intensity. For the
0 . 8 5 M e V electrons used in t h e existing facility , this constraint
limits s l u d g e layer thickness t o about 0.08 inches ( 0 . 2 cm ).
A c c e l e r a t e d e l e c t r o n s c a n i n d u c e r a d i o a c t i v i t y in s u b s t a n c e s
which they impact, However, the electron energy levels for
sludge irradiation , u p t o a b o u t 2 MeV , are well below t h e 1 0 MeV
needed t o induce significant radioactivity with e l e c t r o n s.
7 . 7 .1 . 1 Process Description
Disinfection with an e- beam h a s been p r o p o s e d f o r use o n both

untreated and digested sludges. The major system c o m p o n e n t s of
t h e D e e r Island facility s h o w n o n Figure 7 -9 include the s l u d g e
s c r e e n e r, s l u d g e g r i n d e r, s l u d g e f e e d p u m p , s l u d g e s p r e a d e r,
e l e c t r o n beam p o w e r supply , e l e c t r o n a c c e l e r a t o r , e l e c t r o n b e a m
scanner , a n d s l u d g e r e m o v a l p u m p. A c o n c r e t e vault houses the
e l e c t r o n beam , providing shielding f o r t h e w o r k e r s from s t r a y
irradiation , e s p e c i a l l y x - r a y s . X -r a y s are p r o d u c e d by t h e
i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e e l e c t r o n s w i t h t h e n u c l e u s o f a t o m s in
t h e mechanical equipment and in the s l u d g e. T h e p u m p s must be
progressive cavity or similar types to assure smooth sludge
feed . Screening and grinding o f sludge p r i o r t o irradiation is
n e c e s s a r y t o a s s u r e t h a t a uniform l a y e r of s l u d g e is p a s s e d
under t h e e - beam .
At D e e r Island , s l u d g e from t h e feed pump d i s c h a r g e s into t h e

c o n s t a n t head t a n k ( s e e F i g u r e 7 -1 0 ) , which is e q u i p p e d with a n
underflow d i s c h a r g e w e i r. S l u d g e is discharged under the weir
in a t h i n s t r e a m and t h e n flows d o w n a n inclined r a m p , At the
b o t t o m o f t h e r a m p , it m o v e s b y f r e e - f a l l i n t o t h e r e c e i v i n g
t a n k.
T h e e l e c t r o n s a r e first accelerated , T h e y l e a v e t h e a c c e l e r a t o r
in a continuous beam t h a t is s c a n n e d back and f o r t h a t 4 0 0 times
per second across the sludge as it falls free in a thin film from
the end of the inclined ramp. T h e d o s a g e is varied by adjusting
the height of the underflow weir and hence the sludge flow r a t e.
7 -2 7
HIGH VOLTAGE CABLE
ELECTRON
BEAM
POWER
SUPPLY
ELECTRON
ACCELERATOR
CONCRETE
SHIELDING
ELECTRON
BEAM
SCANNER - A/ VIEWING
/ />
WINDOW
FEED
SLUDGE
/ 4 CL //
SLUDGE 77J
SLUDGE SLUDGE FEED // /
SCREEN GRINDER /Y / / / SLUDGE
PUMP /
REMOVAL
PUMP
SLUDGE
SPREADER
FIGURE 7- 9
EQUIPMENT LAYOUT FOR ELECTRON BEAM FACILITY ( 41 )
.
7.7 1.2 Status
-
E beam sludge i r r a d i a t i o n must be considered a developing
technology . The Deer Island irradiation f a c i l i t y , as of
-
August 1979 , i s t h e only e beam f a c i l i t y now operated i n t h e
United States for sludge disinfection, This pilot project is
d e s i g n e d t o t r e a t 0 . 1 M G D ( 4 1/ s ) s l u d g e a t u p t o e i g h t p e r c e n t
solids with a dosage of 400 , 000 rads , According to Shah, the
f a c i l i t y has been operated about 700 hours since i t was brought
o n l i n e i n 1 9 7 6 , w i t h t h e l o n g e s t c o n t i n u o u s o n- l i n e t i m e b e i n g
eight hours ( 42 ) .
7 . 7 .1 . 3 Design Considerations
D e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r a n e- b e a m s l u d g e f a c i l i t y a r e d i f f i c u l t t o
establish because operational data are available from only one
pilot facility, However , the work a t Deer Island provides good
baseline information . A minimum level of electron irradiation
should be 400 , 000 rads , which can best be supplied with a one to
two MeV e l e c t r o n a c c e l e r a t o r . This energy level provides good
-
7 28
penetration for 0.2- inch ( 0.5 -cm ) thick sludge layers, making the
.
achievement of a uniform sludge layer less important than with

lower energy electrons , However , screening and grinding of
sludge before disinfection are still necessary to ensure uniform
spreading by this feed mechanism, The high- energy electrons,
combined with a short spacing of about 2.75 inches ( 7 cm ) between
the scanner window and the sludge film, ensure efficient energy
transfer in the system.
ELECTRON
INPUT BEAM
( UNTREATED OR
DIGESTED SLUDGE )
ELECTRON BEAM
SCANNER
CONSTANT
HEAD HIGH ENERGY
TANK
DISINFECTION
ZONE
UNDERFLOW
WEIR
INCLINED SLUDGE
FEED RAMP RECEIVING
— TANK
OUTPUT
( DISINFECTED
SLUDGE )
FIGURE 7- 10
ELECTRON BEAM SCANNER AND SLUDGE SPREADER
Only digested sludge has been irradiated at Deer Island .

Nonstabilized sludge disinfection by e- beam irradiation still
requires pilot - scale testing before any design is considered.
7- 29
Owing to the limited penetrating power of high energy electrons ,
this method of t r e a t m e n t is probably only feasible f o r liquid
sludge . Piping p u m p s , v a l v e s , and flow m e t e r s s h o u l d be
specified as equal to those used for anaerobic sludge digestion
systems.

Considerations
Instrumentation needs for an e - beam facility should include
flow measurement of and temperature probes in the sludge
streams entering and leaving the irradiator. Alarms as well as
monitoring should be used to indicate variation in sludge flow
and high or low radiation doses.
Sludge disinfection by e - beam irradiation has large inherent
flexibility . The radiation source ( the e- beam ) can be switched
on and off as easily as an electric motor. The unit can be run
as needed , up to its maximum throughput capacity . Electron
accelerators have a proven record for reliability over at least
20 years in industrial applications and should prove dependable
in wastewater treatment applications. According to Haas , the
reliability of the electron beam generator and associated
electronics presently used for medical and industrial applica-
tions is comparable to that for the microwave radar systems at
major airports ( 43 ). Accelerators for sludge disinfection would
use the same basic components and would have similar reliability.
Other system components — pumps , screens , and grinders — are all in
common use in waste treatment plants. Cooling air for the
scanner must be provided at several hundred cfm ( about 10 m /s ).
This constant introduction of cooling air leads to the generation
^
of ozone in the shielding vault around the accelerator. If the
ozone were vented into the plant or into the atmosphere , some air
pollution would result. At Deer Island , this problem is avoided
by venting the cooling air through the sludge , where the ozone is
consumed by chemical reduction. These reactions provide a small
amount of additional disinfection and COD reduction.
7.7.1.5 Energy Impacts

Energy use for e - beam facilities has been estimated for the
equipment used at Deer Island. A facility with a 50-kW ( 50-kJ /s )
beam would require about 100 kW ( lOOkJ /s ) of total electrical
power including 25 kW ( 25 k j/ s ) for screening , grinding , and
pumping , 10 kW for ( 10 kJ /s ) window cooling , and 12 kW ( 12 kJ /s )
for electrical conversion losses. Energy requirements for
^
0.1 MGD ( 4 l / m ) are 6 kWhr per ton ( 24 MJ /t ) of wet sludge
at five percent solids or 120 kWhr per dry ton ( 480 MJ /t ) ( 41 ).
7.7 . 1.6 Performance D a t a

D a t a f o r e - beam disinfection o f both u n t r e a t e d and digested
s l u d g e s are available a s a r e s u l t of l a b o r a t o r y testing d o n e
p r i o r t o t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e D e e r I s l a n d f a c i l i t y. For
7 - 30
untreated primary sludge, a dose of 400 kilorads ( krads ) with
3 MeV e l e c t r o n s r e d u c e d t o t a l b a c t e r i a c o u n t b y f i v e l o g s , t o t a l
coliform by more than six logs , below detectable l i m i t s , and
t o t a l Salmonel l a by over four logs , also below detectable
1 imits. Fecal streptococci were only reduced by two logs with
data indicating t h a t some fecal streptococci are sensitive t o
radiation while others are resistant .
For samples of anaerobically digested sludge irradiated a t Deer
I s l a n d w i t h 0 . 8 5 MeV e l e c t r o n s , t o t a l b a c t e r i a w e r e r e d u c e d by
four logs a t a dose of 280 krads , t o t a l coliform by five to s i x
logs a t a dose of 150 to 200 krads; a dose of 400 krads reduced
fecal streptococci by 3.6 logs .
Virus inactivation has also been measured , A dose of 400 krads

will apparently reduce the total virus measured as plaque
forming u n i t s ( PFU ) by one t o two l o g s , Laboratory batch
irradiation of five enteric viruses showed about two logs
reduction a t a dose of 400 krads ; Coxsackie virus were most
resistant while Adeno virus were least resistant , These results
correlate directly with virus size . Larger viruses are larger
.
t a r g e t s a n d h e n c e m o r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o e l e c t r o n " h i t s" ( 4 1 )
Data for parasite reduction are scarce but 400 krads will
apparently destroy a l l Ascaris ova ( 41) .
C o m p a r i n g t h e s e p e r f o r-
m a n c e d a t a w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m T a b l e 7-5 o n t h e q u a n t i t y o f
pathogens i n sludge indicate t h a t a dose of 400 krads may be
adequate to disinfect anaerobically digested sludge , but raw
sludge or aerobic sludge may require higher doses .
1.1 .1.1 Product Production and Properties
Odor problems are dramatically lower for irradiated sludge as

compared with pasteurized sludge ( 41) .
Irradiation of digested
s l u d g e w i t h a n e - b e a m m a y a l s o i m p r o v e s l u d g e d e w a t e r a b i1 i t y
and destroy some synthetic organic chemicals , a s well as reduce
pathogen levels .Irradiation has reduced specific resistance of
sludge by up t o 50 percent a t a dose of 400 krads ( 41) .Since
specific resistance i s normally measured on a log scale, a
50 percent reduction may i n d i c a t e minimal improvement in sludge
dewaterability .
.
7.7 1.8 Cost Information
The only c o s t estimates available on e-beam sludge treatment

process result from work done a t Deer Island .
The hypothetical
f a c i l i t y used f o r t h e c o s t e s t i m a t e h a d the following
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s:
• E l e c t r o n b e a m p o w e r o f 7 5 kW ( 7 5 k J /s ) .
• A c c e l e r a t o r v o l t a g e o f 1 . 5 MeV .
7 -3 1
Disinfection dose of 400 krad .
Yearly throughput of 50 million gallons ( 190 ,000 m3 ) with

process operating 300 days per year , This throughput is
-
equivalent to the raw sludge from a 25 MGD ( l .l m3/s )
activated sludge plant or the digested sludge from a
-
-
35-MGD ( 1.5 m 3/s ) activated sludge plant.
The total capital cost was $ 600 , 000. The cost included the
following : --
accelerator component with scanner $ 350 ,000 ;
— ----
automatic controls ? 30 ,000 ; sludge handling equipment $l 00 ,000 ;
and building construction and facility installation $l 20 ,000 .
Annual costs were as follows: capital ( 20 years at 10 percent )
--
$ 30 ,000 ; depreciation $ 30 ,000 ; operation and maintenance
$40 ,000 ; electric power at three cents per kWhr (.83 cents per
--
--
mJ ) $ 28 ,000 ; and water $ 2 ,000. This cost estimate was carried
out in Boston in late 1977. At that time the ENR construction
cost index was about 2 ,650 . The net cost was $ 2.53 per
1 ,000 gallons ($ 0.67/m 3 ) of liquid sludge treated.
The energy requirements ( fuel and electricity ) for an irradiation

system are estimated to be 90 to 98 percent less than those for
heat pasteurization.
7.7. 2 Disinfection With Gamma Irradiation
Gamma irradiation produces effects similar to those from an

electron beam. However , gamma rays differ from electrons in two
ma]or ways. First , they are very penetrating ; a layer of water
25 inches ( 64 cm ) thick is required to stop 90 percent of the
- -
rays from a cobalt 60 ( Co 60 ) source ; in comparison , a 1 MeV
electron can only penetrate about 0.4 inches ( 1 cm ) of water.
-
Second gamma rays result from decay of a radioactive isotope.
Decay from a source is continuous and uncontrolled ; it cannot be
turned off and on. The energy level ( or levels ) of the typical
gamma ray from a given radioactive isotope are also relatively
constant . Once an isotope is chosen for use as a source, the
applied energy can only be varied with exposure time.
-
sources for sludge irradiators.
-
Two isotopes, Cs 137 and Co 60 , have been considered as "fuel"
-
Cs 137 has a half life of
30 years and emits a 0.660 MeV gamma ray. In the late 1970's ,
-
it was available in the United States as a by product from the
processing of nuclear weapons wastes. If the United States
-
establishes a nuclear reactor spent fuel rod reprocessing
program , it would also be available at a rate of about 2 pounds
-
per ton ( 1 kg/t ) of fuel. Co 60 has a half life of five years
and emits two gamma rays with an average energy of 1.2 MeV. It
is made by bombarding normal cobalt metal , which is stable cobalt
isotope 59 , with neutrons.
7 32-
mvwstm*
1 . 1 .2.1 Process Description
Two g e n e r a l t y p e s of gamma systems have been proposed f o r

wastewater sludge disinfection , The f i r s t i s a batch type system
for liquid sludge, where the sludge i s circulated in a closed
-
v e s s e l surrounding t h e gamma r a y source , Dosage i s regulated by
detention and source strength , The second system i s for dried or
composted sludge . A special hopper conveyor is used to carry the
m a t e r i a l f o r i r r a d i a t i o n t o t h e gamma ray source , Conveyor speed
i s used to control the dosage .
1.1 .2.2 Current Status - Liquid Sludge
The only gamma ray system i n a c t i v e o p e r a t i o n i s a l i q u i d sludge

f a c i l i t y a t Geiselbullach ( near Munich ) in West Germany ,
Sludge has been treated in a demonstration scale facility
since 1973 . -
T h e d e s i g n c a p a c i t y i s 0 . 0 4 M G D ( 2 . 0 1/ s ) b u t t h e
-
i n i t i a l Co 6 0 c h a r g e o n l y p r o v i d e d r a d i a t i o n t o t r e a t 0 . 0 0 8 MGD
( 0 . 3 1/ s ) . T h e b a s i c f l o w s c h e m e i s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 7 -1 1 .
Digested s l u d g e i s pumped o r otherwise moved i n t o the v a u l t with
t h e Co source and c i r c u l a t e d u n t i l t h e desired dosage i s reached .
The chamber i s then completely emptied and recharged .
Wizigmann and Wuersching ( 45 ) reported on the efficiency of the
Geiselbullach f a c i l i t y when the applied dose was 260 krads in
210 minutes . Bacterial t e s t s were made on samples of processed
s l u d g e a n d s h o w e d a t w o- l o g r e d u c t i o n i n t o t a l b a c t e r i a l c o u n t ,
an Enterococcus reduction of two logs , and an Enterobacteriaceae
reduction of four to five logs. Two of 40 samples were p o s i t i v e
f o r S a l m o n e l l a . B a c t e r i a l r e g r o w t h w a s m e a s u r e d i n s l u d g e- d r y i n g
beds where the sludge was placed after irradiation .
Plastic encapsulated bacteria samples were also irradiated in
the system t o a dosage of 260 krads . Two of nine E . c o l i s t r a i n s
were r a d i a t i o n - r e s i s t a n t a n d r e d u c e d five to six logs ; three
strains were t o t a l l y i n a c t i v a t e d , and four strains were
reduced s i x t o e i g h t l o g s . T e s t s o n t e n strains of Salmonella in
170 samples showed four to s e v e n l o g r e d uction, with 85 percent
of the samples over five l o g s and 61 p ercent over six logs .
Klebsiella were reduced six to eight logs , -
Gram negative
species were more s e n s i t i v e t o gamma r a d i a t i o n than gram p o s i t i v e -
ones , and spores were more resistant than vegetative forms , A
comparison of the disinfection results of the real sludge samples
and the plastic encapsulated cultures indicates that circulation
in the sludge system apparently did not result in a very uniform
dose exposure .
Parasite ova ( Ascaris suum ) c i r c u l a t e d through t h e system i n
plastic capsules failed to develop during three weeks of
incubation . This observation period was not adequate , however ,
t o a s s u r e t h a t l o n g-t e r m r e c o v e r y w o u l d n o t t a k e p l a c e .
7 -3 3
SLUDGE
GROUND
LEVEL
% VA? y&z 6
?
®mtZ[uo £r^ ^ COBALT
VALVE
CONCRETE
SHIELDING
OUTLET
«*
'
^
KQ ijCeM
FIGURE 7- 11
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF COBALT- 60

IRRADIATION FACILITY AT GE 1SELBULLACH , WEST GERMANY { HU )
According to the latest available reports, land spreading of the

s l u d g e s t r e a t e d a t G e i s e l b u l 1a c h h a s b e e n w e l l r e c e i v e d b y
local farmers and the general public .
No r a d i a t i o n hazards
have resulted and the treated sludges satisfy disinfection
requirements . The competing system in Germany , heat pasteuriza -
tion, requires more energy and produces an odorous product that
i s more d i f f i c u l t to handle .
.
7.7 2.3 Current Status - Dried or Composted Sludge
A dry sludge i r r a d i a t i o n system using a gamma source i s being

developed by Sandia L a b o r a t o r i e s i n Albuquerque, New Mexico, The
- -
e i g h t t o n- p e r d a y ( 7 . 2 t / d a y ) d e m o n s t r a t i o n f a c i l i t y , c o n t a i n i n g
a b o u t o n e m i l l i o n C u r i e o f C s -1 3 7 , u n d e r w e n t f i n a l t e s t i n g a n d
s t a r t- u p i n J u n e
1979 .
The facility will be used t o irradiate
bagged composted sludge for agricultural experiments and bagged
dried raw primary sludge for testing as a cattle feed supplement - .
-
7 34
Owing t o the high cost of Co-60, the overall viability of any
s l u d g e irradiation facility i n t h e United S t a t e s d e p e n d s o n
Cs — 137 supplies. C s — 137 will be available in quantity only if
the political and technical difficulties associated with power
plant fuel rod reprocessing can be resolved , About 200 mega-
curies o f C s - 137 c o u l d be available f r o m processing w a s t e s
from weapons manufacture and could be used for further testing .
7.7.2.4 Design Criteria
The design criteria for gamma irradiation facilities depend on

t h e t y p e of w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e t r e a t e d . Current literature
discussions suggest a dose o f 4 0 0 k r a d s but this level does not
ensure c o m p l e t e virus r e m o v a l ( 4 1 ). T h e d o s e l e v e l should
probably be varied in relation to other treatments the sludge
receives. A composted , bagged product with a n 8 0 p e r c e n t solids
c o n t e n t n e e d s a l o w e r d o s e t h a n a mixture of raw primary a n d
waste-activated sludge because the dried product already has a
reduced pathogen level owing t o the drying process.
'
D a t a from
the demonstration facility at Sandia Laboratory for design of a
d r y facility should be available by late 1979 . F o r a liquid
s l u d g e facility , d a t a on d o s e- r e s p o n s e and p a t h o g e n l e v e l s
( Table 7 - 5 and Section 7.7.2.2 ) can be combined with information
f r o m Geise 1 bu 1 1 a c h t o s e t t h e r e q u i r e d radiation d o s e s. T h e
storage capacity f o r both untreated and irradiated sludge should
be equal t o that for a pasteurization facility o f similar size
( see Section 7.6 .1.7 ).
W h e n a dry system radiation source is n o t in use , it should be

shielded in a steel- lined concrete vault. The vault should be
designed t o be flooded with water during loading and unloading
of the radiation source , t o shield workers from radiation .
Provision must b e made for pool water treatment in the event that
the radiation source leaks. Cooling air is circulated around the
source both during s y s t e m operation and down times. This air
must b e filtered t o prevent a radioactive air release. Since the
dried sludge is a flammable material , there must be s m o k e and /o r
h e a t detection a n d a fire suppression s y s t e m . F o r a liquid
storage system the treatment vessel serves as a radiation source
s t o r a g e vault.

Considerations
Instrumentation s h o u l d include radiation d e t e c t o r s a n d flow

metering f o r t h e w e t s l u d g e s y s t e m , W h e n either facility is
operating , a r r a n g e m e n t s must be m a d e f o r periodic radiation
safety inspection , T h e disinfection effectiveness should also
be tested by periodic sampling of the sludge before and after
disinfection.
7-35
.
7.7 2.6 Energy Impacts
In May 1977 , Ahlstrom and McGuire ( 46 ) projected annual energy

requirements f o r both wet and dry gamma i r r a d i a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s ,
u s i n g a d o s e r a t e o f 1, 0 0 0 k r a d s .
Their results are summarized
o n F i g u r e s 7 -1 2 a n d 7 1 3 - . -
F o r a 0 . 1 M G D ( 4 1/ s ) f a c i l i t y -
treating sludge with five percent solids , 300 days per year , the
u n i t e n e r g y u s e i s a b o u t 5 . 2 k W h r p e r 1, 0 0 0 g a l l o n s ( 5 M J / m3 ) o r
25 kWhr p e r t o n ( 100 MJ/ t o n ) d r y s o l i d s .
For a plant treating
3 5 t o n s p e r d a y ( 3 2 t/ d a y ) a t 6 0 p e r c e n t s o l i d s , 3 0 0 d a y s p e r
year ( equivalent t o the solids from the previous example ) , the
e n e r g y u s e i s 5 . 6 kWhr p e r t o n d r y ( 22 MJ /t ) s o l i d s , a l m o s t
80 percent less than the facility treating five percent solids.
These energy uses should be compared t o 120 kWhr per dry ton
( 450 MJ / t ) f o r an e beam system - .
%
4
£ 3
£
M Xf
%r-
Mi
<
*
1
.
O''
5 9
UJ
cc
1
3uu 6
6
—
BE
GC
L4I 4
3
- I
2
<
I '
!
to
2 3 4 6 6 7 5 9100 2 3 4 5 6 1,000
10
5 3
SLUDGE TREATMENT CAPACITY , 0.0C 1 MGD ( 4.4 x 1 G m /s)
"
FIGURE 7- 12
GAMMA RADIATION TREATMENT OF LIQUID SLUDGE

POWER REQUIREMENTS ( 46 )
7-3 6
100
9
8
>
“
a >
; '
7
CO
H ,6
>
5 rwn
% 4
O
H
2!
LU
£
LU
CC
D
a
LU
3
p - '
ir
cc . -.
LU 2 " ;" - ". I II
5
o
0.
z<>
<
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
100 200
SLUDGE TREATMENT CAPACITY, dry tons/day ( 0.907 tonne/day )
FIGURE 7- 13
RADIATION TREATMENT OF DEWATERED

SLUDGE - POWER REQUIREMENTS ( 46 )
I t i s important t o note that the liquid system would require a

m u c h l a r g e r C s -1 3 7 c h a r g e s i n c e i t w o u l d b e t r e a t i n g a l m o s t
12 times the volume of material a t the same dose level , However ,
the rod configuration f o r a dry f a c i l i t y would be much l e s s
efficient in terms of radiation transfer than a liquid one .
1 . 1 .2 . 1 Performance Data
In June 1979 no performance data for the Sandia facility were yet
available .
Data for the Geiselbullach facility are summarized in
Section 7.7 2.2 . .
-
7 37
7.7.2.8 Cost Information
Cost estimates for both liquid and dry facilities were developed
together with the energy data of Section 7.7.2.6. The liquid
facility included the following components:
Insulated concrete building with 25-foot ( 7.6 -m ) ceiling.
Equalization sludge storage tank.
Emergency water dump tank ( for source shielding water ).
Irradiating capsules ( radiation source ).
Steel- lined source handling pool.

Deionizer.
Data aquisition and control system .
Oxygen injection facility.
Pumps, piping , and flow meters.
Radiation alarm.
Fire suppression system.
A capital cost graph for the wet facility is given on
Figure 7 -14 ; the estimates were made in May 1977. Graphs for
labor hours per year and operations and maintenance materials and
supplies are given on Figure 7 -15 and 7 -16 , respectively . The
additional operating cost is $ 2.00 per 1000 gallons ( $ 0.53/m 3 )
for the Cs-137 ( the irradiator ).
The dry system uses a bucket conveyor to move the sludge past the
radiation source ( see Figure 7 - 17 ). This dry system would
include the following:
Loading and unloading conveyors.
Concrete shielding .
Source- handling pool.
Holder for the Cs-137 capsules.

Holder moving mechanism .
Steel building .
Pumps.
Ventilators.
7-38
Filters .
Hoists .
• Radiation alarm system .
• Pool water testing tank .
• Fire suppression system .

10,000
s
7
a &
5
4
*
. O'
*
%
3
1
. O'"
%
H *
° 1 ,000
s
< u -
cr
<
a
e
s
4
.- - cr ~
3
100 L I i I
2 3 4 & 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 6
10 100 1 0QQ
?
SLUDGE TREATMENT CAPACITY, 0,001 MQD { 4A x IfT5 m3/ s)
FIGURE 7- 14
GAMMA RADIATION TREATMENT OF LIQUID SLUDGE -

CAPITAL COSTS ( 46 )
The capital costs for the dry system are summarized on

-
Figure 7 18 ; t h e s e c o s t s were a l s o c a l c u l a t e d i n May 1977 .
-
Figure 7 19 and 7 20 p r e s e n t l a b o r hours , m a t e r i a l s ,and
-
operations and maintenance supplies, respectively .
The Cs 137 -
s o u r c e i s e s t i m a t e d t o c o s t $1 . 5 5 p e r t o n ( $ 1 . 7 0/ t ) f o r a 1 0 t o n - -
-
p e r- d a y ( 9 . 1 t / d ) c a p a c i t y f a c i l i t y a n d $ 1 . 2 2 p e r t o n ( $ 1 . 3 5/ t )
f o r f a c i l i t i e s o f 5 0 t o n p e r d a y ( 4 5 t/ d ) a n d l a r g e r .
7 39-
10,000
9
&
7
£c &
-«
(
E 4
cc
O
D
.cr
— ——
5 3
o- "
«•
^
<
*^
^5
z -O o M !
<
2
1,000 1
2 3 4 5 7 a a 2 3 4 6 6 7 S 9
10 100 1000
SLUDGE TREATMENT CAPACITY, 0.001 MGD ( 4,4 1C5 m3/s)
*
FIGURE 7- 15
GAMMA RADIATION TREATMENT OF LIQUID

SLUDGE LABOR REQUIREMENTS (46 )
If labor plus overhead is $ 20.00 per hour, power is three cents

per kWhr , ( $ 0.33/GJ ) and capital is amortized over 20 years at
8 percent , the cost for a 0.1 - MGD ( 4 -1/s ) liquid system is
$ 38.50 per ton ( $ 42.40/ t ) dry solids. A dry system costs
$ 24.00 per ton ( $ 26.5 0/ 1 ) dry solids , Both these costs are
considerably higher than those for e - beam irradiation and similar
to those for heat pasteurization. -
7-40
TOO
9
a
7
6
5
4
a
S
% » cr
k
</3
8 io
9
< 3
D 7
Z 5
2
< 5 *
4
i
T 1 L 1 . 1
2 3 4 & 6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5 G 7 0 &
TO TOO 1 rQGti
SLUDGE TREATMENT CAPACITY, (LOOT MGD ( 4.4 x KT5 m 3 / j)
FIGURE 7- 16
GAMMA RADIATION TREATMENT OF UQUID SLUDGE

MAINTENANCE MATERIAL SUPPLIES COSTS (46)
ssialiligip LOADING
AREA
I
SOURCE
PLAQUES
' ffiSB
*
ill® § g
g| *
(j gfl
J s&ss&
v
UNLOADING
AREA
0 * »
l
mfk
A? j
l #i L S
^Jgg
jFrH? 5 * CONVEYOR
^^
$ O
FIGURE 7- 17
GAMMA RADIATION TREATMENT FACILITY FOR HANDLING

25 TONS PER DAY OR MORE OF DEWATERED SLUDGE
7 -41
e
6 .. ,
V
.
4
*
«
> 0'
_C
2 *<
XL
O
5 *
4
CC ** **
°_<
co 1 rOOO(
9
V^
i
!D
Z 5
Z
< 4
I
7 8 9
200
SLUDGE TREATMENT CAPACITY, ton /day ( 0.907 tonne/day )
FIGURE 7- 18
GAMMA RADIATION TREATMENT OF DEWATERED SLUDGE

CAPITAL COST ( 46)
7 -4 2
10fQ0Q
(A
IK
fa 2
O
%
1,000 *
p
_
o
O
<
l 7
9
I— 6 ^
CL 5
<
O
2 3 6 7 8 9
10
SLUDGE TREATMENT CAPACITY , ton/day ( 0.907 tonne /day )
FIGURE 7- 19
GAMMA RADIATION TREATMENT OF DEWATERED SLUDGE -
LABOR REQUIREMENTS ( 46 )
7-43
.
fi v iSCttSSa
*
*
e /
& *
4
«*
t?
o
13
H
-
o ^
U3
O
u
3
«J
<
=>
z
<
i
2 2 4 5 7 a s
100 200
SLUDGE TREATMENT CAPACITY, ton/day ( 0.907 tonne /day )
FIGURE 7- 20
GAMMA RADIATION TREATMENT OF DEWATERED

MAINTENANCE MATERIALS AND SUPPLIES COST ( 46 )
7.8 References
1. Branden, J . R . 11 P a r a s i t e s i n S o i l / S l u d g e S y s t e m s . "
Proceedings of Fifth National Conference on Acceptable
S l u d g e D i s p o s a l T e c h n i q u e s , O r l a n d o, F l o r i d a, J a n u a r y 3 1 t o
F e b r u a r y 2 , 1 9 7 8. I n f o r m a t i o n T r a n s f e r, I n c. Rockville ,
M a r y l a n d 2 0 8 5 2 , p. 1 3 0.
2. O l i v e r, W. M . " T h e L i f e a n d T i m e s o f A s p e r g i l l u s F u m i g a t u s,"
C o m p o s t S c i e n c e/L a n d U t i l i z a t i o n. V o l. 2 0 , N o. 2 , M a r c h/
April 1979 .
3. U.S. P u b l i c H e a l t h Service. Enteric a n d N e u r o t r o p i c Viral
D i s e a s e s S u r v e i l l a n c e, 1 9 7 1 - 1 9 7 5 . Center for Disease
C o n t r o l , A t l a n t a , G e o r g i a 3 0 3 3 3. I s s u e d J a n u a r y 1 9 7 7 .
7 -4 4
4. U.S. Public Health Service. "Shigella Surveillance , Annual
Summary 1976. " Center for Disease Control , Atlanta , Georgia
30333. Issued October 1977.
5. U . S. Public Health Service. Salmonella Survei 1 lance ,
Annual Summary 1977. Center for Disease Control , Atlanta,
Georgia 30333. Issued March 1979.
6. U.S . P u b l i c H e a l t h S e r v i c e. Intestinal Parasite
Surveillance , Annual Summary 19 7j5 . Center for Disease
Control , Atlanta , Georgia 30333. Issued August 1977.
7. U . S . P u b l i c H e a l t h S e r v i c e. "1ntestinal Parasite
Surveillance , Annual Summary 1977. " Center for Disease
Control , Atlanta , Georgia 30333 , Issued September 1978.
8. Sagik , B.P. "Survival of Pathogens in Soils." Proceedings
of Williamsburg Conference on Management of Wastewater
Residuals , Williamsburg , Virginia , November 13 14 , 1975. -
U.S. Science Foundation , Washington D.C. 20550 , RANN AEN -
9.
-
Metcalf , T.G.
-
74 08082 , P 30.
" Role of Viruses in Management of Environ -
mental Risks " .Proceedings of Williamsburg Conference on
Management of Wastewater Residuals , Williamsburg , Virginia ,
November 1975. U.S. National Science Foundation , Washington
D.C. 20550. RANN AEN 74 08082 p. 53.
- -
10. Moore , B.F • B.P. Sagik , and C.A. Sorber. " An Assessment of
/
Potential Health Risks Associated w i t h Land Disposal of

Residual Sludges." Proceedings of Third National Conference
on Sludge Management , Disposal and Utilization , Miami Beach ,
Florida. December 14 16 , 1976. Information Transfer, Inc.
-
11 .
Rockville , Maryland 20852. P 108.
-
S t e r n , G. , and J . B . F a r r e l l , " S l u d g e D i s i n f e c t i o n
Techniques." Proceedings of National Conference on Compost
Washington , D.C.
-
ing of Municipal Residues and Sludges.
A u g u s t 1977. Information Transfer , Inc. , Rockville ,
12.
Maryland 20852. P 142.
-
Fenger , B . , O. Krogh , K . Krongaard , and E . L u n d , "A
Chemical , Bacteriological , and Virological Study of Two
Small Biological Treatment Plant. " Fifth Meeting of the
North West European Microbiological Group. Bergen , Norway
1973.
13. Farrell , J .B . , and G. Stern. " Methods for Reducing the
Infection Hazard of Wastewater Sludge." Radiation for a
Clean Environment , Symposium Proceeding . International
Atomic Energy Agency , Vienna. 1975.
14. Lund , E. "Public Health Aspects of Wastewater Treatment. "
Radiation for a Clean Environment , Symposium Proceeding.
International Atomic Energy Agency. Vienna. 1975.
-
7 45
ctBS8tt S&bt
*
15. Hyde , H.C. " Utilization of Wastswater Sludge for Agricul

tural Soil Enrichment." Journal Water Pollution Control
-
Federation. Vol. 48 , p. 77. 1976 .
16. Hays , B.D. "Potential for Parasitic Disease Transmission
With Land Application of Sewage Plant Effluents and
Sludges. "
Press. 1977.
Water Research. Vol. 11 , P 583. Pergaraon
-
17. Ward , R.L. and C.S. Ashley. "Inactivation of Poliovirus in
Digested Sludge." Applied and Environmental Micro biology.
Vol. 31 , p. 921. 1976.
18. Ward , R.L. " Inactivation of Enteric Viruses in Wastewater
S l u d g e ." Proceedings of Third National Conference on
Sludge Management , Disposal , and Utilization .. Miami
— — — -
Beach ,
Florida. December 14 16 , 1976.
.• N, I —
-
maw IJUJ 1 1inui m a i a•
, Inc.
^
Information Transfer
Rockville , Maryland , 20852. P * 138.
19. Ohara , G.T. and J . E. Colbaugh.
" A Summary of Observations
in Thermophilic Digester Operations." Proceedings of the
1975 National Conference on Municipal Sludge Management
and Disposal , Anaheim , California , August 18 20 , 1975. -
Information Transfer , Inc. , Rockville , Maryland 20852.
20 .
-
P 218.
Ornevich , R.F. and J .E. Smith , Jr. " Pathogen Reduction in
the Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion Process. " Proceedings
of the 48 th Water Pollution Control Federation Conference ,
Miami Beach , Florida. October 1975.
21 . Theis , J.H ., V. Bolton , and D.R. Storm. "Helminth Ova in
Soil and Sludge from Twelve U.S. Urban Areas. " Journal
Water Pollution Control Federation.
1978.
Vol. 50 , P 2485
-
22 . USEPA . Agricultural Benefits and Environmental Changes
Resulting from the Use of Digested Sludges on Field Crops.
an Interim Report on a Solid Waste Demonstration Project.
Office of Research and Development , Cincinnati , Ohio 45268.
Report SW 30d. 1971.
-
23. Sacramento Area Consultants . Sewage Sludge Management
Program Final Report , Volume 6 Miscellaneous Use Deterinina-
tions. Sacramento Regional County Sanitation District ,
Sacramento , California 95814. September 1979.
24. Farrell , J .B. , J.E. Smith , S.W. Hathaway , and R.B. Dean.
" Lime Stabilization of Primary Sludge. " Journal Water
Pollution Control— Federation
i an ~
»- - •»
. Vol. 46 , P * 113. 1974.
miiiii ^ ii yiiTff iriwi "i iiri" 1
•
——
v ,“
25. Data from B.E.F. Unit of General Signal , West Warwick , Rhode
Island 02893. Personal Communication from D.L. Moffat.
January 2 , 1979.
7 46-
26. G e r b a , C .P . , C . W a l l i s , a n d J . L . M e 1 n i c k . "Fate of
W a s t e w a t e r B a c t e r i a a n d V i r u s e s i n S o i l. " Journal
I r r i g a t i o n and D r a i n a g e Division. A S C E. p. 1 5 2. September
1 9 7 5.
2 7. P a r s o n s, D • / C. B r o w n l e e, D. W e l t e r, A. M a u e r, E. H a u g h t o n,
L. K o r n d e r , a n d M . S e l z a k. Health Aspects of Sewage
E f f l u e n t I r r i g a t i o n. P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l B r a n c h , B r i t i s h
C o l u m b i a W a t e r R e s o u r c e S e r v i c e, D e p a r t m e n t o f L a n d s ,
F o r e s t s a n d W a t e r R e s o u r c e s. V i c t o r i a, British C o l u m b i a.
1 9 7 5.
28. H e s s, E • f a n d C. B r e e r. " Epidemiology o f S a l m o n e l l a a n d t h e
F e r t i l i z i n g o f G r a s s l a n d with S e w a g e S l u d g e." Z e n t r a b b l a t t
B a k t e r i o l i o g i e Parasitenkunde. Infektious Krankheiten a n d
H y g e i n e, A b e i l u n g I . O r i g. B -1 6 1 5 4. 1 9 7 5.
2 9. B u r g e, W.D. " B a c t e r i a a n d Viruses in S o i l/S l u d g e S y s t e m s."
Proceedings of Fifth National Conference on Acceptable
S l u d g e D i s p o s a l T e c h n i q u e s, O r l a n d o, Florida. J a n u a r y 3 1 t o
F e b r u a r y 2 , 1 9 7 8. Information T r a n s f e r, I n c. R o c k v i l l e,
M a r y l a n d 2 0 8 5 2. P 1 2 5 .
-
3 0. R o e d i g e r, H. "T h e T e c h n i q u e s o f S e w a g e S l u d g e Pasteuriza-
tion; A c t u a l R e s u l t s O b t a i n e d i n E x i s t i n g Plaints ;
E c o n o m y." International R e s e a r c h G r o u p o n R e f u s e D i s p o s a l,
Informational B u l l e t i n N u m b e r 2 1- 3 1. P 3 2 5. A u g u s t 1 9 7 4
-
t o D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 6.
3 1. S t e r n , G. " P a s t e u r i z a t i o n o f L i q u i d D i g e s t e d S l u d g e. "
Proceedings of National Conference on Municipal Sludge
M a n g e m e n t, P i t t s b u r g h. J u n e 1 9 7 4. Information T r a n s f e r
I n c • / Rockville, M a r y l a n d 2 0 8 5 2. P 1 6 3. -
3 2. W a r d , R.L. a n d J . R. B r a n d o n. " E f f e c t o n H e a t o n P a t h o g e n i c
O r g a n i s m s F o u n d I n W a s t e w a t e r S l u d g e. Proceedings of
N a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n Composting o f M u n c i p a l Residue a n d
S l u d g e s, W a s h i n g t o n, D.C. A u g u s t 2 3- 2 5 , 1 9 7 7. I n f o r m a t i o n
T r a n s f e r I n c., Rockville, M a r y l a n d 20852. P 122. -
33. D a t a f r o m Z i m p r o C o r p o r a t i o n, R o t h c h i l d, W i s c o n s i n. Personal
.
communication f r o m J.R N i c h o l s o n. J u l y 1 9 7 9.
3 4. W e s n e r, G . M. "Sludge Pasteurization System Costs " .
P r e p a r e d f o r B a t t e l l e N o r t h w e s t, Richland , W a s h i n g t o n 9 9 3 5 2.
J u n e 1 9 7 7.
3 5. C o n n e l l, C.H. a n d M.T. G a r r e t t , J r. " Disinfection Effective-
n e s s o f H e a t D r y i n g a t S l u d g e." J o u r n a l W a t e r Pollution
C o n t r o l Federation .
Vol 35 ,. ( 1 0 ) .
1 9 6 3.
3 6. R e g i o n a l W a s t e w a t e r S o l i d s M a n a g e m e n t P r o g r a m. " C a r v e r-
Greenfield P r o c e s s Evaluation." L o s A n g e l e s/O r a n g e C o u n t y
M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a ( L A/O M A P r o j e c t ). Whittier, California
9 0 6 0 7 D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 8.
7 -4 7
3 7. B u r g e , W.D., P . B. M a r s h, a n d P. D. Millner. "O c c u r r e n c e o f
Pathogens and Microbial Allergens in the Sewage Sludge
C o m p o s t i n g Environment." P r o c e e d i n g s o f National C o m p o s t i n g
C o n f e r e n c e o n M u n i c i p a l R e s i d u e a n d S l u d g e s, W a s h i n g t o n D.C.
A u g u s t 2 3-2 5 , 1 9 7 7 . Information T r a n s f e r , I n c., Rockville,
M a r y l a n d 2 0 8 5 2. p. 1 2 8.
3 8. .
K a w a t a , K , W . N . C r a m e r , a n d W . D . B u r g e. "C o m p o s t i n g
Destroys Pathogens in Sewage Sludge " .
Water and Sewage
Works . .
V o l 1 2 4, p 7 6. .
1977 .
3 9. C o u n t y S a n i t a t i o n D i s t r i c t s o f L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y.
" P a t h o g e n I n a c t i v a t i o n D u r i n g S l u d g e C o m p o s t i n g ."
U n p u b l i s h e d R e p o r t t o U S E P A. Whittier , California 9 0 6 0 7.
S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 7.
4 0. C o o p e r , R.C. a n d C . G . C o l u e k e. "S u r v i v a l o f Enteric
B a c t e r i a a n d Viruses in C o m p o s t and I t s L e a c h a t e." Compost
S c i e n c e/L a n d Utilization. M a r c h /A p r i l 1 9 7 9 .
4 1. M a s s a c h u s e t t s Institute o f T e c h n o l o g y. H i g h E n e r g y E l e c t r o n-
I r r a d i a t i o n o f W a s t e w a t e r L i q u i d R e s i d u a l s. R e p o r t t o U.S.
N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n , W a s h i n g t o n D.C • t 2 0 5 5 0.
D e c e m b e r 3 1 , 1 9 7 7.
4 2. M a s s a c h u s e t t s Institute o f T e c h n o l o g y . B o s t o n, M a s s a c h u s e t t s
0 2 1 3 9. P e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r o m D.N. S h a h. M a y 1 9 7 9.
4 3. S i e m e n s Medical L a b o r a t o r y I n c. W a l n u t C r e e k , California
9 4 5 9 6. P e r s o n a l communicaiton f r o m W e r n e r H a a s. January
1 9 7 9.
4 4. F a r r e l l, J . B . "H i g h E n e r g y Radiation in S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t --
S t a t u s a n d P r o s p e c t s." Proceedings of the National
C o n f e r e n c e on M u n i c i p a l S l u d ge M a n a g e m e n t and Disposal,
Anaheim , A u g u s t 1 8- 2 0 , 1 9 7 5. Information T r a n s f e r I n c • t
Rockville, M a r y l a n d 2 0 8 5 2.
4 5. W i z i g m a n n, I. a n d F. W u e r s c h i n g . " E x p e r i e n c e W i t h a P i l o t
P l a n t f o r t h e I r r a d i a t i o n o f S e w a g e S l u d g e: B a c t e r i o l o g i c a l
a n d P a r a s i t o l o g i c a l S t u d i e s A f t e r I r r a d i a t i o n." Radiation
f o r a C l e a n E n v i r o n m e n t , S y m p o s i u m P r o c e e d i n g s. I n t e r-
national Atomic E n e r g y A g e n c y . Vienna. 1 9 7 5.
4 6. .
A h l s t r o m , S.B. a n d H E. M c G u i r e. A n E c o n o m i c C o m p a r i s o n o f
Sludge Irradiation and Alternative Methods of Municipal
Sludge Treatment . Battelle Northwest Laboratories .
Richland , W a s h i n g t o n 9 9 3 5 2. P N L- 2 4 3 2/U C- 2 3 .
November 1977 .
7- 4 8
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 8 . Conditioning


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 8
CONDITIONING
8.1 Introduction
Conditioning involves t h e biological, chemical, a n d /o r physical
treatment of a sludge stream t o enhance water removal, In
addition , some conditioning p r o c e s s e s a l s o disinfect w a s t e w a t e r
s o l i d s, a f f e c t w a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s o d o r s, a l t e r t h e w a s t e w a t e r
solids p h y s i c a l l y , p r o v i d e limited solids destruction o r
addition , a n d improve solids recovery.
8.2 Selecting a Conditioning P r o c e s s

C o n d i t i o n i n g a l w a y s h a s a n e f f e c t o n t h e efficiency o f t h e
t h i c k e n i n g o r d e w a t e r i n g p r o c e s s t h a t f o l l o w s ( 1 - 3 ). Any
evaluation o f t h e conditioning p r o c e s s m u s t therefore t a k e into
consideration capital, operating and maintenance costs for
t h e entire s y s t e m a n d t h e impact of sidestreams o n o t h e r p l a n t
p r o c e s s e s, t h e p l a n t effluent, a n d r e s u l t a n t air quality.
Figure 8 -1 s h o w s how t h e evaluation would look in a quantified

flow diagram.
This t y p e of analysis is necessary b e c a u s e conditioning p r o c e s s e s
differ and , t h e r e f o r e, p r o d u c e differing consequences for the
t o t a l s y s t e m. F o r instance , T a b l e 8 - 1 c o m p a r e s t h e e f f e c t s
e x p e c t e d with n o conditioning a s o p p o s e d t o t h o s e e x p e c t e d with
polyelectrolyte conditioning o r t h e r m a l conditioning prior t o
gravity t h i c k e n i n g .
8.3 F a c t o r s Affecting Wastewater Solids Conditioning
8 . 3.1 General Wastewater Solids Properties
W a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s a r e c o m p o s e d o f s c r e e n i n g s , g r i t, s c u m a n d
w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s. Wastewater sludges consist of primary ,
s e c o n d a r y , a n d /o r c h e m i c a l s o l i d s w i t h v a r i o u s o r g a n i c a n d
inorganic particles of mixed s i z e s ; t h e s l u d g e s each h a v e various
i n t e r n a l w a t e r c o n t e n t s, d e g r e e s o f h y d r a t i o n, a n d s u r f a c e
chemistry. Sludge characteristics that affect thickening or
dewatering a n d f o r which conditioning is employed are particle
size and distribution, surface c h a r g e and d e g r e e of hydration,
a n d particle interaction .
8 -1
GASEOUS EFFLUENT
FLOW RATI
AMMONIA
VOLATILE ORGANIC SUBSTANCES
FILTRATE OR
SOLIDS FEED CONCENTRATE STREAM
THICKENING
FLOW RATE CONDITIONING
SUSPENDED SOLIDS OR FLOW RATE
# DEWATERING
B0D&, -
P04 P
PROCESS PROCESS t
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
t
REFRACTORY ORGANICS
THICKENED OR DEWATERED
50L1DS
FLOW RATE
SOLIDS OONTiNT
FIGURE 8“1
BASIC PARAMETERS FOR EVALUATION OF A

SLUDGE CONDITIONING SYSTEM
TABLE 8- 1
EFFECTS OF EITHER POLYELECTROLYTE CONDITIONING OR THERMAL CONDITIONING

VERSUS NO CONDITIONING ON A MIXTURE OF PRIMARY AND WASTE- ACTIVATED
SLUDGE PRIOR TO GRAVITY THICKENING*
Polyelectrolyte
conditioning Thermal conditioning
Conditioning mechanism Flocculation Alters surface properties and

ruptures biomass cells , releases
chemical
hydrolysis
-
water bonds
Effect on allowable solids Will increase Will significantly increase
and hydraulic loading rates
Effects of supernatant stream Will iumrove Will cause significant increase in
susDended color , suspended solids , soluble
^-
solids capture BODj., COD and NH N. Improve
susnended solids capture
Effects on underflow May increase Will significantly increase
concentration
Effects on manpower Little to none Requires higher skilled operators
and strong preventive maintenance
program
aIt is assumed that the processes involved will work well.
8- 2
8 . 3 .1 . 1 Particle Size and Distribution
Particle size i s considered t o be the single most important

f a c t o r i n f l u e n c i n g s l u d g e d e w a t e r a b i l i t y ( 4-7 ). As the average
particle size decreases , primarily from mixing or shear , the
surface/volume r a t i o increases exponentially ( 8 ) . Increased
s u r f a c e a r e a means g r e a t e r h y d r a t i o n, h i g h e r c h e m i c a l demand , and
increased resistance to dewatering , F i g u r e 8- 2 s h o w s r e l a t i v e
p a r t i c l e s i z e s of common sludge m a t e r i a l s .
.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 102 103 104
MICRON 0,001 in. m m. c m.
10 i i
ANGSTROM
I 1I o5 I 8s
I
UNITS
I l< I;
i if I i
I 3
COLLOIDS FINE MEDIUM COARSE LARGE

t » i i
FINE COARSE
CLAY SILT SAND SAND GRAVEL
FIGURE 8- 2
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF COMMON MATERIALS
Raw municipal wastewaters contain significant quantities of

colloids and fines , which , because of their size (1 to 10
microns ) , will almost a l l escape capture in primary clarifiers
if coagulation and flocculation are not employed , Second ary
b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s , i n a d d i t i o n t o r e m o v i n g d i s s o l v e d BOD ,
also partially remove these colloids and fines from wastewater .
Because of this, biological sludges, especially waste activated -
sludges are difficult to thicken or dewater and also have a high
demand f o r conditioning chemicals .
A primary objective of conditioning i s to increase particle size
by combining the small particles into larger aggregates .
-
8 3
8 . 3 .1 . 2 Surface Charge and Degree of Hydration
F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , s l u d g e p a r t i c l e s r e p e l, r a t h e r t h a n a t t r a c t
o n e a n o t h e r. T h i s r e p u l s i o n, o r s t a b i l i t y , m a y b e d u e t o
h y d r a t i o n o r e l e c t r i c a l e f f e c t s. W i t h h y d r a t i o n , a l a y e r o r
l a y e r s o f w a t e r bind t o t h e p a r t i c l e s u r f a c e, p r o v i d i n g a b u f f e r ,
w h i c h p r e v e n t s c l o s e p a r t i c l e a p p r o a c h . I n a d d i t i o n, s e w a g e
solids are negatively charged and thus tend to be mutually
r e p u l s i v e. Conditioning is used to overcome the effects of
h y d r a t i o n a n d electrostatic r e p u l s i o n.
C o n d i t i o n i n g is a t w o-s t e p p r o c e s s c o n s i s t i n g o f destabilization
a n d flocculation. I n d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n, t h e s u r f a c e characteris-
tics of the particles are altered so that they will adhere to one
a n o t h e r. T h i s d e s i r a b l e c h a n g e is b r o u g h t a b o u t t h r o u g h t h e u s e
o f n a t u r a l p o l y m e r i c material e x c r e t e d by t h e activated s l u d g e
o r g a n i s m , s y n t h e t i c o r g a n i c p o l y m e r, o r inorganic m e t a l s a l t s.
F l o c c u l a t i o n i s t h e p r o c e s s o f p r o v i d i n g c o n t a c t o p p o r t u n i t i e s,
b y m e a n s o f mild a g i t a t i o n, s o t h e destabilized p a r t i c l e s m a y
c o m e t o g e t h e r.
Destabilization e i t h e r w i t h s y n t h e t i c o r g a n i c p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e o r
w i t h i n o r g a n i c m e t a l s a l t is r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p l a n t
o p e r a t o r , b u t it r e p r e s e n t s a n i n c r e a s e in o p e r a t i n g c o s t.
The degree to which natural flocculation is available is
difficult to predict since it is dependent on the type of
activated s l u d g e o r t h e a t t a c h e d -g r o w t h b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s t h a t
h a s b e e n d e s i g n e d i n t o t h e p l a n t.
8 . 3.1 . 3 Particle Interaction

M u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s c o n t a i n l a r g e n u m b e r s o f colloidal
a n d a g g l o m e r a t e d p a r t i c l e s, w h i c h h a v e l a r g e s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e
a r e a s. Initially t h e s e p a r t i c l e s b e h a v e in a discrete m a n n e r
w i t h l i t t l e i n t e r a c t i o n. A s t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s l u d g e i s
increased b y t h e s e p a r a t i o n a l p r o c e s s, i n t e r a c t i o n increases, A s
s h o w n o n F i g u r e 8 -3 t h i s f l o c c u l a n t behavior r e s u l t s in t h r e e
distinct z o n e s f o r a g r a v i t y t h i c k e n e r.
C o n d i t i o n i n g c a n increase t h e r a t e o f s e t t l i n g in t h e s e d i m e n t a-
t i o n z o n e, a n d c o m p r e s s i o n t h i c k e n i n g in t h e t h i c k e n i n g z o n e ; it
c a n a l s o i m p r o v e t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e o v e r f l o w. T h e s e i m p r o v e m e n t s
result from the ability of the conditioner to neutralize or
overcome t h e s u r f a c e c h a r g e , w h i c h in t u r n a l l o w s t h e p a r t i c l e s
t o a d h e r e t o o n e a n o t h e r, t h u s p r e s e r v i n g t h e d i m e n s i o n a l
i n t e g r i t y o f t h e s l u d g e matrix i n t h e t h i c k e n i n g z o n e.
8 . 3. 2 Physical Factors
T h e a m o u n t o f c o n d i t i o n i n g r e q u i r e d f o r s l u d g e s is d e p e n d e n t o n
t h e p r o c e s s i n g conditions t o w h i c h t h e s l u d g e h a s b e e n s u b j e c t e d
a n d o n t h e mechanics o f t h e c o n d i t i o n i n g p r o c e s s a v a i l a b l e.
8- 4
OVERFLOW INFLOW
A
ZONE OF CLEAR LIQUID .

lUMfc nnnniiM
x
SEDIMENTATION ZONE E | (J3
cn LLI
X
z
<
H
THICKENING ZONE
UNDERFLOW
.
C| INFLOW SOLIDS CONCENTRATION
cb • LOWEST CONCENTRATION! AT WHICH fLOCCULANT SUSPENSION IS IN
THE FORM OF POROUS MEDIUM
Cu - UNDERFLOW CONCENTRATION FROM GRAVITY THICKENER
FIGURE 8- 3
TYPICAL CONCENTRATION PROFILE OF MUNICIPAL

WASTEWATER SLUDGE IN A CONTINUOUSLY OPERATING
GRAVITY THICKENER ( 12 )
8.3 . 2.1 Effect of Processing Prior to Conditioning
Both the degree of hydration and fines content of a sludge stream

can be materially increased by exposure to shear, heat , or
storage. For example, pipeline transport of sludge to central
p r o c e s s i n g facilities, weekend storage of sludge prior to
mechanical dewatering , and storage of sludges for long periods
of time have been shown to increase the demand for conditioning
chemicals in all types of dewatering and should be accounted for
in the design of the dewatering facility ( 10-13 ).
8.3 . 2.2 Conditioner Application
The optimum sequence for adding conditioner is best determined

by trial and error, when two or more conditioners are used.
With ferric chloride and lime , the ferric chloride is normally
added first. In addition , it has been shown that deterioration
of the floe after conditioning ( due to both time and high shear
mixing ) can be a major determinant of chemical requirement ( 13 ).
When a combination of anionic and cationic polymer is needed ,
anionic polymer is added first.
8- 5
In order to minimize floe shearing , mixing should provide just
enough energy to disperse the conditioner throughout the sludge.
In dewatering applications , consideration should be given to
providing individual conditioning for each dewatering unit, since
it is not always economical to provide one common conditioning
unit for several dewatering units , Problems can arise in
balancing the flow rates of the various streams when starting
up or shutting down individual units , The location of the
conditioning unit relative to each dewatering device requires
optimization.
Many types of conditioning units are available , Recent USEPA

publications (14,15 ) describe the more common designs, design
layouts , and operating problems. Additional information can be
obtained from thickening and dewatering equipment suppliers.
8.4 Inorganic Chemical Conditioning
8.4.1 Introduction
Inorganic chemical conditioning is associated principally with
mechanical sludge dewatering , and vacuum filtration is the
most common application. The chemicals normally used in the
conditioning of municipal wastewater sludges are lime and ferric
chloride, although ferrous sulfate has also been used.
Ferric chloride is added first, It hydroylzes in water, forming
positively charged soluble iron complexes which neutralize the
negatively charge sludge solids , thus causing them to aggregate.
Ferric chloride also reacts with the bicarbonate alkalinity in
the sludge to form hydroxides that act as flocculants. The
following equation shows the reaction of ferric chloride with
bicarbonate alkalinity:
2FeCl 3 + 3 Ca( HCO 3 ) 2 2Fe( OH )3 + 3 CaCl 2 + 6 CO 2
Hydrated lime is usually used in conjunction with ferric iron

salts. Although lime has some slight dehydration effects on
colloids , it is chosen for conditioning principally because it
provides pH control , odor reduction and disinfection , CaCC> 3 ,
formed by the reaction of lime and bicarbonate , provides a
granular structure which increases sludge porosity and reduces
sludge compressibility.
8.4.2 Dosage Requirements

Iron salts are usually added at a dosage rate of 40 to 125 pounds
per ton ( 20 to 63 kg /t ) of dry solids in the sludge feed ,
whether or not lime is used. Lime dosage usually varies
-
8 6
from 1 5 0 t o 5 5 0 p o u n d s per t o n ( 7 5 t o 277 k g /t ) o f d r y s l u d g e
solids fed. T a b l e 8- 2 lists typical ferric chloride a n d lime
d o s a g e s f o r various s l u d g e s.
TABLE 8- 2
TYPICAL CONDITIONING DOSAGES OF FERRIC CHLORIDE

( FeCl ) AND LIMt (CaO ) FOR MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
SLUDGES3 ( 16 )
Recessed plate
Vacuum filter pressure filters
Sludge type FgC
13 CaO FeCl3 CaO
Raw primary 40- 80 160- 200 80- 120 220- 280
Raw waste- activated sludge ( WAS ) - air 120- 200 0- 320 140 - 200 400- 500
Raw ( primary + trickling filter ) 40- 80 180- 240
Raw ( primary + WAS ) 50- 120 180- 320
Raw ( primary + WAS + septic ) 50- 80 240- 300
Raw ( primary + WAS + lime ) 30- 50 none
Elutriated anaerobically digested
primary 50- 80 0- 100
primary + WAS ( air ) 60- 120 0- 150
Thermal conditioned sludges none none none none
Anaerobically digested sludges
primary 60- 100 200- 260
primary + trickling filter 80- 120 250- 350
primary + WAS ( air ) 60- 120 300-420 80- 200 220- 600
aAll values shown are for pounds of either FeCl.. or CaO per ton of dry solids pumped
to the dewatering unit.
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t
Inorganic chemical conditioning increases sludge mass, A

designer should e x p e c t one p o u n d of additional s l u d g e f o r e v e r y
p o u n d o f l i m e and ferric chloride added ( 1 3 ). T h i s increases
the amount of sludge for disposal and lowers the fuel value
f o r incineration . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e p r e s e n c e o f lime c a n b e
beneficial b e c a u s e of its s l u d g e stabilization effects. T h e use
of polyvalent m e t a l salts a n d lime o f f e r s a d v a n t a g e s o v e r o t h e r
m e t h o d s , b e c a u s e t h e combination c a n b e t t e r c o n d i t i o n s l u d g e
which h a s e x t r e m e variations in quality.
8 . 4.3 Availability
Ferric chloride , t h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d p o l y v a l e n t m e t a l s a l t
conditioner, is available in d r y o r liquid f o r m, with the liquid
form b e i n g t h e m o s t common. I n the p a s t , m o s t ferric chloride
h a s b e e n m a d e f r o m s c r a p m e t a l a n d chlorine , b u t d u r i n g t h e
p a s t d e c a d e , m u c h l a r g e r q u a n t i t i e s h a v e b e e n m a d e available
t h r o u g h conversion of w a s t e acids from large industrial pigment
p r o d u c e r s. I t is supplied a s either a 3 0 o r 4 0 p e r c e n t by weight
solution.
8-7
Liquid f e r r o u s s u l f a t e , a b y - p r o d u c t o f c e r t a i n industrial
p r o c e s s e s, i s n o t g e n e r a l l y available in l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s, If
availability i s n o t a t issue a n d t e s t i n g p r o v e s it c a p a b l e o f
c o n d i t i o n i n g t h e s l u d g e , l i q u i d ferrous s u l f a t e c a n be u s e d l i k e
ferric chloride.
Lime is purchased in dry form , I t i s r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e a n d

comes in many forms. P e b b l e q u i c k l i m e ( C a O ) a n d h y d r a t e d lime
( Ca ( 0H ) 2 ) are most often used for sludge conditioning.
8 . 4.4 S t o r a g e , P r e p a r a t i o n, a n d A p p l i c a t i o n E q u i p m e n t
There have been numerous problems such as lime scaling and FeCl3
c o r r o s i o n with in-p l a n t s t o r a g e, p r e p a r a t i o n, a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f
b o t h lime and f e r r i c chloride. T w o excellent references d e a l
with lime p r o b l e m s a n d h o w t o s o l v e t h e m ( 1 7 , 1 8 ). Information o n
ferric c h l o r i d e c a n b e f o u n d in U S E P A ' s P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l f o r
S u s p e n d e d S o l i d s R e m o v a l ( 1 5 ).
8 . 4. 5 Design Example
A d e s i g n e r h a s c a l c u l a t e d t h a t t h e r o t a r y d r u m, c l o t h b e l t ,
vacuum f i l t e r t h a t w i l l b e utilized a t t h e p l a n t, m u s t b e c a p a b l e
of dewatering a maximum of 600 pounds ( 272 kg ) per hour of
s l u d g e. T h e s l u d g e will be a mixture of 4 0 p e r c e n t p r i m a r y a n d
6 0 p e r c e n t w a s t e-activated s l u d g e, which will b e a n a e r o b i c a l l y
d i g e s t e d. T h e v a c u u m f i l t e r w i l l o p e r a t e s e v e n h o u r s p e r d a y ,
f i v e d a y s p e r w e e k.
T o d e s i g n f o r a m a r g i n o f s a f e t y i n t h e chemical f e e d e q u i p m e n t,
t h e d e s i g n e r h a s u s e d t h e h i g h e r v a l u e s s h o w n i n T a b l e 8 - 2.
C h e m i c a l f e e d e r s s h o u l d b e c a p a b l e of a d d i n g 1 2 0 p o u n d s p e r t o n
( 6 0 k g /t ) o f F e C l 3 a n d 4 2 0 p o u n d s p e r t o n ( 2 1 0 k g /t ) o f C a O.
Maximum d a i l y a m o u n t o f s l u d g e t o b e d e w a t e r e d is:
600 l b sludge 7 hr = 4,200 lb sludge per day ( 1,905 kg/day )

x day
hr
Maximum a m o u n t o f F e C l 3 r e q u i r e d p e r d a y i s:
4,200 lb sludge 120 l b FeCl3

X = 252 lb FeCl 3 per day ( 114 kg/day )
day 2,000 lb sludge
The FeCl 3 is available at a 40 percent solution ( 4.72 pounds

F e C l 3 p e r g a l l o n ( 0 . 5 6 7 k g /1 ) o f solution ).
-
8 8
..
“'•“SfsaBi KM
2 5 2 l b F e C l3 „ 1 gallon of product
day 4 . 7 2 l b F e C l3 53.4 gallons of solution per day
( 2 0 2 1/d a y )
M a x i m u m a m o u n t o f C a O r e q u i r e d p e r d a y li s :
4" , 2 0 0 l b s l u d g e 4 2 0 l b CaO
d- a y
i X
2 , 000 l b s l u d g e = 8 8 2 l b C a O p e r d a y ( 4 0 0 k g /d a y )
The pebble quicklime i s a v a i l a b l e a t 90 p e r c e n t CaO:
8 8 2 l b CaO
day
x
_
lb pebble quicklime
0 . 9 l b CaO = 980 l b pebble quicklime per day
( 4 5 k g/d a y )
The amount of extra sludge produced due to chemical addition is

estimated a t one pound ( 0.45 kg ) for every pound of FeCl 3 and
pebble quicklime added .
Therefore , t o t a l maximum d a i l y dry
s o l i d s t o be disposed of a r e:
4 , 200 l b sludge + 252 l b FeCl 3 + 980 l b quicklime
which are equal t o 5 , 432 pounds ( 2 , 464 kg ) of solids , This is

the equivalent of 27 , 160 pounds ( 12 , 320 kg ) of wet sludge a t a
minimum of 20 percent s o l i d s .
8.4 6 . Cost
8.4 6.1 . Capital Cost
-
Figure 8 4 shows the relationship between construction costs
of ferric chloride storage and feed f a c i l i t i e s and installed
capacity . For example, if a designer needed t o feed 100 pounds
( 45.4 kg ) per hour of f e r r i c chloride the estimated cost would be
$ 330 , 000 . Since cost are given in June 1975 dollars , the cost
must be adjusted to the proper time period , Costs for Figure 8 4 -
are estimated on the basis of l i q u i d ferric chloride use .
Chemical feed e q u i p m e n t was sized f o r a p e ak feed rate of twice
the average, At l e a s t 15 days of storage was provided a t the
average feed rate, Piping and buildings provided to house the
feeding e q u i p m e n t a r e included .
8-9
1,000,000
g
8
7
in 6
o> 5
0)
4
c
3
C/i
CD 2
o
T)
CO
100,000
co 9
O 8
o 7
Z 6
o 5
a 4
D
QC 3
h-
CO
Z 2
O
CJ
10,000 1 I ! I I l M l I i l l I IJJ
10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 10, 000
INSTALLED CAPACITY, pounds Ferric Chloride Fed/ Hour ( 1 lb = 0.454 kg )
FIGURE 8- 4
CAPITAL COST OF FERRIC CHLORIDE STORAGE AND
FEEDING FACILITIES ( 22 )
Figure 8-5 gives c o n s t r u c t i o n costs o f l i m e storage and feeding

facilities as a function of installed capacity Cost estimates .
s h o w n o n F i g u r e 8 - 5 a r e b a s e d o n t h e u s e o f h y d r a t e d 1i m e i n
s m a l l p l a n t s ( 5 0 p o u n d s p e r h o u r [ 2 2 . 7 k g /h r ] o r l e s s ) a n d
pebble quicklime i n larger plants .
Allowances for peak rates of
twice the average are b u i l t into the lime feed rates At least .
15 days of storage i s provided for at the average rate Storage .
time varies from installation to installation because i t i s
dependent upon the r e l a t i v e distance to and r e l i a b i l i t y of the
chemical supply .
Piping and buildings to house the feeding
equipment are included i n the estimates Estimated costs of .
steel bins with dust collector vents and f i l l i n g accessories are
also included .
8.4 6.2 . Operation and Maintenance Cost
Figure 8 - 6 i n d i c a t e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m a n-h o u r s s p e n t
annually for operation and maintenance and pounds of FeClg
fed per hour .The labor includes unloading the f e r r i c chloride
and the operation and maintenance o f the chemical feed equipment .
U n l o a d i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e a s f o l l o w s: f o r a 4 ,000- gallon
(15.1 -
) t r u c k - -1 . 5 m a n h o u r s ; f o r 5 0 - g a l l o n ( 0 . 1 9 ) barrels,
-
7 2 p e r t r u c k - 9 m a n- h o u r s .
These requirements are shown
8-1 0
1 ,000,000
9
8
7
LO 6
r^.
05 5
0) 4
c
3 3
in
CTJ 2
O
~D
tt>
H 100,000
co 9
O 8
o 7
2 6
O 5
f-
CJ 4
D
cr 3
h-
co
2 2
O
CJ
10,000
10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 789 10,000
INSTALLED CAPACITY , pounds Lime / Hour ( as CaO ) ( 1 lb = 0.454 kg )

FIGURE 8- 5
CAPITAL COST OF LIME STORAGE AND FEEDING FACILITIES ( 22 )
4
3
2
06
2
O
cr
O
LL
1,000
(/)
DO
9 i
8 '
ZD 7 -
O 6
I
Z 5
< 4
3
<
3
Z 2
Z
<
100 I
10 2 3 4 56789100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8910,000
Pounds Ferric Cloride Fed /Hour ( 1 lb = 0.454 kg)
FIGURE 8- 6
FERRIC CHLORIDE STORAGE AND FEEDING OPERATING
AND MAINTENANCE WORK- HOUR REQUIREMENTS (22 )
8 -11
as manhours per pound of chemicals fed to the process. Metering
pump operations and maintenance is estimated at five minutes per
pump per shift.
2 *—
100,000
e
a
> 7
-C
i
6
6
4
a 3
UJ
CC
D 2
o
UJ
CC
>
(J 10,000
QC B
UJ
z 7
UJ 6
-J 6
< 4
U
Q:
h- 3
CJ
UJ
J
UJ 7 i-
.
1,000 I I I N I 1 1 1
_ _
I
2 3 4 6 0 , 7 8 0 10 2 3 4 B 6 7 8 9 100 2 3 4 6 6 7 89 1,000 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 10,000
FEEDING RATE , lb U lb = 0.454 kg) /hr
FIGURE 8- 7
ELECTRICAL ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR A FERRIC

CHLORIDE CHEMICAL FEED SYSTEM ( 23 )
ZE 2
00
o
QC 10,000
o
LL
C/5 /
QC 6
=>
O
5
I 4
Z
< 3
2
2
<
=Z>
Z
< 1,000
100 2 3 4 5 67 8 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8910,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 89100,000
Pounds Lime Fed /Hour ( i lb = 0.454 kg)
FIGURE 8- 8
LIME STORAGE AND FEEDING OPERATION AND

MAINTENANCE WORK- HOUR REQUIREMENTS (22 )
8 -12
Figure 8 -7 indicates annual electric power requirements for a
ferric chloride chemical feed system.
Annual maintenance material costs are typically 3 to 5 percent of
the total chemical feed system equipment cost.
Figure 8-8 indicates manhours for operation and maintenance as a
function of pounds of lime fed per hour. The curve consists of
lime unloading requirements and labor related to operation and
maintenance of the slaking and feeding equipment. These require-
ments are summarized as follows: slaker — one hour per eight- hour
shift per slaker in use ; feeder — ten minutes per hour per feeder ;
slurry pot- feed line ( for slaked lime )--four hours per week.
7
6
5
4 i PUMPED FEED OF
SLAKED LIME
3
PUMPED FEED OF GRAVITY FEED OF
2 QUICKLIME QUICKLIME
x 100,000
5 8
9 7 GRAVITY FEED
7
Z 6 OF SLAKED LIME
o 5 /
h- 4
CL
2
D 3 /
CO
z 2
O
o X
cc
LU
5 io,ooo
o
CL
9
8 X /
-<J5 7
6
=
Z 5
Z 4
<
3
1,000
100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,0 0 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 10,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 100,000
Pounds Lime Fed / Hour ( 1 lb = 0.454 kg )
FIGURE 8- 9
ELECTRICAL ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR

A LIME FEED SYSTEM ( 22 )
8-13
Figure 8-9 shows annual electric power requirements for
a lime feed system, The major components and the values
u s e d in t h e c u r v e s , a l l e x p r e s s e d kilowatts p e r h o u r p e r
1,000 p o u n d s ( 454 k g ) o f lime f e d a r e: slakers--1.6 t o 0.8 ; bin
a c t i v a t o r s -- 2 . 7 t o 0 . 3 6 ; g r i t c o n v e y o r s-- 0 . 4 5 t o 0 . 0 6 ; d u s t
collection f a n s — 0 . 0 4 t o 0 . 0 2 ; slurry mixers--0.027 t o 0 . 0 2 0 ;
slurry feed p u m p s--2 . 2 t o 1.4.
Annual maintenance material costs are typically 0.5 to

1.5 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l lime feed s y s t e m equipment c o s t.
8.5 Chemical Conditioning With Polyelectrolytes
8.5.1 Introduction
During t h e p a s t decade, important advances have been made in t h e
m a n u f a c t u r e o f p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s f o r u s e in w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e
t r e a t m e n t. P o l y e 1 e c t r o l y t e s a r e n o w w i d e l y u s e d in s l u d g e
conditioning and a s indicated in T a b l e 8 -3, a l a r g e variety are
available. I t is important t o understand t h a t these materials
differ g r e a t l y in chemical composition, functional effectiveness,
and c o s t- effectiveness.
TABLE 8- 3
SUPPLIERS OF POLYELECTROLYTES
Number Number
of grades of grades
Company and tynes Company and types
American Cyanamid 40 Dow 33

Allied Colloids 34 Drew 8
Betz 7 Hercules 29
Calgon 18 Na lco 43
Rohm & Hass 4
Selection of the correct polyelectrolyte requires that the

designer work with polye 1 ectrolyte suppliers, e q u i pm e n t
suppliers , a n d p l a n t operating personnel , Evaluations should be
m a d e on site and with t h e s l u d g e s t o be conditioned , Since new
t y p e s and g r a d e s o f p o l y m e r s a r e continually being introduced ,
t h e evaluation process is a n ongoing one.
8.5.2 B a c k g r o u n d o n Polyelectrolytes
8 . 5. 2.1 C o m p o s i t i o n and Physical F o r m
P o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s are l o n g c h a i n , w a t e r s o l u b l e , s p e c i a l t y
c h e m i c a l s. They can be either completely synthesized from
individual m o nomers, or they can be made by the chemical
8 -1 4
"•xmsiiZc
' *
addition of functional monomers , o r g r o u p s , t o naturally

occurring polymers. A monomer is the subunit from which polymers
a r e m a d e t h r o u g h various t y p e s of p o l y m e r i z a t i o n reactions.
T h e backbone monomer m o s t widely u s e d in s y n t h e t i c o r g a n i c
polyelectrolytes is acrylamide. As o f 1979 t h e completely
s y n t h e s i z e d p o l y m e r s are m o s t widely u s e d . P o l y a c r y l a m i d e,
created w h e n the monomers combine t o form a long , thread - like
molecule with a molecular w e i g h t in t h e millions , is shown on
Figure 8 -1 0. In the form s h o w n polyacrylamide is essentially
non- ionic. T h a t is t o say it carries no net electrical charge in
a q u e o u s solutions , However , u n d e r certain conditions and
with s o m e solids , t h e p o l y a c r y l a m i d e can be sufficiently
surface- active to p e r f o r m as a flocculant.
I
CH 2 - CH • CH 2 - CH CH 2 - CH
I I
I C = 0 C = 0 C = 0
/ / /
NH 2 NH 2 NH 2
FIGURE 8- 10
POLYACRYLAMIDE MOLECULE - BACKBONE OF THE

SYNTHETIC ORGANIC POLYELECTROLYTES
Anionic - t y p e polyacrylamide flocculants c a r r y a negative

electrical charge in aqueous solutions and are made by either
hydrolyzing t h e amide group ( NH 2 ) o r combining the acrylamide
p o l y m e r w i t h an anionic monomer. Cationic p o l y a c r y l a m i d e s
c a r r y a p o s i t i v e electrical c h a r g e in a q u e o u s solutions and
c a n b e p r e p a r e d by c h e m i c a l m o d i f ication of essentially
non- ionic- polyacrylamide or by combining t h e cationic monomer
with acrylamide. When cationic monomers are copolymerized with
a c r y l a m i d e in v a r y i n g p r o p o r t i o n s , a f a m i l y o f cationic
p o l y e 1 e c t r o l y t e s with varying d e g r e e s o f c h a r g e is p r o d u c e d.
T h e s e p o l y e 1 e c t r o l y t e s are t h e m o s t w i d e l y used p o l y m e r s f o r
sludge conditioning , since most sludge solids carry a negative
c h a r g e. T h e characteristics o f the s l u d g e t o be processed and
the t y p e of thickening o r dewatering device used will determine
which of t h e cationic p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s will w o r k b e s t and
still be c o s t - e f f e c t i v e. F o r e x a m p l e , a n increasing d e g r e e
of c h a r g e is required w h e n s l u d g e particles b e c o m e finer ,
w h e n hydration i n c r e a s e s, a n d w h e n relative s u r f a c e c h a r g e
increases.
8-1 5
Cationic polyelectrolytes are available as dry powders o r
1 i q u i d s. T h e l i q u i d s c o m e a s w a t e r s o l u t i o n s o r e m u l s i o n s , T h e
s h e l f l i f e o f t h e d r y p o w d e r s is u s u a l l y s e v e r a l y e a r s , w h e r e a s
most of the liquids have shelf lives of two to six months and
m u s t b e p r o t e c t e d f r o m wide ambient t e m p e r a t u r e variations i n
s t o r a g e. Representative dry cationic polyelectrolytes are
described i n T a b l e 8 -4. T h i s t a b l e d o e s n o t l i s t t h e m y r i a d o f
available types but does show some of the differences in the
m a t e r i a l s. T h e o r i g i n a l d r y materials introduced i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s
were of relatively low cationic functionality or positive
c h a r g e a n d h i g h m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t, They were produced for the
c o n d i t i o n i n g o f p r i m a r y s l u d g e s o r e a s y - t o- c o n d i t i o n m i x e d
s l u d g e s. T h e incentive t o p r o d u c e p o l y m e r s o f h i g h e r p o s i t i v e
c h a r g e r e s u l t e d l a r g e l y f r o m e f f o r t s t o c o p e w i t h mixed s l u d g e s
c o n t a i n i n g l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f biomass.
TABLE 8- 4
REPRESENTATIVE DRY POWDER CATIONIC POLYELECTROLYTES
Relative cationic Molecular Approximate dosage ,

Type density weight lb/ton dry solids
Polyacrylamide copolymer
Low
Medium
Very high
High
0.5
2
-- 101 0
Polyamine homopolymer
High
Complete
Medium high
High
2
2
-- 11 00
R e l a t i v e l y l o w m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t l i q u i d cationics w i t h a 3 0 t o
5 0 p e r c e n t s o l i d s c o n t e n t w e r e a l s o a v a i l a b l e i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s.
T h e y w e r e, h o w e v e r , l a r g e l y d i s p l a c e d b y t h e h i g h e r c a t i o n i c
f u n c t i o n a l i t y , h i g h m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t a n d n e w e r, l e s s c o s t l y
l i q u i d c a t i o n i c s. The various liquid cationics, in either
dissolved or emulsion form, are described in representative
f a s h i o n o n l y , i n T a b l e 8-5. T h e s e l i q u i d cationics e l i m i n a t e t h e
dustiness i n h e r e n t in s o m e d r y p o w d e r s b u t a l s o r e q u i r e m u c h m o r e
s t o r a g e s p a c e. T h e selection of a d r y , l i q u i d , o r emulsion f o r m
material u s u a l l y d e p e n d s o n a c o m p a r i s o n o f c o s t- effectiveness,
e a s e o f h a n d l i n g , a n d s t o r a g e r e q u i r e m e n t s.
TABLE 8- 5
REPRESENTATIVE LIQUID CATIONIC POLYELECTROLYTES
Type Molecular weight Percent solids

Mannich product Low 20
Tertiary polyamine Low 30
Quaternary polyamine Very low 50
Cationic homopolymer Low to medium 16 - 20
Emulsion copolymer Low to medium 25 - 35
8 -1 6
8.5.2 . 2 Structure in Solution
O r g a n i c polyelectrolytes dissolve in w a t e r t o f o r m solutions o f
v a r y i n g viscosity . T h e r e s u l t i n g v i s c o s i t y d e p e n d s o n t h e i r
m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t and d e g r e e o f ionic c h a r g e , At infinite
d i l u t i o n, t h e m o l e c u l e a s s u m e s t h e f o r m o f a n e x t e n d e d r o d
because of the r e p u l s i v e effect of t h e adjacent - charged sites
a l o n g t h e length o f t h e p o l y m e r chain , A t normal concentrations
t h e long thread - like c h a r g e d cationic polyelectrolyte a s s u m e s the
s h a p e o f a random coil, a s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 8 -1 1. This simplified
d r a w i n g , h o w e v e r , neither s h o w s t h e t r e m e n d o u s l e n g t h o f t h e
polymeric molecular chain n o r does it illustrate t h e very l a r g e
n u m b e r of active p o l y m e r chains t h a t a r e available in a p o l y m e r
solution. I t h a s been estimated t h a t a d o s a g e of 0 . 2 m g/1 o f
p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e h a v i n g a m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t o f 1 0 0, 0 0 0 w o u l d
provide 1 2 0 trillion active chains p e r liter of w a t e r t r e a t e d.
©
©
© GT"
/
©
© ©
/ n
/ /©
© /
© ©
©
©
©
©
©
FIGURE 8- 11
TYPICAL CONFIGURATION OF A CATIONIC

POLYELECTROLYTE IN SOLUTION
8 . 5.2.3 H o w P o l y e l e c t r o l y t e Conditioning W o r k s
Thickening a n d d e w a t e r i n g a r e inhibited by t h e s l u d g e particles ,

chemical characteristics , a n d physical configurations , P o l y-
e l e c t r o l y t e s in solution act b y adhering t o t h e s l u d g e particle
s u r f a c e s t h u s causing:
• Desorption of b o u n d surface w a t e r.
8-1 7
• Charge neutralization.
Agglomerization of small particulates by bridging between

particles.
The result is the formation of a permeable sludge cake matrix

-
which is able to release water , Figure 8 12 illustrates the
-
polyelectrolyte solid attachment mechanisn. The first two
-
reactions noted on Figure 8 12 are the desirable ones and
represent what occurs in normal practice , The other four
-
reactions represent what can occur from over dosage or too much
shear of flocculated sludge. The problems reflected in reactions
-
three through six rarely occur with a well designed process.
8.5.3 Conditioning for Thickening

The various methods for thickening sludge are discussed in detail
in Chapter 5.
8.5.3.1 Gravity Thickening

Normally , the addition of polyelectrolyte is not considered in
the original design because of operating cost, but it has been
used to upgrade existing facilities ( 21, 22 ). Experience to date
has indicated that the addition of polyelectrolyte to a gravity
thickener will:
Give a higher solids capture than a unit not receiving

polymer addition.
Allow a solids loading rate two to four times greater

than a unit not receiving polymer addition.
• Maintain the same underflow solids concentration as a

unit not receiving polymer addition.
When polyelectrolyte is used to condition sludge for gravity
thickening , it should be added into the sludge feed line. The
point of addition should provide good mixing and not cause
excessive shear before the conditioned sludge discharges into the
sludge feed well.
8.5.3.2 Dissolved Air Flotation Thickening
The effects of polyelectrolyte addition on solids capture, float

concentration, solids loading rate , and hydraulic loading rate
are covered in detail in Chapter 5.
8 18-
REACTION 1
INITIAL ADSORPTION AT THE OPTIMUM POLYMER DOSAGE
POLYMER PARTICLE DESTABILIZED PARTICLE
REACTION 2
FLOC FORMATION
FLOCCULATION
(PERIKINETIC OR
DESTABILIZED PARTICLES ORTHOKINETIC ) FLOC PARTICLE
REACTION 3
SECONDARY ADSORPTION OF POLYMER
NO CONTACT WITH VACANT SITES

ON ANOTHER PARTICLE
DESTABILIZED PARTICLE RESTABILIZED PARTICLE
REACTION 4
INITIAL ADSORPTION EXCESS
POLYMER DOSAGE
V
7 \ STABLE PARTICLE
EXCESS POLYMERS PARTICLE ( NO VACANT SITES)
REACTION 5
RUPTURE OF FLOC
INTENSE OR
PROLONGED FLOC
FLOC PARTICLE AGITATION FRAGMENTS
REACTION 6
SECONDARY ADSORPTION OF POLYMER
FLOC FRAGMENT RESTABILIZED FLOC FRAGMENT
FIGURE 8- 12
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE BRIDGING MODEL

FOR THE DESTABILIZATION OF COLLOIDS BY POLYMERS ( 24 )
8 -19
8 . 5.3 . 3 C e n t r i f u g a l Thickening
C e n t r i f u g a l t h i c k e n i n g i n c l u d e s t h i c k e n i n g b y d i s c n o z z 1 e,
i m p e r f o r a t e b a s k e t , a n d s o l i d b o w l d e c a n t e r c e n t r i f u g e s.
The disc nozzle unit does not utilize polyelectrolyte sludge
conditioning , as it depends solely on centrifugal force
(G 3 , 0 0 0 t o 5 ,0 0 0 ) t o a c h i e v e solids- 1 i q u i d s e p a r a t i o n, The
imperforate basket centrifuge may or may not use polyelectrolyte
a d d i t i o n. I f p o l y m e r i s a d d e d , it i s in t h e r a n g e o f o n e t o
three pounds of dry polymer per ton of feed solids ( 0.5 to
1.5 k g /t ). T h i s addition a l l o w s higher h y d r a u l i c f e e d r a t e s and
sometimes g i v e s b e t t e r solids r e c o v e r y , I t d o e s n o t c h a n g e t h e
thickened solids concentration.
Solid bowl decanter centrifuges normally require as much as
2 0 p o u n d s o f d r y p o l y m e r p e r t o n o f f e e d s o l i d s ( 1 0 k g /t ) f o r
thickening o f a s l u d g e, e s p e c i a l l y a w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e, A
new solid bowl unit has been developed for both thickening
w a s t e- activated s l u d g e a n d o b t a i n i n g a n 8 5 t o 9 5 p e r c e n t s o l i d s
c a p t u r e with o n l y 0 t o 6 p o u n d s o f d r y p o l y m e r p e r t o n o f f e e d
solids ( 0 t o 3 k g /t ).
When po lyelectrolyte conditioning is used with centrifugal
t h i c k e n i n g o f s l u d g e, s e v e r a l p o i n t s o f a d d i t i o n s h o u l d b e
p r o v i d e d. The optimum point of addition is influenced by
d i f f e r e n c e s i n p o l y m e r c h a r g e d e n s i t i e s, r e q u i r e d p o l y m e r
s l u d g e reaction t i m e s , a n d s l u d g e characteristics. Recommended
p o i n t s o f a d d i t i o n a r e:
• D i r e c t l y b e f o r e t h e inlet s i d e o f t h e s l u d g e f e e d p u m p.
• Immediately d o w n s t r e a m o f t h e s l u d g e feed p u m p.
• T o t h e c e n t r i f u g e s s l u d g e f e e d l i n e a n d j u s t b e f o r e its
connection t o t h e c e n t r i f u g e.
8 . 5.4 Conditioning for Dewatering
The various dewatering methods are discussed in detail in

C h a p t e r 9. P o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s w e r e o r i g i n a l l y u s e d t o condition
p r i m a r y s l u d g e s a n d e a s y - t o- d e w a t e r m i x t u r e s o f p r i m a r y a n d
secondary sludges for dewatering by rotary vacuum f i Iters
o r s o l i d b o w l d e c a n t e r c e n t r i f u g e s. Improvement in the
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s h a s led t o t h e i r i n c r e a s i n g u s e
w i t h a l l t y p e s o f d e w a t e r i n g p r o c e s s e s. Reasons for selecting
p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s o v e r i n o r g a n i c chemical conditioners a r e:
Little additional s l u d g e m a s s is p r o d u c e d. Inorganic

chemical conditioners typically i n c r e a s e s l u d g e mass by
15 to 30 p e r c e n t .
-
8 20
If dewatered sludge is to be used as a fuel for
incineration , p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s d o n o t l o w e r t h e f u e l
value.
T h e y allow for c l e a n e r material - handling o p e r a t i o n s.
T h e y reduce o p e r a t i o n a n d maintenance p r o b l e m s.
8.5.4.1 Drying Beds
P o l y e l e c t r o l y t e conditioning is n o t widely p r a c t i c e d , Indica-

tions a r e , however , t h a t adding 0 . 5 t o 2.0 p o u n d s o f d r y p o l y m e r
p e r t o n o f dry solids ( 0 . 2 5 t o 1 k g /t ) c a n increase dewatering
r a t e s by t w o t o f o u r times ( 2 3 , 24 ).
8.5 . 4.2 Vacuum Filters

T h e m a j o r i t y o f m u n i c i p a l v a c u u m f i l t r a t i o n p r o c e s s e s in t h e
United S t a t e s s t i l l d e w a t e r s l u d g e c o n d i t i o n e d w i t h f e r r i c
c h l o r i d e a n d l i m e. S e v e r a l f a c i l i t i e s h a v e , h o w e v e r , b e g u n
using polyelectrolytes for c o n d i t i o n i n g a n d h a v e realized c o s t
s a v i n g s ( 4 ) d u e t o l e s s e q u i p m e n t maintenance, f e w e r materials
handling p r o b l e m s , and reduction of c o s t in d o w n s t r e a m s l u d g e
processing operations ( 1 , 2, 4 ). Table 8 -6 s h o w s addition levels
o f d r y p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e u s e d in c o n d i t i o n i n g different t y p e s
o f s l u d g e f o r v a c u u m f i l t r a t i o n. W h e n u s i n g p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e
conditioning prior t o vacuum filtration, the d e s i g n e r should be
a w a r e t h a t s l u d g e formation properties c a n be q u i t e different
from t h o s e of inorganic chemical conditioners. More operator
attention m a y b e required t o obtain g o o d c a k e r e l e a s e from t h e
cloth . C a k e d r y n e s s will probably be 1 0 t o 1 5 percent l o w e r and
the v o l a t i l e c o n t e n t o f t h e d r y c a k e w i l l b e s i g n i ficantly
h i g h e r t h a n if t h e s l u d g e h a d b e e n c o n d i t i o n e d w i t h f e r r i c
chloride a n d lime.
TABLE 8- 6
TYPICAL POLYELECTROLYTE ADDITIONS

FOR VARIOUS SLUDGES3
Pounds of dry polymer added per

Sludge type ton of dry solids
Raw primary
Waste-activated
0.5
8
-- 1.0
15
Anaerobically digested primary 1.5 - 4
Primary plus trickling filter 2.5 - 5
-
Primary plus air waste activated 4 - 10
Primary plus oxygen waste-activated
Anaerobically digested ( primary plus air
4 - 8
-
waste activated ) 5 - 12
aData supplied by equipment manufacturers.

1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t
8- 21
8.5 . 4.3 Recessed Plate Pressure Filters
No published information could be found on operating experience
in the United States with polye 1 ectrolyte conditioning of
municipal wastewater sludge prior to pressure filtration.
Several English studies indicated that polyelectrolyte
conditioning can be effectively used with pressure filtration
if done with care. Dosage must be optimized and carefully
controlled for optimum cake solids concentration, solids capture,
and ability to release the cake ( 25 ). A comprehensive study
on filter press operating experience in the North American pulp
and paper industry was recently published and gives some insight
to the use of polymers for conditioning ( 26 ). Excerpts from
the study are given below.
"Many existing pulp and paper industry installations have been

conducting polyelectrolyte evaluations on their own with , what
initially appeared to be , very encouraging results. The polymers
that have met with greatest success are those which form what can
-
be best described as strong 'pin floc.' An array of low molecular
weight cationic polymers have been cited as providing acceptable
press performance , The reasons for adopting polymer as a
conditioning agent have included ( a ) reduced conditioning
costs ; ( b ) reduced quantities of solids for handling due to the
avoidance of large amounts of inorganics ; and , ( c ) elimination of
those problems in final disposal operations that have been
associated with inorganic conditioning agents. Projected polymer
requirements vary from 3 to 30 pounds of polymer per ton of
sludge solids."
Several mills have identified special considerations associated

with polyelectrolyte conditioning , In one instance , the polymer
conditioned cakes are discharging less readily than those with
inorganic conditioning. However, several other mills report no
noticeable difference in discharge characteristics , It is
generally observed that both cake consistencies and densities are
lower when using polymer conditioning , However , in several
instances , the difference is felt to be associated with the
bulk of the inorganic conditioning added as dry solids before
pressing."
-
"The handling of polymer conditioned sludge prior to pressing
has been identified as important , Complete initial mixing of
the sludge and polymer is crucial and subsequent handling should
involve a minimum of shear , It has been proposed that mixing
be accomplished by injecting the polymer into the suction side
of a positive displacement pump or the discharge side of a
centrifugal pump. Mills have indicated the existence of an
optimum flocculation time between conditioning and pressing , One
mill reports that at the discharge of the press feed pump , the
floe is sufficiently sheared to render it very difficult to
dewater but that in the remaining 30 feet of pipe to the press,
virtually complete reflocculation occurs, At the other extreme,
several instances of intermittent sludge septicity demonstrated
-
8 22
that extended s l u d g e s t o r a g e can be detrimental." Caution should
b e e x e r c i s e d in e x t r a p o l a t i n g p a p e r mill d a t a t o m u n i c i p a l
s l u d g e.
8.5.4.4 B e l t Filter Presses
O p e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t a l l belt p r e s s e s r e q u i r e
t h e u s e o f p o l y e 1 e c t r o l y t e c o n d i t i o n i n g t o m a k e t h e m w o r k.
C o m p a r e d t o other mechanical dewatering p r o c e s s e s, belt p r e s s e s
s e e m t o have t h e g r e a t e s t need for optimizing t h e p o l y m e r d o s a g e
a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e i n c o m i n g s l u d g e ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( 2 7 ).
Underconditioning results in inadequate dewatering in t h e initial
drainage section( s ), causing either extrusion of inadequately
d r a i n e d s o l i d s f r o m t h e p r e s s s e c t i o n ( s ) , o r in e x t r e m e
instances , a n uncontrolled overflow o f sludge from t h e drainage
section( s ). Underconditioned biological solids c a n a l s o blind o r
c l o g t h e fine mesh filter media. Overconditioning c a n also be a
p r o b l e m. T o o much polyelectrolyte c a n cause cake doctoring o r
removal difficulties and a g g r a v a t e media- blinding p r o b l e m s , T h e
t y p e of polymer a l s o influences t h e t e n d e n c y o f a media t o blind.
I n addition , overflocculated s l u d g e may drain s o rapidly that
t h e solids are not distributed across t h e media.
T a b l e 8 - 7 lists typical levels o f d r y p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e addition t o

condition sludges for dewatering on belt presses, T h e big
s p r e a d in p o l y m e r addition requirements is attributable t o the
p e r c e n t a g e of biological solids present in the t o t a l w a s t e sludge
s t r e a m. Figure 8 -1 3 is t h e result of o n e s t u d y and indicates
t h a t a s t h e p e r c e n t of b i o l o g i c a l s o l i d s i n c r e a s e s s o d o t h e
p o l y m e r r e q u i r e m e n t s ( 2 7 ).
TABLE 8- 7
TYPICAL LEVELS OF DRY POLYELECTROLYTE ADDITION

FOR BELT FILTER PRESSES3

Raw primary 4 - 8
Primary plus trickling filter 3 - 10
Primary plus waste-activated (air ) 4 - 10
--
Waste activated (air ) 8
8
-- 12
12
Waste activated (oxygen)
Aerobically digested ( primary plus waste
activated {air})
- 4 - 10
Anaerobically digested primary 2 - 6
Anaerobically digested ( primary plus waste-
activated {air}) 3 - 9
dData supplied by equipment manufacturers.

1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t
8 -2 3
• = ONE OPERATING FACILITY
O
H
o
-
f
o
Q
o
a
cc
UJ
5
--
>J
O
a.
PERCENT BIOLOGICAL SOLIDS
FIGURE 8- 13
EFFECT OF BIOLOGICAL SOLIDS ON POLYMER

REQUIREMENTS IN BELT PRESS DEWATERING ( 32 )
.
8.5 4.5 Centrifuges
As was noted in the detailed discussion in Chapter 9 , two types

of centrifuges can be used for dewatering: imperforate baskets
-
8 24
and solid bowl d e c a n t e r s , A l t h o u g h m a n y i m p e r f o r a t e basket
centrifuges d o not use polyelectrolytes for s l u d g e conditioning
prior t o dewatering , the addition of 1 t o 3 pounds of dry polymer
per ton of dry feed solids ( 0.5 to 1.5 kg /t ) can greatly reduce
overall operating cost , The reason for this reduction is that
basket centrifuges a r e used f o r dilute , difficult - t o- dewater
s l u d g e s such as aerobically d i g e s t e d , e x t e n d e d aeration , a n d
nitrification sludges, Since the cost of polymer is offset by
the reduction in operating time, a decision is normally made in
favor of adding polymer.
Solid bowl decanter centrifuges usually require polyelectrolytes

t o obtain g o o d p e r f o r m a n c e o n municipal w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s .
Table 8 - 8 lists typical levels of dry polyelectrolyte addition t o
various sludges for conditioning prior to dewatering by solid
bowl decanter centrifugation.
TABLE 8- 8
TYPICAL LEVELS OF DRY POLYELECTROLYTE ADDITION FOR

SOLID BOWL DECANTER CENTRIFUGES
CONDITIONING VARIOUS SLUDGES3

Raw primary 2 - 5
Raw primary plus WAS (air) 4 - 10
Thermal conditioned ( primary plus WAS
(air)) 3 - 5
Thermal conditioned (primary plus
trickling filter) 2 - 4
Primary
Primary plus WAS (air)
6
7
-- 11 00
aData supplied by equipment manufacturers.
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t
8.5.5 Storage, Preparation, and Application Equipment
Storage, preparation, and application equipment for both dry and

l i q u i d p o l y m e r s a r e discussed in g r e a t detail in t w o c u r r e n t
USEPA publications ( 15 , 28 ).
8.5.6 C a s e History
The following summarizes the conversion of the sludge

conditioning p r o c e s s for the vacuum filters a t the Bissell Point,
St. L o u i s t r e a t m e n t p l a n t f r o m a n i n o r g a n i c chemical t o a n
organic chemical process ( 29 ). The Bissell Point plant dewaters
a n d incinerates 3 5 , 0 0 0 d r y t o n s ( 3 1 , 7 4 5 d r y ) o f r a w primary
8 - 25
sludge p e r y e a r, C o n d i t i o n i n g o f t h e s l u d g e b e f o r e vacuum
filtration was with ferric chloride and lime until J u l y 1976.
T a b l e 8 -9 s u m m a r i z e s t h e s o l i d s h a n d l i n g s y s t e m s p e r f o r m a n c e
from 1 9 7 2-1 9 7 6.
TABLE 8- 9
PERFORMANCE OF SOLIDS HANDLING SYSTEM AT
BISSELL POINT , ST . LOUIS STP 1972- 1976 ( 29 )
Cost ,
Item Usage dollars/dry ton a ,b
Lime dosage , lb/dry ton *
3
352 6 .90
Ferric chloride dosage , lb/dry ton
Auxiliary fuel (natural gas), therms/
^ 64 5.09
dry ton *3 62 12.75
Total annual cost 34.74
Yield (average), lb/sq ft/hr 7.1
Solids content , percent 30
Volatile solids fraction , percent 42
aAll costs are adjusted to a July 1978 value.

All tons ( tonnes) are net dry tons ( tonnes). This is
defined as the dry tons ( tonnes) of filter cake produced
less the dry quantities of chemicals required to produce
the cake.
1 lb = 0.454 kg
1 therm = 0.116 GJ ~
1 ton 0.907 t
Since p l a n t s t a r t u p in 1 9 7 0, numerous p r o b l e m s have d e v e l o p e d

from t h e use of ferric chloride and lime , T h e major problems
w e r e:
• Lime c o a t i n g of filter c l o t h s a n d g r i d w o r k .
• S c a l e buildup in filtrate and p l a n t drainage lines.
• C o n s t a n t c l e a n u p of lime spills.
I n J u l y 1 9 7 6 , after six months of planning and experimentation,

t h e c o n d i t i o n i n g p r o c e s s w a s c o n v e r t e d f r o m f e r r i c chloride
a n d lime t o a dual polymer p r o c e s s utilizing either anionic o r
cationic polymers, S e v e r a l equipment modifications a n d o p e r a t o r
t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s h a d t o b e u n d e r t a k e n in o r d e r t o m a k e t h e
s y s t e m w o r k p r o p e r l y.
G r e a s e Separation , T h e m i x i n g o f p r i m a r y t a n k s k i m m i n g s
w i t h t h e r a w s l u d g e c a u s e d blinding o f t h e f i l t e r c l o t h.
The large volume of skimmings also influenced the solids
c o n c e n t r a t i o n. T h e s k i m m i n g s did n o t u p s e t t h e f e r r i c
8- 2 6
chloride- a n d 1 ime- conditioned s l u d g e filters a s m u c h a s t h e y
did t h e p o l y m e r- c o n d i t i o n e d s l u d g e f i l t e r s , The solution
employed was to separate the skimmings and sludge and treat
e a c h s e p a r a t e l y . S k i m m i n g s w e r e d e w a t e r e d b y a modified g r i t
d e w a t e r i n g screw a n d t h e n f e d d i r e c t l y into t h e incinerator.
C l o t h- W a s h i n g E q u i p m e n t. For po ly e 1 e c t roly te s to be
e f f e c t i v e , it is m a n d a t o r y t h a t t h e f i l t e r c l o t h b e c l e a n e d
c o n t i n u o u s l y. The original filter spray water system
i n c l u d e d o n e s p r a y n o z z l e s t r a i n e r, When this strainer
had t o be cleaned , t h e unit had t o be s t o p p e d , To correct
t h e p r o b l e m , t h e o n e strainer w a s r e p l a c e d with a d u p l e x- t y p e
strainer which allowed switching of the strainers with
n o c h a n g e in t h e filter o p e r a t i o n.
M i s c e l l a n e o u s F i l t e r I m p r o v e m e n t s. S e v e r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s
w e r e n e c e s s a r y t o i m p r o v e c a k e r e m o v a l f r o m t h e media, T h e
d o c t o r b l a d e s w e r e modified t o f i t t o g e t h e r a n d a g a i n s t t h e
c l o t h media. O p e r a t i n g w i t h p o l y m e r s w a s f o u n d b e s t a t l o w
vat levels. T o avoid loss of vacuum when running at low
l e v e l s, b r i d g e b l o c k s in t h e v a c u u m v a l v e w e r e installed t o
m o d i f y t h e p i c k u p z o n e.
O p e r a t o r Education , I t w a s n e c e s s a r y t o convince t h e p l a n t
o p e r a t o r s t h a t p o l y m e r u s a g e w o u l d b e beneficial t o t h e m.
An extensive educating process was conducted for several
m o n t h s i n f o r m i n g t h e o p e r a t o r s o f t h e benefits t h e y w o u l d
o b t a i n u s i n g p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s.
T h e c o n v e r s i o n w a s c o n s i d e r e d v e r y s u c c e s s f u l. T a b l e 8 -1 0
summarizes performance information for the solids handling
processes after implementation of the polye 1 ectrolytes
c o n d i t i o n i n g p r o c e s s f o r 1 9 7 7 - 1 9 7 8. Comparison of the
p e r f o r m a n c e d a t a in T a b l e s 8-9 a n d 8 -1 0 s h o w s t h a t t h e u s e o f
o r g a n i c p o l y m e r s in p l a c e o f i n o r g a n i c c o n d i t i o n e r s r e d u c e d
a u x i l i a r y f u e l r e q u i r e m e n t s b y 2 6 p e r c e n t a n d conditioner c o s t
b y 5 3 p e r c e n t. Overall annual cost per dry ton of solids was
r e d u c e d b y 5 6 p e r c e n t.
8 . 5.7 Cost
8 . 5.7 . 1 Capital Cost
F i g u r e 8 -1 4 g i v e s c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s f o r p o l y m e r s t o r a g e a n d
feed facilities as a function of installed capacity , Cost
e s t i m a t e s w e r e b a s e d o n t h e use o f d r y p o l y m e r , Chemical f e e d
equipment was chosen specifically for a 0.25 percent stock
s o l u t i o n. P i p i n g a n d b u i l d i n g s t o h o u s e t h e f e e d i n g e q u i p m e n t
a n d s t o r e t h e b a g s w e r e included. F o r e x a m p l e, f o r a n installed
c a p a c i t y o f 1 0 p o u n d s ( 4 . 5 k g ) o f d r y p o l y m e r p e r h o u r, t h e
a p p r o x i m a t e J u n e 1 9 7 5 c o s t w a s $ 1 1 0 , 0 0 0. T h e c o s t w o u l d n e e d t o
b e a d j u s t e d t o t h e c u r r e n t d e s i g n p e r i o d.
8 -2 7
TABLE 8- 10
PERFORMANCE OF SOLIDS HANDLING SYSTEM AT

BISSELL POINT , ST . LOUIS STP 1977- 1978 (29 )
Cost ,
a,
Item Usage do1lars/dry ton b
b
Anionic dosage , lb/dry ton 0 . 34 0.42
Cationic dosage , lb/dry tonu
Auxiliary, fuel ( natural gas), therms/
^ 65 5.25
dry tonD 46 9.52

Total annual cost 15.19
Yield ( average), lb/sq ft/hr 7.8
Solids content , percent 28
Volatile solids fraction , percent 56
aAll costs are adjusted to a July 1978 value.

All tons ( tonnes) are net dry tons ( tonnes), This is defined
as the dry tons ( tonnes) of filter cake produced less the dry
quantities of chemicals required to produce the cake.
1 lb = 0.454 kg
1 therm = 0.116 GJ 9
1 ton 0.907 t
9
6
7
in
r
^ 6
Ch
5 u " v
UJ A
Z
3 3
' Si 2
<
-
o
Q
I
IfflXQQ©
a
£ 1
fi
8 s
2
o 4
H
2
3
tr
-
$
1
Z
o
u
ID,«50 Li
2 3 4 S e 7% » 1 2 3 A 5 5 7 0 910 2 3 4 5 * 7B B
INSTALLED CAPACITY, lb Polymer /hr ( 1 lb = 0.454 kg)
FIGURE 8 14 “
RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF POLYMER ADDITION ON

IMPERFORATE BASKET CENTRIFUGE PROCESS VARIABLES ( 22 )
-
8 28
8 . 5.7 . 2 Operation a n d Maintenance Cost
F i g u r e 8 -1 5 g i v e s m a n- h o u r s f o r o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f
a dry p o l y m e r feed s y s t e m as a function of p o u n d s o f chemicals
f e d p e r h o u r. U n l o a d i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e 1 6 minutes f o r 1 0 -
t o 5 0-p o u n d ( 4.5 t o 22.6 kg ) b a g s. Mixing labor w a s estimated a t
t e n m a n- h o u r s p e r 1 ,0 0 0 p o u n d s ( 4 5 3 . 5 k g ) o f p o l y m e r u n d e r a
^
w a s t e w a t e r f l o w o f 1 0 M G D ( 2 6 . 2 m /s ) a n d t h r e e h o u r s p e r
1 ,0 0 0 p o u n d s ( 4 5 3 . 5 k g ) o f p o l y m e r f o r w a s t e w a t e r f l o w s o v e r
1 0 M G D ( 2 6 . 2 m 3 /s ). Operation and maintenance requirements
w e r e t a k e n a s 3 8 5 manhours p e r y e a r p e r feeder.
3
£
2
<«
O
GC
O 1,000
LL 9
a Df Y
C/5
tr 7
6
*
O 6
x
4
< 3
2
< 2 .
r* vi
Z
<
100 I I
0 3 4 6 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8910 3 4 5 6 18 fl IOC
POLYMER FED , lb/hr ( I ib - 0.454 kg)

FIGURE 8- 15
POLYMER STORAGE AND FEEDING OPERATION AND

MAINTENANCE WORK- HOUR REQUIREMENTS (22 )
F i g u r e 8 -1 6 g i v e s a n n u a l e l e c t r i c a l p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r
a polymer feed system, The graph was based on the use of
plunger metering p u m p s and 6 . 4 h p hour ( 4.7 k W h r ) f o r mixing o f
1 0 0 p o u n d s ( 45.4 k g ) o f p o l y m e r.
Annual maintenance material costs are typically 0.5 to

1 . 5 p e r c e n t o f the total p o l y m e r feed s y s t e m equipment c o s t.
8.6 N o n- Chemical Additions
Power p l a n t o r s l u d g e incinerator ash h a s b e e n used s u c c e s s f u l l y

t o i m p r o v e m e c h a n i c a l d e w a t e r i n g p e r f o r m a n c e o n f u l l- s c a l e
vacuum filters a n d filter p r e s s e s ( 3 0 ) .
T h e properties of ash
8-2 9
that improve dewatering of sludge include the solubilization of
i t s metallic constituents, i t s sorptive capabilities, and i t s
irregular particle size ( 31) .
The advantages and disadvantages
o f a d d i n g a s h f o r s l u d g e d e w a t e r i n g a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 8 -1 1 .
Major advantages are lower chemical requirements and improved
cake release .
Major disadvantages are the addition of a sizable
quantity of inerts to the sludge cake and additional material
handling .
For installations where landfilling of sludge follows
mechanical dewatering by vacuum f i l t e r s o r f i l t e r presses, the
use of ash to improve the total solids content of the cake should
be evaluated .
I f incineration i s t o follow the dewatering s t e p,
other additives such as pulverized coal or waste pulp should
receive preferential considerations ( 32 34 ) - .
In the design of
incineration facilities , one of the main objectives i s to reduce
or eliminate auxiliary fuel demand .
This can be done by feeding
t h e d r i e s t s o l i d s c a k e p o s s i b l e t o t h e i n c i n e r a t o r a n d /o r
by enhancing the f u e l value of the sludge solids The addition .
of ash to the sludge assists the dewatering device in producing a
dry cake, but i t does nothing for the fuel value of the cake .
Ash has no heating value and, in fact , requires additional heat
input to raise its temperature .
5
_
£ 4
£ 3
Z 2
O
I3 fS 10,000
9
8
O » 1
Q
^ s
—
6
UJ
5 * 4
o
CL 3
<
3 2
Z
<
1 ,000
0 2 3 4 6 6 7391 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100
POLYMER FED Ib/br ( 1 lb = 0.464 kg)
FIGURE 8- 16
ELECTRICAL ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR A

POLYMER FEED SYSTEM ( 22 )
A p i l o t- s c a l e v a c u u m f i l t r a t i o n s t u d y h a s f o u n d p u l v e r i z e d c o a l
to be an excellent sludge conditioner for improved dewatering
(32) . The coal contributed the same benefits as ash and
increased the Btu content of the sludge solids Economic .
8- 3 0
a n a l y s i s s h o w e d i t t o b e c o s t- e f f e c t i v e w h e n c o m p a r e d t o t h e
addition of other supplemental fuels such as natural gas or
# 2 f u e l o i l. A f u l l-s c a l e s o l i d s h a n d l i n g s t u d y a t S t. P a u l,
M i n n e s o t a, d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t a n existing s e v e n- h e a r t h w a s t e w a t e r
s l u d g e c a k e incinerator c o u l d b e f e d c o a l o r w o o d c h i p s with t h e
sludge cake to reduce consumption of natural gas or fuel oil
( 3 5 ). T h e p r o c e s s w a s found t o b e e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i a b l e a n d
practical only when a large quantity of natural gas or fuel oil
i s r e q u i r e d f o r s l u d g e c a k e incineration.
TABLE 8- 11
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ASH ADDITION

TO SLUDGE FOR CONDITIONING
Substantial increase in total cake Ash handling generates considerable dust
solids
Significant improvement in filtrate Ash fines buildup
quality
Excellent cake discharge Possible equipment abrasion problems
Elimination or significant reduction Increase in materials handling problems
in use of other conditioning agents For those installations with incineration ,
the addition of ash lowers the percent
volatile solids in the feed , Fuel usage
can therefore increase.
The use of waste paper as a conditioner for sludge has also

b e e n s t u d i e d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y a n d o n a p l a n t s c a l e ( 3 3 , 3 4 ).
S o m e p a p e r- conditioned s l u d g e w a s d e w a t e r e d o n f u l l-s c a l e v a c u u m
filters ( 3 4 ). R e s u l t s w e r e e x c e l l e n t, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e u s e o f
w a s t e p a p e r a n d p o l y m e r w e r e significantly m o r e economical t h a n
ferric chloride a n d lime.
8.7 Thermal Conditioning
This process involves . heating of wastewater sludge to

t e m p e r a t u r e s o f 3 5 0 ° t o 4 0 0 ° F ( 1 7 7° t o 2 4 0 ° C ) i n a r e a c t i o n
v e s s e l u n d e r p r e s s u r e s o f 2 5 0 t o 4 0 0 p s i g ( 1 , 7 2 3 t o 2 , 7 5 8 k n/ m )
f o r p e r i o d s o f 1 5 t o 4 0 m i n u t e s, One modification of the
^
p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s t h e a d d i t i o n o f a s m a l l a m o u n t o f a i r.
F i g u r e s 8 - 1 7 a n d 8 -1 8 s h o w a g e n e r a l t h e r m a l c o n d i t i o n i n g
f l o w s c h e m e f o r p l a n t s w i t h o u t a n d w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f a i r,
respectively.
T h e r m a l c o n d i t i o n i n g o f s l u d g e w a s f i r s t studied b y W i l l i a m K.
P o r t e o u s i n E n g l a n d in t h e m i d-1 9 3 0 s ( 3 6 ). T h e r m a l c o n d i t i o n i n g
i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s f i r s t s t u d i e d in t h e m i d - 1 9 6 0 s ,
and the first facility having no air addition was installed
at C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s , C o l o r a d o , in 1 9 6 9 ( 3 7- 3 9 ) . The
f i r s t p l a n t w i t h a i r a d d i t i o n w a s i n s t a l l e d a t L e v i t t o w n,
8 -3 1
Pennsylvania, in 1967 ( 4 0 ) .
Since then, over one hundred thermal
sludge conditioning installations have been built in the United
States .
R AW SLUDGE
REACTOR
GRINDER
*
r
POSITIVE
DISPLACEMENT
PUMP
s -
SLUDGE WATER
SLUDGE HEAT
EXCHANGER .
- STEAM
CONTROL
VALVE
BOILER TREATED
BOILER
OFF GAS WATER
DECANT OFF GAS
LIQUOR
SOLIDS
SEPERATION
*
DEWATERING
LIQUOR
PUMP CAKE
FIGURE 8- 17
GENERAL THERMAL SLUDGE CONDITIONING FLOW SCHEME

FOR A NON- OXIDATIVE SYSTEM
8-3 2
RAW SLUDGE
COMPRESSED AIR
GRINDER REACTOR
P
SLUDGE -
POSITIVE SLUDGE HEAT STEAM
DISPLACEMENT EXCHANGER
PUMP
CONTROL
VALVE
1
BOILER TREATED
BOILER
OFF GAS WATER
DECANT
OFF GAS
LIQUOR
SOLIDS
i
SEPERATiON DEWATERING
PUMP CAKE
FIGURE 8- 18
GENERAL THERMAL SLUDGE CONDITIONING FLOW SCHEME

FOR AN OXIDATIVE SYSTEM
8.7 1 . Advantages and Disadvantages
Thermal conditioning of wastewater sludges has the following

a d v a n t a g e s:
• Except f o r s t r a i g h t w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e , t h e p r o c e s s
will produce a sludge with excellent dewatering
characteristics . Cake solids concentrations of
30 to 50 percent are obtained with mechanical dewatering
equipment .
8 -3 3
Processed sludge does not normally require chemical
conditioning to dewater well on mechanical equipment.
Process sterilizes the sludge , rendering it free of

pathogenic organisms.
If done prior to incineration, the process will provide a

sludge with a heat value of 12, 000 to 13 , 000 Btu per
pound of volatile solids ( 28 to 30 kJ /g ).
Process is suitable for many types of sludges that cannot

be stabilized biologically because the presence of toxic
materials.
Process is insensitive to changes in sludge composition.
No length or elaborate startup procedures are required.
The disadvantages of thermal conditioning include:
• The process has high capital cost due to the use of

corrosion- resistant materials such as stainless steel in
the heat exchangers. Other support equipment is required
for odor collection and control and high pressure fluid
transport.
• Process requires supervision, skilled operators, and a

strong preventative maintenance program .
• Process produces an odorous gas stream that must be

collected and treated before release.
• Process produces sidestreams with high concentrations of

organics , ammonia nitrogen, and color.
• Scale formation in heat exchangers, pipes, and reactor

requires acid washing .
8.7.2 Process Sidestreams
Thermal sludge conditioning produces both gaseous and liquid

sidestreams that must be considered in design.
8.7.2.1 Gaseous Sidestreams
A thermal sludge conditioning process produces odorous materials

in:
• Vapors from treated sludge in the decant or thickener

tanks.
8-34
• Vacuum filter pump exhaust and vacuum filter hood
e x h a u s t.
• Air e x h a u s t e d
from t h e o p e r a t i o n s a n d h o p p e r
of any enclosed mechanical dewatering s y s t e m.
areas
These odors must be treated by processing all exhaust air in

s o m e t y p e of o d o r c o n t r o l s y s t e m , Methods of odor control
include combustion, a d s o r p t i o n, s c r u b b i n g , masking , dilution, a n d
surface e v a p o r a t i o n ( 4 1 ).
8 . 7.2 . 2 L i q u i d Sidestreams
Thermal sludge conditioning sidestreams originate from the

conditioned s l u d g e when it is decented , thickened o r lagooned ,
o r w h e n it is m e c h a n i c a l l y d e w a t e r e d . The composition of
t h e r m a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d s l u d g e l i q u o r is d i f f i c u l t t o a s s e s s.
I n o n e s t u d y o f t h e r m a l c o n d i t i o n i n g w i t h n o a i r a d d i t i o n,
s e v e r a l t y p e s of s l u d g e s w e r e t r e a t e d a n d it w a s noted t h a t in
g e n e r a l ( 4 2 ):
i .
T h e concentration o f the individual c o m p o n e n t s in a

heat-t r e a t m e n t sidestream increased in proportion t o the
feed -solids concentration.
T h e C O D o f h e a t- t r e a t m e n t l i q u o r w a s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
the dissolved solids f o r a l l s l u d g e s under a l l p r o c e s s
conditions.
T h e o r g a n i c N c o n t e n t o f h e a t-t r e a t m e n t l i q u o r w a s
proportional to the dissolved solids, there being
o n e r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r activated s l u d g e and o t h e r s f o r
trickling filter, primary p l u s activated , a n d digested
'
s l u d g e s.
T h e breakdown of o r g a n i c N t o ammonia in activated s l u d g e

heat t r e a t m e n t liquor w a s a time-t e m p e r a t u r e p h e n o m e n o n.
In g e n e r a l , t h e r e f o r e , t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e l i q u o r is a
function of the t y p e of s l u d g e, feed volatile solids c o n t e n t ,
reaction time , and temperature, Without a pilot scale
investigation of p r o c e s s feasibility , it is difficult t o specify
design d a t a. T a b l e 8-1 2 gives r a n g e s f o r various constituents
that h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d f o r both the p r o c e s s with air addition
and t h e p r o c e s s without air addition t h a t conditioned s l u d g e s
h a v i n g 3 t o 6 p e r c e n t f e e d s o l i d s concentrations ( 4 1- 5 0 ).
T a b l e 8 -1 3 s u m m a r i z e s d a t a f r o m t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n f i l t r a t e
or centrate composition, Except for suspended solids, the
p a r a m e t e r s o f filtrate are similar if n o t e q u a l t o t h e d e c a n t
t a n k s u p e r n a t a n t.
8-3 5
TABLE 8- 12
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SEPARATED LIQUOR FROM

THERMAL CONDITIONED SLUDGE3
Parameter Oxidative Non-oxIdative
Suspended solids , mg/1

Dissolved solids , mg/1
100- 20 , 000 •
-
300 12 , 000
1 ,700- 12 ,000
COD , mg/1 10 ,000- 30 ,000 -
2 , 500 22 ,000
BOD., , mg/1 -
5 ,000 15 , 000 1 ,600-12 , 000
--
Phosphorus0, mg/1 150 200 -
70 100 .
Total N , mg/1
Organic N , mg/1
650 1,000 -
700 1 , 700
100-1,000
Ammonia N , mg/1 400-1 , 700
_ 5.0-6.5 -
30 700
-e-
DH . . 5.0 6.4
Color 1,000-6,000 units 2 ,000 8 ,000
Metals -d
aMixture of 50 cercent orimary and 50 percent waste-activated at a feed solids
concentration between 3 to 6 percent.
^ Less than 20 percent of the COD is nonbiodegradable.
CDepends on P of influent sludge.
.,
See Reference 43.

eSee Reference 44.
M a n y m e t h o d s have been used t o t r e a t t h e liquid sidestreams , a n d

t h e y a r e discussed in C h a p t e r 1 6.
8 . 7.3 O p e r a t i o n s and C o s t
Analysis of the cost of installing and operating a thermal

conditioning p r o c e s s should be comprehensive, a s it impacts o t h e r
p a r t s o f t h e liquid a n d s l u d g e handling s y s t e m , T h e discussion
in this section is g e n e r a l; f o r t h o s e interested in more detail,
two r e c e n t r e p o r t s are available ( 4 1 , 5 3 ).
8 . 7.3 . 1 G e n e r a l Considerations
T h e r m a l s l u d g e c o n d i t i o n i n g h a s b e e n o p e r a t i n g in t h e United
S t a t e s f o r a b o u t t e n y e a r s. During t h a t time, over a hundred
f a c i l i t i e s h a v e b e e n built a n d m u c h h a s b e e n l e a r n e d f r o m
p a s t m i s t a k e s. F o l l o w i n g a r e c u r r e n t d e s i g n g u i d e l i n e s t h a t
m u s t be considered in t h e cost determinations f o r a basic t h e r m a l
s l u d g e-c o n d i t i o n i n g s y s t e m:
• If t h e r e is a chance o f high chloride content ( g r e a t e r

t h a n 4 0 0 m g / 1 ) in t h e s e w a g e o r s l u d g e m e t a l w i t h
corrosion- resistant properties g r e a t e r t h a n stainless
steel m u s t be used in - the hot h e a t e x c h a n g e r ( n e a r e s t
•
r e a c t o r ).
8-3 6
All potential sources of odor ( decant tank , dewatering
a r e a, v a c u u m f i l t e r e x h a u s t m u s t b e e n c l o s e d. I n
addition , a n air collection and treatment s y s t e m must be
provided.
Strength the recycle streams depends on many

of
variables. T h e w o r s t p o s s i b l e conditions s h o u l d be
used a s the design basis for the recycle liquor system.
Good grit removal from the sludge is essential to p r e v e n t

abrasion of metal piping. The provision of grit removal
at the plant influent does not imply that grit will be
absent in the sludge stream. Large quantities of material
can blow into clarifiers and aeration tanks ; therefore,
s e p a r a t e grit removal before the thermal-conditioning
s y s t e m should be considered.
O n l y the m o s t r u g g e d types of sludge handling pumps

should be used.
Present - day energy economics dictate careful review of

heat recovery systems.
8.7 . 3.2 U S E P A Survey Results
In May and June of 1979 , USEPA Technology Transfer,

'
Cincinnati ,
Ohio, conducted a s u r v e y of operation and maintenance problems at
76 thermal conditioning process facilities , Table 8 -14 lists
s u p p l i e r s , n u m b e r of p l a n t s involved in s u r v e y , a n d s u m of
operating experience.
Nearly all the plants contacted indicated high costs of operation
and maintenance. T h e high operating costs resulted mainly from
the cost of fuel f o r steam generation, the addition o f chemicals
f o r boiler w a t e r t r e a t m e n t , a n d in s o m e c a s e s ( Lexington ,
K e n t u c k y ; Haverhill, Massachusetts; P o u g h k e e p s i e , N e w Y o r k ) ,
the addition of chemicals to improve dewatering , Plants that
utilize waste heat from sludge cake incineration are able t o cut
considerably both fuel usage and the volume of sludge ( as ash )
that must be hauled.
Maintenance costs involve replacing various p a r t s on a somewhat

regular basis, washing the heat exchanger and reactor with acid
t o remove scaling , and t h e c o s t s o f t h e m a n p o w e r n e e d e d t o
p e r f o r m t h e s e t a s k s, P l a n t s that h a v e o p e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e
e x p r e s s r e q u i r e m e n t s for h i g h l y trained p e r s o n n e l , r e g u l a r
preventive maintenance , and a good surveillance program , These
p r a c t i c e s c a n s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e d u c e maintenance c o s t s d u e t o
excessive shutdown time or replacement of major components that
do not normally wear o u t.
8-3 7
TABLE 8- 13
FILTRATE AND / OR CENTRATE CHARACTERISTICS FROM

DEWATERING THERMAL CONDITIONED SLUDGE
Sludge type Dewatering process Characteristics Reference

3
Raw primary plus trickling Recessed plate pressure Feed solids , percent = 9 . 0 49
filter sludge (heavy filter Filtrate3
industrial load ) Total solids , mg/1 = 8 ,000
SS , mg/1 = 150
BOD5 , mg/1 = 6 ,500
COD , mg/1 = 12,000
Total N, mg/1 = 1 ,075
pH , units = 6.4
b
Anaerobically digested ( primary Rotary vacuum filter cloth Feed solids , percent = 10 - 15
raw primary
-
plus waste activated ) plus , media Filtrate SSa , mg/1
a
BOD5 , mg/1 = 10 ,000
= 5,000
C
Raw primary plus waste
activated
- Rotary vacuum filter cloth
media
Feed solids, percent = 6
Filtrate SS , mg/1 1 ,000
10
Raw primary plus waste -

activated ( high tannery load)
Rotary vacuum filter cloth
media
Feed solids,
Filtrate SS,
percent = 8
mg/1 2,000
13 d
BOD5 f mg/1 = 7 ,900 9,600
Anaerobically digested ( primary Sand dry beds Soluble BOD5 of drainage does not ex - 51
raw sludge
-
plus waste activated ) plus ceed 6 ,000 mg/1
e
Anaerobically digested primary Recessed diaphragm plate Feed solids, percent 14
-
plus oxygen waste activated and frame pressure filter Filtrate SS , mg/1 1, 400
Raw primary plus trickling Rotary vacuum filter cloth Feed solids3, percent = 18 52
filter sludge media Filtrate SS , mg/1 9 ,000
BOD5, mg/1 6 ,800
activated
- Centrifuge Feed solids, percent = 6
Filtrate SS = 3 ,000 mg/1
7- f
g
activated
- Centrifuge Feed solids , percent = 6
-
7-
Filtrate SS = 6 ,000 9 ,000 mg/1
Soluble BOD5, mg/1 = 4 ,200
activated
media
BOD 5 , mg/1 = 7 ,300- 9,100 h

activated
media
Feed solids, percent 10
Filtrate , percent = 2 -
2.5
20 1
Soluble BOD5 , mg/1 = 6 ,000 -

7,000
Raw primary plus waste - Coil vacuum filters Feed solids , percent 13 J
Filtrate , percent solids = 6 7
3
Average values.
The buildup o f scale in t h e h e a t e x c h a n g e r, r e a c t o r, o r pipes

occurs in m o s t p l a n t s that h a v e hard w a t e r o r industrial w a s t e s
in t h e influent. R e g u l a r w a s h i n g with acid is p r a c t i c e d i n a l l
p l a n t s with this p r o b l e m. T h e length of operating time between
washes varies from as much as 1, 500 hours to as little as
2 0 0 hours. M a n y p l a n t s acid -wash o n a r e g u l a r basis, about every
m o n t h, n o t o n l y t o r e m o v e s c a l e, b u t t o p r e v e n t i t s i n i t i a l
buildup.
Many o p e r a t o r s o f t h e n o n- a i r t h e r m a l c o n d i t i o n e d s y s t e m s
indicated t h a t an important f a c t o r in a g o o d maintenance program
is the u p k e e p of a p a r t s inventory , This eliminates the chance
o f t h e s y s t e m being s h u t down o v e r a n e x t e n d e d period while p a r t s
a r e o r d e r e d.
8 -3 8
TABLE 8- 14
USEPA JULY 1979 SURVEY OF EXISTING MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER

THERMAL CONDITIONING
• • Zimpro Envirotecha tkaBBisMaa

Nichols^ Zurn
Total installations 83 30 6 1
Number of installations
contacted in survey 57 19 0 0
Operating more than 120 hr/
week 27 7
Operating less than 120 hr/
week 20 6
Not operating 10 6
Period of operation
Less than 1 year 11 1
Between 1 to 2 years 15 6
Between 3 to 5 years 11 9
Over 5 years 20 3
.*-
i
aFormally called the Porteous process , Porteous process was

licensed by Envirotech in the mid -1960 ' s.
Formally known as the Dorr Oliver Farrer System , Purchased
by Nichols in the early 1970's.
T h e c o n c e n s u s of the o p e r a t o r s is t h a t a f t e r t h e " b u g s " a r e

worked out of the system , after the personnel have been
familiarized and trained , and after a routine maintenance program
is established , the process performs satisfactorily.
8.8 Elutriation
Elutriation is the term commonly used t o refer t o the washing of

anaerobically digested sludge before vacuum filtration. Washing
causes a dilution of the bicarbonate alkalinity in the sludge and
therefore reduces the demand for acidic metal salt by a s much as
5 0 percent ( 54 ).
T h e process itself w a s patented by Genter in 1941 ( 55 ). Although

it typically e m p l o y s o n e or t w o t a n k s , a n y number of tanks
can be used. T w o to six volumes of washwater, typically plant
e f f l u e n t , flow c o u n t e r c u r r e n t t o o n e v o l u m e o f a n a e r o b i c a l l y
d i g e s t e d s l u d g e. E l u t r i a t i o n t a n k s are d e s i g n e d t o a c t
a s gravity thickeners , with a mass solids loading of 8 t o
1 0 pounds per s q u a r e foot p e r day ( 39 t o 48.8 kg /m /day ). ^
At this time the process is not used as extensively as it had
been because, in addition t o reducing alkalinity , it also washed
o u t 1 0 t o 4 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e solids f r o m t h e incoming s l u d g e
.
s t r e a m ( 56- 6 0 ) Elutriate w a s recycled back t o the main plant
and eventually degraded the plant effluent ( 5 7, 5 8,6 0 ).
8-39
F u l l-s c a l e r e s e a r c h ( 6 0-6 2 ) h a s s h o w n t h a t t h e solids p r o b l e m
c a n b e s o l v e d , a n d 9 0 t o 9 2 p e r c e n t c a p t u r e a c h i e v e d , with
t h e u s e o f p o l y m e r s. R e c o m m e n d e d c u r r e n t e l u t r i a t i o n d e s i g n
considerations a r e listed below :
Tanks should be loaded at hydraulic loadings ( total

o f both s l u d g e and w a s h w a t e r f l o w ) o f 2 0 0 t o 3 0 0 g a l l o n s
p e r day p e r s q u a r e f o o t ( 6 9 t o 1 0 4 1/ day/ m 2 ) and solids
loading o f 8 t o 1 5 p o u n d s p e r d a y p e r s q u a r e foot ( 3 9 t o
Tanks should h a v e t h e best possible inlet s t r u c t u r e t o

minimize inlet m o m e n t u m.
Baffling s h o u l d be used t o p r e v e n t t a n k c u r r e n t s.
T a n k s s h o u l d be provided with scum collection.
P o l y m e r addition should b e provided .
8.9 F r e e z e-T h a w
I n 1 9 2 9 , Babbit a n d S c h l e n z demonstrated t h e benefit of freezing

w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e ( 6 3 ). T h e y n o t e d t h a t , a f t e r s l u d g e w a s frozen
o n a s a n d drying bed during t h e winter a n d thawed in t h e spring ,
its d r a i n a g e qualities were improved and it dried t o a higher
solids c o n t e n t.
R e s e a r c h h a s s i n c e b e e n c o n d u c t e d in t h r e e a r e a s o f f r e e z e
c o n d i t i o n i n g: indirect a n d d i r e c t mechanical s y s t e m s and n a t u r a l
freezing .
8.9.1 Indirect Mechanical Freezing

U n t i l r e c e n t l y , a l l m e c h a n i c a l f r e e z e- c o n d i t i o n i n g r e s e a r c h
h a s b e e n oriented t o w a r d indirect freezing methods , Indirect
f r e e z i n g i n v o l v e s t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e r e f r i g e r a n t and t h e
s l u d g e by s o m e t y p e of p a r t i t i o n , T h e studies ( 6 4 - 6 6 ) o n
wastewater s l u d g e s indicate that freezing:
Causes cellular dehydration and thus allows better

flocculation.
D e s t r o y s t h e sliminess of biological s l u d g e s.
I m p r o v e s d e w a t e r i n g characteristics a s measured by
sandbed a n d vacuum filter dewatering r a t e s.
M u s t occur s l o w l y t o b e effective .
8- 4 0
Although freeze conditioning h a s been s h o w n t o be beneficial , it
is expensive t o implement , This is because the system c a n n o t
utilize the heat generated by t h e fusion of the frozen sludge to
cool t h e refrigerant.
8.9.2 Direct Mechanical Freezing
T o o v e r c o m e t h e a b o v e - mentioned p r o b l e m , p i l o t w o r k h a s b e e n
c o n d u c t e d o n d i r e c t f r e e z i n g ( 6 7 ). I n direct f r e e z i n g , t h e
liquefied refrigerant is v a p o r i z e d a n d dispersed t h r o u g h t h e
s l u d g e s l u r r y a t a controlled r a t e. I n T a b l e 8 -1 5 f s l u r r y
freezing ( direct mechanical method ) is c o m p a r e d t o solid freezing
( indirect freezing ) a n d several other treatment processes.
TABLE 8- 15
COMPARISON OF SEWAGE SLUDGE HANDLING AND CONDITIONING PROCESSES ( 67 )
Supernatant and
Reduction filtrate quality
in sludge Sludge Cost/ton
Process COD percent solubilization pH Quality dry solids
Slurry freezing 35 Low -
7 8 Good -35
6 20
Solid freezing -
50 70 High -
7 7.5 Poor - 20
5
Anaerobic digestion 60- 70 High 6 7- Poor - 30
15
Aerobic digestion -
30 70 Low 4- 7 Good - 25
15
Chemical addition 20- 40 Low -
6 6.5 Moderate -
10
1 ton = 0.907 t
8.9.3 Natural Freezing
I n t h i s method , t h e f r e e z i n g is d o n e by t h e environment.
At least one facility ( 6 8 ) is operating in Canada, and extensive
f u l l- s c a l e r e s e a r c h is being c o n d u c t e d in f a c i l i t y d e s i g n in
order t o improve this method of conditioning ( 6 9 ).
8.10 Mechanical Screening and Grinding

In some applications, screening or grinding can be considered
p a r t o f the s l u d g e conditioning p r o c e s s. A g o o d e x a m p l e of
screening for conditioning is in the application of a disc nozzle
centrifuge. A stainless steel , self -cleaning screen is required
t o remove large solids and fibrous material that would clog the
disc nozzle machine.
Grinding of primary sludge is an important s t e p for some sludge
handling processes. I t has also been indicated that grinding of
a thick ( over 8 percent solids ) sludge stream reduces viscosity ,
thus making the slurry easier t o pump. O n e outstanding example
of this is in the municipal s y s t e m a t Glen Cove , N e w York.
8 -4 1
8.11 Miscellaneous Processes
In addition to the more commonly known conditioning methods

previously discussed , research has also been conducted on more
novel methods , such as bacteria , electricity , solvent extraction,
and ultrasonic.
8.11.1 Bacteria
Autotrophic sulfur bacteria may provide conditioning if added
~
to digested sludge prior to dewatering ( 54 ). Under aerobic

-
conditions , sulfur oxidizing bacteria stimulate the production of
sulfuric acid , which , in turn , lowers the pH of the sludge
and enhances the dewatering process as measured by the specific
resistance test , In another study ( 70), it was shown that
-
filtration rates of waste activated sludge could be increased
under anaerobic conditions with the use of the enzyme lysozyme.
8.11.2 Electricity
In extensive laboratory and pilot plant work studies, graphite
anodes and iron cathodes have been used to conditon sludge
(71 76 ).
-
These studies indicate that:
At pH values lower than 4.0 electrical current can

condition sludge for filtration without the use of
chemicals.
The quantity of water removed during dewatering

( vacuum filtration ) was proportional to the amount of
electricity used. Thinner sludges required less current.
Sludges electrically conditioned seemed to produce

drier cakes than chemically conditioned sludges.
The disadvantages are that:
Anodes had to be replaced frequently because a dried

crust continually formed on them.
The system uses a great deal of electricity ; optimum

current density was approximately 0.3 amp per sq ft
( 3.3 amp/m2 ) of anode surface , with a potential drop of
4 volts between the electrodes.
-
No full scale facilities h a v e e v e r b e e n tested to
evaluate operating problems.
-
8 42
8 . 1 1.3 Solvent Extraction
I n 1 9 5 7 , r e s e a r c h w a s c o n d u c t e d a t R o c k f o r d , I l l i n o i s, w i t h
carbon tetrachlorethylene as the solvent, with distillation
e n d p r o d u c t s being dried o i l s , f a t s, a n d g r e a s e s ( 7 7 ). It was
n o t considered t o b e v e r y economical a t t h a t time.
Although solvent extraction is becoming popular in industry

( 7 8 ), o n l y r e c e n t l y h a s t h e r e b e e n p r o m o t i o n a l a c t i v i t y i n
t h e m u n i c i p a l field ( 7 9 ). T o d a t e, n o m u n i c i p a l installations
a r e using t h e p r o c e s s.
8 . 1 1. 4 Ultrasonic
C o n d i t i o n i n g o f s e w a g e s l u d g e s b y u l t r a- o r s u p e r s o n i c vibration
h a s b e e n e x p l o r e d ( 5 4 ). U l t r a s o n i c vibrations degasify s l u d g e,
which is beneficial, but t h e vibrations a l s o tend t o destroy
s l u d g e f l o e s, r e s u l t i n g i n f i n e s o l i d s t h a t a r e d i f f i c u l t t o
d e w a t e r.
8.12 References
1. S c h i l l i n g e r, G . R. "C o n v e r s i o n of S l u d g e C o n d i t i o n i n g
C h e m i c a l s." W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l Federation D e e d s a n d
D a t a. V o l. 1 6. A p r i l 1 9 7 9.
2 . N e l s o n, J .K. a n d A.H. T a v e r y . "C h e m i c a l C o n d i t i o n i n g

A l t e r n a t i v e s a n d O p e r a t i o n a l C o n t r o l f o r V a c u u m F i l t r a-
t i o n. " J o u r n a l W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n.
V o l. 5 0, p. 5 0 7 ( 1 9 7 8 ).
3. C a r r y , C . W. , R .P . M i e l e , a n d J . F . S t a h l . "Sludge
D e w a t e r i n g." Proceedings of the National Conference on
M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t. I n f o r m a t i o n T r a n s f e r I n c.
Rockville , M D ( 1974 ) ,
4. B a r g m a n , R . D. , W . F . G a r b e r , a n d J . N a g a n o. "Sludge
Filtration and Use of Synthetic Organic Coagulants at
H y p e r i o n." S e w a g e a n d Industrial W a s t e. V o l. 3 0, p. 1 0 7 9
1 9 5 8.
5. C o a c k l e y , P. a n d R . A l i o s , "T h e D r y i n g C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f S o m e S e w a g e S l u d g e s." Institute o f S e w a g e Purification
J o u r n a l P r o c e e d i n g s. P t. 6, P 5 5 7. 1 9 6 2.
-
6. L a p p l e , C.E. "P a r t i c l e-S i z e A n a l y s i s a n d A n a l y z e r s ."
C h e m i c a 1 E n g i ne e r i n g. P 149. M a y 2 0, 1 9 6 8.
-
7. K a r r, P.R. a n d T . M . K e i n a t h. "Influence of Particle
S i z e o n S l u d g e D e w a t e r a b i l i t y." P r e s e n t e d a t 4 9t h A n n u a l
C o n f e r e n c e W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. M i n n e a p o l i s,
M i n n e s o t a. 1 0/3 -8/7 6.
8-4 3
8. Heukelekian, H . and E . W e i s b e r g . "S e w a g e C o l l o i d s . " W
— ater
and Sewage Works . Vol . 1 0 5 , p. 4 2 8 . O c t o b e r 1 9 5 8 . .
9 . Kos, P .
Continuous Gravity Thickening ofSludges . Dorr
Oliver Technical Reprint 705 1978 . .
10 . Tenney , M W • / W F . . .
Echelberger, J r , J J Coffey , and . . .
. .
T J McAloon .
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V o l 4 2 , P R1 1970 . - . .
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-
P 58 .
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Pietila . .
"Full Scale Study of . -
Sludge Processing and Land Disposal Utilizing Centrifugation
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Presented a t the 50th Annual Meeting of
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M a y 1 8- 2 0 , 1 9 7 7 .
1 3. USEPA .
Evaluation of Dewatering Devices for Producing High
Sludge Solids Cake .
Office of Research and Development .
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 C o n t r a c t 6 8- 0 3 2 4 5 5 .
1979 - . .
14 . USEPA .
Performance Evaluation and Troubleshooting at
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7 8- 0 0 1 .
January 1978
Washington D C 20460 . .
U S E P A 4 3 0 /9 . . . -
15 . USEPA .
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-
7 5 0 0 3a .
January 1975 .
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. . .
Treatment
.
20460
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Washington D C
. .
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October 1975 . .
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Published by the National Lime Association,
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May 1971 . .
19 . C u1p / W e s n e r / C u l p .
Cost and Performance Handbook Sludge
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.
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8 44
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•
a t i o n a n d V a c u u m Filtration w i t h Pulverized C o a l. " J o u r n a l
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33. Cargen , C. A. and J . F. Malina. " Effect of Waste Paper
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Use of Pulped Newsprint As A Conditioning Aid in the
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35. USEPA . Draft Copy Coincineration of Sewage Sludge with Coal
or Wood Chips. Office of Research and Development,
-
Cincinnati , Ohio 45268. EPA grant R 803927 01 5. 1979. - -
36. Porteou s, I.K. " Mechanical Treatment of Sewage Sludge by
the Steam Injection Method." Municipal Engineer. Vol. 16.
December 1966.
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Conference. P 40. May 1965.
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Improves Economics of Sludge Handling and Disposal." Water
.
and Wastes Engineering. P 42. November 1970.
40. Blattler, P.X. "Wet Air Oxidation at Levittown." Water and
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-
Sewage Works. Vol. 117 , P 32. 1970.
Effects of Thermal Treatment of Sludge On Munic -

ipal Wastewater Treatment Costs. Municipal Environmental
Research Laboratory , Cincinnati , Ohio 45268. USEPA 600/2 -
-
78 073 , June 1978.
42. Brooks, R.B. "Heat Treatment of Sewage Sludges." Journal

of the Institute of Water Pollution Control. Vol. 69 ,
43.
-
P 221 ( 1970 ).
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on Sludge Composition." Journal Water Pollution Control
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Federation. Vol. 49 , P 2219 ( 1977 ).
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Solubilization of Heavy Metals , Metals and Organic Matter
from Digested Sludge." Journal of the Institute of Water
45.
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"Heat Treatment of Sewage S l u d g e." Third
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Conditioned Sludges." Water Research. Vol. 6 , P
( 1972 ).
521
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47. Corrie, K .D. "Use of Activated Carbon in the Treatment of
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-
48. Whitehead , C.R. and E.J. Smith. " Sludge Heat Treatment:
Operation and Management." Journal of the Institute of
Water Pollution Control. Vol. 71, p. 31 ( 1976 ).
49. . . ..
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.
Pollution Control. Vol 71 , p. 455 ( 1972 ) .
50. Erickson , A .H . and P.V. Knopp. " Biological Treatment
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Published by Pergamon Press, London, 1972.
51. .
Jones, E E. " Finding A Better Way To Dispose of Sludge."
Public Works Magazine. March 1975 .
52. SCS Engineers. Review of Techniques for Treatment and
Disposal of Phosphorus-Laden Chemical Sludges. USEPA - MERL
Contract 68- 03- 2432 to be published in the summer of 1979.
53. Thermal Conditioning Cost Effectiveness Report. Zimpro,

I nc • / November 1978.
54. Burd , R.S. A Study of Sludge Handling and Disposal. U.S.

Department of Interior WP- 20-4 , May 1968.
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56. Garrity , L . V. " Sludge Disposal Practices at Detroit -

Discussion." Sewage Works Journal. Vol. 18, p . 215 ( 1946 ).
57. Sparr, A.E . " Elutriation Experience At the Bay Park Sewage
Treatment Plant." Sewage and Industrial Wastes. Vol. 26 ,
p. 1443 ( 1954 ).
58. T a y l o r, D. "Sludge Conditioning and Filtration at

Cincinnati ' s L i t t l e M i a m i Sewage Works . " Sewage and
Industrial Waste. Vol. 29 , p. 1333 ( 1957 ).
'
59. Chasick , A.H. and R.T. Dewling. "Interstage Elutriation

of Digested Sludge." Journal Water Pollution Control Feder-
at ion. Vol. 34, p. 390 ( 1962 ).
6 0. Dahl , B.W • / J .W. Zelinski , and O.W. Taylor. " Polymer Aids
in Dewatering Elutriation." Journal Water Pollution Control
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-
8 - 47
6 1. G o o d m a n, B.L. " Chemical Conditioning o f S l u d g e s: Six C a s e
H i s t o r i e s." Water and Wastes Engineering . V o l. 3 , P
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( 1 9 6 6 ).
6 2. G o o d m a n , B .L. a n d C .P. W i t c h e r , " P o l y m e r- A i d e d S l u d g e

E l u t r i a t i o n a n d F i l t r a t i o n." Journal Water Pollution
C o n t r o l Federation. V o l. 3 7, p. 1 6 4 3 ( 1 9 6 5 ).
6 3. B a b b i t t , H .E. a n d H .E. S c h l e n z. T h e E f f e c t o f F r e e z e D r y i n g
o n S l u d g e s. I l l i n o i s E n g i n e e r i n g E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n,
B u l l e t i n N o. 1 9 8 , P 4 8, 1 9 2 9.
-
6 4. S e w e r a g e C o m m i s s i o n C i t y o f M i l w a u k e e. Evaluation of
C o n d i t i o n i n g a n d D e w a t e r i n g S e w a g e S l u d g e b y F r e e z i n g.
W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l R e s e a r c h S e r i e s 1 1 0 1 0 E V E 0 1/7 1.
6 5. C l e m e n t s , G .S., R.J . S t e p h e n s o n, a n d C.J . R e g a n. "S l u d g e

D e w a t e r i n g b y F r e e z i n g w i t h A d d e d Chemicals." J o u r n a l a n d
P r o c e e d i n g s I n s t i t u t e o f S e w a g e P u r i f i c a t i o n J o u r n a 1.
P a r t 4 , p. 3 1 8 ( 1 9 5 0 ).
66. C h e n g , C ., D . M . U p d e g r o f f , a n d L. W . R o s s. "S l u d g e
Dewatering by High Rate Freezing at Small Temperature
D i f f e r e n c e s. " E n v i r o n m e n t a l S c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y.
V o l. 4 , p. 1 1 4 5 ( 1 9 7 0 ).
6 7. R a n d a l l , C .W . "Butane Is Nearly 1 I d e a l I For Direct

S l u r r y F r e e z i n g." W a t e r a n d W a s t e s E n g i n e e r i n g. p. 4 3 ,
M a r c h 1 9 7 8.
68 . .
P e n m a n , A . a n d D W . V a n e s. "W i n n i p e g F r e e z e s S l u d g e,
S l a s h e s D i s p o s a l C o s t 1 0 F o l d." C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g - A S C E.
. .
V o l 4 3, p 6 5 ( 1 9 7 3 ) .
6 9. R u s h, R.J . a n d A.R . S t i c k n e y. N a t u r a l F r e e z e-T h a w S e w a g e
S l u d g e C o n d i t i o n i n g a n d D e w a t e r i n g. Canada Environmental
P r o t e c t i o n S e r v i c e R e p o r t E P S 4 -W P- 7 9-1 , J a n u a r y 1 9 7 9.
7 0. Envirogenics Co . B i o l o g i c a l M e t h o d s of S l u d g e Dewatering.
F W Q A-W - 7 2- 0 5 8 3 8. N T I S P B 2 0 7 -4 8 0. F W Q A- 1 4- 1 2- 4 2 7 , P 1 4 7 ,
A u g u s t 1 9 7 1.
-
7 1. S l a g l e, E A.. .
a n d L M. R o b e r t s. "T r e a t m e n t o f S e w a g e a n d
Sewage Sludge by Electrodialysis " .
S e w a g e W o r k s J o u r n a l.
V o l. 1 4, p. 1 0 2 1 ( 1 9 4 2 ).
7 2. B e a u d o i n, R.E. " R e d u c t i o n of M o i s t u r e in A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e
'
F i l t e r C a k e b y E l e c t r o- O s m o s i s . " S e w a g e W o r k s J o u r n a l .
V o l. 1 5 , p. 1 1 5 3 ( 1 9 4 3 ).
7 3. H i c k s , R. " D i s p o s a l o f S e w a g e S l u d g e. " T h e S u r v e y o r.
p p. 1 0 5 , 3 0 3. A p r i l 1 9 , 1 9 4 6.
8-4 8
7 4. C o o l i n g , L. F. " D e w a t e r i n g o f S e w a g e S l u d g e b y E l e c t r o-
O s m o s i s." W a t e r a n d S a n i t a r y E n g i n e e r i n g. V o l. 3 , p. 2 4 6
( 1 9 5 2 ).
7 5. S p o h r , G. " E l e c t r i c a l S t i m u l a t i o n o f B a c t e r i a." Water

W o r k s a n d W a s t e s E n g i n e e r i n g. A p r i l 1 9 6 4.
7 6. S p o h r, G . "Electrical S t i m u l a t i o n o f B a c t e r i a. " . .
U S
p a t e n t 3 , 1 6 6 , 5 0 1.
7 7. S t a l l e r y , R.H . a n d E .H . E a u t h. "T r e a t m e n t of S e w a g e
S l u d g e b y t h e M c D o n a l d P r o c e s s." P u b l i c W o r k s. P I l l ,
-
M a r c h 1 9 5 7.
7 8. H a n s o n, C . "S o l v e n t E x t r a c t i o n A n E c o n o m i c a l l y C o m p e t i-
t i v e P r o c e s s." Chemical E n g i n e e r i n g . P 8 3, M a y 1 9 7 9.
-
7 9. O l s o n , R.L. , R.K . A m e s , H .H . P e t e r s , E . A . G u s t a n , a n d
G.W. B a n n o n. " S l u d g e D e w a t e r i n g With S o l v e n t Extraction."
Proceedings of the National Conference Management and
Disposal of Residues From the Treatment of Industrial
W a s t e w a t e r s. W a s h i n g t o n, D.C. P 1 7 5 , F e b r u a r y 3 -5 , 1 9 7 5.
-
8 -4 9
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 9 . Dewatering


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 9
DEWATERING
9.1 Introduction
D e w a t e r i n g is t h e r e m o v a l o f w a t e r f r o m w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
plant solids to achieve a volume reduction greater than that
achieved by thickening. Dewatering is d o n e primarily t o d e c r e a s e
t h e capital a n d operating c o s t s of t h e subsequent direct sludge
d i s p o s a l o r conversion and d i s p o s a l p r o c e s s, Dewatering s l u d g e
from a 5 t o a 2 0 p e r c e n t solids concentration r e d u c e s volume by
t h r e e-fourths and results in a non -fluid material. D e w a t e r i n g is
only one c o m p o n e n t o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r solids t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s a n d
m u s t be integrated into t h e o v e r a l l w a s t e w a t e r treatment s y s t e m
so that performance of both the liquid and solids treatment
s c h e m e s is optimized a n d total c o s t s a r e minimized ( 1- 3 ).
9 . 1.1 Process Evaluation
Several pilot-scale studies have been published that c o m p a r e the

performance of various dewatering devices or techniques on
different s l u d g e t y p e s ( 4-9 ). T a b l e 9-1 summarizes equipment a n d
sludge types evaluated , One conclusion that can be drawn from
t h e s e studies is t h a t selecting s l u d g e dewatering p r o c e s s e s is
still very much a n a r t r a t h e r t h a n a science , Bench or pilot
scale testing is always recommended before final design , This ,
h o w e v e r, d o e s n o t a l w a y s g u a r a n t e e successful operation of t h e
f u l l -s c a l e s y s t e m , As will b e s h o w n , t h e r e are m a n y p r o b l e m s
i n v o l v e d i n t h e s c a l e- u p o f d e w a t e r i n g e q u i p m e n t , a n d t h i s ,
combined w i t h t h e c h a n g i n g c h a r a c t e r o f m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r
sludges, can cause significant problems, Designers must be
cognizant of these p r o b l e m s and allow for them in the design of
full-s c a l e installations.
The main variables in any dewatering process are:
S o l i d s concentration a n d volumetric f l o w r a t e o f t h e
feed s t r e a m.
Chemical d e m a n d a n d c o s t.
Suspended and dissolved solids concentrations and

volumetric f l o w r a t e o f t h e sidestream.
9 -1
Solids concentration a n d volumetric f l o w r a t e o f t h e
dewatered sludge.
TABLE 9- 1
PILOT- SCALE SLUDGE DEWATERING STUDIES
Reference Sludge type Type of equipment

4 Mesophilic , anaerobically Combination of a horizontal , solid bowl ,
digested primary sludge decanter centrifuge and a imperforate
from a publicly owned basket centrifuge
treatment work (POTW) Rotary drum , cloth-belt , vacuum filter
Rotary drum , coil -belt , vacuum filter
Recessed plate pressure filters
5 Mesophilic and thermophilic Horizontal , solid bowl , decanter centrifuge

anaerobically digested Imperforate basket centrifuge
sludge (3/4 by weight Rotary drum , cloth -belt , vacuum filter
primary plus 1/4 by weight Recessed plate pressure filters
-
waste activated sludge)
from a POTW
Drying beds
6 Waste-activated sludge from Horizontal , solid bowl decanter centrifuge

a pulp and paper activated Rotary drum , precoat vacuum filter
sludge plant Recessed plate pressure filters
Belt filter press
Capillary suction
Ultrafiltration
Dual cell gravity filter with multiple roll
7 ,8 Raw primary sludge (1/3 by -
Rotary drum , cloth belt vacuum filter
weight) plus waste
activated sludge (2/3 by
- Recessed plate pressure filters
Diaphragm recessed plate pressure filters
weight from a POTW) Belt filter press
9 Mesophilic , anaerobically Horizontal , solid bowl , decanter centrifuge

digested primary sludge
(1/3 by weight) plus
-
Rotary drum , cloth belt, vacuum filter
Belt filter press
waste-activated sludge
(2/3 by weight) from a
POTW
’ "• * if il\w .!<"
-
Specific design criteria for selection of a dewatering process

can also be dependent upon subsequent processing steps , Both the
sludge composting and the incineration process require s l u d g e
with a relatively low solids concentration.
Another important consideration is t h e operation and maintenance

( 0/M ) c o s t and t h e variables a f f e c t i n g it . I n t h e p a s t,
0/M c o s t s have been given little attention . This should change
a s USEPA implements its new Operations Check List ( 1 0 ) in all
phases of the Construction Grants Program .
F i n a l l y , d e w a t e r i n g d e v i c e r e l i a b i l i t y is i m p o r t a n t f o r
successful p l a n t o p e r a t i o n. A reliable d e w a t e r i n g s y s t e m is
needed t o maintain relatively uninterrupted removal of wastewater
solids from a continuously o p e r a t e d wastewater treatment process.
9- 2
S l u d g e s a r e g e n e r a t e d c o n s t a n t l y , a n d if t h e y a r e a l l o w e d t o
a c c u m u l a t e f o r a l o n g t i m e , t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e e n t i r e
w a s t e w a t e r treatment p l a n t will be impaired .
9 . 1 .2 M e t h o d s o f Dewatering
While numerous techniques fulfill the basic functional
definition o f dewatering , t h e y d o s o t o widely varying d e g r e e s .
I t is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h e n c o m p a r i n g
d i f f e r e n t d e v i c e s. F o r e x a m p l e , d r y i n g b e d s c a n b e u s e d n o t
o n l y t o d e w a t e r a s l u d g e , b u t a l s o t o d r y it t o a s o l i d s
concentration of g r e a t e r t h a n 5 0 t o 6 0 p e r c e n t . Depending o n t h e
circumstances and p a r t i c u l a r device involved , dewatered sludge
from a mechanical device m a y v a r y from a w e t , a l m o s t flowable
form , t o a h a r d e r a n d m o r e friable form.
9.2 Natural S l u d g e Dewatering S y s t e m s

When land is available , sludge dewatering by nature can be
extremely attractive from b o t h a capital and a n operating c o s t
v i e w p o i n t. C o n s i d e r i n g e s c a l a t i n g e l e c t r i c a l p o w e r c o s t s,
this m e t h o d is even more attractive. T w o t y p e s o f s y s t e m s can be
categorized a s natural: drying beds and drying l a g o o n s.
9 . 2 .1 Drying B e d s
Drying beds a r e t h e m o s t widely used m e t h o d o f municipal s l u d g e
d e w a t e r i n g i n t h e United S t a t e s ( 1 1 ) . A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e ,
t w o - t h i r d s o f a l l United S t a t e s w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s
u t i l i z e d r y i n g b e d s a n d o n e - h a l f o f a l l t h e United S t a t e s
municipal s l u d g e is dewatered by this m e t h o d . Although t h e use
o f drying beds m i g h t be e x p e c t e d in s m a l l e r plants a n d in t h e
w a r m e r s u n n y r e g i o n s , t h e y a r e a l s o u s e d in s e v e r a l l a r g e
facilities in n o r t h e r n climates ( 1 2 ). T a b l e 9-2 lists a d v a n t a g e s
and disadvantages o f t h e drying bed m e t h o d .
TABLE 9- 2
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

USING SLUDGE DRYING BEDS
When land is readily available , this is Lack of a rational engineering design

normally the lowest capital cost approach allowing sound engineering
economic analysis
Small amount of operator attention and Requires more land than fully mechanical
skill is required methods
Low energy consumption Requires a stabilized sludge
Less sensitive to sludge variability Must be designed with careful concern for
Low to no chemical consumption
climatic effects
May be more visible to the general public
Higher dry cake solids contents than fully
mechanical methods Removal usually labor intensive
9 -3
Research into the dewatering of sludge by drying beds has been
conducted since the early 1900s , when i t was noted t h a t digested
sludge dewatered more rapidly than raw sludge (13) .
Design data ,
however , are s t i l l very empirical , and only recently has an
e f f o r t been made t o develop a rational engineering design
a p p r o a c h ( 1 4 -1 6 ). An e x c e l l e n t review of p a s t work , d e t a i l e d
theoretical analysis, and current understanding of the sludge
drying process i s given by Adrian (14 ) . Sludge dewatering on a
d r y i n g b e d i s a m u l t i-p h a s e p r o c e s s a n d i s s h o w n p i c t o r i a l l y o n
F i g u r e 9 -1.
RA1 N IF B E D I S UNCOVERED
I \
EVAPORATION DUE TO RADIATION AND CONVECTION
\ I
1
SLUDGE
1 t
POROUS MEDIUM - SLUDGE SUPPORT STRUCTIOM
I \ J \
DRAINAGE OF WATER THROUGH POROUS MEDIUM
t
FIGURE 9- 1
SCHEMATIC OF SLUDGE DEWATERING IN A

DRYINC BED SYSTEM
9 . 2 .1 . 1 Basic Components and Operation
D r y i n g b e d s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t o f a o n e - t o t h r e e - f o o t ( 0 . 3-1 . 0 m )
high retaining wall enclosing a porous drainage media. This
drainage media may be made up of various sandwiched l a y e r s
of sand and gravel , combinations of sand and gravel with cement
strips , slotted metal media , or a permanent porous media .
Appurtenant equipment includes: sludge feed pipelines and flow
meters ; possible chemical application tanks , pipelines , and
metering pumps ; f i l t r a t e drainage and recirculation l i n e s ;
possible mechanical sludge removal equipment ; and a possible
cover or enclosure.
Operational procedures common t o a l l t y p e s of drying beds involve:
• Pump 8 t o 12 inches ( 20 t o 30 cm )
sludge onto the drying bed surface.
of stabilized liquid
9 -4
• Add chemical conditioners continuously , if conditioners
are used , by injection into the sludge as it is pumped
onto the bed .
Permit , when the bed is filled to the desired level , the

sludge to dry to the desired final solids concentration.
This concentration can vary from between 18 to
60 percent , depending on the type of sludge , processing
rate needed , degree of dryness required for lifting , etc.
Remove the dewatered sludge either mechanically or

manually.
Repeat the cycle.
9.2.1.2 Types of Drying Beds

Drying beds may be classified as either conventional paved ,
wedgewire, or vacuum-assisted .
Conventional Sand Drying Beds
Sand drying beds are the oldest , most commonly used type of
drying bed . Many design variations are possible including
the layout of drainage piping , thickness and type of gravel and
sand layers , and construction materials.
-
Current United States practice ( 17 19 ) is to make drying beds
rectangular with dimensions of 15 to 60 feet ( 4.5 to 18 m ) wide
by 50 to 150 feet ( 15 to 47 m ) long with vertical side walls.
Usually 4 to 9 inches ( 10 to 23 cm ) of sand is placed over 8 to
-
18 inches ( 20 46 cm ) of graded gravel or stone . The sand is
usually 0.012 to 0.05 inches ( 0.3 to 1.2 mm ) in effective
diameter and has a uniformity coefficient less than 5.0 . Gravel
is normally graded from 1/8 to 1.0 inches ( 0.3 to 2.5 cm ) , in
effective diameter. Underdrain piping has normally been of
vitrified clay , but plastic pipe is also becoming acceptable.
The pipes should be no less than 4 inches ( 10 cm ) , should be
spaced 8 to 20 feet ( 2.4 to 6 m ) apart , and have a minimum slope
of one percent.
-
Figure 9 2 shows a typical sand drying bed construction. Sand
drying beds can be built with or without provision for mechanical
sludge removal , and with or without a roof.
Paved Drying Beds
Paved drying beds have had limited use since 1954 ( 20 ). The beds
are normally rectangular in shape and are 20 to 50 feet ( 6 to
15 m ) wide by 70 to 150 feet ( 21 to 46 m ) long with vertical
side walls , Current practice is to use either a concrete or
-
asphalt lining. Normally , the lining rests on an 8 to 12 inch -
- - -
( 20 to 30 cm ) built up sand or gravel base , The lining should
have a minimum 1.5 percent slope to the drainage area , A minimum
- -
four inch ( 10 cm ) diameter pipe would convey drainage away. An
-
9 5
unpaved area , 2 to 3 feet ( 0 . 6 to 1 m ) wide i s placed along
e i t h e r s i d e o r down the middle f o r drainage Paved drying beds .
can be built with or without a roof .
, 7*
-
\
>
%*
X f GATE
SLUDGE A
7 -* >
• A * T
4
L
- < ’*
* L <
V
i
SIDE WALL
.*
* < * -a
t r A
* M *1
*^^ ^ *
* t >
1
S< - -
C A A
-SPLASH
Lf
- 4
*
**r
V 4
^f: SLAB
* ? r 4
V
* Sf
COLLECTION *i4
* * A
-
.A
SYSTEM * 4 f
* • -
4
4
4
f 4
iT**
SAND 4
& v
» r
¥
4 « *
f vy.v. v: '.v.'!vy"
. ^X
7
toV
• •v
:; :<\G RAVE LV'.V :.
'' '
*
DRAINAGE » 4
»
I
--V-'
i
1
.
&il *
r * *a
FIGURE 9- 2
TYPICAL SAND DRYING BED CONSTRUCTION ( 18 )
For a given amount of sludge, paved drying beds require more area
than sand beds .
T h e i r m a i n a d v a n t a g e s a r e t h a t f r o n t- e n d l o a d e r s
can b e used f o r s ludge removal and reduced bed maintenance ( 2 1) .
F i g u r e 9 -3 s h o w s y p i c a l p a v e d d r y i n g b e d c o n s t r u c t i o n
t .
MINIMUM. 1.5% ASPHALT OR
SLOPE CONCRETE LINING
* S 34
7 4 * A JL i » y
f v * . * + T *^ 4 > r
t r
v <
* < k f ^ ^
i *3
V r>
r 4 ^
4 i 4
4
• SAND;; V
fr
-*- < »
-^ ^ ^ - 41
r
m* <* ** •* rr=rwr *
* ** » » . V
o
SAND GRAVER :*« ** •4

* SAND
*
* *" « *
* *“
i
- - -
w 4
*
- .. -'.:-
* * * 4 * » »**
* * J
11
;I '"
*
'
f 4
' r** # * »»
-
L i v;1
* 4
*» », ", 4
-
\ \ \ \
\
DRAINAGE
FIGURE 9- 3
TYPICAL PAVED DRYING BED CONSTRUCTION
9-6
-
Wedge Wire Drying Beds
Wedge- wire drying bed systems have been successfully used in
England for over 20 years to dewater both municipal ( 22 ) and
industrial ( 23 ,24) wastewater sludges. Used in the United States
since the early 1970 s , there are presently 18 wedge wire
installations. Ten of these installations are for municipal
-
wastewater sludge.
-
In a wedge wire drying bed , sludge slurry is introduced onto a
-
horizontal , relatively open drainage media in a way that yields a
clean filtrate and provides a reasonable drainage rate ( 25 ).
-
Table 9 3 lists reported advantages for this type of drying bed .
TABLE 9- 3
ADVANTAGES OF A WEDGE- WIRE DRYING BED ( 26 )
No clogging of the media Easy bed maintenance

Constant and rapid drainage
Higher throughput rate than sand beds
- -
Difficult to dewater sludges , for example ,
aerobically digested can be dried
Compared to sand beds dewatered sludge is
easier to remove
-
Figure 9 4 shows a typical cross section of a wedge wire bed .
The bed consists of a shallow rectangular watertight basin fitted
-
with a false floor of wedgewater panels , These panels have
slotted openings of 0.01 inches (0.25 mm ), This false floor is
made watertight with caulking where the panels abut the walls.
An outlet valve to control the rate of drainage is located
underneath the false floor.
CONTROLLED DIFFERENTIAL HEAD IN VENT

BY RESTRICTING RATE OF DRAINAGE
VENT
in PARTITION TO FORM VENT
V V T
OUTLET VALVE TO CONTROL TO CONTROL

RATE OF DRAINAGE ~
WEDGEWIRE SEPTUM
FIGURE 9- 4
CROSS SECTION OF A WEDGE- WIRE DRYING BED
9- 7
T h e p r o c e d u r e used f o r dewatering s l u d g e b e g i n s with t h e
m o v e m e n t of w a t e r or p l a n t effluent into t h e w e d g e w a t e r unit
until a d e p t h of approximately one inch ( 2.5 c m ) o v e r the
w e d g e-wire septum is attained. This w a t e r serves as a cushion
that permits the added sludge t o float without causing u p w a r d
o r d o w n w a r d p r e s s u r e across t h e w e d g e - wire s u r f a c e. The
water further prevents compression or other disturbance of the
colloidal particles. After t h e bed is filled with sludge , the
initially s e p a r a t e w a t e r l a y e r and t h e d r a i n a g e w a t e r a r e
a l l o w e d t o p e r c o l a t e away a t a controlled r a t e , t h r o u g h t h e
outlet valve. After the free w a t e r has been drained , the sludge
further concentrates by drainage and evaporation until there is a
requirement for sludge removal.
Vacuum- Assisted Drying Beds
T h e o n l y operating vacuum -assisted drying beds a t this time
a r e t w o 2 0 f e e t ( 6 m ) by 4 0 f e e t ( 12 m ) units built in 1 9 7 6
a t Sunrise City , Florida. T h e y d e w a t e r a t w o p e r c e n t solids
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , aerobically d i g e s t e d s l u d g e f r o m a c o n t a c t
stabilization wastewater treatment plant ( 27 ).
T h e principal components of the Sunrise facility are :
• A bottom ground slab consisting of reinforced concrete.
A l a y e r of stabilized a g g r e g a t e s e v e r a l inches thick

which provides support for the rigid multi-media filter
t o p. This s p a c e is also the vacuum chamber and is
connected t o a vacuum p u m p.
• A rigid multi-media filter t o p is placed o n t h e a g g r e g a t e

s u p p o r t. S l u d g e is t h e n a p p l i e d t o t h e s u r f a c e of
this media.
T h e operating sequence is as follows:
Sludge is introduced o n t o the filter surface by gravity

flow at a rate of 150 g a l l o n s p e r minute ( 9.4 1/s ) and t o
a depth of 12 t o 18 inches ( 30 t o 4 6 cm ).
Filtrate drains through the multi- media filter and into

the space containing the a g g r e g a t e and then t o a sump,
f r o m which it is p u m p e d back t o the p l a n t by a self -
actuated submersible pump.
As soon as the entire surface of the multi-media filter

is covered with s l u d g e , the v a c u u m s y s t e m is s t a r t e d
a n d v a c u u m is maintained a t 1 t o 1 0 inches m e r c u r y
( 3 t o 3 4 k N/m ).
^
U n d e r f a v o r a b l e w e a t h e r conditions , this s y s t e m d e w a t e r s t h e
dilute aerobically d i g e s t e d s l u d g e t o a 1 2 p e r c e n t solids
concentration in 2 4 h o u r s without p o l y m e r addition , and t o
t h e s a m e l e v e l in e i g h t h o u r s if p o l y m e r is a d d e d. This
9 -8
particular sludge of 12 percent solids concentration is capable
of being lifted from the bed by a fork or mechanical equipment.
The sludge will further dewater to about 20 percent solids
concentration in 48 hours.
9.2.1.3 Process Design Criteria

Covered Beds
Whenever there is the possibility of long periods of rain , snow ,
or cold weather; potential odor or insect problems ; or a problem
with esthetics ; consideration should be given to employing covers
for the drying beds. When properly ventilated , so that air can
flow over the surface of the bed , covered sand beds can be
employed and require 25 to 33 percent less area than open sand
beds ( 17 , 26 ). Although covers can be provided for paved ,
wedge-wire , and vacuum beds, no documentation could be found on
how covers affect or improve bed loading rates.
Sludge Conditioning
Sludge conditioning can dramatically improve drying bed
throughput ( 28 ) and should be considered as part of the design.
See Chapter 8 for further discussion on conditioning.
Sludge Removal
The majority of United States facilities employ manual labor to
remove dried sludge from drying beds. With this type of removal,
a 30 to 40 percent solids conoentration is required . With
mechanical sludge removal systems ( 21 , 29 ,30 ), solids concentra-
tion between 20 and 30 percent can be handled ( 31 ). Depending
on the bed size , a tiltable unit similar to the lift and dump
mechanism of a dump truck is available for the wedge-wire drying
bed.
Sidestreams
The only sidestream from a drying bed operation is under
drainage liquor . While little is known about the characteristics
of this sidestream, Table 9-4 shows the results from one pilot
study. This flow is not normally treated separately , but is
typically returned to the plant headworks .
TABLE 9- 4
CHARACTERIZATION OF SAND BED DRAINAGE ( 32 )
Sludge type - Anaerobically digested mixture of primary and trickling filter sludge
Bed media - 6 inches of sand
Color - clear , dark amber
COD - 300- 400 mg/1
-- - -
BODj- 6 66 mg/1
BODb20 1 ,900 2 , 360 mg/1 (over 90 percent nitrogenous)
.*
m ; sw
1 inch 2.54 cm
9 -9
TABLE 9- 5 A
SUMMARY OF RECOGNIZED PUBLISHED SAND BED SIZING CRITERIA

FOR ANAEROBICALLY DIGESTED , NON - CONDITIONED SLUDGE
Uncovered beds ,
Area , Loading , Covered beds area ,
Initial sludge source sq ft/capita lb solids/sq ft/yr sq ft/capitaa
•
“* 111 X A!%i
—
* ..
Primary
Reference 33 1.0 27.5
Reference 34 1.0 - 1.5 0.75 - 1.0
Reference 36
°
N45 N latitude
Between 40-45 N
1.25 0.93
S40 N latitude
° 1.0
0.75
0.75
° 0.56
Primary plus chemicals
Reference 33 2.0 22
Reference 34 2.0 - 2.25 1.0 - 1.25
Reference 36
°
N45 N latitude 2.5 1.87
-
Between 40 45 N
S40 N latitude
° 2.0
1.5
1. 50
1.12
°
Primary plus low rate
trickling filter
Reference 33 1.6 22
Reference 34 1.25 - 1.75 1.0 - 1.25
Reference 36
°
N45 N latitude 1.87 1.56
S40 N latitude
- °
Between 40 45 N 1.50
1,12
1.25
° 0.93
Primary plus waste-
activated sludge
Reference 33 3.0 15
Reference 34 1.75 - 2.5 1.25 - 1.5
Reference 36
N45 N latitude
° 2.18 1.68
S40 N latitude
- °
Between 40 45 N 1.75
1.31
1.35
° .« » f
.: S' >
1.01
aOnly area loading rates available for covered beds.

1 lb/sq ft/yr = 4,9 kg/m 2/yr
1 sq ft = 0.093 m 2
Bed Sizing Criteria

Despite the number of drying beds in use today , the lack of
published bed sizing criteria have limited applicability , The
majority of published and professionally utilized design data
-
( 33 36 ) are based on operations during the 1940s and 1950s .
Tables 9 5 A and 9 5B summarize the data for sand drying beds. At
- -
that time , sludges applied to sand beds were anaerobically
digested. They originated predominantly in primary , primary
plus low rate trickling filter , or primary plus conventional
-
9 10
-
waste activated sludge wastewater treatment processes , Many of
the sludges presently generated do not readily fall within these
categories. i
Y
TABLE 9- 5 B
SUMMARY OF RECOGNIZED PUBLISHED STATE BED SIZING

CRITERIA FOR SAND BEDS BY USEPA REGIONS3 SQUARE FEET / CAPITA
b
EPA Region I II III IV VI VII VIII IX XC
ua Cd u n u c u c u c u c u c u c u c u c
Anaerobically
digested
Primary only 1.5 1.0 1.5 0.75 0.5-1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.0
Primary + low rate
trickling filter 1.75 1.25 1.5 0.75 -
0.75 1.2 -
0.5 1.0 0.25 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 -
1.5 2.0 1.0 1.25 -
Prinary + sand
filter 1.0 1.0 0.5
Primary + high rate
trickling filter 1.0 1.0 1.25 1.25 1.0 2.0 1.25
Primary + waste
activated sludge
Primary +
2.5 1.5 2.0 1.0 -
1.5 2.5 1.0-1.5 1.0 1.35 1.35 1.0 -
1.5 2.5 1.0 1.5 -
chemical
Imhoff
2.0 1.0
1.5 0.75
--
1.0 1.33
0.66 1.0
1.0
1.0
1.5 1.3 3.0 2.0
Imhoff + low rate
trickling filter -
1.0 1.2 1.0
aTaken from individual State desiqn criteria that do not use 10 State Standards .
bThe states encompassed in USEPA Regions III and V do not have published requirements at this time .
-
CState of Idaho : Values shown are for rainfall of 30 45 inches ( 76 -114 cm ) ; for rainfall between
10 - 30 inches ( 25 - 76 c m ) , reduce these values by 25 percent ; for r a i n f a l l o f less than 10 inches
( 25 c m ) , reduce these values by 50 percent .
d
U = uncovered sand beds
C = covered sand beds
2
1 scj ft / capita = 0 . 0 9 3 m / capita
Also , most data are given in square feet of bed surface

area required for dewatering on a per capita basis . This
criterion is only valid for the characteristics of a particular
wastewater and has no rational design basis. A better criterion
for sizing sand drying beds is the pounds of solids per square
foot of bed surface area per year. The best criteria would
take into consideration climatic conditions ( such as temperature ,
wind velocity and precipitation ), sludge characteristics ,
( grit , grease , fiber , and biological content ), and solids
concentration.
No generalized bed sizing criteria could be found for paved

beds. Also very little information is available from full scale
facilities on bed sizing criteria for wedge wire units. In one
-
-
United States wedge wire facility , 150 gallons per day ( 568 1/d )
,
of excess biological sludge at a two percent solids concentration

-
is conditioned with a polyelectrolyte and dewatered to a liftable
eight percent solids concentration in two to three hours ( 27 ).
-
Table 9 6 contains data on the performance of wedge wire systems
with several different sludges.
-
i
-
9 11
TABLE 9- 6
WEDGE- WIRE SYSTEM PERFORMANCE DATA ( 25 )
Sludge solids
Feed solids , concentration , Dewatering Solids capture ,
Sludge typea percent percent time percent
Primary 8.5 25.0 14 days 99

Trickling filter humus 2.9 8.8 20 hours 85
Digested primary +
waste activated sludge
(WAS) 3.0 10.0 12 days 86
Fresh WAS 0.7 6.2 12 hours 94
Fresh WAS 1.1 9.9 8 days 87
Thickened WAS 2.5 8.1 41 hours 100
aAll sludges were chemically conditioned .
9 . 2 .1 . 4 Costs
Capital Costs
Several recent publications have developed capital cost curves

f o r o p e n s a n d beds ( 3 7-3 9 ). P r o b a b l y t h e m o s t a c c u r a t e i s t h e
reference based on actual USEPA bid documents for the years
1 9 7 3-1 9 7 7 ( 3 8 ).
Although the data were scattered , a regression analysis

indicated , t h a t , o n t h e basis o f a U S E P A M u n i c i p a l W a s t e w a t e r
T r e a t m e n t P l a n t Construction C o s t I n d e x f o r t h e 2n d q u a r t e r 1 9 7 7
( 3 8 ), t h e c a p i t a l c o s t c o u l d b e a p p r o x i m a t e d b y E q u a t i o n 9 -1.
C = 9.89 x 104 -
Q1 3 5 ( 9 -1 )
w h e r e:
C = c a p i t a l c o s t o f p r o c e s s in d o l l a r s.
Q = p l a n t d e s i g n f l o w in million g a l l o n s o f w a s t e w a t e r f l o w
p e r d a y.
The associated costs include excavation, process piping,

e q u i p m e n t, c o n c r e t e, a n d s t e e l , In addition, such costs as
those for administrating and engineering are equal to 0.2264
t i m e s E q u a t i o n 9 -1 ( 3 8 ).
O p e r a t i n g a n d Maintenance C o s t
T a b l e 9 -7 indicates o p e n s a n d bed l a b o r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r b o t h
operation and maintenance, T h e l a b o r i n d i c a t e d i n c l u d e s:
removal of dried sludge from the beds, sand maintenance , and
w e e d i n g a s n e c e s s a r y.
9-1 2
TABLE 9- 7
SLUDGE DRYING BEDS , LABOR REQUIREMENTS ( 18 )
Labor , hours per year

Total bed area ,
r. a
sq ft Operation Maintenance Total
1 , 000 300 100 400
5 , 000 400 180 580
10 , 000 500 220 720
50 , 000 1 ,500 710 2 , 210
100 , 000 2 ,900 1 ,500 4 ,400
aAssumes dry solids loading rate of 20 lb/sq ft/yr of bed area.

2
1 sq ft = 0.093 m 2
1 lb/sq ft/yr = 4.9 kg /m / yr
2 i ‘.Si
10,000 *****
iv
--
a Vir
7
6
5
b> 4
m
© 3 t V..
”'
-
O
2
u
-
<
I
D
z 1,000 —,..
z 9
< 8
6
1
3 4 5 6 7 8910,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 100,000 2 3 4
DRYING BED AREA, sq ft < 1 sq ft = 0,093 m2)
FIGURE 9 - 5

FOR OPEN SAND DRYING BEDS ( 39 )
9 -13
-
Figure 9 5 shows a curve developed for estimating open sand
bed maintenance material cost as a function of sand bed surface
area. As an example , for a sand bed surface area of 10 ,000
square feet ( 9 30 ), a designer would estimate a yearly
materials cost of $400. Since this number is based on a June
•
1975 cost, it must be adjusted to the current design period .
9.2.2 Drying Lagoons
Sludge drying lagoons are another method ( 12 ) of sludge

dewatering when sufficient , economical land is available .
Sludge drying lagoons are similar to drying beds . However , the
sludge is placed at depths three to four times greater than it
would be in a drying bed . Generally , sludge is allowed to
dewater and dry to some predetermined solids concentration before
removal and this might require one to three years. The cycle is
then repeated . Sludge should be stabilized prior to addition to
the lagoon to minimize odor problems. Large areas of lagoons can
produce nuisance odors as they go through a series of wet and dry
conditions. See Chapter 15 for further discussion. Table 9 8
lists present advantages and disadvantages for sludge drying
-
lagoons.
TABLE 9- 8
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF USING SLUDGE DRYING LAGOONS

Lagoons are low energy consumers Lagoons may be a source of periodic odor
Lagoons consume no chemicals problems, and these odors may be difficult
Lagoons are not sensitive to sludge to control
variability
There is a potential for pollution of
The lagoons can serve as a buffer in the groundwater or nearby surface water
sludge handling flow stream , Shock
loadings due to treatment plant upsets Lagoons can create vector problems ( for
can be discharged to the lagoons with example , flies and mosquitos)
minimal impact Lagoons are more visible to the general
public
Organic matter is further stabilized
Of all the dewatering systems available , Lagoons are more land -intensive than fully
lagoons require the least amount of mechanical methods
operation attention and skill
Rational engineering design data are
If land is available , lagoons have a very lacking to allow sound engineering
low capital cost economic analysis
Very little research has been conducted concerning sludge

drying lagoons. Dewatering occurs in three ways: drainage ,
evaporation , and transpiration. Research seems to indicate
that dewatering by drainage is independent of lagoon depth.
Dewatering by drainage alone cannot produce a sludge sufficiently
dry for easy removal ( 40,41). These studies further indicate that
evaporation is the most important dewatering factor.
-
9 14
9.2.2.1 Basic Concept
Sludge drying lagoons consist of retaining walls which are
normally earthen dikes 2 to 4 feet ( 0.7 to. 1.4 m ) high . The
earthen dikes normally enclose a rectangular space with a
permeable surface. Appurtenant equipment includes: sludge feed
lines and metering pumps, supernatant decant lines, and some type
of mechanical sludge removal equipment , The removal equipment
can include a bulldozer , drag line or front - end loader. In areas
where permeable soils are unavailable , underdrains and associated
piping may be required .
Operating procedures common to all types of drying lagoons
involve :
Pumping liquid sludge , over a period of several months or

more , into the lagoon , The pumped sludge is normally
stabilized prior to application , The sludge is usually
applied until a lagoon depth of 24 to 48 inches ( 0.7 to
1.4 m ) is achieved.
Decanting supernatant , either continuously or intermit-
tently , from the lagoon surface and returning it to the
wastewater treatment plant.
Filling the lagoon to a desired sludge depth and then

permitting it to dewater. Depending on the climate
and the depth of applied sludge , the time involved for
dewatering to a final solids content of between 20 to
40 percent solids may be 3 to 12 months.
Removing the dewatered sludge with some type of

mechanical removal equipment.
Resting ( adding no new sludge ) to the lagoon for three to
six months.
Repeating the cycle.
9.2.2.2 Design Criteria

Proper design of sludge drying lagoons requires a consideration
of the following factors : climate , subsoil permeability , sludge
characteristics, lagoon depth , and area management practices. A
detailed discussion of these factors follows.
Climate
After dewatering by drainage and supernating , drying in a sludge
lagoon depends primarily on evaporation. Proper size of a
lagoon, therefore , requires climatic information concerning:
• Precipitation rate ( annual and seasonal distribution ).
9-15
• Evaporation rate ( annual average , range, and seasonal
fluctuations ).
• Temperature extremes.
Subsoil Permeability
The subsoil should have a moderate permeability of 1.6 x 10~ 4 to
5.5 x 10- 4 inches per second ( 4.2 x 10 “
^
to 1.4 x 10“ cm/s ), ^
and the bottom of the lagoon should be a minimum of 18 inches
( 46 cm ) above the maximum groundwater table, unless otherwise
directed by local authorities.
Sludge Characteristics
The type of sludge to be placed in the lagoon can significantly

affect the amount and type of odor and vector problems that can
be produced . It is recommended that only those sludges which
have been anaerobically digested be used in drying lagoons.
Lagoon Depth and Area
The actual depth and area requirements for sludge drying lagoons
depend on several factors such as precipitation , evaporation,
type of sludge, volume and solids concentration. Solids loading
criteria have been given as 2.2 to 2.4 pounds of solids per year
per cubic foot ( 36 to 39 kg /m ) of capacity ( 46 ). A minimum
^
of two separate lagoons are provided to ensure availability
of storage space during cleaning , maintenance , or emergency
conditions.
General Guidance
Lagoons may be of any shape, but a rectangular shape facilitates
rapid sludge removal, Lagoon dikes should have a slope of 1 : 3,
vertical to horizontal , and should be of a shape and size to
facilitate maintenance, mowing , passage of maintenance vehicles
atop the dike , and access for the entry of trucks and front -end
loaders into the lagoon .
Surrounding areas should be graded to
prevent surface water from entering the lagoon , Return must
exist for removing the surface liquid and piping to the treatment
plant . Provisions must also be made for limiting public access
to the sludge lagoons , Chapter 15 provides a description of a
successful sludge drying lagoon operation for the Metropolitan
Sanitary District of Greater Chicago.
9.2.2.3 Costs
Current published information on capital cost of constructing

sludge lagoons is almost nonexistent , Some information is
available from a recent USEPA publication ( 38 ), and from
Chapter 15. Table 9-9 indicates labor requirements for sludge
9 -16
drying lagoons, T h e requirements include: application of sludge
to the lagoon; periodic removal of supernatant; periodic removal
o f s o l i d s ; a n d m i n o r m a i n t e n a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s, s u c h a s d i k e
repair and weed control, N o information c o u l d b e f o u n d o n
maintenance material costs.
TABLE 9- 9
SLUDGE DRYING LAGOONS , LABOR REQUIREMENTS ( 18)
Labor , hours per year

Dry solids applied ,
tons/year Operation Maintenance Total
100 30 55 85
1,000 55 90 145
10 ,000 120 300 420
50 ,000 450 1 ,500 1 ,950
1 ton 0.9 t
9.3 C e n t r i f u g a l Dewatering S y s t e m s
9.3.1 Introduction
C e n t r i f u g e s w e r e f i r s t e m p l o y e d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r
dewatering m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s l u d g e s d u r i n g
t h e y e a r 1 9 2 0 , in M i l w a u k e e , W i s c o n s i n , and d u r i n g 1 9 2 1 in
Baltimore , Maryland ( 4 2 ). E a r l y centrifuges w e r e n o t designed t o
p r o c e s s extremely variable slurries such as those of municipal
w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s, I n a d d i t i o n, m o s t w a s t e w a t e r
t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s p r o v i d e d l i t t l e , if a n y , p r e v e n t i v e
maintenance. C o n s e q u e n t l y , e a r l y installations d e v e l o p e d numerous
o p e r a t i o n a l and m a i n t e n a n c e p r o b l e m s , and this led t o a n
anti-centrifuge reaction among environmental engineers.
By the late 1960s, equipment manufacturers were designing

a n d b u i l d i n g n e w machines s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e
a p p l i c a t i o n s, and t h e u s e of centrifuges f o r municipal s l u d g e
d e w a t e r i n g increased . I n t h e p a s t t e n y e a r s , continuous
improvements in design and materials h a v e led t o better machines.
The machines now available ( 1979 ) require less power and
attention and p r o d u c e less noise.
T w o c a t e g o r i e s of c e n t r i f u g e s a r e used f o r municipal w a s t e w a t e r
s l u d g e d e w a t e r i n g: imperforate basket a n d scroll-t y p e decanter.
A detailed discussion o f e a c h f o l l o w s , T h e basic t h e o r y of
thickening and p r o c e s s c o s t s a r e p r e s e n t e d in C h a p t e r 5.
9 -1 7
9.3.2 Imperforate Basket
Basket centrifuges for dewatering municipal wastewater treatment
plant sludges were first used in the United States in 1920 ( 42).
Since the mid 1960s approximately 300 machines were installed in
100 municipal treatment plant applications ( 43). About one half
of the installed machines are used for dewatering ; the other half
-
and used for thickening. The largest centrifuge facility in
the world is located at the County Sanitation Districts of
Los Angeles County Carson Plant in California , and uses 48 basket
-
centrifuges ( 44 ). Table 9 10 lists the advantages and disadvant -
ages of a basket centrifuge compared with other dewatering
systems.
TABLE 9- 10
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BASKET CENTRIFUGES
Same machine can be used for both dewatering Requires special structural support
and thickening
Except for vacuum filter , consumes more
It may not require chemical conditioning direct horsepower per unit of product
Centrifuges have clean appearance, little- processed
-
and shut-down capabilities
-
to no odor problems , and fast start up Skimming stream could produce significant
recycle load
Basket centrifuge is very flexible in Limited size capacity
meeting process requirements
For easily dewatered sludges , has the
It is not affected by grit highest capital cost versus capacity
ratio
It is an excellent dewatering machine for
hard -to-handle sludge For most sludges , gives the lowest cake
It has low total operation and maintenance solids concentration
costs.
Does not require continuous operator
attention
9.3.2.1 Principles of Operation

The operation of an imperforate basket centrifuge is described
in Chapter 5. There is , however , one additional operation to be
added to that discussion.
After the centrifuge bowl is filled with solids , the unit starts
to decelerate. In the thickening mode, deceleration was to a
speed of 70 rpm or lower before commencement of plowing , In the
dewatering mode , another step called " skimming " takes place
before the initiation of plowing , Skimming is the removal of
soft sludge from the inner wall of sludge within the basket
centrifuge. The skimmer moves from its position in the center of
the basket towards the bowl wall , The amount of horizontal
travel is set at the time of installation , and start up depends -
-
9 18
on sludge type and downstream processing requirements, The
skimming volume is normally 5 to 15 percent of the bowl volume
per cycle. After the skimmer retracts, the centrifuge further
decelerates to the 70 rpm level for plowing . Skimming streams are
typically 6 to 18 gallons ( 22 to 66 1 ) per cycle with a solids
content of almost zero to eight percent. Treatment of this stream
is typically by returning it either to the primary or secondary
wastewater treatment system , or to some other pre-sludge handling
step such as a thickener.
9.3.2.2 Application
A basket centrifuge is well suited for small plants that do not
provide either primary clarification or grit removal ( for
example, wastewater plants that use extended aeration , aerated
lagoons, and contact stabilization ). These small plants require
a piece of equipment that can, at different times, dewater or
thicken conventional as well as biological sludges with a long
sludge age. Also low overall operation and maintenance, and
low operating costs , are associated with basket centrifuges.
9.3.2.3 Performance
Table 9 - 11 lists typical performance data for a basket centrifuge

in a number of different applications , These data are expected
values and are based on the performance of several different
installations. Table 9-12 lists the average results from two
specific operating facilities.
9.3.2.4 Case History
In 1973 , a dewatering study was made in Burlington , Wisconsin, on

the wastewater treatment facility located there ( 46 ). The plant
treats a combination of domestic- industrial wastewater flow of
1.5 MGD ( 66 1/s ) during dry weather and 2.0 MGD ( 88 1/s ) during
wet weather. The treatment plant has no primary clarification and
uses the contact stabilization process with aerobic digestion.
^
Approximately 150 , 000 gallons ( 568 m ) per week of aerobically
digested sludge with a 1.4 percent solids concentration requires
disposal.
As the plant is located on a low flood plain, it was originally
necessary to truck the dilute sludge to the lagoon , In 1972 ,
the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resource’s ordered Burlington
to discontinue use of the lagoons. Since the only options
available were landfilling or cropland application , dewatering
was required. In 1973 , an engineering evaluation was performed
to select the optimum dewatering unit. The equipment evaluated
included : an imperforate basket centrifuge, a recessed plate
filter, a horizontal belt filter press, and a rotary drum vacuum
9-19
TABLE 9- 11
TYPICAL PERFORMANCE DATA FOR AN IMPERFORATE BASKET CENTRIFUGE
Polymer
concentration , concentration , per ton dry centrate ,
Raw primary
Raw trickling filter
-
4 5
-
2 3
--
25 30
9 10
-0
2 3 95
90
-95
97
-97
(rock or plastic media)
0.5- 1.5
-
10 12 1.5- 3.0 95 -90
Raw waste activated -
3 10 0 85 -95
2- 3
12-14 1.0- 3.0 90 -97
Raw primary plus rock -
9 11 0 95 -97
trickling filter (70 30) - -
7 9 -
1.5 3.0 94 -95
activated ( 50 50)- -
2 3 12-14 -
1 3 93 -
Raw primary plus rotating -
2 3 20 24 - 0 85-90
biological contactor (60 40) - 1- 2
17-20 4 6- 98+
Anaerobically digested 12-14 0 75 80 -
primary plus waste 10 12 - -
1.5 3.0 85 90 -
activated (50- 50)
Aerobically digested 1- 3
8 10
8-11
- 4 6
0
- 93 95
80-95
-
Combined sewer overflow
12 14
Extremely variable
- 1- 3 90 95
see study by EPA (45)
-
treatment sludge
Centrate from decanter
dewatering lime sludge
-
1 2 -
10 13 0 95-98
aSkimming losses , if any , have not been used in calculating recovery.
1 lb/ton = 0.50 kg/t
TABLE 9- 12
SPECIFIC OPERATING RESULTS FOR IMPERFORATE BASKET
County sanitation district

of Los Angeles , CA (44 ) Burlington , WI (46 )
Type of sludge Centrate from solid bowl Aerobically digested ,
decanter dewatering activated sludge from a
anaerobically digested plant without primary
primary sludge clarification
Instantaneous flow rate , gpm 50 23 88
Feed solids concentration ,
mg/1 29 ,000 14,000 14 ,000
a b
Polymer requirement 4 0 30
Cake solids content , percent 20 -
6 8 -
13 15
Centrate , mg/1 1, 500 100 100
Skimmed volume , percent of
total basket volume Not given 50 14
aDry polymer at 4 lb/ton ( 2.0 kg/t) of dry solids.

-
Combination anionic cationic system. Thirty dollars/ton
($ 33/t ) of dry solids.
1 gpm = 0.063 1/s
-
9 20
filter . The recessed plate pressure f i l t e r option was ruled out
as too expensive for Burlington 's small plant, The horizontal
belt f i l t e r press produced a low cake solids concentration and
required high levels of polymer addition a t a cost of $40 per ton
( $44.4 4/t ) . The vacuum f i l t e r was not selected because of high
capital cost, The imperforate basket was selected as the most
c o s t -e f f e c t i v e u n i t .
Figure 9 6 shows a flow scheme of the -
Burlington wastewater treatment plant as i t was operating in
1977 .
The original design , as a result of the engineering evaluation,
called for one basket centrifuge t o operate 40 hours per week .
This centrifuge was to dewater 96 , 000 gallons ( 370 m ) per week
of sludge at a 1.8 percent solids concentration to a nine to ten
^
percent solids concentration without the use of polymers, This
was a l l based on several days of pilot plant work conducted
several months before equipment selection was made , At the
-
time of centrifuge s t a r t up, the actual sludge volume t o be
dewatered was 150 , 000 gallons ( 568 m ) per week a t 1 . 4 percent
solids concentration . ^
T h e c o l u m n l a b e l e d "W i t h o u t P o l y m e r " i n
-
Table 9 13 shows performance results under this condition .
Because of the 50 percent greater sludge volume and poorer
operating results than had been indicated by pilot testing , the
basket centrifuge had t o operate 24 hours per day , seven days per
week . This type of operation was prohibitive for a plant the
size o f the Burlington facility .
CHLQRINi
EFFLUENT
CONTACT
SrtiMMihtfJS HAULED
AS LIQUID TO LAND
APPLICATION
j L
H SEDIMENTATION
BASIN
HOLOINS
TANK
5KIMMING5
-
Vi
COMNUNUTOa
^'
r
CAK £ HAULED
TO CHOPLAH0
INFLUENT CONI ACT ClNf ftlPLiSE
ROB&C
£TA£ILI2AliON
, . TANKS
DicEsrnoN
00 “
CEHTHATE
'!
* CENTRAL TO HIAP QF PLANT
FIGURE 9- 6
1977 FLOW DIAGRAM OF BURLINGTON , WISCONSIN

WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT
9 21-
TABLE 9- 13
OPERATING RESULTS FOR BASKET CENTRIFUGE

DEWATERING OF AEROBICALLY DIGESTED
SLUDGE AT BURLINGTON , WISCONSIN
Without With
polymer polymer
Gal/week of sludge to
dewater 150 ,000 150 ,000
Lb/week of sludge to
dewater 17 , 500 17 ,500
Instantaneous feed rate ,
gpm 23 88
Feed solids concentration ,
mg/1 14 ,000 14 , 000
Hr/week operation required 168 44
Labor and trucking cost
(dollars)/week at 45
percent of the time 378 99
Electricity utilized/week ,
kWhr 4,888 1, 584
Electricity cost at
$0.03/kWhr 146.63 47.52
Chemical cost , dollars/ton 0 30
a b
Cake solids, percent -
6 8 -
13 15
Skimming volume of basket ,
percent of total 50 14
Cost/ton , dollars 59.96 46.74
Material was untruckable .

Material was truckable.
1 gpm - 3.78 1/min
1 gal = 3.78 1
1 lb = 0.454 kg
1 ton = 0.907 t
1 kWhr= 3.6 MJ
The plant superintendent instituted a polymer testing program

and evaluated several hundred polyelectrolytes. The final
selection resulted in the addition of an anionic polymer to the
sludge feed line at a point several feet upstream of the sludge
entry to the basket and then the addition of a cationic polymer
at the bowl. The results of using polyelectrolytes are given
-
9 22
in the column labeled " With Polymer" in Table 9 -1 3 . The results
s h o w t h a t operating c o s t s were $ 13.22 per ton ( $ 14.69/t ) cheaper
w i t h p o l y m e r addition t h a n without . T h e s a v i n g s o c c u r r e d in
reduced labor and power requirements.
9 . 3.3 Solid Bowl Decanters

D e c a n t e r c e n t r i f u g e s for d e w a t e r i n g municipal w a s t e w a t e r
treatment plant sludges were first used in the United States in
t h e mid 1 9 3 0 s . Since t h e n , approximately 5 0 0 machines have
been placed in 175 municipal installations ( 4 3 ). Most of these
installations were for dewatering applications. Table 9 -14 lists
t h e a d v a n t a g e s a n d d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f a solid bowl d e c a n t e r
centrifuge compared with other dewatering processes.
TABLE 9- 14
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOLID BOWL DECANTER CENTRIFUGES
Centrifuges have clean appearance, little- Scroll wear potentially a high maintenance
-
to-no odor problems , and fast start up
and shut-down capabilities
- item
Requires grit removal or possibly a grinder
It is easy to install in the feed stream
Provides high throughput in a small surface Requires skilled maintenance personnel
area
Gives for many sludges a cake as dry as any
other mechanical dewatering process
except for pressure filtration systems
Has one of the lowest total capital cost
versus capacity ratios
Does not require continuous operator
attention
9 . 3.3.1 Application
Early applications o f solid bowl centrifuges were for dewatering
coarse easily dewaterable municipal wastewater treatment plant
s l u d g e s. T h e s e included raw primary , anaerobically d i g e s t e d
primary , a n d lime s l u d g e s , t o name a few . T h e application
of c e n t r i f u g e s t o d e w a t e r i n g mixtures o f s l u d g e s c o n t a i n i n g
g r e a t e r than 50 percent by weight of waste- activated sludges was
limited because of very poor centrate quality . Advancements in
design , especially in the e n t r a n c e configuration , had reduced
f l o e s h e a r . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f new p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s h a s a l s o
contributed t o g r e a t l y i m p r o v i n g c e n t r a t e q u a l i t y. These
d e v e l o p m e n t s h a v e m a d e t h e solid bowl d e c a n t e r c e n t r i f u g e
a p p l i c a b l e t o a m u c h wider r a n g e o f s l u d g e t y p e s. Further
available c a p a c i t i e s r a n g e from 6 g a l l o n s per minute ( 2 2 t o
3 8 1/ min ) t o over 4 0 0 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e ( 1 , 5 1 4 1 / min ) . T h e
decanter c a n successfully o p e r a t e with a highly variable feed.
9 -2 3
9.3.3.2 Performance
T a b l e 9 - 1 5 l i s t s o p e r a t i n g r e s u l t s t h a t c a n be e x p e c t e d w h e n
dewatering the s l u d g e s indicated with a solid bowl decanter , T h e
d a t a in this t a b l e c a n be u s e d f o r c o n d u c t i n g e n g i n e e r i n g
evaluations when actual test r e s u l t s a r e not available.
TABLE 9- 15
TYPICAL PERFORMANCE DATA FOR A SOLID BOWL DECANTER CENTRIFUGE
Polymer
concentration , concentration , per ton dry centrate ,
Raw primary -
5 8 -
25 36
28- 36
-0
1 5 90-95
70-90
Anaerobically digested 2-5 28- 35 6-10 98 +
primary 9-12 --
30 35
25 30 -
0
1 3 --
65 80
82 92
Anaerobically diaested
primary irradiated at
400 kilorads 2-5 28- 35 -
6 10 95+
Waste-activated
Aerobically digested
0.5-3 8-12 10- 15 -
85 90
waste-activated
-
1 3 -
8 10 -
3 6 90-95
-
primary + waste activated 9-14 35-40 0 75-85
primary + trickling filter

-
13 15
7-10
-
29 35
35-40
1-4
0
90-95
60-70
30- 35 -
2 4 98+
High lime 10-12 30- 50 0 -
90 95
Raw primary + waste-activated 4-5 18- 25 -
3 7 -
90 95
Anaerobically digested 2-4 15-18 -
7 10 90-95
( primary + waste-activated)
4-7
1.5- 2.5
17- 21
-
18 23
4-8
-
2 5
--
90 95
85 90
-
( primary + waste activated)
+ trickling filter)
14-16 12-15 85-90
Combined sewer overflow Extremely variable - see study by USEPA 45

treatment sludge
1 lb/ton = 0.50 kg/t
9 . 3.3.3 O t h e r Considerations
Solid b o w l d e c a n t e r c e n t r i f u g e s a r e a v a i l a b l e in e i t h e r
c o u n t e r c u r r e n t or c o n c u r r e n t f l o w design a n d either " high s p e e d "
o r " l o w s p e e d " d e s i g n. In t h e c o u n t e r c u r r e n t design , t h e s l u d g e
feed enters through the small diameter end of the bowl, and
solids a r e c o n v e y e d towards t h e same end . I n t h e c o n c u r r e n t f l o w
design , the s l u d g e feed enters t h r o u g h the large diameter e n d of
t h e b o w l a n d s o l i d s a r e c o n v e y e d t o w a r d s t h e o p p o s i t e e n d.
C o n c u r r e n t flow units have o n l y been in u s e f o r about t e n y e a r s.
T h e r e a s o n s f o r conveying s o l i d s away f r o m t h e s l u d g e inlet a r e
t o r e d u c e inlet t u r b u l e n c e conditions a n d therefore reduce f l o e
s h e a r a n d t o p r o v i d e a l o n g e r r e s i d e n c e time f o r t h e s o l i d s.
T h o u g h there are r e p o r t s from E u r o p e ( 47 ) indicating a d v a n t a g e s
o f c o n c u r r e n t d e s i g n s over c o u n t e r c u r r e n t d e s i g n s, United S t a t e s
e x p e r i e n c e is limited . O n e e x t e n s i v e c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y ( 4 8 )
9- 24
showed the countercurrent design to perforin best on aerobically
digested waste -activated sludge and the concurrent one to perform
best on raw waste-activated sludge.
There is considerable controversy over the benefits associated
with " high speed " or " low speed " solid bowl decanter centrifuges.
One aspect of this controversy is the definition of " high speed "
and " low speed . " In a publication by one of the major suppliers
of " low speed " machines ( 49 ), " low speed " was generally defined
as a bowl speed of 1 ,400 rpm or less .
Manufacturers indicate that " low speed " decanter centrifuges
consume less energy ; require less polymer addition to the sludge ;
have a lower noise level ; and require less maintenance than a
comparable " high speed " machine to satisfy the same requirements.
This combination should therefore give " low speed " machines a
significant economical advantage on a total cost per unit weight
of solids dewatered. European work seems to substantiate this
( 29 ) , but this has not been the case in the United States. In
very extensive side- -
by side studies conducted at the Dallas-Fort
Worth , Texas ( 50 ), Chicago-Calumet , Illinois , ( 9 ), Chicago-West -
Southwest , Illinois ( 50 ) , Milwaukee , Wisconsin ( 48 ), and
Columbus , Ohio-Southerly wastewater treatment plants ( 50 ), " low
speed " machines were not overall clearly advantageous compared to
the high speed ones. In fact , in most cases , they were more
expensive on a total cost basis than the " high speed " machines .
Additional information on solid bowl decanter centrifuges can be
found in Chapter 5.
9.4 Filtration Dewatering Systems
9.4.1Introduction
Filtration can be defined as the removal of solids from a liquid
stream by passing the stream through a porous medium which
retains the solids , Figure 9 - 7 shows a flow diagram of a
filtration system.
SUSPENSION
REMOVED SOLIDS i
POROUS
mm Jm
DRIVING FORCE
(PRESSURE DROP A P)
MEDIA
FILRATION
HARDWARE
FILTRATE
FIGURE 9- 7
FLOW DIAGRAM OF A FILTRATION SYSTEM ( 51 )
9 -25
A s indicated o n F i g u r e 9-7, a p r e s s u r e d r o p is r e q u i r e d in o r d e r
f o r l i q u i d t o f l o w t h r o u g h t h e p o r o u s m e d i u m, T h i s p r e s s u r e d r o p
c a n b e achieved in f o u r w a y s: by creating a vacuum on one side
o f t h e p o r o u s medium, b y r a i s i n g t h e p r e s s u r e a b o v e a t m o s h p e r i c
p r e s s u r e o n o n e side o f t h e medium, b y c r e a t i n g a c e n t r i f u g a l
force o n a n a r e a o f t h e p o r o u s medium, a n d b y d e s i g n i n g t o m a k e
u s e o f g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e o n t h e medium.
S l u d g e filtration-d e w a t e r i n g p r o c e s s e s u s e o n e o r m o r e o f t h e s e
d r i v i n g f o r c e s a n d f a l l u n d e r t h e g e n e r a l filtration c a t e g o r y o f
s u r f a c e f i l t e r s, "S u r f a c e f i l t e r s a r e t h e g e n e r a l t y p e o f
filtration in which solids a r e d e p o s i t e d in t h e f o r m o f a c a k e o n
t h e u p s t r e a m side o f a r e l a t i v e l y thin f i l t e r medium " ( 5 4 ).
9 . 4.2 Basic Theory

A l l filtration t h e o r y s t e m s f r o m D a r c y 's original w o r k in t h e
mid -1 8 5 0 s ( 5 2 ). D a r c y found t h a t t h e f l o w r a t e Q o f a filtrate
of viscosity through a bed o f thickness L a n d f a c e a r e a A w a s
related to the driving^ pressure AP . This r e l a t i o n s h i p is s h o w n
in E q u a t i o n 9- 2.
Q =
KAAp ( 9 -2 )
ML
w h e r e K i s a c o n s t a n t r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e b e d.
M a n y t i m e s, E q u a t i o n 9- 2 is written :
Q = AMRA p
w h e r e R i s c a l l e d t h e m e d i u m r e s i s t a n c e a n d is e q u a l t o L/K , t h e
medium thickness d i v i d e d by t h e b e d permeability.
E x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n , a n d c o n t i n u e s t o be , c o n d u c t e d
in d e f i n i n g t h e f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d a n d l e v e l o f i n f l u e n c e i n
dewatering both compressible or incompressible sludges, A
comprehensive discussion on filtration has recently been
p u b l i s h e d ( 5 1 ). T h i s d i s c u s s i o n, t h r o u g h e x a m p l e s, s h o w s
t h e e f f e c t s o f c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e f i l t r a t i o n; c o n s t a n t r a t e
f i l t r a t i o n ; c o n s t a n t r a t e- c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e f i l t r a t i o n ;
and variable pressure and variable rate filtration on both
c o m p r e s s i b l e a n d n o n-c o m p r e s s i b l e s l u d g e s.
9.4 3. Filter Aids

Filter a i d i s material such a s diatomite, p e r l i t e , c e l l u l o s e , o r
c a r b o n ( 5 0 ) t h a t s e r v e s t o i m p r o v e, o r increase t h e filtration
r a t e b y p h y s i c a l m e a n s o n l y. F i l t e r aids a r e n o t a d d e d d i r e c t l y
to the sludge body, as a conditioning agent is, but they are
a d d e d i n fixed a m o u n t s t o t h e p o r o u s medium o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r
d e w a t e r i n g e q u i p m e n t. The amount of filter aid added is
independent of sludge solids concentration . The filter aid
l i t e r a l l y b e c o m e s t h e "f i l t e r i n g s u r f a c e" t h a t a c h i e v e s t h e
9-2 6
liquid /solids separation, and t h e e q u i p m e n t functions as a filter
holder. In o r d e r t o p e r f o r m its function satisfactorily , the
filter aid 's particles should be inert , insoluble , incompress-
ible , a n d irregularly s h a p e d , p o r o u s, a n d small ( 5 3 ).
Filter aids normally assist in dewatering difficult-t o-handle
i n d u s t r i a l s l u d g e s b y either v a c u u m filtration o r p r e s s u r e
f i l t r a t i o n ( 5 4 ). I n t h e p a s t t e n y e a r s, r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n
p e r f o r m e d o n the use o f filter aids for improved dewatering o f
m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t sludges ( 5 5 ). T a b l e 9-1 6
lists results obtained from s e v e r a l t e s t studies in which either
a r o t a r y d r u m vacuum filter or a r e c e s s e d p l a t e p r e s s u r e filter
were u s e d.
TABLE 9- 16
PRECOAT3 PROCESS PERFORMANCE ON

FINE PARTICULATE SLUDGES
Sludge properties Performance
Diatomite
Feed solids Particle Specific Solids Cake used , Solids
7
10 , lb/ton
concentration , size , resistance x loading , solids, capture ,
Case percent micron
^
sec /gm lb/sq ft/hr percent dry solids percent
1. Mixture alum and 0.5 4 354 0.28 26 820 99.9 +

WASb - RVPFC 5.0 2 1.00 23 280 99.9 +
2. WAS -
RVPF
conditioned WAS FPa
,
-
2.2
11.4 e
10 3.2 2.20
0.30
25
40
- 30
- 45
160 99.9 +
98.5
--
3. WAS -
RVPF 1.0 - 2.0 40 - 790 0.55 2.09 26 - 33 140 99.9 +
conditioned WAS FP - 1.0 - 2.0 2 - 317 0.23 1.44 26 - 40 200 98.0
4. WAS -
RVPF 1.5 53 0.88 29 280 99.9 +
conditioned WAS RVPF- 1.5 16.8 2.51 25 120 99.9 +
5.
6.
Alum RVPF
Alum RVPF
0.4 -
8.0
0.8
15 118
0.3
1.37
25 -25 30 800
120
99.9+
99.9 +
aDiatomite.
-
Waste activated sludge.
CRotary vacuum precoat filter.
Filter press.
eFly ash conditioning and precoat.
2
1 ton 0.907 t
1 lb = 0.454 g
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t
9.4.4 V a c u u m Filters
I n v a c u u m filtration , a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , d u e t o a v a c u u m
a p p l i e d d o w n s t r e a m o f t h e m e d i a , is t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e o n t h e
liquid p h a s e t h a t m o v e s it t h r o u g h t h e p o r o u s media.
Vacuum filters were p a t e n t e d in E n g l a n d in 1 8 7 2 by William a n d

J a m e s H a r t , T h e first U n i t e d S t a t e s a p p l i c a t i o n o f a v a c u u m
f i l t e r in dewatering municipal wastewater treatment plant
s l u d g e w a s in t h e mid -1 9 2 0s ( 5 6 ). Until t h e 1 9 6 0 s , t h e d r u m o r
9- 2 7
s c r a p e r-t y p e rotary vacuum filter was p r e d o m i n a n t. Since then ,
t h e belt -t y p e filter with n a t u r a l o r s y n t h e t i c fiber c l o t h, woven
stainless s t e e l m e s h , o r coil springs media h a s become dominant.
R e c e n t l y , dewatering o f municipal s l u d g e s by a t o p feed vacuum
filter h a s been studied on a pilot scale ( 57 ). Results indicated
t h a t y i e l d s c o u l d be i m p r o v e d by 1 5 t o 2 0 p e r c e n t . T h e f u l l
s c a l e o p e r a t i o n is e x p e c t e d t o b e g i n in t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 7 9 .
Table 9- 17 lists the advantages and disadvantages of vacuum
filtration w h e n it is c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r dewatering processes.
TABLE 9- 17
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF USING

ROTARY DRUM VACUUM FILTERS
Does not require skilled personnel Consumes the largest amount of energy per
Has low maintenance requirements for unit of sludge dewatered in most
applications
continuous operating equipment
Requires continuous operator attention
Provides a filtrate with a low suspended
solids concentration Auxiliary equipment (vacuum pumps) are very
loud
9 . 4.4.1 Principles o f O p e r a t i o n
F i g u r e 9 - 8 s h o w s t h e c u t a w a y view o f a d r u m o r s c r a p e r - t y p e ,
r o t a r y v a c u u m filter. T h e unit consists mainly o f a horizontal
cylindrical drum t h a t rotates , partially s u b m e r g e d , in a vat of
conditioned s l u d g e. T h e d r u m s u r f a c e is divided into sections
a r o u n d its circumference. E a c h s e c t i o n is s e a l e d f r o m its
adjacent section and the ends o f t h e d r u m. A s e p a r a t e drain line
c o n n e c t s each section t o a r o t a r y valve a t t h e axis of t h e drum.
T h e valve has " blocks " t h a t divide it into zones corresponding t o
t h e p a r t s o f t h e f i l t e r i n g c y c l e. T h e s e z o n e s a r e f o r c a k e
forming , c a k e drying , and c a k e discharging. A vacuum is applied
t o certain zones o f t h e valve and s u b s e q u e n t l y t o each o f t h e
d r u m sections through the drainlines a s they p a s s t h r o u g h the
different zones in t h e valve .
Figure 9-9 illustrates the various operating zones encountered
during a c o m p l e t e revolution o f t h e drum.
About 1 0 t o 4 0 p e r c e n t of the d r u m s u r f a c e is s u b m e r g e d in a v a t
containing the sludge slurry , T h i s p o r t i o n of t h e d r u m is
r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e c a k e f o r m i n g z o n e. Vacuum applied to a
s u b m e r g e d drum section causes filtrate t o p a s s t h r o u g h the media
and cake t o be f o r m e d o n t h e media. A s t h e drum r o t a t e s, each
section is successively carried through t h e c a k e forming z o n e t o
t h e c a k e d r y i n g o r d e w a t e r i n g z o n e , T h i s z o n e is a l s o u n d e r
vacuum a n d begins w h e r e and w h e n a d r u m section carries formed
9 -2 8
CLOTH CAULKING
STRIPS
DRUM
AUTOMATIC VALVE
i *\
\
v\ f
i f iA
FILTRATE PIPING
//
n CAKE SCRAPER
o
3
V
f r< A
Pi
V ’
AIR AND
FILTRATE
LINE
SLURRY AGITATOR
VAT
AIR BLOW-BACK LINE SLURRY FEED
FIGURE 9 8 -
CUTAWAY VIEW OF A DRUM OR SCRAPER- TYPE

ROTARY VACUUM FILTER
CAKE DRYING
ZONE
DISCHARGE
ZONE
PICK- UP OR FORM
ZONE
FIGURE 9- 9
OPERATING ZONES OF A ROTARY VACUUM FILTER
9-29
c a k e o u t of t h e s l u d g e v a t . T h e c a k e drying zone r e p r e s e n t s
f r o m 4 0 t o 6 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e d r u m surface and terminates a t the
point w h e r e vacuum is shut off t o each successive section. At
this p o i n t , t h e s l u d g e c a k e a n d drum section e n t e r t h e c a k e
discharge zone. I n this final zone , cake is removed from the
media . Belt- type rotary vacuum filters differ from the drum or
s c r a p e r - t y p e units , because t h e d r u m c o v e r i n g o r media- belt
leaves t h e d r u m . T h e r e are basically t w o coverings used with
belt- type units: coil springs or fiber cloth .
INTERNAL
WASH WATER PIPING
SPRAY PIPING
COIL SPRING
FILTER MEDIA VACUUM
GAUGES
DRUM
VACUUM AND
f VALVE BODY FILTRATE
OUTLETS
SLUDGE
LEVEL
*3)
CAKE
DISCHARGE
Vv
\ \
\ \
-
r*'
/ /
/ /
AGITATOR
v ss / / DRIVE
VAT / y
//
VAT DRAIN
AGITATOR
^3 "
-
5*
FICURE 9- 10
CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF A COIL SPRING - BELT TYPE -

F i g u r e 9 -1 0 s h o w s a c r o s s sectional view o f a coil filter

spring - belt type r o t a r y vacuum. This filter uses t w o layers of
stainless s t e e l coils a r r a n g e d a r o u n d t h e d r u m . After the
dewatering cycle , t h e t w o layers of springs leave the drum and
are separated from each o t h e r. In this w a y , t h e cake is lifted
off the lower layer of springs and c a n b e discharged from t h e
upper layer. Cake release is essentially never a problem . After
c a k e discharge , t h e coils are washed and returned t o the drum .
9-3 0
The coil filter has been and is widely used for all types of
s l u d g e. However , sludges with particles that are both extremely
f i n e a n d resistant t o flocculation d e w a t e r p o o r l y o n coil
f i l t e r s. Figure 9 -1 1 shows a typical installation .
FIGURE 9- 11
TYPICAL COIL SPRING - BELT TYPE -

ROTARY VACUUM FILTER INSTALLATION
F i g u r e 9 -1 2 s h o w s a s c h e m a t i c c r o s s s e c t i o n of a f i b e r
cloth- belt , r o t a r y vacuum filter. Media o n this type unit leaves
the drum surface a t the end of the drying zone and passes over a
s m a l l - diameter d i s c h a r g e r o l l t o facilitate c a k e d i s c h a r g e .
Washing of the media occurs after discharge and before it returns
t o the drum f o r another cycle. This t y p e o f filter normally has
a s m a l l - diameter c u r v e d b a r b e t w e e n the p o i n t w h e r e t h e b e l t
l e a v e s t h e d r u m a n d t h e d i s c h a r g e r o l l. This bar aids in
m a i n t a i n i n g belt d i m e n s i o n a l s t a b i l i t y . In p r a c t i c e , it is
f r e q u e n t l y u s e d t o e n s u r e a d e q u a t e c a k e d i s c h a r g e. Remedial
m e a s u r e s, s u c h a s a d d i t i o n o f s c r a p e r b l a d e s, u s e o f e x c e s s
c h e m i c a l conditioner, o r addition o f f l y a s h , a r e sometimes
required t o obtain c a k e release from t h e cloth media. This is
particularly t r u e at wastewater t r e a t m e n t plants which p r o d u c e
s l u d g e s t h a t are greasy , sticky , and /o r contain a large quantity
o f activated sludge. Figure 9 -1 3 shows a typical installation.
9 -3 1
CAKE
DRYING
I
B
I
CAKE
FORMING
FIGURE 9- 12
CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF A FIBER CLOTH - BELT

TYPE - ROTARY VACUUM FILTER
9.4 . 4.2 Application
Vacuum f i l t e r s have probably been used to dewater more types

of municipal wastewater treatment plant sludges than any
other mechanical dewatering equipment . -
S i n c e t h e mid 1920s ,
m o r e t h a n 1, 7 0 0 v a c u u m f i l t e r s h a v e b e e n i n s t a l l e d i n o v e r
800 United States municipalities ( 4 3 ) . The era of vacuum
f i l t r a t i o n may be declining. Improvements in other dewatering
devices, a s well a s t h e development of new dewatering devices,
have permitted municipalities to dewater their sludge as well
as they could with vacuum f i l t e r s but a t lower operation and
maintenance costs.
9 -3 2
FIGURE 9-13
TYPICAL FIBER CLOTH - BELT TYPE -
9.4.4.3 Performance
As with all types of mechanical dewatering equipment, optimum
performance is dependent upon the type of sludge and its solids
concentration , type and quality of conditioning , and how the
filter is operated , Selection of vacuum level , degree of drum
submergence , type of media , and cycle time are all critical to
- -
optimum performance , Tables 9 18 and 9 19 contain expected
performance data for cloth and coil media rotary vacuum filters
for the sludge types indicated , - -
Tables 9 20 and 9 21 contain
specific operating data for several wastewater treatment plants
using cloth media and coil media.
9.4.4.4 Other Considerations

Auxiliary Equipment
Rotary vacuum filters are normally supplied with auxiliary
equipment including vacuum pump , filtrate receiver and pump , and
sludge conditioning apparatus. -
Figure 9 14 shows a typical
-
9 33
complete rotary vacuum filter process. Usually , one vacuum pump
is provided for each vacuum filter, although some larger plants
use less than one pump per filter and the pumps connect to a
common header. Until the 1960 s , reciprocating type dry vacuum
pumps were generally specified , but since the early 1970s wet
type vacuum pumps are universally used , The wet type pumps are
more easily maintained and provide sufficient vacuum , Wet type
pumps utilize seal water, and it is essential that a satisfactory
water be used . If the water is hard and unstable , it may be
necessary to prevent carbonate buildup on the seals through the
use of a sequestering agent. The vacuum pump requirements are
normally 1.5 to 2.0 adiabatic cubic feet per minute of air per
square foot of drum surface area at 20 inches of mercury vacuum
( 1.5 m /min/m 2 at 69 kN/m 2 ). This is true unless the expected
^
yield is greater than 40 to 50 pounds per square foot per hour
( 20 to 25 kg /m 2/ hr ) and extensive sludge cake cracking is
expected . In the latter case , an air flow 2.5 times higher
should be used.
TABLE 9- 18
TYPICAL DEWATERING PERFORMANCE DATA FOR

ROTARY VACUUM FILTERS - CLOTH MEDIA
a
Chemical dosage ,
Feed solids lb/ton dry solids Yield , Cake ,
concentration , lb dry solids/ percent
Type of sludge percent FeC13 CaO sq ft/hr solids
Raw primary (P ) 4.5 - 9.0 -

40 80 -
160 200 3.5 - 8.0 -
27 35
-
(WAS )
P plus WAS
2.5
3
-- 4.5
7
120-200
-
50 80
240- 360
180-240
1.0
2.5
-- 6.0
3.0 13- 20
18 -25
P plus trickling filter
(TF) 4 - 8 40-80 180-240 3 7 23 - 30
P 4 - 8 -
60 100 200-260 3 - 7 -
25 32
P plus WAS 3 - 7 80-120 300-400 2 -- 5 -
18 25
P plus TF 5 10 80-120 250-350 3.5 8 -
20 27
Aerobically digested no
primary clarification 2.5 - 6 -
60 140 -
150 240 1.5 - 4.0 16 - 23
Elutriated anaerobic
digested
- -- -
-- 8 -
P 5 10 50 80 0 100 4 8 27 35
P plus WAS 4.5 60-120 -
0 150 3 6 -
18 25
P plus WAS 6 - 15 0 0 4 - 8 -
35 45
aAll values shown are for pure FeCl 3 and CaO. They must be adjusted for anything
else.
^Filter yields depend to some extent on feed solids concentrations , Increasing
the concentration normally gives a higher yield.
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t ?
9-34
TABLE 9- 19
TYPICAL DEWATERING PERFORMANCE DATA FOR

ROTARY VACUUM FILTERS - COIL MEDIA
Chemical dosage, ... b

Feed solids lb/ton dry solids Yield , Cake ,
concentration , lb dry solids/ percent
Type of sludge percent FeCl 3 CaO sq ft/hr solids
Raw primary (P) 8 - 10 -
40 80 . 160 240,
- 6.5 - 8.0 28-32
Trickling filter (TF ) 4 - 6 -
40 60 100-140 6 -8 20 28-
P plus waste activated -
sludge (WAS)
3 -5 20-60 180 220 - 2.5 - 4.0 23-27
P plus FT 5 - 86 50-80 -
240 320 4 - 6 27- 33
P plus WAS 4 - 50-80 -
200 300 3.5 - 4.5 20 25-
Elutriated anaerobically
digested primary 8 - 10 20-50 30-120 4 - 8 28 - 32
:JJW'* r IMVMWA&UMWAOtwtr...
•
aAll values shown are for pure FeClg and CaO. This must be
adjusted for anything else.
^ Filter yields depend to some extent on feed solids concentration.
Increasing the solids concentration normally gives a higher yield.
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t „
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m / hr
TABLE 9- 20
SPECIFIC OPERATING RESULTS OF

ROTARY VACUUM FILTERS - CLOTH MEDIA
Feed solids Cake , Yield ,

concentration , Conditioner used , percent lb dry solids/ Filtrate ,
3
Location Sludge type percent percent by weight 3 * solids sq ft/hr mg/1
Willoughby Eastlake , OH
-
.* •awa’ — '
yv
— -—
n *
P plus (WAS) plus septic

*
4 -6 FeCl 3 -- 14 3 20 2.8 - 4.8

Lime
Tamaqua , PA Anaerobically digested 6 FeCl 3 - 26
3 18 3 SS 20 - 30
(P plus WAS) Lime -
Grand Rapids, MI Thermally conditioned
(P plus WAS)
10 - 15 None 50 6 SS
BOD
5,000
10,000
Fort Atkinson, WI WAS 3 -4 -
FeCl 3 6 19 3.0 - 3.5
3.7
Lime -
FeCl -
16
15 3.2
Frankenmuth, MI WAS 3 8
Lime - 14
Oconomowoc , WI Anaerobically digested 2.3 FeCl 3~ 6 18 2.
'5 - 3.0 SS 500 - 1,100
(P plus WAS) Lime - 20 BOD 5 10
Genessee City , MI P plus WAS 8 FeCl 3 27 5.6
Lime - 16
a
WAS
P
=
=
-
waste activated sludge
primary sludge
^ Numbers shown are based on pure FeCl 3 and pure CaO.
2
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /br
9 35-
TABLE 9- 21
SPECIFIC OPERATING RESULTS OF ROTARY

VACUUM FILTERS - COIL MEDIA
Cake , Yield ,
Conditioner used percent lb dry solids/
Location Sludge typea percent by weight^ ^ solids sq ft/hr
Blytheville , AR Tp FeCl 3
CaO
- 94
36 33.1 10.4
York , PA Anaerobically digested

(P plus WAS)
FeCl 3
CaO
- 80
250 21.1 4.7
Wyomissing Valley , PA Anaerobically digested TF FeCl 3
CaO
- 62
272
18.2 6.0
Bayonne , NJ Anaerobically digested P FeCl 28 30.9 7.8

CaO 3 62
Woodbridge , NJ P FeCl3
CaO
- 40
240
29.7 8.0
Shadyside, OH Anaerobically digested

(P plus WAS )
FeCl 3
CaO
- 64
310
29 4.2
Arlington , . TX TF FeCl 3
CaO
- 64
174
25.2 8.8
aWAS -
= waste activated sludge ; P = primary sludge , No data available for feed solids and filtrate
concentrations.
Numbers shown are based on pure FeCl 3 and pure CaO.
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /hr ^
FERRIC CHLORIDE
MFTFRING MIXING TANK
w*
I Kd>
— METERING PUMP
F*LTRAIL
i
AIR ra
m '~~TJ ATMOSPHERE
FILTRATE
UMF / TANK
CLOTH SILENCER
RLTKATI
Mt RETURN
TO PRIMARY
* 5
rSLUDGE rt'ATf R TO
CAKE ' PRIMARY
AGITATOR
SLUDGE PUMP
v OQMVEYOR
/Si
m m
WATER
~~ CONDITIONING rtAiSHING5 RETURN
rz y TAIYK fO PRIMARY
FILTRATE
i .
PLIMP VACUUM
PUMP
51 IICGE AfiiTMOR VAT
SIUOGF INLET PIT
FIGURE 9- 14
ROTARY VACUUM FILTER SYSTEM
-
9 36
E a c h v a c u u m filter m u s t be s u p p l i e d w i t h a vacuum r e c e i v e r
l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t h e f i l t e r v a l v e a n d t h e v a c u u m p u m p. The
principal p u r p o s e o f t h e receiver is t o s e p a r a t e t h e air from the
liquid. Each receiver can be equipped with a vacuum-limiting
device t o admit air f l o w if t h e d e s i g n vacuum is e x c e e d e d ( a
condition that could cause the vacuum pump t o overload ), The
receiver a l s o f u n c t i o n s a s a reservoir f o r t h e filtrate p u m p
suction. T h e filtrate p u m p m u s t be sized t o carry away t h e w a t e r
s e p a r a t e d in the vacuum receiver, and it is normally sized t o
provide a capacity t w o t o four times the design s l u d g e feed r a t e
t o the filter.
T h e filtrate p u m p s h o u l d b e a b l e t o p u m p a g a i n s t a minimum
t o t a l d y n a m i c h e a d o f b e t w e e n 4 0 a n d 5 0 f e e t ( 1 2 t o 1 5 m ),
w h i c h i n c l u d e s a minimum s u c t i o n h e a d o f 2 5- f e e t ( 7.5 m ).
Centrifugal-t y p e p u m p s a r e commonly used but c a n become air bound
unless they have a balance o r equalizing line connecting the high
p o i n t o f t h e receiver t o t h e p u m p , Typically, nonclogging
centrifugal s t y l e p u m p s are u s e d with coil filters because they
p e r m i t a s o m e w h a t h i g h e r solids concentration in t h e f i l t r a t e.
Self -priming centrifugal pumps a r e used most frequently , since
they are relatively maintenance free, Check valves on the
d i s c h a r g e side of the p u m p s a r e usually provided t o minimize air
l e a k a g e t h r o u g h t h e f i l t r a t e p u m p a n d receiver t o t h e v a c u u m
p u m p.
S l u d g e conditioning t a n k s a r e discussed in C h a p t e r 8.
Filter Media
A major process variable is the filter media. T h e ideal media
p e r f o r m s t h e desired liquid /solid separation and gives a filtrate
o f a c c e p t a b l e clarity ( 58 ). F u r t h e r , the filter cake discharges
readily from it , and it is mechanically s t r o n g e n o u g h t o give
a l o n g l i f e. T h e media m u s t be c h e m i c a l l y r e s i s t a n t t o t h e
materials b e i n g h a n d l e d and p r o v i d e m i n i m a l r e s i s t a n c e t o
filtrate flow. A f u r t h e r characteristic t o be minimized is
" b l i n d i n g " o r clogging . A l l t h e characteristics mentioned
above need t o be evaluated during the selection p r o c e d u r e , O n e
m u s t , t h e r e f o r e , t h r o u g h e x p e r i e n c e , o r b e n c h o r p i l o t -s c a l e
r o t a r y vacuum filter testing , select t h e best media in t e r m s of
porosity , t y p e of weave , material of construction , e t c. f o r a
p a r t i c u l a r s l u d g e. This selection is n o r m a l l y m a d e a t t h e time
of equipment start - u p by t h e equipment supplier ( 1 5 , 5 9 ). The
trend o v e r t h e p a s t few y e a r s is t o select a monofilament fabric ,
a s they seem t h e m o s t resistant t o blinding.
Solids Feed Content
T h e h i g h e r the feed s u s p e n d e d solids concentration of t h e s l u d g e ,
t h e g r e a t e r will be t h e p r o d u c t i o n r a t e o f t h e r o t a r y v a c u u m
filter ( Figure 9 -1 5 ) a n d t h e c a k e s u s p e n d e d solids concentration
( Figure 9-16 ). G e n e r a l l y , m u n i c i p a l wastewater treatment plant
9- 3 7
sludges are not concentrated beyond about 10 percent solids ,
since above this concentration, the sludge becomes difficult t o
pump, mix with chemicals , and t o d i s t r i b u t e a f t e r conditioning t o
the filter .
In addition, t o increased production r a t e s , higher
sludge feed concentrations result in lower chemical dosage rates
and lower cake moistures .
Both of these consequences affect the
cost of sludge dewatering and ultimate disposal .
12
11
D
10
9 v
yu
cr
m 7
-
C
ja 6 c
Cl
b
UJ
> 4
Q
A
3 o c DIGESTED
7 A o • PRIMARY
o BLENDED
cA A ACTIVATED
A
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
F E E D S O L I D S {% )
FIGURE 9- 15
ROTARY VACUUM FILTER PRODUCTIVITY AS A

FUNCTION OF FEED SLUDGE SUSPENDED
SOLIDS CONCENTRATION ( 60 )
The lowest feed sludge suspended solids concentration for

successful vacuum f i l t r a t i o n i s generally considered t o be
3.0 percent .
Below t h i s concentration i t becomes difficult t o
produce sludge f i l t e r cakes thick enough or dry enough for
adequate discharge, For this reason, i t is extremely important
that the design and o peration of the preceding sludge processes
take into consideration the need for an optimal solids
concentration when dewatering on vacuum f i l t e r s .
9 38-
35
MCCARTY
30
DIGESTED
25 G
in
Q 20
BLENDED
D o 0
tn
LU 15 Q
PRIMARY
< o
o
ACTIVATED
TO A
5
11 gm/ L CaO, 3.7 gm/ L FeCl 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FEED SOLIDS { % )
FIGURE 9- 16
SLUDGE CAKE TOTAL SOLIDS CONCENTRATION AS A FUNCTION OF

THE FEED SLUDGE SUSPENDED SOLIDS CONCENTRATION ( 60 )
9 . 4.4 . 5 Case History
This study i s s u m m a r i z e d f r o m a U S E P A- s p o n s o r e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n
.
. -
( 61) F i g u r e 9 -1 7 s h o w s t h e 1 9 7 7 f l o w d i a g r a m f o r t h e 1 3 M G D
( 34 ^
m /s e c ) Lakewood , Ohio , wastewater treatment p l a n t
sludge being handled at this plant has changed several times
The
since the facility was built in 1938 .

At that time , the
plant was designed for primary treatment, with sludge being
anaerobically digested and dewatered on sand drying beds .
Secondary treatment was added in 1966 .
Gravity thickeners, two
new anaerobic d i g e s t e r s , two vacuum f i l t e r s, and a f l a s h dryer
were installed to handle additional sludge .
In 1974 and 1975,
the p l a n t was further upgraded Alum . ( aluminum sulfate ) was
added t o the aeration basin effluent channel for phosphorus
removal , and the sludge handling system ( f i l t e r s and dryer )
operating schedule was extended t o two shifts .
Finally, in 1977,
the plant was returned to single s h i f t sludge handling , and
excess liquid sludge was hauled to land disposal .
The Lakewood plant has two polyethylene cloth belt rotary vacuum
filters .
Only one can be operated a t a time because of the
9- 3 9
limited capacity of the flash dryer Each f i l t e r has an .
effective area of 376 square feet ( 35 m2 ) and operates best
a t a drum speed of one revolution per eight minutes and a drum
submergence between 30 t o 36 inches ( 0.76 t o 0.91 m ) A filter .
i s o p e r a t e d f i v e d a y s p e r w e e k i n e i t h e r o n e o r t w o 6 . 5-h o u r
shifts per day .
Conditioning chemical dosages are approximately
275 pounds of dry lime (pebble lime 72 percent CaO ) p e r ton of
dry feed s o l i d s ( 137 kg/t ) and 30 pounds of FeCl3 ( liquid a t
4 0 p e r c e n t F e C l g ) p e r t o n o f d r y f e e d s o l i d s ( 1 5 k g/t ) .
COMMON I TORS
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FIGURE 9 17 -
LAKEWOOD , OHIO WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT FLOW DIAGRAM
Prior to 1975, before alum was added for phosphorus removal

( 6 3 mg /1 a l u m a d d e d ) , t h e a v e r a g e t o t a l s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
the digested sludge ( vacuum f i l t e r solids feed ) was 4.45 percent .
On the average , the sludge was dewatered t o 23.8 percent solids .
After alum addition , the feed sludge solids concentration
increased t o 6.5 percent, but the dewatered cake percent dropped
to 21.4 .
T a b l e 9 - 2 2 i n d i c a t e s o p e r a t i o n a l c o s t s f o r 6 . 5-h o u r a n d
1 3-h o u r - p e r - d a y o p e r a t i o n s b a s e d o n b e f o r e a n d a f t e r a l u m
addition for phosphorus removal , Because of the increase in the
n u m b e r o f t o n s f r o m 6 5 0 d r y t o n s p e r y e a r ( 5 9 0 t/y r ) i n 1 9 7 4 t o
1 , 8 2 0 d r y tons p e r y e a r ( 1 , 6 5 1 t / y r ) i n 1 9 7 6 , t h e t r e a t m e n t c o s t
per ton of dry t o t a l solids was not much greater than i t was in
1974 .
9- 4 0
TABLE 9- 22
OPERATIONAL COST OF LAKEWOOD , OHIO VACUUM FILTER OPERATIONS
Single shift Double shift

operation -
1974
dollars per ton
operation -
1976
dollars per ton
dry solids dry solids
Ferric chloride and lime 8.90 8.90
Electricity 1.98 1.29
Maintenance supplies 1.11 1.10
Maintenance and repair labor 3.65 3.60
Operational labor 3.46 6.25
Overhead 2.25 3.11
Total 21.35 24.25
1 ton = 0.907 t
9 . 4.4 . 6 Costs
F i g u r e 9 -1 8 g i v e s t h e 1 9 7 5 c a p i t a l c o s t a s a function o f filter
a r e a f o r r o t a r y v a c u u m f i l t e r s. A s a n e x a m p l e, a 4 0 0 -s q u a r e-f o o t
( 3 7 . 2 m 2 ) a r e a f i l t e r w o u l d c o s t 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 d o l l a r s , Since this
n u m b e r is b a s e d o n a J u n e 1 9 7 5 c o s t , it m u s t be a d j u s t e d t o t h e
c u r r e n t d e s i g n p e r i o d. C o s t s include t h o s e f o r filter, a u x i l i a r y
e q u i p m e n t , p i p i n g , a n d b u i l d i n g.
T h e l a b o r r e q u i r e m e n t s indicated in F i g u r e 9-1 9 a r e g i v e n as a
f u n c t i o n o f a v e r a g e a r e a in u s e a n d i n c l u d e: s t a r t - u p time a n d
c l e a n-u p a f t e r t h e - filter r u n , o p e r a t i o n o f filter , a n d o p e r a t i o n
o f s l u d g e p u m p i n g a n d c o n d i t i o n i n g f a c i l i t i e s p r i o r t o t r e a t m e n t.
A s a n e x a m p l e , a v a c u u m filter having 4 0 0 s q u a r e f e e t ( 37.2 m 2 )
o f f i l t e r a r e a w o u l d r e q u i r e 5 5 0 m a n- h o u r s o f o p e r a t i o n a n d
maintenance p e r y e a r a n d w o u l d b e included i n t h e c o s t a n a l y s i s.
Figure 9-20 gives power consumption as a function of filter
a r e a. A s a n e x a m p l e , a v a c u u m f i l t r a t i o n a r e a o f 4 0 0 s q u a r e
feet ( 37.2 m 2 ) would require 330 ,000 kilowatt -hours per
y e a r ( 1 , 2 0 0 G J / y r ) o f e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y. I f p o w e r c o s t s a r e
0 . 0 5 d o l l a r s p e r k i l o w a t t -h o u r ( 0.014 d o l l a r s/M J ), t h e c o s t w o u l d
b e 3 3 ,0 0 0 dollars a n n u a l l y. O p e r a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s u s e d w e r e b a s e d
o n t w o a d i a b a t i c cubic f e e t o f air p e r minute p e r s q u a r e f o o t
( 1 0 1/s/m 2 ), 2 0 inches o f v a c u u m ( 6 8 K N /m 2 ), a n d a t o t a l d y n a m i c
head of 50 ft ( 15 m ) for the filtrate pump, Power required
i n c l u d e s t h a t f o r d r u m drive , d i s c h a r g e r o l l e r, a n d v a t a g i t a t o r,
b u t d o e s n o t include o t h e r a c c e s s o r y items, s u c h a s s l u d g e f e e d
p u m p o r c h e m i c a l f e e d s y s t e m.
F i g u r e 9 -2 1 s h o w s a c u r v e d e v e l o p e d f o r e s t i m a t i n g r o t a r y d r u m
v a c u u m f i l t e r maintenance material c o s t as a f u n c t i o n o f f i l t e r
a r e a. A s a n e x a m p l e , f o r a filtration a r e a of 4 0 0 s q u a r e f e e t
9- 4 1
9
8 Wisg
c/> 7
X 6
< 5
4
2
z 3
p
v> 2
s
100,000 1
2 3 4 5 6 719100 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 1rD00 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SINGLE VACUUM FILTER AREA, sq ft (1 sq ft * 0.093 rn 2)
FIGURE 9- 18
ESTIMATED JUNE 1975 CAPITAL COST FOR ROTARY DRUM

VACUUM FILTERS ( 39 )
9
8
7
6
5
2 4
O 3
a:
O
a. 2
in
or
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o
x 10,000
9
on 8
O 7
5 6
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=ZD
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2 3 4 5 6789100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
. AVERAGE AREA IN USE, 5q ft ( 1 ft = 0.093 m2 \
FIGURE 9- 19
ANNUAL OSM MAN-HOUR REQUIREMENTS - ROTARY DRUM

VACUUM FILTERS ( 39 )
9 -4 2
( 37.2 m 2 ), a designer would estimate a yearly materials cost of
4 ,000 dollars, Since this number is based on a June 1975 cost ,
it must be adjusted to the current design period.
10 r 000 000
r
9 : nmv«v
8
7
6
5
4
3
<D
m 2
E
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i
1,000,000
9
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10 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9100 2 3 ,
4 5 6 7 891 000 2 3 4 6 6 7 89 10,000
VACUUM FILTRATION AREA, iq ft ( 1 ft - 0.003 m 2)
FIGURE 9- 20
POWER CONSUMED BY ROTARY DRUM VACUUM

FILTRATION PROCESS ( 39 )
9.4.5 Belt Filter Press

Belt filter presses employ single or double moving belts to
dewater sludges continuously.
The early belt presses used in the United States were those
developed by Klein and by Smith and Loveless in the 1960s
( 62 ,63 ). Belt filter presses are currently very popular not only
-
9 43
in the United States ( 64 ) but in other parts of the world as well
(65) . At l e a s t 20 equipment suppliers can furnish some type of
belt press . This popularity has led t o many units being sold ,
with very l i t t l e operational experience to support the claimed
advantages . One detailed report that evaluated belt press
operating experience found t h a t there were many operational and
maintenance problems that s t i l l needed t o be solved ( 66 ) As .
was pointed out by Austin ( 65 ) , significant developmental work
is s t i l l being conducted , Table 9-23 l i s t s advantages and
disadvantages of belt f i l t e r presses .
9
7
6
5
4
10,000
9
8
sns 7
© 6
5
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7
6
5
4
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2 3 4 6 6 789100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
AVERAGE AREA I H USE, sq ft ( 1 sq ft = 0.093 m 2 )
FIGURE 9- 21
ESTIMATED JUNE 1975 ANNUAL MAINTENANCE MATERIAL

COST - ROTARY DRUM VACUUM FILTER ( 39 )
9-4 4
TABLE 9- 23
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BELT FILTER PRESSES
High pressure machines are capable of Very sensitive to incoming feed

producing very dry cake characteristics
Low power requirements Machines hydraulically limited
in throughput
Short media life as compared with other
devices using cloth media
9.4.5 . 1 Principles of Operation
A n y b e l t filtration p r o c e s s includes t h r e e b a s i c o p e r a t i o n a l
s t a g e s: c h e m i c a l c o n d i t i o n i n g o f t h e feed s l u r r y , g r a v i t y
drainage to a nonfluid consistency , and compaction of the
p r e d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e ( 6 ).
F i g u r e 9- 22 depicts a simple belt p r e s s and s h o w s the location

of the three stages, A l t h o u g h p r e s e n t- d a y b e l t p r e s s e s a r e
m o r e c o m p l e x , t h e y f o l l o w t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e s indicated in
F i g u r e 9 - 2 2.
Good chemical conditioning is the key to successful and

c o n s i s t e n t p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e belt f i l t e r p r e s s , a s it is
f o r o t h e r d e w a t e r i n g p r o c e s s e s. T h i s is f u l l y discussed in
C h a p t e r 8.
After conditioning , t h e readily drainable w a t e r is s e p a r a t e d from

t h e s l u r r y by d i s c h a r g e o f t h e c o n d i t i o n e d material o n t o t h e
moving belt in the gravity drainage section. Typically , one or
t w o minutes a r e required f o r drainage. Following drainage , the
s l u d g e will h a v e b e e n r e d u c e d in v o l u m e by about 5 0 p e r c e n t and
w i l l h a v e a s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 6 t o 1 0 p e r c e n t. " T h e
formulation of an e v e n surface c a k e a t this point is essential t o
the successful operation of subsequent s t a g e s of the dewatering
c y c l e. T h e e v e n s u r f a c e p r e v e n t s u n e v e n belt tension a n d
d i s t o r t i o n w h i l e t h e r e l a t i v e r i g i d i t y o f t h e m a s s of s l u d g e
allows f u r t h e r manipulation a n d gives maximum s p e e d t h r o u g h t h e
machine " ( 6 5 ).
T h e third s t a g e of t h e belt press begins a s soon as the s l u d g e

is s u b j e c t e d t o a n increase in p r e s s u r e , d u e t o e i t h e r t h e
compression of t h e s l u d g e between the carrying belt and cover
b e l t o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a v a c u u m o n t h e c a r r y i n g b e l t.
Pressure c a n be w i d e l y v a r i e d by design, as shown by the

alternatives o n Figure 9 - 2 3.
9 -4 5
CHEMICAL
CONDITIONAL
STAGE
GRAVITY
DRAINAGE
STAGE
- «
— -
COMPRESSION
DEWATERING
STAGE
POLYELECTRQUTE
SOLUTION .j
SLUDGE ** MIXER
/ lV
CONDITIONED
SLUOGE
t
»
'! ;i ! O Wiv u
Q
'i !' O
n
ii'i H
1 1 "M l
i ;' . , t r
(°J f
{ o; SLUDGE
Jp WASR SPRAY OAK E
\
WASH WATER*
FIGURE 9 - 22
THE THREE BASIC STAGES OF A BELT PRESS
During pressure application, the sludge cake, squeezed between

the two belts, i s subjected to flexing in opposite directions as
i t passes over the various rollers This action causes increased .
water release and allows greater compaction of the sludge .
-
Figure 9 24 shows a typical b e l t press i n s t a l l a t i o n .
9.4.5.2 Application
Belt f i l t e r presses a r e being i n s t a l l e d in many United S t a t e s

municipalities t o dewater many types of sludge At this time, .
there i s not enough operational data available t o indicate any
sludges to which a belt f i l t e r press could not be applied .
9.4 5.3 . Performance
I t is difficult to generalize about the operating performance

of b e l t p r e s s e s because r e s u l t s depend on many f a c t o r s: method
of conditioning , maximum p r e s s u r e , number of r o l l e r s , e t c .
T a b l e 9- 2 4 w a s d e v e l o p e d f r o m m i n i m u m a n d m a x i m u m v a l u e s g i v e n i n
all published data .
Published material on operating belt press installations i s
very limited .
Medford , New J e r s e y ( 6 7 ) r e p o r t e d on a b e l t
press dewatering aerobically digested sludge from a contact
stabilization system, Feed sludge of a 3 to 4 percent solids
concentration was dewatered to a cake of 17 t o 19 percent solids
( 67 ). Polymer was added for conditioning a t 7 to 10 pounds of
dry polymer per ton of dry feed solids ( 3.5 to 5 kg/t ) The .
solids concentration in the combination washwater and f i l t r a t e
w a s 1 0 0 m g /1 f o r a n o v e r a l l s o l i d s c a p t u r e o f 9 9 p e r c e n t .
-
9 46
GRAVITY COMPRESSION
DRAINAGE DEWATERING
.
VKjaaaau) v
LOW PRESSURE HIGH PRESSURE

SECTION SECTION
Kii
' .-
m taa
*
Qlo I
4
*)
QLQJS *
o; o ; o; o ;o ; o ;o| oyofSTo
t tM M
1'
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U
Y
T t t t
1 I
t t
VACUUM ASSISTED
*pT=n LJ
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T
T
t t
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V ^jr
/
i
FIGURE 9- 23
ALTERNATIVE DESIGNS FOR OBTAINING WATER

RELEASES WITH BELT FILTER PRESSES ( 66 )
9.4 5.4 . Other Considerations
Failure of the chemical conditioning process to adjust to

changing sludge characteristics can cause operational
problems ( 6 6 ) .
I f i t i s u n d e r c o n d i t i o n e d, s l u d g e d o e s n o t
-
9 47
B
\ i
I
;
FIGURE 9- 24
TYPICAL BELT FILTER PRESS INSTALLATION
TABLE 9- 24
TYPICAL DEWATERING PERFORMANCE OF BELT FILTER PRESSES
Polymer ,
Feed Cake , pounds dry
solids, percent per ton
Type of sludge percent solids dry solids
Raw primary (P) -

3 10 28-44 2-9
Waste activated sludge ( WAS) 1 3- 16 - 32 -
2 4
-
0.5 1.5 -
12 28 -
4 12
P + WAS
P + trickling filter (TF)
3-6
3-6
-
20 35
20-40
-
2 10
3- 10
P
WAS
4-10
3- 4
26 - 36
18- 22
-
2 6
4-8
P + WAS
Aerobically digested
-
3 9 -
18 44 3-9
P + WAS 1- 3 12-18 4 -8
6-8 20- 30 2- 5
Thermal conditioned
P + WAS 4-8 38- 50 0
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t
-
9 48
drain well in the gravity drainage section , and the result
is either extrusion of inadequately drained solids from the
compression section , or uncontrolled overflow of sludge from the
drainage section .
Both underconditioned and overconditioned
sludges can blind the f i l t e r media .
In addition , overconditioned
sludge drains so rapidly that solids cannot distribute across the
media .
Inclusion of a sludge blending tank step before the belt
press reduces this problem .
See Chapter 15 for a discussion of
blending tanks .
The combined f i l t r a t e and belt washwater flow i s normally about
o n e a n d o n e- h a l f t i m e s t h e i n c o m i n g f l o w .
Some b e l t presses
recirculate washwater from the f i l t r a t e collection system, but
normally , secondary effluent or potable water i s used This .
t o t a l f l o w c o n t a i n s b e t w e e n 1 0 0 a n d 1 , 0 0 0 m g /1 o f s u s p e n d e d
solids and i s typically returned either to the primary or
secondary treatment system .
Belt presses have numerous moving parts, and spare parts
should be kept a v a i l a b l e t o prevent prolonged u n i t down time - .
Belts , bearings , and rollers deteriorate quickly , especially
in municipal wastewater treatment plants where preventive
maintenance i s not normally practiced .
9.4.5.5 Design Example
The designer for an existing wastewater treatment plant has

calculated that the plant needs to dewater 5,000 dry pounds of
sludge ( 2 , 268 kg ) per day , five days per week , The sludge
to be dewatered i s a mixture of one part primary and two parts
- -
w a s t e a c t i v a t e d , s t a b i l i z e d b y a t w o- s t a g e , h i g h r a t e , a n a e r o b i c
digestion process, Total feed solids concentration to the belt
f i l t e r press was 2.8 percent . Pilot plant testing with a
o n e-m e t e r - w i d e b e l t f i l t e r p r e s s p r o d u c e d t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s.
Total solids in the dewatered sludge ranged from 23 t o
30 percent , averaging 25 percent .
Optimum polymer dosage was 6 t o 8 pounds of dry polymer
per ton ( 3 to 4 kg/t ) of dry feed solids , or 80 to
1 0 0 p o u n d s o f l i q u i d p o l y m e r p e r t o n ( 4 0 t o 5 0 k g/t ) o f
dry feed solids .
At the optimum polymer dosage , the total solids in
t h e f i l t r a t e p l u s w a s h w a t e r f l o w w a s 2 , 0 0 0 m g /1 , The
s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s a v e r a g e d 9 0 0 m g /1 .
Optimum hydraulic feed r a t e a t 2.8 percent solids for a
-
o n e -m e t e r w i d e b e l t w a s 4 7 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e ( 3 1/ s ) .
Washwater requirements were 25 gallons per m i n u t e
( 1 . 6 1/ s ) .
-
9 49
On the basis of pilot plant data , the engineer decided that one
1-meter -wide belt filter press could dewater the 5 , 000 pounds
( 2 , 268 kg ) of sludge in 7.6 hours. Since it was important that
the wastewater treatment plant always be able to dewater sludge ,
two 1- meter-wide belt filter presses would be purchased .
The current cost of dry polymer in 50 pound ( 22.7 kg ) bags was
$ 1.85 per pound ( $ 0.84/kg ) ; for liquid polymer in 55 gallon ,
650 pound ( 208 1- 295 kg ) drums , the cost was $ 0.13 per pound .
Daily cost for dry polymer at 8 pounds per ton ( 4 kg /t ) would be:
5,000 lb solids 8 lb poly $ 1.85

= $ 37.00 per day
day x 2 , 000 lb solids x lb poly
Daily cost for liquid polymer at 100 pounds per ton ( 50 kg /t )

would be:
5 ,000 lb solids 100 lb poly $ 0.13

= $ 32.50 per day
x 2 ,000
day lb solids x lb poly
Because sludge characteristics can change with time , a dual

polymer system capable of utilizing either liquid or dry polymer
will be installed . Since liquid polymer is currently less
expensive , it will be used initially.
To allow subsequent computation of solids capture , the filtrate
flow is calculated , using a suspended solids balance and a flow
balance. The specific gravity of the feed , dewatered cake and
filtrate are assumed to be 1.02, 1.07 and 1.01 , respectively.
The suspended solids balance is:
47 gal feed 8.34 x 1.02 lb feed 0.028 lb solids

min gal feed lb feed
Q gal filtrate 8.34 x 1.01 lb filtrate 900 lb solids

mm gal filtrate 106 lb filtrate
M gal cake 8.34 x 1.07 lb sludge 0.25 lb solids

+
mm gal cake lb cake
The flow balance is:
47 gal feed 25 gal washwater

+
mm mm
Q gal filtrate + M gal cake

mm mm
9-50
T h e s u s p e n d e d solids a n d flow b a l a n c e s a r e s o l v e d simultaneously.
T h e f l o w o f f i l t r a t e ( Q ) is 6 7 . 2 g a l l o n s p e r minute ( 2 5 4 1/m ).
Solids capture
S o l i d s in feed - solids in filtrate

S o l i d s in f e e d x 100
900
47 ( 8.34 x 1.02) ( 0.028 ) 67.2 (8.34 x 1.01 )
106
47 ( 8.34 x 1.02) ( 0.028 ) x 100
95 percent
A l l filtrate is r e t u r n e d t o t h e s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s.
9 . 4 .5 . 6 Costs
Current published information on capital cost of belt filter
p r e s s e s is a l m o s t nonexistent , S o m e information is available
f r o m a r e c e n t U S E P A p u b l i c a t i o n ( 6 8 ). According to this
publication , construction costs for a belt filter press,
s l u d g e f e e d p u m p , p o l y m e r p u m p, a n d c o n t r o l p a n e l t o d e w a t e r
1 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s ( 4 5 4 k g ) o f s l u d g e p e r h o u r w a s $ 9 7 , 0 0 0. T o d e w a t e r
2 , 5 0 0 p o u n d s ( 1 ,1 3 4 k g ) p e r h o u r , t h e c o s t w o u l d be $ 1 2 0 , 0 0 0.
Table 9-2 5 l i s t s l a b o r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n a n d
maintenance o f belt filter p r e s s e s. T h e l a b o r indicated includes
p e r i o d i c o p e r a t i o n a l a d j u s t m e n t s a n d m i n o r routine maintenance.
N o information is available o n maintenance material c o s t.
TABLE 9- 25
LABOR REQUIREMENTS FOR BELT FILTER PRESSES ( 19 )
Number Labor , hours per year

of
units Operation Maintenance Total
1 265 100 365
2 530 200 730
3 795 300 1 ,095
4 1 ,060 400 1 ,460
5 1,325 500 1,325
9-5 1
9 . 4.6 R e c e s s e d P l a t e P r e s s u r e Filters
Pressure filtration for sludge dewatering evolved from the

s i m i l a r p r a c t i c e in s u g a r manufacturing o f forcing j u i c e s t h r o u g h
cloth . The first United States municipal sludge dewatering
installations, which w e r e a l s o t h e first l a r g e-s c a l e mechanical
d e w a t e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s in t h i s c o u n t r y , w e r e l o c a t e d l n
W o r c e s t e r, M a s s a c h u s e t t s, a n d Providence, R h o d e I s l a n d , in t h e
e a r l y 1 9 2 0 s ( 5 6 ). F i x e d - a n d v a r i a b l e - v o l u m e r e c e s s e d p l a t e
p r e s s u r e filters a r e discussed in this section.
Fluid pressure generated by pumping slurry into the unit

p r o v i d e s t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e f o r r e c e s s e d p l a t e p r e s s u r e filters.
P e r f o r m a n c e reliability is increased b y m o d e r n design c o n c e p t s,
s u c h a s u s e o f new construction materials t o resist a t t a c k by
acids a n d alkalis ; mechanization o f t h e operating s e q u e n c e t o
r e d u c e m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s ; a n d t h e use o f m e m b r a n e d i a p h r a g m s
f o r v a r i a b l e v o l u m e f i l t r a t i o n ( 6 9 ). T a b l e 9- 2 6 l i s t s t h e
advantages and disadvantages of pressure filters compared with
o t h e r d e w a t e r i n g m e t h o d s.
TABLE 9- 26
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF RECESSED PLATE

PRESSURE FILTERS
Highest cake solids concentration Batch operation
High labor cost
High capital cost
Special support structure requirements
Large area requirement
9 . 4.6 . 1 P r i n c i p l e s of O p e r a t i o n
F i x e d- v o l u m e, r e c e s s e d p l a t e p r e s s u r e f i l t e r s, i l l u s t r a t e d
o n F i g u r e 9- 25, a r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m a s e r i e s o f r e c e s s s e d
p l a t e s. A s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 9 - 2 6 , v o l u m e is p r o v i d e d b y t h e
d e p r e s s i o n s o n t h e s i d e s o f t h e p l a t e s.
T h e s u r f a c e s o f b o t h s i d e s o f t h e filter p l a t e a r e designed s o
that the filtrate drains from the filter cloth and from each
p l a t e.
A f i l t e r c l o t h is m o u n t e d o v e r t h e t w o s u r f a c e s o f e a c h f i l t e r
p l a t e. Conditioned s l u d g e is p u m p e d into t h e p r e s s u r e filter a n d
passes through feed holes in the filter plates along the length
o f t h e filter and into t h e r e c e s s e d c h a m b e r s. As t h e s l u d g e c a k e
f o r m s a n d b u i l d s u p i n t h e c h a m b e r, t h e p r e s s u r e g r a d u a l l y
increases to a point at which further sludge injection would
9-5 2
FIXED OR _ MOVEABLE
FEED HEAD r — PLATES r ~ HEAD
/ CLOSING
i r
t
HEAD HYDRAULIC
J i
/ CLOSURE
rU-: nnDTidobooiiQ
S
* l
<
FIGURE 9- 25
SCHEMATIC SIDE VIEW OF A RECESSED PLATE PRESSURE FILTER
CLOTH
CAKE
SLURRY
INLET
liLliJilJil
mw.rg:
m
NV
,
'S
II
iI 1i
I
$
: :v:
-
: m !
i m
m el j |f ta-;g;
i
v
I I
FILTRATE OUTLETS
FIGURE 9- 26
CROSS SECTION OF A FIXED- VOLUME

RECESSED PLATE FILTER ASSEMBLY
9-5 3
-
be counter productive. Pressure filters operate at a pressure of
100 pounds per square inch (690 kN/m 2) or 225 to 250 pounds per
square inch ( 1 ,550 to 1 ,730 kN/m 2 ).
A typical pressure filtration cycle begins with the closing of
- -
-
the press to the position shown on Figure 9 25. Sludge is fed
for a 20 to 30 minute period until the press is effectively full
of cake. The pressure at this point is generally the designed
- -
maximum and is maintained for a one to four hour period , during
which more filtrate is removed and the desired cake solids
content is achieved . The filter is then mechanically opened , and
the dewatered cake dropped from the chambers onto a conveyor belt
for removal. Cake breakers are usually required to break up the
rigid cake into conveyable form ,
pressure filter installation.
-
FIGURE 9- 27
TYPICAL RECESSED PLATE PRESSURE

FILTER INSTALLATION AT WASSAU , WISCONSIN
-
Construction of a variable volume recessed plate pressure filter
is similar to the fixed- volume filters, except that a diaphragm
is placed behind the media as shown on Figure 9- 28. A dewatering
cycle begins as conditioned sludge is fed into each chamber from
a slurry inlet pipe located in the top or bottom of each plate.
Generally , about 10 to 20 minutes are required to fill the press
-
9 54
and reach an end point determined by either instantaneous feed
rate, filtrate rate, or time .
When t h e end p o i n t i s reached ,
t h e sludge feed pump i s automatically turned o f f Water or a i r, .
under high pressure , i s then pumped i n t o the space between the
diaphragm and plate body squeezing the already formed and
partially dewatered cake .
Typically , 15 to 30 minutes of
constant pressure are required to dewater the cake to the desired
solids content .
At the end of the cycle , the water i s returned
to a reservoir, plates are automatically opened , and sludge cake
is discharged .
SLURRY
INLET
( TOP OR
CAKE UNDER
BOTTOM ) CLOTH COMPRESSION
SOFT RUBBER - MOULDED

MEMBRANE RUBBER BODY
CAKE
I
K l
r
i i
!
HIGH PRESSURE
5 WATER i
1
i i
FILTRATE FILTRATE I
OUTLET 7 ZZ Z i
(TOP OR
BOTTOM )
SHAPE OF FILTER CHAMBER SHAPE OF FILTER CHAMBER

DURING FILTRATION DURING CAKE COMPRESSION
BY DIAPHRAGM
FIGURE 9- 28
CROSS SECTION OF A VARIABLE VOLUME

RECESSED PLATE FILTER ASSEMBLY
9 . 4.6 . 2 Application
Pressure filtration i s an advantageous choice for sludges of poor

d e w a t e r a b i l i t y , s u c h a s w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e s , o r f o r c a s e s i n
which i t i s desirable to dewater a sludge to a solids content
9 -5 5
higher than 3 0 p e r c e n t , I f s l u d g e characteristics are e x p e c t e d
t o c h a n g e drastically o v e r a n o r m a l operating period , o r if less
chemical conditioning is desired , the variable- volume units would
p r o b a b l y be selected r a t h e r t h a n t h e fixed - volume units.
TABLE 9- 27
EXPECTED DEWATERING PERFORMANCE FOR A TYPICAL FIXED

VOLUME RECESSED PLATE PRESSURE FILTER
Cake with Cake without

Conditioning dosage, conditioning conditioning
Feed lbs/ton dry solids material, material, Cycle
solids , percent percent time,
Type of sludge percent FeCl,
3
3
CaOa Ash solids solids hours
Raw primary (P) 5-10 100 200 45 39 2.0
2,000 50 25 1.5
Raw P with less than
50 percent waste
-
36 100 200
3,000
45
50
39
20
2.5
2.0
activated sludge (WAS)
Raw P with more than
50 percent WAS
-
14 120 240
4,000
45
50
38
17
2.5
2.0
mixture of P and WAS
Less than 50 percent WAS 6-10 100 200 45 39 2.0
2,000 50 25 1.5
More than 50 percent WAS -
26 150 300
4,000
45
50
37
17
2.5
1.5
WAS 1-5 150 300 45 37 2.5
5,000 50 14 2.0
aAll vaiaes shewn are for pure FeCl and CaO. Must be adjusted for anything else.
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t
^
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/nr/hr
9.4.6 . 3 Performance
A s of 1 9 7 9 , v e r y f e w fixed - v o l u m e r e c e s s e d p l a t e p r e s s u r e
f i l t e r s a r e o p e r a t i n g in t h e United S t a t e s , a n d t h e r e a r e n o
variable- volume installations operating , T a b l e 9- 27 contains
e x p e c t e d p e r f o r m a n c e d a t a f o r typical fixed - volume units, and
T a b l e 9 - 2 8 l i s t s a c t u a l d a t a f r o m o p e r a t i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s.
T a b l e 9 - 29 lists a p e r f o r m a n c e f r o m a l a r g e variable- volume p i l o t
unit ( 6 2 . 4 s q u a r e feet [ 5.8 m ] o f filtering area ).
^
9 . 4.6 . 4 O t h e r Considerations
Sludge Conditioning Process
Most systems are designed so t h a t ferric chloride a n d lime

are added in batches t o sludge contained in a n agitated tank ,
and the conditioned sludge is pumped from the tank into the
p r e s s u r e f i l t e r as required. H o w e v e r, e x p e r i e n c e i n d i c a t e s
9 -5 6
TABLE 9- 28
SPECIFIC OPERATING RESULTS OF FIXED VOLUME

RECESSED PLATE PRESSURE FILTERS
Percent solids
Year and
Feed Conditioner , . Cake with Cake without total cost,
solids, lb/ton dry conditioning conditioning dollars/ton
Location Sludge typea percent solids 3 *
material material dry solids Reference
Kenosha , WI Anaerobically di
gested mixture
- 3.5 - 5 FeCl 3
Lime
-340
-
54 41.5 35 1975 - 61 70
( P plus WAS)
Wausau , WI Water plant plus
thermal conditioned
2 8 - 0 34 - 45 35 - 45 Not given 71
mixture of anaer
obically digested
-
(P plus WAS)
Fly ash at
Cedar Rapids, IA Anaerobically di
gested mixture
-
3.5 7 - about
60 27 1972 - 30 72
(P plus TF) 2,500
Brookfield , WI Aerobically digested 4 FeCl3 -, 200
143 43 25 Not given 61
WAS plus raw P Ash - 1346
Lime -
aP = primary sludge ; WAS = -
waste activated sludge; TF = trickling filter sludge.
ânything
All values shown for FeCl
else.
3 and CaO are for pure chemicals , Must be adjusted for
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t

1 ton = 0.907 t
TABLE 9- 29
TYPICAL DEWATERING PERFORMANCE OF A VARIABLE VOLUME

RECESSED PLATE PRESSURE FILTER
Chemical
dosage ,a
Ib/ton dry Percent solids
Feed solids
solids , Yield , Cake with Cake without
Site Type of sludge percent FeCl3 CaO lb/sq ft/hr chemicals chemicals
b
1 60 P: 40 WAS 3.8 120 320 1.0 37 30
2 60 P: 40 WAS 3.2 180 580 0.7 36 25
3 40 P: 60 WAS 3.8 120 340 0.6 40 32
4 40 P: 60 WAS 2.5 180 500 0.6 42 30
5 50 P: 50 WAS 6.4 80 220 2.0 45 39
6 60 P: 40 WAS 3.6 160 320 0.8 50 40
7 Raw WAS 4.3 180 460 0.6 34 25
8 Raw (60 plus 40 WAS) 4.0 100 300 0.9 40 33
9 Thermal conditioned
50 P: 50 WAS 14.0 0 0 2.5 60 60
aAll values shown are for pure FeCl 3 and CaO. Must be adjusted for
anything else.
bp = primary sludge; WAS = -
waste activated sludge.
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t

9-57
that the prolonged agitation and tank storage time associated
with batch conditioning can result in a feed of varying and
deteriorating dewaterability For this reason, conditioning .
processes a r e now f r e q u e n t l y designed t o provide " i n l i n e " -
conditioning . This can be accomplished by either the continuous
pumping of sludge into a small tank and addition of chemicals ,
or directly injecting conditioning chemicals into the sludge on
i t s way i n t o the f i l t e r , In line conditioning diminishes -
the deleterious effects of storage and prolonged agitation .
-
F i g u r e 9 2 9 s h o w s a s c h e m a t i c f o r i n- l i n e c o n d i t i o n i n g .
ALUMINUM
CHLtJHQ HYDRATE
POLYELECT ROUTE SILO LEVEL SWITCHES CONTROLING SLUDGE FEED
MIXING TANK AND DILUTE CHEMICAL FEED PUMPS
t
!
!
!
} f DILUTE CHEMICAL
STOCK TANK
/
/
/ I PRESSURE
*I
i
/ VESSEL
[ **» -rtfc -lifci •
mKf v flhr 1
l / \
f I
V I
l I
l
* FILTER PRESS
l
l FILTRATE TO
I HEAD OF
COMMINUT0 R i CONDITIONING PRESS WORKS
TANK
ixj FEED
PUMP
PUMP
c D
SLUDGE HOLDING FILTER CAKE
TANK
FIGURE 9- 29
SCHEMATIC OF AN IN- LINE CONDITIONING SYSTEM FOR

RECESSED PLATE PRESSURE FILTER ( 73 )
Feed Pump System
One major problem with pressure f i l t e r s has been the need t o

design a system t h a t w i l l pump from 30 t o 2 , 000 gallons per
m i n u t e ( 1 . 9 t o 1 2 6 1/ s ) o f a v i s c o u s , a b r a s i v e s l u r r y a t § r e s -
s u r e s o f 4 0 t o 2 2 5 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e i n c h ( 2 7 6 t o 1, 5 5 1 k N/ ) mz .
Ideally , the feed system should inject conditioned sludge into
the chamber as rapidly as possible but slowly enough to permit
sufficiently prompt formation of a uniform and thick enough cake
to prevent any incursion of sludge particles into the f i l t e r
cloth . Imbalance of the sludge feed and cake formation rates can
result in nonuniform, high resistance cake, or in cloth blinding
a n d /o r i n i t i a l p o o r f i l t r a t e q u a l i t y , If a nonuniform cake i s
formed or excessive fines migrate, then a long f i l t e r cycle or an
inordinate amount of cloth plugging will result .
9 -5 8
T h e filter feed method used f o r some p r e s s u r e filters involves a
combination of p u m p s a n d p r e s s u r e vessels , T h e s e combinations
a r e u s e d t o o b t a i n a high i n i t i a l f e e d r a t e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y
2 , 0 0 0 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e ( 1 2 6 1 /s ) v i a t h e p r e s s u r e v e s s e l ,
followed by the use of reciprocating ram high pressure pumps t o
p u m p a t a pressure of 225 p o u n d s p e r s q a r e inch ( 1 , 5 5 1 k N/ m )
a t feed r a t e s of 1 0 0 t o 200 g a l l o n s p e r minute ( 6 . 3 t o 12.6 1/s ).
^
I n s o m e c a s e s, a c o m b i n a t i o n o f p r o g r e s s i v e c a v i t y p u m p s a n d
p r e s s u r e v e s s e l s is u s e d f o r t h e l o w e r p r e s s u r e , high - r a t e
c h a m b e r filling p h a s e.
Cloth Washing and Cleaning

B e c a u s e recessed p l a t e p r e s s u r e filters o p e r a t e a t high p r e s s u r e s
a n d because many units use lime for conditioning , t h e designer
m u s t a s s u m e that cloths will require routine washing with high
p r e s s u r e w a t e r, a s well a s periodic washing with acid , Practices
vary according t o t h e particular s l u d g e a n d proprietary p r o c e s s.
Designers should a s k f o r recommendations from equipment suppliers
o n f r e q u e n c y of washing.
Dewatered C a k e B r e a k e r s
D e s i g n o f s u i t a b l e b r e a k e r s is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l
p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e d e w a t e r e d c a k e. Pressure filter cake is
usually friable enough that use of breaker wires, bars, or
c a b l e s b e n e a t h t h e f i l t e r w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t. I f , h o w e v e r ,
p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e c o n d i t i o n i n g is c o n t e m p l a t e d , c o n s i d e r a t i o n
should b e given t o t h e resulting c h a n g e s in cake s t r u c t u r e.
9 . 4.6 . 5 Case History
This information is summarized f r o m a r e c e n t s l u d g e h a n d l i n g

i n v e s t i g a t i o n b y U S E P A ( 6 1 ). T h e 1 9 7 8 f l o w d i a g r a m f o r t h e
^
5- M G D ( 1 3- m /sec ) Brookfield , Wisconsin , w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
p l a n t is s h o w n o n F i g u r e 9 - 3 0. I n J a n u a r y 1 9 7 4 , B r o o k f i e l d
c o m m e n c e d t r e a t m e n t b y the c o n t a c t stabilization activated s l u d g e
p r o c e s s. A d d i t i o n o f f e r r o u s s u l f a t e f r o m p i c k l e l i q u o r f o r
p h o s p h o r u s removal in the aeration tank was initiated in June
1976. T h e p l a n t h a s one fixed- volume , r e c e s s e d p l a t e p r e s s u r e
filter with a design capacity of 5 3 0 p o u n d s d r y solids p e r h o u r
( 241 k g /h r ).
Performance
T h e p r e s s u r e filter is g e n e r a l l y o p e r a t e d f o u r d a y s p e r week ,
16 h o u r s p e r d a y , 4 5 w e e k s p e r y e a r. T h e o t h e r 7 w e e k s p e r y e a r ,
the s l u d g e is a p p l i e d t o land. Figure 9 - 3 1 summarizes operating
p e r f o r m a n c e before ( l e t t e r B ) a n d a f t e r ( letter A ) the addition
o f f e r r o u s s u l f a t e. Figure 9-31 also presents a mass flow
diagram of an operating recessed p l a t e pressure filter.
9-59
RETURN ACTIVATED SLUDGE
PLANT LIFT
PRIMARY
1
CONTACT
\ CHLORINE
STATION STABILIZATION . FINAL
INFLUENT* *
AND CLARIFIERS ACTIVATED ^ CLARIFIER CONTACT
COMMINUTOR SLUDGE MM * * IMIM
TANK
i , iI
SECONDARY
( WASTE ACTIVATED!
SLUDGE
PRIMARY SLUDGE
> 1
SCRUBBER DIGESTER SUPERNATANT AEROBIC
WATER DIGESTER
DIGESTED
SLUDGE
FILTRATE
* SLUDGE
ALTERNATE
HOLDING DISPOSAL OF
TANK
LIQUID SLUDGE
MULTIPLE SLUDGE SLUDGE BY TANK TRUCK
PRESSURE
HEARTH
INCINERATOR CAKE FILTER -
# CONDITIONING
TANK
ASH
ASH
* STORAGE
TANK
LANDFILL
FIGURE 9- 30
BROOKFIELD , WISCONSIN WASTEWATER TREATMENT

PLANT FLOW DIAGRAM
The 1976 operating and maintenance costs for the pressure filter
are combined with the incinerator operational cost in Table 9 -30.
With the initiation of chemical addition for phosphorus removal,
the cost of treating and disposing of a ton of dry solids
decreased by approximately $ 1.33 , as shown in Table 9-30. This
reduction was due to decreases in the amounts of chemical condi-
tioners and electricity required by the plate pressure filter.
These decreases were , however , partially offset by an increase in
the amount of auxiliary fuel used by the incinerator, This was
the result of decreased incinerator volatile solids feed rates.
9.4.6.6 Cost
Figure 9-32 gives f ixed - volume , recessed plate pressure filter
capital cost as a function of press volume , Costs include
those for filter auxiliary equipment , p i p i n g , and building ,
As an example , a pressure filter having 100 cubic feet ( 2.8 nw )
capacity would cost about $ 700 , 000. Since this number is based
on June 1975 cost , it must be adjusted to the current design
year.
9-60
FILTER CAKE
WET CAKEA = 506,000 Ib/mo
SLUDGE TO TSA = 219,000 Ib/mo
PRESSURE FILTER VSA = 71 ,000 ( 32.6% OF lb TS )
FSA = 148,000
QA = 328,000 gal /mo %TSA = 43.4
TSA = 131,000 Ib/mo % VSA = 14.1
A = 4.77
%TSA %FSA
A = 91%
Qg = 395 ,000 gal /mo WET CAKEg = 421 ,000 Ib / mo

TSg = 116, 000 Ib /mo TSg = 182,000 Ib /mo
B 3.54
%TSD VSg = 61 ,000 ( 33.6% of OF lb TS )
=
FSg = 121,000
%TSg = 43.2
%VSB * 14.5
CONDITIONING ADMIX TOTAL : %FSo
B
= 28.7
SLUDGE PLUS
ASH FECL3 LIME ADMIX TO FILTER
1,810 9al /mo 32,400 gal /mo PRESSURE
79,000 Ib/mo QA - 362 ,000 gal /mo FILTER
0.60 lb ASH / 8,840 Ib /mo 22,600 Ib/mo TSA = 240,000 Ib/mo
lb DRY SOLIDS 135 lb FECL3 / 346 lb LIME / %TSA = 7.95 AFTER
i TON DRY SOLIDS TON DRY SOLIDS

90 runs/mo
i i 1.73 hrs /run
155 hrs/mo
98,000 Ib /mo 1,770 gal /mo 28,800 gal/mo Qg = 426,000 gal /mo BEFORE
0.85 lb ASH / 8,280 Ib /mo 20, 100 Ib/mo TSg = 243,000 Ib /mo 79 runs/mo
lb DRY SOLIDS 152 lb FECL 3 / 345 lb LIME / %TSQ
B
= 6.85
2.83 hrs/run
TON DRY SOLIDS TON DRY SOLIDS 232 hrs /mo
Q = FLOW FILTRATE
TS = TOTAL SOLIDS
VS = VOLATILE SOLIDS
QA * 328 ,000 gal /mo
FS = FIXED ( NONVOLATILE ) SOLIDS
TSA = 21 ,000 Ib/mo
%TS = PERCENT DRY TS BY WEIGHT
% VS = PERCENT DRY VS BY WEIGHT Qg = 397,000 gal /mo
% FS = PERCENT DRY FS BY WEIGHT TSg =62,000 Ib/ mo
1 lb = 0.454 kg
1 gallon = 3.78 I
FIGURE 9 - 31
PERFORMANCE DATA FOR A PRESSURE FILTER

BROOKFIELD , WISCONSIN
TABLE 9- 30
PRESSURE FILTRATION AND INCINERATION OPERATIONAL COST

1976 Dollar cost
per ton dry solids
Unit cost i
Item 1976 dollars Before After
FeCl 3 9.61 8.69
Lime 0.0305 10.52 10.55
Natural gas 0.001786 11.73 12.29
Electricity 0.04 10.40 9.60
Labor 6.00 20.00 20.00
Total ' $62.26 $61.13
aIncludes incinerator warm up. -

1 ton 0.907 t
9 -61
10,000,000
9
7
6
i
5
4
E 3
m
5 2
w
40
8
1,000,000
—-
O
I
a
D
cc
h
to
9
7
6
5
.-
4 i >
o
(J
3
I
2 3 4 & 6 7 8 9100 2 3 4 5 6 7 891,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 89
SINGLE PRESS VOLUME, cu ft < 1 cu ft = D.026 m3!
FIGURE 9- 32
ESTIMATED JUNE 1975 COSTS FOR FIXED VOLUME

RECESSED PLATE PRESSURE FILTERS ( 39 )
Figure -
9 3 3 i n d i c a t e s f i x e d-v o l u m e , r e c e s s e d p l a t e p r e s s u r e
filter labor requirements , Labor requirements are based on
- - -
continuous, seven day per week operation with two hour cycles and -
include operation and maintenance for both press and related
auxiliaries ( chemical feed system and pumps ) As an example, .
a pressure f i l t e r having 100 cubic feet ( 2.8 m ) of capacity
-
would require 8 , 000 man hours of operation and maintenance per
^
year and would be included in the cost analysis .
F i g u r e 9- 3 4 g i v e s p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n a s a f u n c t i o n o f f e e d s o l i d s
concentration and operating volume .
The graph i s based on a
f i l t e r t h a t operates continuously , seven days per week , and
h a s a 2 -h o u r c y c l e t i m e , Power c o n s u m p t i o n i n c l u d e s t h a t f o r
t h e feed pump , open and c l o s e mechanisms , and moveable head
mechanism .
F i g u r e 9- 3 5 p r e s e n t s a g r a p h d e v e l o p e d f o r e s t i m a t i n g a n n u a l
material and maintenance costs for a fixed volume , recessed plate -
-
9 62
pressure filter .
The graph i s based on unit operation of seven
days per week with a two hour cycle time * -
1GOr 0OO
9
7
6
5
4
5
cS3 3
O
cr 2
O
LL
CO
cr
D
O 10,000 *« 8 *ru
..«
X 9
B
cr 6 IK«
O
S 5
4
<
3 3
2
<
2
I I [ I M I I
2 3 4 56789100 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
AVERAGE FILTER PRESS VOLUME IN USE, cu ft ( 1 cu f t = 0.02B m3}
FIGURE 9- 33
ANNUAL 06M MAN-HOUR REQUIREMENTS - FIXED VOLUME

RECESSED PLATE PRESSURE FILTER (39 )
9.4 7 . Screw and Roll Press
.
9.4 7.1 Screw Press
This dewatering device employs a screw surrounded by a perforated

steel ( screen ) cylinder .
Sludge i s pumped inside the screen and
i s deposited against the screen wall by the rotating screw .
The
cake that forms acts as a continuous f i l t e r .
The screw moves the
progressively dewatered sludge against a containment at the
outlet and further dewaters the sludge by pressure of the screw
action against the restriction . -
layout from one screw press manufacturer .Although no full scale -
municipal wastewater treatment plants are known t o be in
o p e r a t i o n , l a r g e-s c a l e s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d .
T a b l e 9-3 1
.
.
lists typical results
-
9 63
1 ,000,000
9
2 8
7
ID
6
ii 5 8%
4 INFLUENT SOLIDS * 4% B%
3
3
JZ 2
-*
i£
°t
£
100,000
9
8
3 7
to
Z 6
5
8 4
CE
111
3
< 2
3
Z
<
2 3 4 5 6 7 88 100 2 3 4 6 6 7 B 91,000 2 3 4 i6730
AVERAGE FILTER PRESS VOLUME IN USE, cu ft (1 cu ft = 0.028 m3)
FIGURE 9- 34
FIXED VOLUME RECESSED PLATE PRESSURE

FILTER POWER CONSUMPTION ( 39 )
100,000
9
40
7
3*
6
5
K 4
in
8 3
«
*1
<
3 2
z
I
Li
4 5 6 7 89100 6 8 7 89 1 ,000 4 E 6 7 89
'
2 3 2 3 4 2 3
AVERAGE FILTER PRESS VOLUME IN USE , cu ft ( 1 cu ft = 0,028 m3)
FIGURE 9- 35
ESTIMATED JUNE 1975 ANNUAL MAINTENANCE MATERIAL

COST- FIXED VOLUME , RECESSED PLATE PRESSURE FILTER ( 39 )
9-6 4
WASH WATER
SLUDGE FEED
3
^
( OPTIONAL !
.
.V i.
'
-V
'
’
-' POLYMER I.I
• TANK 5 •V/ •«
V.V:
;4~ T
*
;«.» >
-r. VK';
""
-- ::
*
••• '
t *.
- : -
v'ii POLYMER
REACTOR : :
II
'
!*• v." /..v/!*» v

•
v
»,
-
? V "‘ :
:
Xf; VESSEL
SLUDGE
nr RECIEVING
TANK
:
11 GRINDER
•*> r
!
CAKE
SCREW
- - -=
I:.vV.:-
.J
-
:v .* v
i
r ir FILTRATE
i i
t i
POLYMER
PUMP
SLUDGE
11 a PUMP
CONTROL
PANEL
FIGURE 9 36
TABLE 9- 31
PERFORMANCE RESULTS FROM A SCREW PRESS
Feed Polymer , Cake Filtrate ,

solids , lb dry/ton solids, percent
Location Sludge type percent dry solids percent solids Reference
Stratford , CT Primary only -

3 5 0 25 31 - -
0.9 1.4 74
Primary plus waste
* activated
-
50:50 mixture 3 3.3 - 0 13 17- -
0.7 2.0
67:33 mixture 2.7-4.0 0 20 27- -
0.7 2.0
Norwich , CT Anaerobically digested 5.5-9.8 3.9- 5.6 18.6-22.6 0.2- 1.0 75

mixture 60 percent
primary plus 40 percent
-
waste activated
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t
-
9 65
.
9.4 7.2 -
Twin Roll Press
F i g u r e 9 - 3 7 s h o w s a c r o s s s e c t i o n o f a t w i n- r o l l , v a r i n i p p r e s s
-
D e v e l o p e d i n 1 9 7 0 b y m o d i f y i n g a f i x e d n i p t w i n- r o l l p r e s s , t h e
.
-
vari nip press was installed in 17 plants by 1976 . One of these
plants i s municipal ( 76 ) .
SHREDDER
HOOD CONVEYOR
ROLL CLEANING
SHOWERS
CAKE DOCTOR
AND SEAL
PRESS
- ROLLS
MOVEABLE
I NIP
ROLL "
PRESSATE
«f - FIXED
ROLL
CHANNELS
PRETHtCKENING VARIABLE SPEED

MODE
t
VAT AGITATOR
VAT
SLUDGE FEED
PI CURE 9- 37
CROSS SECTION VIEW OF A TWIN- ROLL VARI- NIP PRESS
The unit consists of a pair of perforated rolls , one roll fixed

and the other moveable, so that the nip ( or space ) between the
r o l l s can be varied . The horizontal r o l l s are mounted in a
sealed vat . Sludge i s pumped into the vat under a s l i g h t
p r e s s u r e o f t w o t o f o u r p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e i n c h ( 1 4 t o 2 8 k N/m )
This low v a t p r e s s u r e moves t h e sludge i n t o the n i p, where i t
^ .
i s further dewatered by a nip pressure load of 200 t o 400 pounds
p e r l i n e a l i n c h ( 3 6 t o 7 2 k g /l i n e a l cm ) o f r o l l l e n g t h
passes from the sludge through the perforated rolls and
.
Filtrate
discharges by gravity . The compressed cake i s then doctored off

the rolls and discharged into a shredder and conveyor .
The "Pig ' s Eye Plant" a t St .
Paul , Minnesota has evaluated
the d e w a t e r i n g o f m i x t u r e s o f p r i m a r y a n d w a s t e-a c t i v a t e d
sludge ( 76 ) . Results showed that on raw primary sludge , a cake
9 66-
of 35 percent was obtainable after sludge conditioning with
approximately seven pounds of dry polymer per ton ( 3 . 5 kg/t ) of
dry feed solids .
When b i o l o g i c a l sludge was added , performance
decreased and polymer requirements increased , At a mixture
of 50:50 , cake solids dropped to 28 percent , while polymer
requirements increased to 17 pounds of dry polymer per ton
( 8.5 kg/t ) of dry feed solids .
The conclusion was that this was
an excellent dewatering unit for primary sludge.
9 . 4 .8 D u a l C e l l G r a v i t y ( DCG ) F i l t e r
The DCG u n i t c o n s i s t s o f two i n d e p e n d e n t c e l l s formed by a

nylon filter cloth . The cloth travels continuously over guide
wheels and i s rotated by a drive r o l l and sprocket assembly A .
c r o s s s e c t i o n o f a t y p i c a l DCG u n i t i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 9 -3 8 .
Dewatering occurs in the f i r s t cell , and cake formation , in the
second cell .
DRIVE ROLL AND NYLON
GUIDE SPROCKET ASSEMBLY ? FILTER CLOTH -7
WHEEL GUIDE WHEEL
DEWATERING
CELL
- SLUDGE
INLET
CAKE FORMING
CELL
-—
FILTRATE
PAN
CONVEYOR -i FILTRATE
DISCHARGE
FIGURE 9- 38
CROSS SECTION VIEW OF A DUAL CELL GRAVITY FILTER
Sludge i s introduced in the dewatering cell , where initial

.
l i q u i d /s o l i d s s e p a r a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e The dewatering solids are
then carried over the drive roll s e p a r a tor into the second cell .
Here , they are continuously rolled a n d formed into a cake of
relatively l o w m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t . T h e weight of this sludge
cake presses additional water from the partially dewatered
sludge carried over from the dewatering cell . When the cake of
dewatered solids grows to a certain size , excess quantities are
discharged over the rim of the second cell to a conveyor belt
that moves the material out of the machine .
9 -6 7
Table 9 -3 2 summarizes the operating results f r o m Mentor , Ohio ,
which h a s t h r e e units t o d e w a t e r a n aerobically digested mixture
o f p r i m a r y , w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e a n d a mixture o f primary ,
w a s t e - activated , a n d a l u m s l u d g e g e n e r a t e d f r o m p h o s p h o r u s
removal.
TABLE 9- 32
SUMMARY OF PERFORMANCE RESULTS FOR A DUAL CELL

GRAVITY FILTER - MENTOR , OHIO ( 61 )
Primary Primary plus

DIUS waste waste activated
activated sludge plus alum sludge
Feed - percent total solids

•
2.1- 2.7 2. 5- 3.1
Cake -
percent total solids
Polymer usage
-
8.8 9.2 -
8.2 9.1
Cationic liquid lbs per ton solid 143 136

Anionic -
dry lbs per ton solids
Filtrate characteristics
0.4
Not given
0.04
-
‘jj pcfr =*# '
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kq/t
9 . 4 .9 T u b e Filters
Tube filters can be either of the pressure type or of the
gravity type .
9 . 4 .9 . 1 Pressure Type
C o m m o n l y known as tube filter presses, p r e s s u r e t y p e t u b e filters
h a v e b e e n used in industry ( 77 ). H o w e v e r, t h e r e a r e n o municipal
installations. Typically , t h i s t y p e of device consists o f a n
o u t e r c y l i n d e r, a n i n t e r n a l r u b b e r b l a d d e r , a n d a n i n t e r n a l
p e r f o r a t e d cylinder which is c o v e r e d with a filter media. T h e
whole a s s e m b l y is mounted v e r t i c a l l y .
Slurry is pumped into the annular space between the bladder
a n d media- c o v e r e d w a l l , W h e n this a r e a i s f u l l , t h e b l a d d e r
is f i l l e d w i t h l i q u i d , a n d t h e s l u r r y is c o m p r e s s e d a g a i n s t
the filter media , Filtrate flows through the media and is
discharged. W h e n t h e desired c a k e solids concentration h a s b e e n
obtained , liquid p r e s s u r e is released a n d t h e c a k e is d i s c h a r g e d
with a blast of air.
9 . 4.9 . 2 Gravity Type

I n this application, sludge is mixed with p o l y m e r a n d t h e n held
in s u s p e n d e d p o r o u s bags. T h e weight of t h e s l u d g e forces w a t e r
o u t o f t h e b a g s i d e s a n d b o t t o m. S l u d g e is retained f o r a
maximum o f 2 4 h o u r s, depending u p o n t h e desired d r y n e s s, a n d is
t h e n released t h r o u g h a b o t t o m opening .
9 -6 8
Following is a description of the 0.5 -MGD ( 21.9 1/s ) dewatering
facility at Half Moon Bay , California.
This facility consists of four bags , each 3 feet ( 0.9 m ) in
diameter and 9 feet ( 2.7 m ) long with a ring at the top to
support the polyester media bag and a ring at the bottom , which
is engaged circumferentially by a motor-driven chain. The chain
twists the ring about 360 degrees, thereby closing off the bottom
so that the bag can be filled . Suspended down the center of the
bag is a polyester tube about 6 inches ( 15 cm ) in diameter with
the end extending about 12 inches ( 0.3 m ) beyond the bottom of
the closed ends. All four bags are mounted outdoors on a steel
framework over a concrete pad containing the drainline and
chemical conditioning system. The sludge fills the annular core ,
and the filtrate seeps through the outer polyester media surface
and the inner core tube.
The batch operation practiced at Half Moon Bay is on a 24-hour

cycle consisting of a four - hour fill period ( waste - activated
sludge from a complete mix aeration plant ) and a 20- hour drain .
With a 1.5 percent solids feed , a 16 percent solids cake has been
obtained.
9.5 Other Dewatering Systems

Several other types of dewatering devices are available that do
not readily fall into any of the previously discussed units.
These include cyclones , screens , and electro-osmosis.
9.5.1 Cyclones
In the municipal wastewater field , cyclones or hydrocyclones

( name given to cyclones specifically designed for liquids ) have
been used for cleaning and dewatering grit from grit chambers ,
primary clarifiers , and anaerobic digesters since the early
1950 s. Since then, over 1 , 400 units have been installed ( 43 ).
When a liquid stream enters a cyclone , the particles are

separated by centrifugal acceleration. Unlike centrifuges ,
cyclones have no moving parts. The liquid motion inside the unit
causes the necessary acceleration. The theory of cyclones is
thoroughly covered in a recent discussion by Svarovsky ( 78 ).
By itself , a cyclone does not dewater , The underflow from the

cyclone discharges into a type of dewatering device , This device
may be as simple as a steel bin with drainage holes, or as
complex as a rotating screen screw or rake classifier. These
dewatering devices will produce a grit with a moisture content
ranging from 20 to 35 percent.
The degritted liquid stream ( overflow ) from a cyclone degritting

raw sludge normally goes to a gravity thickener , When the
cyclone is degritting the flow from grit chambers , the overflow
9 -69
is u s u a l l y r e c y c l e d t o the g r i t chamber, Some designers h a v e
found it necessary t o screen this overflow t o k e e p debris from
overwhelming t h e s y s t e m. T h e drainage from t h e dewatering device
is c o l l e c t e d a n d typically r e t u r n e d t o the head of t h e treatment
plant.
9 . 5. 2 Screens
" S c r e e n i n g is t h e p r o c e s s o f s e p a r a t i n g g r a i n s , f r a g m e n t s o r
l u m p s o f a variety of sizes into groups, e a c h of which contains
only p a r t i c l e s in the size r a n g e between definite maximum and
minimum s i z e limits " ( 7 9 ). I n a d d i t i o n t o b e i n g u s e d in
d e w a t e r i n g ( 2 6 ), s c r e e n s h a v e a l s o b e e n u s e d f o r p r i m a r y
t r e a t m e n t ( 8 0 ), t h i c k e n i n g ( 8 1 , 8 2 ), a n d c o n d i t i o n i n g ( s e e
C h a p t e r 8 ).
T h e p r i m a r y u s e o f s c r e e n s in d e w a t e r i n g w o u l d b e with b a r
screenings o r t h e underflow f r o m grit cyclones. I n o n e extensive
study ( 8 3 ), t h e following results were found:
Ground bar screenings could be d e w a t e r e d t o six p e r c e n t

solids with a static t y p e s c r e e n.
Ground bar screening could be dewatered to sixteen

p e r c e n t solids with a revolving d r u m screen.
U n d e r f l o w f r o m a g r i t c y c l o n e c o u l d be dewatered t o
2 5 p e r c e n t solids with either t h e static o r revolving
screen.
T h e p o p u l a r i t y o f screens is s l o w l y i n c r e a s i n g in t h e United
States because in certain a p p l i c a t i o n s t h e y offer a d v a n t a g e s in
both c a p i t a l c o s t and o p e r a t i n g cost.
9 . 5.3 E l e c t r o-Osmosis
The u s e of electro-osmosis for dewatering m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r

sludge h a s been studied o n a pilot -plant s c a l e ( 8 4 ). T h e s y s t e m
c o n s i s t s o f a vertical - m o u n t e d , e n d l e s s m o v i n g b e l t which i s
d r a w n o v e r v e r t i c a l p l a t e- m o u n t e d , s t a i n l e s s s t e e l c a t h o d e s ,
s u b m e r g e d in a t a n k o f w a s t e s l u d g e . R e s u l t s indicated t h a t
cakes of over 20 percent solids could be obtained from an
anerobically d i g e s t e d s l u d g e having 2.6 p e r c e n t feed solids.
9.6 References
1. Craig , E.W., D.D. Meredith , and A.C. Middleton. " Algorithm

f o r O p t i m a l Activated S l u d g e D e s i g n." Journal of the
Vo 1. 1 0 4 , EE 6 ,
~
Environmental Engineering Division, A S C E.

"
p. 1 1 0 1. 1 9 7 8.
9 -7 0
2. D i c k , R .I . a n d D.L . S i m m o n s . "Optimal Integration of
P r o c e s s f o r S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t ." P r o c e e d i n g s 3 r d National
C o n f e r e n c e o n S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t D i s p o s a l a n d Utilization ,
Miami B e a c h , F L , 1 2/ 1 4 - 1 6/ 7 6 , s p o n s o r e d b y E R D A , U S E P A ,
N S F a n d I T I , P. 2 0 , Information T r a n s f e r I n c., Rockville,
M a r y l a n d 2 0 8 5 2.
3. USEPA. Cost of Landspreading and Hauling Sludge from

M u n i c i p a l W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t P l a n t s. Office of Solid
W a s t e. W a s h i n g t o n , D C 2 0 4 6 0. E P A 5 3 0/ S W - 6 1 9 . O c t o b e r
1 9 7 7.
4. Carry , C . W . , R .P . M i e l e , a n d J . F . S t a h l . "Sludge
D e w a t e r i n g ." P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n
M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t. P i t t s b u r g h, P A 6/ 1 1- 1 3/7 4.
T r a n s f e r I n c • R o c k v i l l e , M a r y l a n d 2 0 8 5 2.
/
^
S p o n s o r e d b y A l l e g h e n y C o u n t y , P A , P • 6 7, I n f o r m a t i o n
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6. U S E P A. Pilot I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f S e c o n d a r y S l u d g e D e w a t e r i n g
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C o n f e r e n c e W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. M i n n e a p o l i s,
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Wastewater Treatment Facilities Summaries of Technical
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.
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6 0 0/ 2 7 8 1 4 1, A u g u s t 1 9 7 8 .
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9 78 002 .
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.
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Technology Transfer Seminar on Sludge Treatment and
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A u g u s t ( 1 9 7 6 ).
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.
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3 1. W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. MOP 2 0 Sludge
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38. U S E P A. Construction Costs for Municipal Wastewater

T r e a t m e n t P l a n t s. O f f i c e o f W a t e r P r o g r a m O p e r a t i o n s.
W a s h i n g t o n , D C 2 0 4 6 0. M C D 3 7. J a n u a r y 1 9 7 8.
3 9. . Cost and Performance Handbook Sludge
C u l p /W e s n e r/C u l p
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9 -7 3
4 0. J e f f r e y , E. A. "L a b o r a t o r y S t u d y of D e w a t e r i n g R a t e s
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-
4 3. T a k e n f r o m e q u i p m e n t m a n u f a c t u r e r s installation lists.
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Overflow Treatment Phase III T r e a t a b i l i t y S t u d i e s.
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4 8. C a m p, D r e s s e r & M c K e e, I n c. C e n t r i f u g a l D e w a t e r i n g o f W a s t e
Activated S l u d g e . R e p o r t o n testing a n d e q u i p m e n t p r o p o s a l s
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t i o n." W a t e r a n d S e w a g e W o r k s. J u n e 1 9 7 7.
5 0. P e r s o n a l communication with M r. F.W. Keith , J r., Director

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9-7 4
5 2. D a r c y , H .P .G. " L e s F o n t a i n e s P u b l i q u e s d e l a V i l l e d e D i j o n
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5 5. N C A S I. A Pilot Plant Study of Mechanical Dewatering
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5 7. L e a r y , R .D., L.A. E r n e s t , G.R. D o u g l a s , A. G e i n o p o l o s a n d
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5 8. P u r c h a s , D.B . " F i l t r a t i o n in t h e C h e m i c a l a n d P r o c e s s
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I n d u stries
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5 9. V e s i l i n d , P. A. Treatment and Disposal of Wastewater
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1 9 7 3.
6 1. U S E P A. Review o f T e c h n i q u e s f o r T r e a t m e n t a n d D i s p o s a l o f
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F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 8.
9-7 5
6 5. A u s t i n , . E .P . " T h e F i l t e r B e l t P r e s s Application and
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66 . NCASI. A Review of t h e O p e r a t i o n a l E x p e r i e n c e with Belt
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6 8. U S E P A. Innovative a n d Alternative T e c h n o l o g y Assessment
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8 0. P h i l l i p s , T.G. "S c r e e n i n g . . . A N o v e l A p p r o a c h t o Primary

T r e a t m e n t ." Presented at Ontario Pollution Control
Association a n n u a l m e e t i n g , T o r o n t o, C a n a d a .
A p r i l 1 9 7 7.
8 1. F e r n b a c h , E . a n d G. T c h o b a n o g l o u s. " C e n t r i f u g a l S c r e e n
C o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e P r o c e s s." W a t e r a n d
S e w a g e W o r k s. P a r t I. J a n u a r y ; P a r t I I. F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 5.
8 2. S y a l , R.K. " C o m p a r e S l u d g e H a n d l i n g Alternatives . " Water

a n d W a s t e s E n g i n e e r i n g. V o l. 1 6 , P 6 0. M a r c h 1 9 7 9.
-
8 3. B r o w n a n d C a l d w e l l C o n s u l t i n g E n g i n e e r s. Study of
W a s t e w a t e r S o l i d s P r o c e s s i n g a n d D i s p o s a l. P r e p a r e d f o r t h e
S a c r a m e n t o R e g i o n a l C o u n t y Sanitation District. J u n e 1 9 7 5.
8 4. Dewatering Sewage S l u d g e b y E l e c t r o O s m o s i s. P a r t I
B a s i c S t u d i e s, P a r t II Scale Up Data . Prepared by the
E l e c t r i c i t y Council R e s e a r c h C e n t r e , C a p e n h u r s t, E n g l a n d.
N T I S P B- 2 7 6 a n d N T I S P B - 2 7 6 4 1 2 , 1 9 7 5 a n d 1 9 7 6.
9 -7 7
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 10 . Heat-Drying


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 1 0
H E A T- D R Y I N G
H e a t- drying is the process of evaporating w a t e r from sludge by

t h e r m a l means. Ambient a i r- drying of s l u d g e s is discussed in
C h a p t e r 9 , and composting , in C h a p t e r 1 2.
10.1 Introduction
In t h e United S t a t e s , d r y w a s t e- activated s l u d g e s and t h o s e from
Imhoff t a n k s h a v e b e e n heat dried t o p r o d u c e a soil conditioner
and nutrient source since t h e e a r l y 1 9 2 0 s . Historically , t h e u s e
o f heat - drying h a s b e e n justified based o n t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t
s a l e s o f the dried material would substantially o f f s e t p r o c e s s
c o s t s. H o w e v e r , d e m a n d for t h e product h a s generally b e e n l o w in
t h e fertilizer m a r k e t. Milwaukee, Wisconsin ; H o u s t o n, T e x a s;
Chicago, Illinois ; and L a r g o, Florida, a r e notable exceptions
where marketing h a s been successful. Because revenues have
g e n e r a l l y b e e n l o w a n d b e c a u s e h e a t- d r y i n g i s e x p e n s i v e, n e t
c o s t s h a v e o f t e n been high , and t h e p r o c e s s h a s n o t found wide
a p p l i c a t i o n. T h e u s e o f h e a t - d r y i n g m u s t b e e v a l u a t e d in
t h e c o n t e x t o f o v e r a l l sludge m a n a g e m e n t a t a g i v e n facility.
10.2 H e a t- Drying Principles
Sludge is heat dried a t t e m p e r a t u r e s t o o low t o d e s t r o y organic

m a t t e r. W a t e r v a p o r i s c a r r i e d a w a y b y a m o i s t g a s ( u s u a l l y
a i r ). T h e d e s i g n e r establishes t h e a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n s o f
d r y i n g — f o r e x a m p l e , t e m p e r a t u r e, h u m i d i t y , d e t e n t i o n t i m e ,
velocity , and direction of flow of the gas stream across the
drying s u r f a c e.
10.2.1 Drying Periods

T h e following a r e t h e t h r e e we 1 1-defined s t a g e s in heat- drying :
1. Initial Drying . During this stage, the sludge

t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t h e drying r a t e s are increased t o t h e
steady s t a t e conditions o f the second s t a g e , S t a g e one
is u s u a l l y s h o r t ; little drying occurs d u r i n g t h i s time.
2. S t e a d y S t a t e Drying .T h e time t h a t t h e s l u d g e is in this
s t a g e is generally t h e l o n g e s t o f a l l t h e s t a g e s , The
surfaces o f t h e s l u d g e particles are completely saturated
with w a t e r. S u r f a c e w a t e r is replaced with w a t e r from
10-1
t h e interior o f t h e solid a s f a s t a s it i s e v a p o r a t e d .
Drying proceeds as if the water were evaporated from a
p o o l o f liquid . T h e solid itself d o e s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y
i n f l u e n c e t h e drying r a t e , For this drying period, the
t e m p e r a t u r e a t t h e s l u d g e/ g a s interface is ordinarily
k e p t a t t h e w e t- b u l b t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e g a s. A s l o n g a s
unbound surface moisture is present , the solid is
h e a t e d o n l y t o t h e w e t- b u l b t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e g a s ;
solids may therefore be dried with fairly hot gases
a n d n o t t h e m s e l v e s attain e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s , For
e x a m p l e , t h e w e t- bulb t e m p e r a t u r e is 1 3 3 ° F ( 5 6°C ) f o r a
gas stream that has an absolute humidity of 0.01 pounds
water per pound dry a i r and a temperature of 6 00° F
( 3 1 6° C ).
3. Final Drying. The final stage occurs when sufficient

water has evaporated that the solid surface is only
partially saturated. Surface water is evaporated
m o r e rapidly t h a n it c a n be r e p l a c e d b y w a t e r f r o m t h e
interior o f t h e solid . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e, o v e r a l l drying
r a t e s a r e m a r k e d l y l o w e r in s t a g e 3 t h a n i n s t a g e 2.
D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e s o l i d /g a s
interface increases because latent heat cannot be
t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e s l u d g e t o t h e g a s p h a s e a s rapidly
a s sensible h e a t is received f r o m t h e h e a t i n g medium.
Sludge m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t i s n o r m a l l y e x p r e s s e d in p e r c e n t
moisture , p e r c e n t solids , o r p o u n d s w a t e r p e r p o u n d d r y s l u d g e.
T h e minimum s l u d g e m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t p r a c t i c a l l y attainable with
h e a t d r y i n g d e p e n d s u p o n t h e d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i o n o f t h e d r y e r,
moisture content of the sludge feed, and the chemical composition
o f t h e s l u d g e. F o r o r d i n a r y d o m e s t i c w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s, s l u d g e
m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t s a s l o w a s f i v e p e r c e n t m a y b e a c h i e v e d.
C h e m i c a l b o n d i n g o f w a t e r w i t h i n t h e s l u d g e, w h i c h c a n o c c u r
t h r o u g h chemical a d d i t i o n f o r s l u d g e c o n d i t i o n i n g , o r chemicals
p r e s e n t in industrial s l u d g e s c a n i n c r e a s e t h e a m o u n t o f w a t e r
r e t a i n e d i n t h e d r i e d p r o d u c t s b e y o n d t h e f i v e p e r c e n t moisture
l e v e l.
10.2. 2 Humidity and Mass Transfer
H u m i d i t y i s a m e a s u r e o f t h e moisture c o n t e n t o f t h e g a s p h a s e
at a given temperature and is important to consider when
d e t e r m i n i n g drying r a t e s. A b s o l u t e h u m i d i t y i s a m e a s u r e o f t h e
w e i g h t o f w a t e r p e r u n i t w e i g h t o f d r y g a s ( f o r e x a m p l e, p o u n d s
w a t e r p e r p o u n d d r y a i r ).
In h e a t- d r y i n g o f s l u d g e, w a t e r i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e g a s
p h a s e. The driving force for transfer is the difference
b e t w e e n a b s o l u t e h u m i d i t y a t t h e w e t t e d s o l i d /g a s i n t e r f a c e
10-2
and the absolute humidity in the gas phase .
The transfer
rate -- that is, the drying rate — can be described by the following
equation:
W = KyA ( Ys - Ya) ( 10-1 )
where:
W = rate of drying , pounds water per hour ( kg /hr ) ;
Ky = mass transfer coefficient of the gas phase , pounds water

per hour per square foot per unit of humidity difference
( kg /hr/ m 2/ unit of humidity difference ) ;
A = area of wetted surface exposed to drying medium ,

square feet ( m 2 ) ;
Ys = humidity at the sludge/ gas interface temperature, pounds

water per pounds dry gas ( kg /kg ) ;
Ya = humidity of the gas phase, pounds water per pounds

dry gas ( kg /kg ).
10.2. 3 Temperature and Heat Transfer
In heat -drying , the temperature difference between the heating

medium and the sludge/ gas interface provides the driving force
for heat transfer .
Dryers are commonly classified on the basis of the predominant

method of transferring heat to the wet solids being dried ( 1 ). .
These methods include:
Convection ( direct drying ). Heat transfer is accomplished

b y d i r e c t contact between the wet sludge and hot gases . The
sensible heat of the inlet gas provides the latent heat required
for evaporating the water. The vaporized liquid is carried off
by the hot gases. Direct dryers are the most common type used in
heat-drying of sludge. Flash dryers , direct rotary dryers , and
fluid bed dryers employ this method . Convective heat transfer is
described by Equation 10-2.
^conv = hcA ( tg - ts ) ( 10-2 )
where :
convective heat transfer , Btu per hour ( k j/hr );

^conv
he convective heat transfer coefficient , Btu per hour
per square foot per ° F ( kJ /hr/ m 2/° C ) ;
10-3
A = area of wetted surface exposed to gas, square feet
( m2 );
tg = gas temperature , °F (°C );

fcs = temperature at sludge/gas interface , °F (°C ).
Conduction ( indirect drying ). Heat transfer is accomplished by
contact of the wet solids with hot surfaces ( for example , a
retaining wall separates the wet solid and the heating medium ).
The vaporized liquid is removed independently of the heating
medium. The thin film dryer . employs this principle. Conductive
heat transfer is described by Equation 10 3. -
Tcond ~ hCc> ndA ( tm “ ts) -
(10 3)
where:
gtcond = conductive heat transfer, Btu per hour (kJ/hr);

hCOnd = conductive heat transfer coefficient, Btu per hour
per°F ( kJ/hr/°C);
A = area of heat transfer surface , square feet (m 2);
tm = temperature of drying medium

°F ( °C );
— for example , steam ,
t- s = temperature of sludge at drying surface , °F (°C).

The conductive heat transfer coefficient ( hconc3 ) is a composite
term that includes the effects of the heat transfer surface and
- -
sludge side and medium side films , Descriptions of
computing h c o n <3 are available in textbooks and
methods for
from dryer
manufacturers ( 1 4). -
Radiation ( infrared or radiant heat drying ).
accomplished by radiant energy supplied by electric resistance
- Heat transfer is
-
elements , by gas heated incandescent refractories that also
provide the advantage of convective heating , or by infrared
lamps. The Shirco Company furnace and multiple hearth furnaces -
are e x a m p l e s o f d r y i n g e q u i p m e n t t h a t u s e r a d i a n t h e a t.
Radiation heat transfer is described by Equation 10 4. -
ad es A CT ( t4r - t4 s ) -
( 10 4 )
where:
grad radiation heat transfer , Btu/per hour (kJ/hr);
es = emissivity of the drying surface, dimensionless;
10 4 -
A = sludge surface area exposed to radiant source ,
square feet ( m 2 ) ;
a Stefan Boltzman constant, 1.73 x 10~9 Btu/per hour

per square foot per R ( 4.88 x 10“8 k cal/ m 2/hr/° k );
°
tr = absolute temperature of the radiant source, °R ;
ts = absolute temperature of the sludge drying surface,
°R;
This discussion of heat drying is necessarily brief ; the reader
is referred elsewhere for more information ( 1-5 ). Equations for
mass and heat transfer rates and for associated drying times for
specific dryer types are discussed in detail in these references.
It is often difficult to determine appropriate values of mass and
heat transfer coefficients to be used in these equations. Thus ,
results predicted by the equations and results obtained in
practice may be divergent, perhaps critically so. Most usable
design information is obtained by testing with actual process
feeds under conditions closely simulating prototype operations.
Many dryer manufacturers provide such testing services.
10.3 Energy Impacts .
Thermal evaporation of water from sludge requires considerable

energy . The amount of fuel required to dry sludge depends
upon the amount of water evaporated. It is imperative that a
dewatering step precede heat - drying so that overall energy
requirements can be minimized . Figure 10-1 shows a relationship
between the solids content of the sludge and the energy required
to produce a product containing ten percent moisture. The energy
estimates for heat - drying of sludge must be considered rough
approximations , since values can vary considerably depending
upon the type of dryer, whether or not energy recovery is a part
of the process, the flow sheet , and the characteristics of the
sludge.
The heat required to evaporate water from the wet sludge

is c o m p o s e d o f:
H e a t t o raise the s l u d g e solids and associated residual
water to the temperature of the sludge product as it
leaves t h e d r y e r.
H e a t t o raise t h e w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e t o the point w h e r e it

can evaporate and then to vaporize the water ( latent
h e a t ).
Heat to raise the temperature of the e x h a u s t g a s ,

including water vapor , to the exhaust temperature.
Heat t o offset heat losses.
10- 5
T h e a b o v e-m e n t i o n e d h e a t m u s t b e s u p p l i e d b y t h e h e a t i n g medium,
f o r e x a m p l e, h o t a i r o r s t e a m .
80
c ASSUMPTIONS;
o
- 10 PERCENT MOISTURE IN DRIED SLUDGE
Z3
1
- 2000 Btu ARE REQUIRED TO EVAPORATE
m
co
o _
c
60
ONE POUND OF WATER
LLJ — 5
CL
*CM
a £
LU , T
CL
_ 40
II
<—
I
§
yj -*- 1
X
LU
h
<
_ -
3
+J
do
2
~
20
x
o
cc
CL
GL
<
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
PERCENT SOLIDS IN DRYER FEED
FIGURE 10- 1
ESTIMATE OF ENERGY REQUIRED TO DRY

WASTEWATER SLUDGE AS A FUNCTION OF
DRYER FEED SOLIDS CONTENT
10.3 1 . Design Example
Ten thousand pounds per hour ( 4 , 540 k g /h r ) o f a d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e

c o n t a i n i n g 2 0 p e r c e n t s o l i d s i s t o be d r i e d b y d i r e c t c o n t a c t
with hot air . The sludge temperature i s 60 ° F ( 17 ° C ) . The
temperature o f the a i r p r i o r t o heating i s 70°F ( 22 °C ) and i t s
absolute humidity i s 0.008 pounds water per pound of dry a i r .
T h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e d r i e d s l u d g e i s 1 4 0 ° F ( 6 0 °C ) . The dried
sludge i s 91 percent solids and 9 percent water . The dryer
exhaust gas temperature i s 240°F ( 116 ° C ) , and i t contains
0.12 pounds of water per pound of dry a i r . Radiant heat
l o s s e s f r o m t h e d r y e r s t r u c t u r e a r e 1, 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 B t u p e r h o u r
( 1, 0 5 4 , 0 0 0 k j/ h r ) .
A preheater i s used to heat the a i r prior to
1 0- 6
its entering the dryer, Figure 10 2 i s a schematic diagram for -
this required air flow ( G ) , the required air
example , The
inlet temperature to the dryer ( t2 ) , and the dryer evaporative
efficiency must be calculated.
IA
n
/ ET ci i i n r
- - - —
.c
n i f L "w fc r w i
=
LOADING 10.000 Ib /hr
SOU D$ CONTENT 20% =
TEMP = 60 F °
EXHAUST GAS
© ^ Y = MOISTURE CONTENT
QJ 2 lb waiter /
lt> dry air
INLET AsR
VOLUME * ( COMPUTE )
TEMP = °
240 F
Y = MOISTURE CONTENT
= 0, 008' lb 'wtmrf
lb dry air DRYER INLET AIR
TEMP - 70°F
(0
AIR
REHEATER
-
TEMP t 2 ( COMPUTEI-
SLUDGE
DRYER
RADIATION LOSS
NEAT SUPPLIED TO PROCESS (?) Mp; - lx tO® Slu / hf
HA « (COMPUTE)
t
DRIED SLUDGE
-
t IhyTif = 0,454 kgt ' hr
SOLIDS CONTENT
-
- 91 %
1 Btu/hr = 1.054 kJ /hr TfcMP ’ 140 P °
FIGURE 10- 2
SCHEMATIC FOR SLUDGE DRYING EXAMPLE
The following h e a t capacity information i s known o r assumed:
Heat Capacity ,
Substance B t u / l b/ ° F
i
Dry a i r 0.24
Dry solids 0.25
Water 1.0
Water vapor 0.45
Step 1 Determine the required air flow , ( G ) . Calculate a

moisture balance of substances entering and leaving the dryer .
1 . Moisture in:
lb sludge lb water
a . Moisture in sludge = 10 , 000 hr
0.8
l b sludge = 8 , 000 lb
per hour ( 3 . 6 t/h r ) .
10- 7
b . Moisture in inlet air
lb per hour .
= (° lb dry air
hr
0.008 lb water
lb dry air = 0.008 G
2. Moisture out :
a . Moisture in sludge
^
= 10,000 lb sludge
hr
per hour ( 91 kg /hr )
0.2
lb dry solids
lb sludge
. X 9 lb water
91 lb dry solids
200 lb
b . Moisture in air = ( lb dry air

hr
0.12 lb water
lb dry air )
3. Equate moisture in and moisture out 8 , 000 + 0.008 G 200 + 0.12 G .
4. Solve for inlet air flow ( G ) :
G = 69 , 600 pounds per hour ( 31.6 t /hr ) .

Step 2 Determine the required air inlet temperature ( t 2 ) .
Calculate a heat balance for the dryer .
A s u bs t a n c e T s h e a t
content w i t h respect to a g i v e n base temperature can be
calculated by assuming the heat required t o bring the substances
f r o m t h e base t e m p e r a t u r e t o t h e t e m p e r a t u r e b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d .
F o r t h i s e x a m p l e , a base t e m p e r a t u r e o f 3 2 ° F ( 0 ° C ) i s a r b i t r a r i l y
s e l e c t e d , a n d h e a t c o n t e n t ( a l s o known as e n t h a l p y ) i s c a l c u l a t e d
with respect to i t .
At steady state, heat in must equal heat
out . Consider the heat content of streams entering and leaving
t h e d r y e r:
1 . Heat into the dryer is the sum of
a . Heat content of sludge ( H4 )
(1 ) Heat content of dry solids
10,000
lb sludge 0 . 2 0 lb solids
hr sludge lb )( 0.25
Btu
lb/ °F
60-32 ° F
= 14 , 000 Btu per hour (14.8 GJ/hr ) .

(2) Heat content of water
10,000 lb
sludge
hr
0.80
lb water
lb sludge )( 1.0
Btu
lb°/F
= 224 , 000 Btu per hour ( 233 GJ /hr ) .

( 3) Summing ,
H4 = 14 , 000 + 224 , 000 = 238 , 000 Btu per hour

( 251 GJ/hr ) .
1 0- 8
b* Heat content of air entering the dryer ( H 2 )
(1 ) Heat content of dry air
69 , 600 hr
lb
0.24 lb F
/°
Btu
-
t 2 32 ° F
= 16 , 700 ( t 2-32 ) Btu/hr .

( 2 ) Determine the heat content of the moisture
associated with the air .
This includes heat
required to raise the moisture temperature from
3 2 ° F ( 0 °C ) t o t h e d e w p o i n t , v a p o r i z e t h e m o i s t u r e ,
and finally increase the vapor temperature to
t2 . From p s y c h r o m e t r i c c h a r t s (1) , t h e d e w p o i n t
( the temperature at which the a i r in question i s
saturated ) of a i r containing 0.008 pounds of water
p e r pound of d r y a i r i s 5 0 ° F ( 1 0 ° C ) .
From s t e a m
tables ( 6 ) , the latent heat of vaporization at
5 0 ° F ( 1 0 ° C ) i s 1 , 0 6 5 B t u p e r pound ( 2 . 5 G J / k g ) .
Heat content of moisture associated with air
\
lb dry air l b water Btu
69 , 600 0.008 lb dry air 1 . 0 lb ( 50-32 ° F )
hr / ° F;
Btu
+ 1, 065 + ( 0 . 4 5 lb/ ° F ( t 2-50 °F ) 603 , 000 + 250.7 ( t 2 50 ) -
B t u p e r hour .
( 3) Summing , H 2 = 16 , 714 ( t 2 - 32 ) + 603 , 000 + 250.7 ( t 2 - 50 )
= 16 , 960 t 2 + 55 , 600 Btu per hour .

2. Heat out of the dryer is the sum of :
a . Heat content of the "dried " sludge ( H3 ;

(1 ) Heat content of the dry solids
) ( I40-32°F )
lb sludge lb solids
=
10,000
hr
54 , 000 Btu per hour ( 57 GJ/ hr )

0.20 lb sludge
.
0.25
W ^ F
(2) Heat content of residual water
lb sludge lb solids 9 lb water Btu

= 10 , 000
hr
0.20 lb sludge 91 lb solids/
1 . 0 lb F
/°
x ( 140-32 ° F ) = 21, 400 Btu per hour ( 23 GJ / hr ) .
(3) Summing ,
H3 = 54 , 000 + 21, 400 = 75 , 400 Btu per hour ( 80 GJ/hr ) .

10 9 -
b . Heat content of the exhausted air ( H5 )
(1) Heat content of the dry air

/ lb dry airy 0.24 Btu \ / 240-32 °F \
= 69 , 600 [ 3 , 474 , 000 Btu
hr lb/° F
per hour ( 3.7 TJ / hr ) .
(2) Determine the heat content of the moisture
associated with the exhausted air From .
psychrometric charts ( 1 ) , the dewpoint of air
c o n t a i n i n g 0.12 p o u n d s w a t e r p e r p o u n d o f
dry a i r i s 135 °F ( 58 °C ) .
The latent heat of
v a p o r i z a t i o n a t 1 3 5 ° F ( 5 8 ° C ) i s 1017 Btu per
pound ( 2 . 4 G J / k g ) .
Heat content of moisture associated with
exhausted air
/ lb dry air l b water \ Btu
69 , 600 0.12 135-32 ° F
hr lb dry air / lb/ ° F
/ Btu
+ 1017 + 10.45 240-135 ° F 9 , 750 , 000 Btu per hour
lb/ ° F
( 10.3 TJ / hr ) .
(3) Summing ,
H5 = 3 , 474 , 000 + 9 , 750 , 000 = 13 , 224 , 000 Btu per hour

( 13.9 TJ/ hr ) .
c . Radiant heat loss, Hr 1, 000 , 000 Btu per hour
( 1 . 0 5 T J/h r ) .
3 . C a l c u l a t e a n o v e r a l l h e a t balance around the d r y e r , At
steady s t a t e , heat i n t o t h e d r y e r e q u a l s heat o u t , t h a t
1s H4 + H 2 H 3 + H5 + H r .
Therefore , 238 , 000
,
+ 16 960 2 + t 5 5 , 6 0 0 = 7 5 , 4 0 0 + 1 3 , 2 2 4 , 0 0 0 + 1, 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 .
4. Solve f o r d r y e r i n l e t a i r t e m p e r a t u r e ( t 2 )
t2 = 8 2 6 ° F ( 4 4 1° C ) .
Step 3 -
Determine the evaporative e f f i c i e n c y I n t h i s example , .
evaporative efficiency is defined as the heat supplied to
evaporate one pound of w a t e r , i n comparison t o the t h e o r e t i c a l
heat of v a p o r i z a t i o n:
1 . Determine heat supplied to the process ( H ) By an
^
.
overall heat balance around the process ( including
the air preheater ) , H = H 3 + H 5 + H R - H 4- H ] _.
^
1 0-1 0
a . From previous calculations, H 3 + H 5 + HR = " heat out "
= 75,400 + 13, 224 , 000 + 1,000,000 14, 299,000 Btu
per hour ( 15.0 TJ/ hr ) .
b. From previous calculations, H 4 = 238 , 000 Btu per
hour ( 251 GJ /hr ) .
c. Determine H], the heat content of the inlet air
^
(1 ) Heat content of dry air

/ lb Btu \ /
69 ,600 hr 0.24 lb/ 7 0- 3 2 °F 635 , 000 Btu
°Fy
per hour ( 669 GJ/ hr ) .
(2) Heat content of moisture associated with dry
inlet air
/ \
lb dry air lb water Btu
69,600 0.008 lb dry 1.0 lb F 50-32°Fj
hr airy /° )
Btu
608,401 Btu per hour
1065 + 0.45
lb/°F 70- °F
+ 50
(641 GJ/hr ).
(3 ) Summing ,
Hi 635 ,000 + 608, 000 1 , 243,000 Btu per hour

( 1.3 TJ/ hr ).
d. HA 14, 290 , 000- 238,000 1,243, 000 12, 809 , 000 Btu
per hour ( 13.5 TJ/hr ).
2. Heat supplied to evaporate 1 pound of water .

12, 809 ,000 Btu = ,
1 642 Btu per pound of water
7, 800 lb water
( 1.8 GJ /kg ).
3. Heat of vaporization of water at the inlet sludge

temperature = 1060 Btu per pound ( 2.5 GJ/kg ):
1, 060
Evaporative efficiency = 1 ,642 ( 100 ) = 64 percent.
10.3.2 Energy Cost of Heat- Dried Sludges Used for

Fertilizers
A simple analysis shows that heat-dried sludge is not competitive

with commercial fertilizers when the two are compared on the
basis of energy required per unit of nutrient produced. From
10-11
nma&stzsmtxmtr®
-
Figure 10 1 , the energy required to flash-dry a well dewatered
sewage sludge ( 40 percent solids concentration) is approximately
-
^
5.6 x 106 Btu per ton (7.3 x 10 kJ/t) of dry solids. Assuming
that the solids are four percent nitrogen by weight and that half
of the nitrogen is in plant-available form , the energy required
to produce 1.0 ton , ( 0.9 t ) of plant available nitrogen is
5.5 x 106 Btu 100 ton . dry solids x 2 ton N
-
x 280 x 106 Btu
ton dry solids 4A ton N ton available N
(295 x 106 kj).
The energy required to produce and distribute one ton of

commercial nitrogen is estimated to be 49 x 10 Btu per ton
of nitrogen ( 57 x 10 kJ/t ) ( 7 ).
^
Assuming all nitrogen in ^
-
commercial fertilizers is plant available and that 94 percent
of the energy consumed is for production and six percent for
distribution of raw materials and finished product , then
^
approximately 46 x 10 ( 49 kJ ) is required to produce one ton
(0.9 t ) of nitrogen on a commercial basis (7 ). This is approx-
imately 16 percent of the energy required to produce one ton of
available nitrogen from flash dried sludge. -
By similar calculations , it can be shown that one ton of
-
phosphorus from flash dried sludge requires about 15 to 20 times
as much energy to produce as one ton of phosphorus from
commercial fertilizers.
10.4 Environmental Impacts
-
Heat drying of sludge produces a material that usually contains
10 percent or less moisture , a moist gas stream that is ejected
to the atmosphere, and in some cases, a liquid sidestream , The
impacts of all of these products must be considered in the
-
design of the heat drying facilities , Some data on pathogenic
-
organism survival through heat drying processes are presented in
Chapter 7. -
Heat dried sludge should not be allowed to become
rewetted , since moisture creates an environment favorable for
regrowth of organisms. Once sludge is rewetted , anaerobic
decomposition can begin with the concomitant generation of
noxious odors. This is particularly a problem for sludges that
have not been previously stabilized.
Potential users of dried sludge prefer a granular or pelletized
product. A product which is dusty , odorous , or contaminated
with materials such as plastics , strings , Or cigarette butts is
difficult to sell or give away.
10.4.1 Air Pollution

The gas stream exhausted from the dryers may be the source of
odors and visible emissions , These appear to be most significant
-
in high gas velocity processes where the product is subject to
10-12
abrasion and dusting occurs , The most effective control measure
for these problems is afterburning , However , afterburning
requires supplementary fuel and may be prohibitively expensive
for many installations, Cyclones, wet scrubbers, electrostatic
precipitators, and baghouses have been used with varying degrees
of success.
Wet-scrubbing , electrostatic precipitators, and baghouses were

tested for the control of odors and visible emissions from a
Toroidal dryer located at the Blue Plains plant in Washington,
..
D C The electrostatic precipitator and wet scrubber were
unable to reduce emissions sufficiently to satisfy Washington's
stringent air pollution requirements, Baghouses were effective
when operating , but they persistently caught fire as a result of
ignited grease deposits and thus were not reliable.
10.4.2 Safety
Drying systems are exposed to heavy dusting and have had problems
with fires , The combination of combustible particles , warm
temperatures, sufficient oxygen, and high-gas velocities make
these systems susceptible to fires.
10.4.3 Sidestream Production
Liquid sidestreams are produced by certain ancilliary equipment

in heat -drying ( for example, wet scrubbers ), These sidestreams
frequently can be recycled to the headworks of the treatment
plant but may require separate treatment.
10.5 General Design Criteria
There are several common features of heat- drying processes for

which general design criteria can be developed.
10.5.1 Drying Capacity
The number and size of the dryers depend on the type of drying
operation contemplated. If the dryers are operated continuously ,
extra dryer capacity is needed so that all sludge produced can be
dried while maintenance and repairs are being performed . In
cases where non-continuous operation ( for example , 40 hours per
week ) is envisioned or where only one dryer is installed , the
dryer( s ) must have sufficient evaporative capacity to handle all
the sludge , including that generated when the dryers are not
on line. In the latter case, wet sludge storage requirements may
be significant.
10-13
10.5.2 Storage Requirements
The design engineer should consider storage requirements for both

the wet sludge feed and the dried product . Sufficient wet
sludge storage should be provided to allow orderly shutdown of
continuously operated drying processes ( approximately three day's
production at a peak rate ). Storage for the dried product
depends on the final disposal arrangement . Sales of the product
are likely to be seasonal , and considerable storage may be
necessary unless bulk buyers provide off - site storage. If
the dried product is burned as a fuel or undergoes further
processing , storage requirements are indicated by subsequent
steps in the sludge- processing system. Dust can become a problem
if the dried product is stored in bulk and is not pelletized . In
some cases , the material should be appropriately contained .
10.5 .3 Heat Source
The large amounts of energy required for heat- drying dictate that
close attention be given to the source used to heat the drying
medium. Natural gas and fuel oil are most frequently used but
are becoming more expensive, and shortages have occurred in the
past few years. Energy recovery within the heat-drying system
itself provides one way of reducing energy usage ; for example,
heat exchangers can be used to recover heat from the exhaust
gases . Recovery of heat from a power source within the plant is
another method ; for example, Milwaukee recovers waste heat from
gas turbine exhausts. The dried sludge itself has a fuel value
and may be used as a heat source for the drying medium.
10.5.4 Air Flow
Air flow is an important consideration in the design of direct

dryers. Air flow may be cocurrent , countercurrent , or crossflow .
In direct drying , cocurrent flow offers the advantage of higher
thermal efficiency due to rapid cooling of the heating medium
near the feed end with concomitant reduced heat losses through
the dryer structure , In addition , the dried sludge is not
subjected to high- gas temperatures near the discharge end , as
it would be in counterflow operation . This is advantageous
because it minimizes distillation of odorous materials and
increases thermal efficiency somewhat by reducing heat lost with
the dried sludge.
The rates of air flow are a function of the dryer design.

However , turbulent conditions must be maintained to ensure
intimate contact between the warm air and wet sludge , Dusting
problems may limit air flow rate.
10-14
1 0 . 5.5 Equipment Maintenance
A m a j o r m a i n t e n a n c e p r o b l e m i n s o m e d r y e r s is e r o s i o n o f
c o n v e y i n g e q u i p m e n t a n d d r y i n g s h e l l s by t h e a b r a s i v e dried
s l u d g e. This is particularly a p r o b l e m f o r d r y e r s processing W A S
from activated s l u d g e p l a n t s which h a v e only coarse screening f o r
grit removal. T h e use o f ferric chloride as a dewatering aid
m a y a l s o c r e a t e corrosive conditions t h a t e x a c e r b a t e t h e p r o b l e m.
W o r n conveying equipment c a n lead t o dusting problems , Abrasive
s l u d g e m a y r e s u l t in r e p l a c e m e n t o f r o t a r y d r y e r d r u m s h e l l s
every few years.
1 0 . 5.6 S p e c i a l Considerations
S p e c i a l equipment m a y b e needed w h e n dried material is p r o d u c e d .

F o r e x a m p l e , t h e v a l u e of dried s l u d g e m a y b e increased by
nutrient s u p p l e m e n t s such a s nitrogen, p h o s p h o r u s, o r potassium.
Also, t h e dried p r o d u c t m a y r e q u i r e finishing before sales ; f o r
e x a m p l e , pelletizing o r bagging o p e r a t i o n s m a y b e n e e d e d.
I n t h e United S t a t e s , t h e O r g a n i f o r m p r o c e s s , d e v e l o p e d b y
Orgonics , Inc., h a s been used t o increase t h e nitrogen content of
the dried sludge , T h i s p r o c e s s, b a s e d o n u r e a- f o r m a l d e h y d e
t e c h n o l o g y , w a s u s e d in a n e x i s t i n g h e a t - d r y i n g o p e r a t i o n a t
W i n s t o n- S a l e m , N o r t h C a r o l i n a, f r o m 1 9 7 3 t o 1 9 7 5 , a n d t h e
p r o t o t y p e system is still used a t a l e a t h e r tanning facility in
Slatersville , R h o d e Island ( 8 ) . T h e h e a t- drying operation a t
Winston-Salem w a s abandoned , however, because railroad siding
and terminal facilities for bulk s t o r a g e and shipment could n o t
,
be funded. T h e B a s e l C o u n t y T h e r m a l S l u d g e D r y i n g P l a n t in
Switzerland h a s p r o v i s i o n s f o r adding n i t r o g e n, p h o s p h o r u s , a n d
potassium t o t h e dried sludge f o r improvement o f its f e r t i l i z i n g
properties .
10.6 Conventional H e a t D r y e r s
Conventional h e a t- d r y i n g i s u s u a l l y p r e c e d e d by m e c h a n i c a l
dewatering and m a y b e followed by air pollution control devices
and s y s t e m s which a l t e r the form o f the dried material.
Mechanical dewatering is discussed in detail in C h a p t e r 9 . I t is
a n important p r e t r e a t m e n t s t e p since it r e d u c e s the volume o f
w a t e r t h a t m u s t be removed in the d r y e r , I n the d r y e r, w a t e r
that h a s n o t b e e n mechanically separated is e v a p o r a t e d without
decomposing t h e organic m a t t e r in t h e s l u d g e solids , This m e a n s
t h a t t h e solids t e m p e r a t u r e must be k e p t between 1 4 0 a n d 2 0 0° F
( 6 0 ° a n d 9 3 ° C ). A l a r g e portion o f t h e dried s l u d g e is o f t e n
blended with the sludge feed to the dryer, making the drying
o p e r a t i o n m o r e efficient by reducing agglomeration ( l a r g e balls
o f s l u d g e ), t h u s exposing a g r e a t e r solids s u r f a c e a r e a t o t h e
drying medium. Dried s l u d g e and e x h a u s t g a s e s a r e s e p a r a t e d in
the d r y e r itself and /o r in a c y c l o n e. T h e g a s s t r e a m can g o t o a
1 0-1 5
£*8aC8SHg&W
pollution control system for removal of odors and particulates.

T h e dried s l u d g e is t h e n s e n t t o a f i n i s h i n g s t e p s u c h a s
pelletizing o r bagging , o r it is stored in bulk for marketing o r
use in the next portion of the sludge management scheme.
10.6.1 Flash- Drying
F l a s h - drying is t h e rapid r e m o v a l of moisture by spraying o r

injecting t h e solids into a hot g a s s t r e a m , This process was
first applied in 1932 t o the drying of wastewater sludge at the
Chicago Sanitary District.
10.6 .1.1 Process Description
The Combustion Engineering - Raymond Flash Drying and Incineration

Process shown on Figure 10-3 , is typical of flash-drying units
used in the United States.
The flash- drying process is based on three distinct components

that can be combined in different arrangements , In the first
component , the wet sludge cake is blended with previously dried
sludge in a mixer to improve pneumatic conveyance. The blended
sludge and the hot gases from the furnace at 1 , 300° F ( 704° C ) are
mixed ahead of the cage mill , and flashing of the water vapor
begins. Gas velocities on the order of 65 to 100 feet per second
( 20 to 30 m/sec ) are used . The cage mill mechanically agitates
the sludge- gas mixture, and drying is virtually complete by the
time the sludge leaves the cage mill. The mean residence time is
a matter of seconds. The sludge , at this stage , has a moisture
content of only 8 to 10 percent and is considered dry . The dried
sludge is then separated from the spent drying gases in a
cyclone. Temperature of the dried sludge is about 160°F ( 71° C ) ,
and the exhaust gas temperature is about 220°F to 300° F ( 104° to
149° C ). The dried sludge can be sent either to storage or to the
furnace for incineration.
T h e s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t is t h e incineration p r o c e s s , Gas , oil ,

c o a l , or partially dried sludge is burned in the furnace to
provide heat needed t o dry the sludge, Combustion air , provided
by the combustion air fan , is preheated and injected into the
furnace at high velocity to promote complete fuel combustion.
Any ash that accumulates in the furnace bottom is periodically
removed.
T h e third c o m p o n e n t is t h e e f f l u e n t g a s t r e a t m e n t facility
o r induced d r a f t f a c i l i t y . T h i s c o n s i s t s o f t h e d e o d o r i z i n g
preheater, the combustion air heater, t h e induced draft fan, and
a gas scrubber. Odors are destroyed when the t e m p e r a t u r e of the
g a s from t h e cyclone is elevated in the deodorizing p r e h e a t e r.
P a r t of t h e h e a t a b s o r b e d is recovered in t h e c o m b u s t i o n air
p r e h e a t e r. T h e g a s t h e n p a s s e s t h r o u g h a d u s t collector
( generally a scrubber ) and is discharged t o the atmosphere.
10- 16
*I
EXHAUST
GAS
RELIEF
VENT
CYCLONE
AUTOMATIC
DAMPERS
VAPOR FAN
INDUCED
DRAFT FAN
EXPANSION SCRUBBER
JOINT
EXPANSION
DOUBLE EXPANSION JOINT
JOINT REMOTE
MANUAL FLAF VALVE MANUAL
DRY DAMPERS
DIVIDER
COMBUSTION
AIR PREHEATER
INLET
DRY PRODUCT AIR
CONVEYOR
WET SLUDGE DEODORIZING

CONVEYOR PREHEATER
BURNERS FURNACE
AUTOMATIC
DAMPERS —i
COMBUSTION AIR FAN

HOT GAS DUCT -#
FIGURE 10- 3
FLASH DRYER SYSTEM ( COURTESY OF C . E . RAYMOND )
10 -17
10.6.1 . 2 C a s e S t u d y: H o u s t o n, T e x a s
T h e f l a s h- drying operations a t H o u s t o n, T e x a s, illustrate the

operating experience and p e r f o r m a n c e o f the C-E Raymond Flash
Drying p r o c e s s . T h e r e a r e f o u r f l a s h d r y e r s a t t h e 4 5- M G D
3
( 1 . 9 7 - m /s ) Sims B a y o u p l a n t a n d five flash d r y e r s a t the 7 5-M G D
^
( 3 . 2 9 - m / s ) Northside p l a n t , with t w o a d d i t i o n a l units u n d e r
construction . The liquid process stream Consists of bar
s c r e e n i n g and activated s l u d g e , S l u d g e t r e a t m e n t consists o f
degritting , vacuum filtration with ferric chloride addition, a n d
flash- drying .
After gravity thickening , the sludge solids concentration is

about t w o p e r c e n t a t t h e Sims B a y o u p l a n t and a b o u t three p e r c e n t
at the Northside plant, The cake from the vacuum filters is
a b o u t 1 5 p e r c e n t solids , T h e ferric chloride additions a m o u n t
t o a b o u t 7 5 p o u n d s p e r t o n ( 3 7 k g /t ) o f d r y s o l i d s, o r a b o u t
3 . 8 p e r c e n t.
D e w a t e r e d s l u d g e is t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e d r y e r s b y belt conveyors.
Each flash d r y e r, with c a g e mill and 1 4-foot ( 4 . 3 m ) diameter
c y c l o n e, is rated a t 1 2 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s o f w a t e r p e r h o u r ( 5 , 448 kg /
h r ) but is o p e r a t e d a t 9 , 0 0 0 t o 1 0 ,0 0 0 p o u n d s o f w a t e r p e r h o u r
( 4 , 0 8 6 t o 4 , 5 4 0 k g /h r ) , Heat exchangers are provided for
high t e m p e r a t u r e deodorization and f o r preheating t h e c o m b u s t i o n
a i r. T h e c a g e m i l l i n l e t t e m p e r a t u r e is 9 0 0 ° F t o 1 , 1 5 0 ° F
( 4 8 2° C t o 6 2 1 ° C ) , a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a t t h e c y c l o n e is a b o u t
2 2 0 0 F ( 1 0 4 0 C ). T h e d e o d o r i z a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e is c o n t r o l l e d
around 1, 2 0 0° F ( 6 4 9° C ), and t h e s t a c k g a s t e m p e r a t u r e is 5 0 0 ° F t o
6 0 0°F ( 260 ° C t o 3 1 6 ° C ) a f t e r h e a t recovery , T h e f u e l used is
n a t u r a l g a s, and t h e h e a t input is about 2 2 million B t u p e r h o u r
( 23.2 million k j/ h r ) o r 2 , 200 t o 2,4 0 0 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 5 ,1 0 0 k j/k g
t o 5 ,6 0 0 k j/kg ) w a t e r e v a p o r a t e d.
M o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f t h e d r i e d p r o d u c t is a b o u t 5 . 5 p e r c e n t .
A b o u t n i n e t i m e s a s m u c h s o l i d s o n a d r y w e i g h t basis a r e
r e c y c l e d t o t h e p r e d r y e r d o u b l e p a d d l e mixer a s a r e r e m o v e d a s
p r o d u c t. T h e p r o d u c t is c o n v e y e d t o a s t o r a g e area or directly
t o railroad cars for shipment.
T h e p r o c e s s is a u t o m a t e d a n d p a n e l b o a r d s a r e p r o v i d e d t h a t
indicate and record variables s u c h a s air flow , t e m p e r a t u r e s a t
critical points , and a m p e r a g e o n f a n m o t o r s , T h e controls a r e
e n c l o s e d i n a i r- c o n d i t i o n e d c u b i c l e s , Horn alarms indicate
unsuitable t e m p e r a t u r e conditions .
T h e c o n t r o l s f o r the ferric chloride feeding h a v e p r o v e n t o b e
inadequate and h a v e led t o o p e r a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s.
Dust i s also a major p r o b l e m a t the Sims B a y o u p l a n t . T h e dried

s l u d g e d u s t is extremely abrasive, causing wear o n a l l mechanical
e q u i p m e n t. Wet sludge has also overflowed the top of the
c o n v e y o r s a t times, creating housecleaning p r o b l e m s.
1 0- 1 8
No specific cost data are available for the Houston facilities.
The dried product , Hou- actinite , is sold through a broker by
yearly contract.
10.6 . 2 Rotary Dryers

Rotary dryers use a sloped rotating cylinder to move the material
being dried from one end to the other by gravity , Direct ,
indirect , and direct- indirect rotary dryers have been used to dry
sludge.
10.6 . 2.1 Direct Rotary Dryers

Direct rotary dryers have been used in the United States and in
Europe for drying sludge. These include installations at Largo ,
Florida, and Stamford , Connecticut ( in conjunction with a refuse
incinerator ) and in Basel , Switzerland , Manufacturers include
the Heil Company , Combustion Engineering , Bartlett - Snow , and
Euranica , Inc.
Process Description
The features of a typical direct rotary drying system are

illustrated on Figure 10-4. Mechanically dewatered sludge is
added to a mixer and biended with previously dried sludge to
provide a low moisture dryer- feed. Hot gas at temperatures of
1 , 200° F ( 649 ° C ) is added to the dryer, usually in a cocurrent
flow pattern. After the sludge has been held in the dryer for
20 to 60 minutes , the dried sludge is discharged at a temperature
of 180 ° F to 200 ° F ( 82 to 93 ° C ). Exhaust gases are conveyed to a
cyclone where entrained solids are separated from the gases. The
spent gases exit at about 300 ° F ( 149° C ). A portion of the dried
product is recycled , and the balance goes to a finishing step , to
further processing , or to disposal. Gaseous discharge from the
cyclone goes to an air pollution control system for deodorization
and particulate removal as necessary. Figure 10 -4 shows several
alternatives for handling the exhaust gas. A long residence time
in the dryer may minimize deodorization requirements.
Design Considerations
The rotary drum usually consists of a cylindrical steel shell

that revolves at 5 to 8 rpm. One end of the dryer is slightly
higher than the other , and the wet sludge is fed into the higher
e nd . Flights projecting f rom the inside wall of the shell
continually raise the material and shower it through the dryer
gas , moving the material toward the outlet.
Gas flow through the drum may be either cocurrent or counter-

current to the sludge flow , Gas velocities must be limited to 4
to 12 feet per second ( 1.2 m/sec to 3.7 m/sec ) to prevent dust
from being entrained with the exhaust gas.
10-19
DIRECT DISCHARGE
ID ATMOSPHERE
CHEMICAL
SCHUBBfcR ATMOSPHERE
HOT EXHAUST
f
GAS S ROTARY L GASES
HEAT BURNER
AIR FURNACE f CYCLONE #
^jEXCHANGCft ^
f
FUEL
i see* TO
MIXY f
.
DRYER
\
\
3O0P F
'
^^ 1500°F
FUEL
BLENDED DRIED
SLUDGE SLUDGE SCHUD 6 ER ATMOSPHERE
133 F TO 2OCP r
°
*
BLENDER *
‘
BURNER
1500 F°
#* SCRUBBER - ATMOSPHERE
f
FEED SLUDGE
DISPOSAL
FUEL
\ /
V
ALTERNATIVES AVAILABLE FOR EXHAUST GAS DEODO RIZAT I ON
AND PARTICULATE REMOVAL
FIGURE 10- 4
SCHEMATIC FOR A ROTARY DRYER
Case Study: Largo , Florida
The Largo , Florida , Wastewater Treatment Plant has a rated

^
capacity of 9 MGD ( 0.39 m /s ) with average summer flow of 6 MGD
( 0.26 nw /s ) and winter flows greater than 9 MGD ( 0.39 m /s ). The
liquid process stream consists of coarse screening , grit removal ,
^
contact stabilization activated sludge , chlorination , and
dual media filtration. Waste-activated sludge is aerobically
digested , batch gravity decanted , and thickened. Since 1976 , the
thickened sludge has been dewatered by belt filter presses and
heat - dried in a rotary dryer . This system was supplied by
Ecological Services Products Inc. ( ESP ).
,
Approximately 1.6 dry tons ( 1.45 t ) of digested sludge is

produced daily and is processed at a rate of 2.2 tons ( 2.0 t ) per
day for a five-day week . Typical thickened aerobic sludge is
1 to 1.1 percent solids . The belt filter presses produce a
sludge cake that is typically 10 to 12 percent solids , Polymer
is used to condition the sludge prior to filtration .
10 20-
T h e r o t a r y d r y e r , manufactured by t h e Heil C o m p a n y , h a s an
evaporative capacity of approximately 5 , 4 0 0 p o u n d s water per hour
( 2 , 4 5 0 k g / h r ) . T h e Heil d r y e r e m p l o y s a 3 - in- l d r u m design .
S l u d g e moves forward t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r cylinder , t h e n back ,
through the intermediate cylinder, and forward again through the

o u t e r c y l i n d e r t o w a r d a f a n located a t the discharge of the
machine. The three cylinders are concentric and are mechanically
interlocked s o that they rotate at the same speed . Internal-
external flights o n each cylinder repeatedly raise the sludge t o
the t o p o f the drum . This design is claimed t o provide better
heat utilization by minimizing radiation losses, but maintenance
o n the drums is more complex than with a single shell.
T h e f a c i l i t i e s w e r e designed assuming 1 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s per h o u r

( 454 kg /hr ) of d r y solids throughput , based on feeding a sludge
c a k e of about 2 0 p e r c e n t solids . T h e d r y e r is w a t e r- limited
b e c a u s e the c a k e p r o d u c e d by t h e b e l t p r e s s e s is only 1 0 t o
1 2 percent solids , Actual throughput is about 600 p o u n d s per
h o u r ( 2 7 2 kg /hr ) o f d r y solids.
Heated air is provided by a natural gas burning furnace. Typical

d r y e r inlet air t e m p e r a t u r e is a b o u t 8 0 0 ° F ( 4 2 7 ° C ) , a n d t h e
o u t l e t t e m p e r a t u r e is a b o u t 1 8 0 ° F ( 8 2 ° C ). The average gas
t e m p e r a t u r e in the dryer is estimated t o be about 250 ° F ( 121°C ).
Off-gases from the cyclone s e p a r a t o r are typically 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ).
The dried p r o d u c t , L a r G r o w , is a relatively fine p e l l e t

produced naturally by the rotating drum . Product bulk density is
45 to 5 5 pounds per cubic feet ( 720 t o 880 kg /m ). T h e bagged
p r o d u c t moisture c o n t e n t i s a b o u t five p e r c e n t ,
^ The product
is screened before bagging t o remove cigarette filters and o t h e r
n o n d e g r a d a b l e materials such a s p l a s t i c s. I n 1 9 7 8 , a g a r d e n
products wholesaler contracted to purchase the sludge produced
for one year ( approximately 570 dry tons [ 517 t ] ) a t $ 54 per t o n
( $ 59 / t ). B e c a u s e t h e w h o l e s a l e r's m a r k e t s a r e s e a s o n a l , t h e
b a g g e d p r o d u c t is s t o r e d o n- s i t e f o r a p o r t i o n o f t h e y e a r .
The Ecological Services Products, Inc. ( ESP ) sludge drying plant

was installed in 1975-76 at a contract price of $ 850 , 000 ( c o s t o f
t h e building not included ). T h e approximate capital c o s t for the
facility c a n be broken down a s follows: 4 1 percent for sludge
a n d p o l y m e r pumping s y s t e m , belt filter p r e s s e s , and p o l y m e r
preparation and feed system ; 3 2 percent for the dryer, ductwork ,
fan , cyclones , and scrubber system ; and 27 percent for mechanical
c o n v e y o r s , r e c y c l e bin , p r o d u c t i o n s t o r a g e bin a n d bagging
f a c i l i t y. According to ESP personnel, the 1978 cost for a
similar p l a n t would be between $ 1.2 t o $ 1 . 3 million , including
installation and s t a r t u p.
Typical operating and maintenance costs for dewatering , drying ,

and bagging during 1977 are shown in Table 1 0-1.
10- 21
TABLE 10- 1
ESTIMATED 1977 COSTS FOR DEWATERING ,

DRYING AND BAGGING AT LARGO , FLORIDA ( 7 )
Annual cost , Cost/ton ,

Item dollars dollars
Polymer 13 ,000 23
Gas 26 ,000 45
Labor 21 , 000 36
Power 11 ,000 20
Total 77 ,000 134
These costs are based on unit costs at Largo of $ 2.60 per

p o u n d ( $ 5 . 7 2/ k g ) o f p o l y m e r , $ 1 . 6 2 p e r 1 , 0 0 0 c u b i c f e e t
^
( $ 57.20/1 0 0 0 m ) o f natural g a s , 3.4 c e n t s p e r k W h r of electri-
city , and $ 0.24 per bag. H e n c e, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9 . 9 p o u n d s
( 4.5 k g ) o f p o l y m e r , 2 7 , 8 0 0 cubic f e e t ( 7 9 0 m 3 ) o f natural g a s,
590 kWhr of electricity , and 42 bags are used per dry ton of
p r o d u c t.
A l t h o u g h a specific deodorization s y s t e m h a s n o t b e e n included ,

o d o r p r o b l e m s h a v e b e e n m i n i m a l. T h e r e a r e o c c a s i o n a l o d o r
p r o b l e m s w h e n sludge t h a t is t o o w e t e n t e r s t h e d r y e r. There
h a v e b e e n some p r o b l e m s with w e a r in t h e conveying facilities d u e
t o t h e dried sludge material being more abrasive t h a n originally
estimated . T h e pug mill b l a d e s and screw c o n v e y o r t o the d r y e r
have been replaced. R e p l a c e m e n t p a r t s h a v e been specified t o
include h e a t treatment o f t h e screw c o n v e y o r and t h e addition o f
c e l l i t e o r c a r b o r u n d u m p l a t e s o n t h e w e a r i n g s u r f a c e s. The
s y s t e m supplier, E S P , h a s indicated t h a t t h e s e c h a n g e s will be
c o n s i d e r e d f o r f u t u r e e q u i p m e n t. T h e r e h a v e b e e n f e w o t h e r
operating and maintenance p r o b l e m s.
10.6 . 2.2 Indirect Drying
Indirect r o t a r y d r y e r s have n o t been u s e d in the United S t a t e s

f o r drying s l u d g e. Vertical thin film d r y e r s a r e used a t the
Dieppe , F r a n c e , coincineration facility ( 9 , 1 0 ). The two LUWA
D o u b l e -W a l l D r y e r s i n s t a l l e d a t D i e p p e o p e r a t e o n 1 4 0 p s i
( 9 6 6 k N/ m ) s t e a m a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f a b o u t 3 5 5° F ( 1 8 0 ° C ).
^ The
e v a p o r a t e r s a r e v e r t i c a l , w i t h t o p inlet a n d b o t t o m o u t l e t .
S t e a m g e n e r a t e d f r o m r e f u s e incineration i s f o r c e d into t h e d r y e r
and h e a t s a " j a c k e t" surrounding t h e incoming dewatered s l u d g e.
T h e s l u d g e is s p r e a d over the inner cylindrical s u r f a c e o f the
d r y e r by a r o t o r carrying s e l f - adjusting vanes, a t a t o p s p e e d
o f a b o u t 2 5 f e e t p e r s e c o n d ( 7 . 6 m/s e c ). T h e w a t e r v a p o r t r a v e l s
u p w a r d , c o u n t e r t o t h e s l u d g e f l o w , a n d is b l o w n i n t o t h e
incinerator , w h e r e it is deodorized . T h e dried s l u d g e f a l l s o n t o
a c o n v e y o r b e l t a n d is incinerated with t h e r e f u s e .
10- 22
A n o t h e r t y p e o f i n d i r e c t s l u d g e d r y e r is t h e j a c k e t e d a n d / o r
h o l l o w-f l i g h t d r y e r a n d c o n v e y o r , A s c h e m a t i c o f a j a c k e t e d
hollow-flight d r y e r is presented o n F i g u r e 1 0- 5. T h e s e units c a n
p e r f o r m t h e d u a l function o f h e a t t r a n s f e r a n d solids conveying
in o n e piece of equipment--generally a horizontal , semi-circular
trough with a jacket or coil to provide heat ( 10). This
equipment h a s o n e o r more agitation devices ( f o r e x a m p l e , s c r e w ,
flight, disc , p a d d l e ) rotating o n t h e a x i s t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r of
t h e t r o u g h. A significant d e g r e e o f agitation is necessary t o
maintain reasonable heat transfer, Simple screw conveyors
a r e notably poor in this r e g a r d , b e c a u s e increasing the s p e e d
r e d u c e s t h e r e s i d e n c e t i m e in t h e d r y e r by m o v i n g t h e s l u d g e
rapidly t h r o u g h t h e s y s t e m , H e a t t r a n s f e r coefficients for this
t y p e o f equipment r a n g e from 1 5 t o 7 5 B t u p e r h o u r p e r s q u a r e
f o o t p e r ° F ( 1 8 . 6 t o 9 3 c a l / s q c m /° C ) , d e p e n d i n g o n m o i s t u r e
c o n t e n t and d e g r e e o f a g i t a t i o n.
/
BREAKER
te BARS
VJV j IL
JACKETED
VESSEL
JOINT
AGITATOR -
DISCHARGE
FIGURE 10- 5
JACKETED HOLLOW- FLIGHT DRYER

( COURTESY BETHLEHEM CORPORATION )
T h e agitators , p a d d l e s, o r flights s h o u l d a l s o be designed t o

minimize build- u p o n t h e w a l l s o f t h e d r y e r and o n t h e agitator
itself. G e n e r a l l y , baffles o r p l o u g h s should be provided b e t w e e n
1 0- 2 3
the flights to improve mixing and to break up any lumps that
f o r m. The rotating flights are often fitted with small paddles
or similar projections to improve agitation and reduce fouling of
the shell surface.
Significant increases in heat transfer can also be obtained if

the rotor is hollow and fitted for steam heating . A hollow
heated rotor often provides one to two times the heat transfer
area available in the shell.
1 0 . 6. 2 . 3 Direct-Indirect Rotary Dryers

The direct - indirect rotary dryer is similar to indirect dryers
employing hot air or gases as the heating medium , In direct-
indirect drying , however, the heating medium is recirculated to
flow in direct contact with the drying sludge in addition to
heating the metal drying surfaces.
Case Study: Milwaukee , Wisconsin

The drying o p e r a t i o n a t M i l w a u k e e's 2 0 0 -M G D ( 8 . 7 6-m 3 /s ) J o n e s
Island P l a n t e m p l o y s t e n d i r e c t- indirect r o t a r y , c o u n t e r f l o w ,
k i l n- t y p e d r y e r s f o r t r e a t i n g w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e. T h e p l a n t
i s d e s i g n e d f o r c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n. T o a c h i e v e t h i s , n i n e
d r y e r s m u s t a l w a y s b e in o p e r a t i o n. T h e d r y i n g s y s t e m p r o d u c e d
o v e r 7 4,0 0 0 t o n s ( 6 7, 3 0 0 t ) o f dried p r o d u c t in 1 9 7 6 . Thickened
w a s t e-activated s l u d g e is c o n d i t i o n e d w i t h ferric c h l o r i d e a n d
f i l t e r e d o n v a c u u m f i l t e r s. Wet filter cake (approximately
1 4 p e r c e n t solids ) is mixed with an approximate equal weight of
previously dried material in a screw conveyor and fed to the
direct - i n d i r e c t d r y e r s. T h e t e n c u s t o m- b u i l t d r y e r s a r e e a c h
8 f e e t ( 2 . 4 m i n d i a m e t e r a n d 5 7 f e e t ( 1 7 . 4 m ) l o n g. E a c h d r y e r
)
c a n e v a p o r a t e approximately 1 0 ,0 0 0 p o u n d s ( 4 , 5 4 0 k g ) w a t e r p e r
h o u r ( a t 9 0 p e r c e n t c a p a c i t y ) with a n i n l e t a i r t e m p e r a t u r e o f
1 , 2 0 0 ° F ( 6 4 9 ° C ). T h e r o t a t i n g d r u m , with l i f t i n g a n g l e s , p i c k s
u p t h e w e t m i x t u r e t h a t is d r o p p e d s u b s e q u e n t l y t o t h e b o t t o m a s
a s h o w e r o f p a r t i c l e s. T h e s l u d g e i s c o n t i n u o u s l y lifted a n d
d r o p p e d t h r o u g h t h e h o t g a s e s, p r o g r e s s i n g a s a m o v i n g curtain
t h r o u g h t h e l e n g t h o f t h e d r y e r d u r i n g t h e 4 5 -m i n u t e d r y i n g
c y c l e . T h e g r a n u l a r dried s l u d g e ( M i l o r g a n i t e ) h a s b e e n s o l d a s
a fertilizer s i n c e 1 9 2 5. Rejected dust and fine particles are
pelletized, and the pellets are reground to produce granular
s a l e a b l e m a t e r i a l.
T h e d r y e r a i r inlet t e m p e r a t u r e i s c o n t r o l l e d a t 1 , 2 0 0 ° F ( 6 4 9 ° C ).
T h e e x h a u s t e d g a s l e a v e s t h e d r y e r a t 2 5 0° F ( 1 2 1 ° C ) a n d i s p a s s e d
t h r o u g h c y c l o n e s e p a r a t o r s t o r e m o v e f i n e p a r t i c l e s, Each dryer
h a s i t s o w n f u r n a c e. Originally , coal was used as a fuel, then
coke oven gas ( after furance modification ) , and then natural gas
w i t h s t a n d b y f u e l o i l . I n t h e m i d -1 9 7 0 s , g a s t u r b i n e s w e r e
installed , a n d t h e g a s f r o m t h e s e turbines , a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9 0 0 ° F ( 4 8 2°C ), is now fed to the modified furnaces
a n d t w o w a s t e h e a t r e c o v e r y b o i l e r s. The gas burners are used to
1 0-2 4
provide t h e additional h e a t n e c e s s a r y t o m a i n t a i n t h e d r y e r i n l e t
t e m p e r a t u r e a t 1 , 2 0 0 ° F ( 6 4 9 ° C ). T h e r e c o v e r e d turbine e x h a u s t
heat s u p p l i e s 7 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e h eat required for the sludge
drying o p e r a t i o n.
The dried sludge product is abrasive , and the wet sludge is
corrosive b e c a u s e o f t h e f e r r i c chloride u s e d , I n t e r n a l s o f t h e
drum must be replaced about every three years, The present
dryers are over 20 years old , and plans are being made to add
t h r e e d i r e c t , c o c u r r e n t r o t a r y d r y e r s a n d t o rehabilitate t h e
e x i s t i n g d r y e r s.
1 0 . 6.3 Incinerators
I n s l u d g e i n c i n e r a t i o n , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e s l u d g e is raised
t o 2 1 2°F ( 1 0 0 °C ) , a n d t h e w a t e r is e v a p o r a t e d f r o m t h e s l u d g e
before it is ignited ; that is, the sludge is dried prior to
ignition. S e v e r a l o p t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e with incinerators. If
h e a t i n p u t s a r e r e d u c e d , t h e incinerator c a n b e u s e d a s a d r y e r
a l o n e. Alternatively , a portion of the dried sludge can be
r e m o v e d a t a n intermediate p o i n t in t h e incinerator , with t h e
remainder proceeding o n w a r d t o b e b u r n e d , Finally , a l l s l u d g e
m a y b e i n c i n e r a t e d.
Modifications m a y b e r e q u i r e d if t h e s e u n i t s a r e t o b e u s e d f o r
d r y i n g a l o n e ; f o r e x a m p l e , modifications t o a m u l t i p l e- h e a r t h
f u r n a c e w o u l d include f u e l b u r n e r s a t t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m h e a r t h s
p l u s d o w n-d r a f t o f t h e g a s e s, If t h e s l u d g e is t o b e d i s p o s e d
o f , i n c i n e r a t i o n p r o v i d e s g r e a t e r v o l u m e reduction t h a n drying
a l o n e.
I n c i n e r a t i o n i s d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 1 1. P r o c e s s e s i n c l u d e
m u l t i p l e- h e a r t h , fluid - bed , a n d electric f u r n a c e s.
1 0 . 6 .4 Toroidal D r y e r
T h e T o r o i d a l ( d o u g h n u t-s h a p e d ) d r y e r i s a r e l a t i v e l y n e w d r y e r
t h a t i s e m p l o y e d i n t h e U O P , I n c. O R G A N O- SYSTEMR f o r s l u d g e
p r o c e s s i n g . T h e d r y e r w o r k s o n a j e t m i l l p r i n c i p l e a n d contains
n o m o v i n g p a r t s. T r a n s p o r t o f solid material within t h e d r y i n g
z o n e i s accomplished e n t i r e l y b y h i g h- v e l o c i t y a i r m o v e m e n t .
1 0 . 6 .4 . 1 Process Description
A s i m p l i f i e d p r o c e s s flow d i a g r a m o f t h e U O P O R G A N O- SYSTEMR i s
s h o w n o n F i g u r e 1 0 -6 . The system is composed of wet sludge
s t o r a g e, m e c h a n i c a l d e w a t e r i n g , s l u d g e d r y i n g , a i r p o l l u t i o n
c o n t r o l , f i n a l p r o d u c t f i n i s h i n g , a n d s t o r a g e.
The mechanical dewatering step is designed to deliver the
dewatered sludge to the dryer at about 35 percent to 40 percent
s o l i d s. T h e d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e i s m i x e d w i t h p r e v i o u s l y d r i e d
s l u d g e t o r e d u c e t h e moisture concentration o f t h e d r y e r feed .
1 0- 2 5
INCOMING
-
> A < r;T
HVL. i
f> i i IP>
^(;
•
WET
SLUDGE
STORAGE
MECHANICAL SECONDARY
DEWATERING STORAGE AtR
¥
h AIR EMISSIONS
CONTROL
PRODUCT
COLLECTOR
BLOWER
o
AIR HEATER
TOROIDAL DRYER
L
PRODUCT FINISHING
PRODUCT TO
CUSTOMER
FIGURE 10- 6
TOROIDAL DRYING SYSTEM
Heated process air is distributed through three manifold jets to

the lower segment of the toroidal drying zone chamber. The air
from one of the three jets is directed in such a way as to
impinge upon the incoming wet feed material and propel this
material into the drying zone , where particle size reduction and
drying begins. Additional jets in the drying zone convey the
material into the toroid for additional drying , grinding , and
classifying .
Process air and solids within the toroid move at a velocity
of approximately 100 feet per second ( 30 meters per second ).
-
The high velocity gas stream reduces the size of lumps or
agglomerated feed material by impingement against the interior
walls of the drying chamber and by collision with other
particles. Wetter and heavier particles travel a path along the
internal periphery of the dryer , whereas drier and lighter
particles are swept out with the gas stream and are removed from
the drying zone. Heavy , wet particles stay in the dryer until
they are broken up and dried .
The inlet termperature is usually controlled within the range of
500°F to 1 ,400°F ( 260°C to 760°C ). There is a sharp drop in the
gas temperature within the dryer when the hot inlet gas stream
meets the incoming wet sludge. The dryer exhaust temperature is
usually controlled at a specific setpoint within the range of
190°F to 300°F (90°C to 150°C). The product temperature normally
does not exceed 150°F (66°C).
-
10 26
T h e dried s l u d g e p a r t i c l e s e x i t i n g t h e toroid a r e s e n t t o a
c y c l o n e w h e r e t h e y a r e s e p a r a t e d from t h e g a s s t r e a m . A p o r t i o n
o f t h e dried s l u d g e i s b a c k - mixed w i t h t h e w e t feed , a n d t h e
r e m a i n d e r i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e p r o d u c t f i n i s h i n g s e c t i o n.
T h e r e , t h e dried p r o d u c t m a y be extruded ( a t a t e m p e r a t u r e of
1 4 0 ° F [ 6 0 ° C ] ) , c u t into p e l l e t s, a n d b a g g e d , if desired .
Otherwise, t h e p r o d u c t is r o u t e d t o s u b s e q u e n t s l u d g e p r o c e s s e s
i n c l u d i n g c o d i s p o s a l/e n e r g y recovery o r l a n d application. G a s e s
f r o m t h e c y c l o n e a r e t r e a t e d by p r o c e s s e s t h a t m a y include
w e t s c r u b b e r s , e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s , a n d b a g h o u s e s.
Deodorizing chemicals m a y be required .
1 0 . 6.4 . 2 Current Status
T h e toroidal d r y e r h a s been demonstrated o n a full-s c a l e basis .

A 2 4 0 -t o n s- w a t e r- p e r - d a y e v a p o r a t i v e c a p a c i t y O R G A N O- SYSTEMR
w a s o p e r a t e d by U O P O r g a n i c R e c y c l i n g a t t h e B l u e P l a i n s
w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t in W a s h i n g t o n , D C , f o r o v e r t h r e e
y e a r s. - R a w s l u d g e, d i g e s t e d primary s l u d g e , a n d w a s t e- activated
s l u d g e , a s well a s mixtures o f t h e s e s l u d g e s, were p r o c e s s e d.
This s y s t e m i s n o l o n g e r in operation , A 2 4-t o n s- w a t e r- p e r-day
evaporative capacity unit is installed a t UOP 's W e s t Chester,
Pennsyvania, r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t facility .
10.6.5 S p r a y- Drying
S p r a y- drying s y s t e m s are similar t o flash- drying s y s t e m s in t h a t

almost instantaneous drying o c c u r s in both.
1 0 . 6.5.1 Process Description
S p r a y- drying involves three f u n d a m e n t a l s t e p s: liquid atomiza-

tion, g a s/d r o p l e t mixing , and drying from liquid droplets ( 1 ).
A t o m i z e r s a r e u s u a l l y high - p r e s s u r e n o z z l e s , o r h i g h - s p e e d
centrifugal dishes o r bowls. T h e atomized d r o p l e t s a r e usually
s p r a y e d d o w n w a r d into a v e r t i c a l t o w e r t h r o u g h which h o t g a s e s
p a s s d o w n w a r d . D r y i n g is c o m p l e t e w i t h i n a f e w s e c o n d s ; t h e
product is removed from the bottom, and the gas stream is
exhausted t h r o u g h a cyclonic d u s t s e p a r a t o r.
Abrasive materials c a n cause p r o b l e m s with the atomizing devices.

Centrifugal bowls o r discs a p p a r e n t l y r e q u i r e l e s s m a i n t e n a n c e
because t h e y a r e less likely t o become plugged .
1 0 . 6 .5 . 2 Current Status
A Nichols - Spray Dryer was installed and operated at the

w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t a t A n s o n i a, C o n n e c t i c u t , t o d r y
s l u d g e . Dewatered s l u d g e w a s s p r a y e d into t h e t o p o f a cone- like
a p p a r a t u s containing rotating " wheels." T h e heating medium was
h o t flue g a s e s ( 1 , 300 ° F [ 7 0 5°C ] ) from t h e stack o f a municipal
1 0-2 7
refuse incinerator , Operation of the incinerator has been
limited to about five hours per day because of state air
pollution control requirements ; the drying time was likewise
limited . A burnable, dried product with greater than 90 percent
solids has been produced with this system. The dried sludge has
been given away as a soil conditioner rather than burned in the
refuse incinerator.
10.7 Other Heat- Drying Systems

Two are currently available that differ somewhat from conven-
tional heat-drying systems. They are the Basic Extractive Sludge
Treatment ( BEST ) process , which employs solvent extraction ,
and the Carver-Greenfield process, which uses multiple-effect
evaporation. Both of these systems employ an externally supplied
liquid to assist in the removal of water from wet sludge.
10.7.1 Solvent Extraction-- BEST Process
The BEST process is based on the use of an organic solvent

to reduce the amount of water that must be evaporated in a
conventional drying step , The process was developed by and
is available from Resource Conservation Company of Renton,
Washington.
10.7.1.1 Process Description
The BEST process, shown schematically on Figure 10-7, uses an

aliphatic amine solvent ( triethylamine or TEA ) to separate sludge
solids and water. The key to this process is the temperature-
sensitive miscibility properties of TEA . Below 65° F ( 180 C ) , TEA
and water solutions of any concentration are completely miscible
and form a single- phase , homogeneous solution , Above this
temperature, the mixture separates into two distinct layers , the
top layer being nearly all TEA and the bottom layer nearly all
water.
As shown in the diagram , incoming sludge is mixed with chilled,
recycled solvent. The cooled mixture is then fed into a
conventional dewatering unit, such as a vacuum filter , press,
or centrifuge . After dewatering , the wet cake is fed to a
continuous dryer operated between 250 ° F and 290 ° F ( 120 ° C and
140°C ). The liquid in the wet cake contains a high percentage
of TEA . The latent heat of TEA is approximately 133 Btu per
pound ( 309 kJ /kg ) compared to approximately 1 , 000 Btu per pound
( 2320 kJ /kg ) of water. Because of this, the drying process is
faster and uses less direct energy for drying than if the liquid
were only water . Vapors coming from the dryer are condensed
( condenser not shown ) and combined with the liquid left from the
dewatering step. This solvent/water mixture is then heated and
collected in a decanter , where the components separate into two
distinct layers.
10- 28
t
DECANTER
140DF
7
i
SOLVENT A ,
HEAT STILL HEAT

EXCHANGER WATER
EXCHANGER
T
STILL
140“ F
MIX
i
20° F OIL
40°F
50 Fj
LIQLMD /50 LID
JUNCTION SEPARATOR
HEAT
HEAT
'X
50°F EXCHANGER 40°F
EXCHANGER
DRYER
SLUDGE 4 DRY PRODUCT

SOLIDS WATER
FIGURE 10- 7
SCHEMATIC OF B . E . S . T . PROCESS
The solvent i s drained o f f the top o f the decanter and recycled

( a f t e r c h i l l i n g ) t o mix with new incoming sludge .
M e a n w h i l e, t h e
w a t e r i s d e c a n t e d t o a d i s t i l l a t i o n c o l u m n t o b e s t e a m- s t r i p p e d
of residual solvent, which also i s recycled .
Oils and f a t s
extracted from the sludge by the solvent are recovered i n the
solvent s t i l l .
The product water i s returned t o the headworks o f
the treatment plant .
Resource Conservation Company claims that the system i s entirely
closed, except f o r a small gas vent, and creates no environmental
p r o b 1e m s .
Air pollution and odor control equipment , i f
specified , would be required to handle only a relatively small
volume of exhaust gas .
10.7 1.2 . Current Status
A f u l l- s c a l e B E S T s y s t e m h a s y e t t o b e o p e r a t e d .
A 1- g a l l o n- p e r -
m i n u t e ( 4 1/ m ) d e m o n s t r a t i o n t e s t u n i t k n o w n a s " m i n i - B E S T "
was evaluated by Metropolitan Engineers i n 1975 as p a r t o f
Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle ' s research program .
C o m b i n a t i o n s o f s e t t l e d p r i m a r y a n d t h i c k e n e d w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d
sludges were treated i n the p i l o t f a c i l i t y .
The study team
c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e BEST p r o c e s s was n o t c o s t- e f f e c t i v e f o r
1 0- 2 9
Seattle Metro ( 12 ). The process was also compared by the LA/OMA
project with several other candidate sludge disposal systems and
found to be one of the more expensive alternatives for the
Los Angeles area ( 13 ).
10.7.1.3 Operating Experience

Operating experience is limited to laboratory and pilot plant
tests. Dried solids ( about 5 percent water) and product water
are disinfected as a result of the high temperature ( 250°F
[121°C]) in the dryer and the high pH of the solvent solution.
Sodium hydroxide ( NaOH ) is added to maintain an alkaline
condition , since TEA precipitates an acidic environment. NaOH
also conditions the sludge to improve dewatering and the dryer
performance. The dried product is easy to handle and transport ;
however, pelletizing may be necessary to prevent dusting and to
enhance product marketability.
Primary sludge from Seattle Metro's West Point plant , containing
3.4 percent solids and pretreated with 2 to 5 g NaOH/1 (100 to
300 pounds per ton dry solids ), was blended with TEA and
centrifuged . A cake of approximately 30 percent solids was
- -
produced. A solvent to sludge ratio of 6:1 was maintained . The
liquid fraction contained 60 percent solvent and 40 percent
water , which reduced the energy required to evaporate the liquid ,
compared to drying of 30 percent cake with a 100 percent water
fraction. The dried product averaged 86 percent solids with
1.6 percent solvent by weight. Product water , following
decanting and solvent extraction in the water still , averaged
280 mg/1 suspended solids , contained less than 0.01 percent
solvent, and had a pH of 10.6 .
-
This high technology process is quite complex and may require a
competent chemical engineer to ensure efficient operation ( 12).
There are a relatively large number of components in the system
and , hence , maintenance costs may be high . Unpleasant odors
-
( ammonia 1 ike ) existed in the exhaust gas during the Seattle
study. A deodorization system may be required (12). Full scale
data on chemical and energy requirements, as well as operating
-
reliability , are not currently available on the BEST system.
10.7.2 -
Multiple Effect Evaporation
Process
— Carver Greenfield
-
Multiple effect evaporation is another technique that can be used
to remove water from sludge. The Carver Greenfield process ,
-
offered jointly by Foster Wheeler Energy Corporation and
-
Dehydro Tech Corporation , uses this technology .
-
The basis of economy for multiple effect evaporation is steam
reuse. Steam generated in the first evaporator ( by evaporation
of water from sludge ) is used as the heating fluid in the second
evaporator. The method is feasible if the second evaporator is
operated at a lower pressure than the first.
-
10 30
1 0 . 7.2 . 1 P r o c e s s Description
T h e C a r v e r-Greenfield process uses a m u l t i p l e- effect evaporation

p r o c e s s t o extract w a t e r from s l u d g e, T h e major s t e p s in t h e
process are oil mixing , multiple- effect evaporation , oil-solid
separation, a n d c o n d e n s a t e-oil separation.
T h e a p p l i e d s l u d g e is m i x e d with a p e t r o l e u m h y d r o c a r b o n o i l
( N u m b e r 2 f u e l o i l a n d I s o p a r l, a n E x x o n p r o d u c t, h a v e b e e n
used ). T h e u s e o f o i l m a i n t a i n s f l u i d i t y in a l l e v a p o r a t o r
e f f e c t s a n d minimizes s c a l e f o r m a t i o n and c o r r o s i o n o f h e a t
e x c h a n g e s u r f a c e s. T h e s l u d g e-o i l s l u r r y i s p u m p e d t h r o u g h
a g r i n d e r t o t h e m u l t i p l e- e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r , The grinder
r e d u c e s t h e size o f s l u r r y solids t o p r e v e n t obstructions in t h e
e v a p o r a t o r t u b e s, t o o p t i m i z e e v a p o r a t i o n , a n d t o s i m p l i f y
control.
F a l l i n g - f i l m e v a p o r a t i o n is u s e d ; t h a t is , t h e w a t e r t o b e
evaporated is removed a s t h e slurry r o l l s d o w n t h e e v a p o r a t o r
tubes in film flow. Steam and vapor flow is countercurrent
to the slurry flow. Vapors flow from high temperature ( high
p r e s s u r e ) t o low t e m p e r a t u r e ( low p r e s s u r e ), while t h e slurry
flows from low t e m p e r a t u r e ( low pressure ) t o high t e m p e r a t u r e
( h i g h p r e s s u r e ). S t e a m is a p p l i e d , a t p r e s s u r e s a s l o w a s
^
5 0 p s i g ( 3 4 5 k N/ m ), t o t h e s h e l l s i d e o f t h e f i r s t e f f e c t
( l a s t s t a g e ) a n d i t s c o n d e n s a t e r e t u r n e d t o t h e b o i l e r. T h e
w a t e r v a p o r s removed from t h e t u b e side in t h a t s t a g e provide t h e
s t e a m f o r the n e x t ( s e c o n d ) e f f e c t shell side. T h e w a t e r vapors
condensed in the second effect are drained t o t h e hot well. T h e
s t e a m e n e r g y , t h u s , is used m a n y t i m e s. I n e a c h s u b s e q u e n t
e f f e c t , t h e v a p o r t e m p e r a t u r e is lower. The vapor f r o m t h e l a s t
effect ( first stage ) is condensed in a surface condenser and
drained t o the hot well.
Oil remaining after evaporation of w a t e r is s e p a r a t e d from t h e
solids by centrifuging , O i l i s r e u s e d in t h e p r o c e s s , a n d
t h e dried s l u d g e p r o d u c t is subjected t o f u r t h e r processing o r
d i s p o s a l. The condensate from the evaporation system results
in a s i d e s t r e a m c o n t a i n i n g a m m o n i a a n d d i s s o l v e d o r g a n i c s ,
but few inorganics, This sidestream may require subsequent
treatment. G a s e o u s emissions from t h e system must be s e n t to a
boiler o r incinerator for o d o r destruction.
10.7.2.2 Current Status
According t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r , o v e r 6 5 C a r v e r- Greenfield
installations are in o p e r a t i o n worldwide. M a n y o f t h e s e s y s t e m s
h a v e o p e r a t e d a t i n d u s t r i a l f a c i l i t i e s in t h e United S t a t e s ,
i n c l u d i n g a f o u r- e f f e c t s y s t e m a t t h e A d o l p h C o o r s B r e w e r y in
G o l d e n , C o l o r a d o. T h i s s y s t e m' s w a t e r e v a p o r a t i v e c a p a c i t y
i s 6 0 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r h o u r ( 2 7 , 2 4 0 k g / h r ) w h i c h a l l o w s it t o
process approximately 1 8 0 ,000 g a l l o n s p e r d a y ( 6 8 2 mVday ) f
a 4 p e r c e n t w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e f e e d ( 8 , 1 0 ). T w o s y s t e° ms
1 0- 3 1
are also operating at sewage treatment plants in Japan , The
first , installed at Fukuchiyama, is a three-effect unit which
processes combined primary and secondary sludge at rates up to
43 , 000 gallons per day ( 170 m /d ) of 4.5 percent feed material.
^
The second , installed at Hiroshima , is a four- effect unit ,
^
which can process up to 264, 000 gallons per day ( 998 m /d ) of a
2 percent feed solids. The product at both facilities is used as
boiler fuel.
A 200- pound - per- hour ( 91 kg / hr ) evaporative capacity single-

effect pilot unit was evaluated at the Hyperion plant in
Los Angeles by LA/OMA ( 14 ). LA/OMA engineers concluded that
the Carver - Greenfield system appeared to be a viable sludge
drying process that offered considerable energy efficiency when
compared to conventional direct and indirect contact dryers .
However, it was recommended that a large-scale facility should
be built and operated to conclusively demonstrate process
reliability and economics.
Energy requirements for a four- effect Carver-Greenfield system

with hydroextraction were projected to be about 0.44 pounds of
steam per pound of water evaporated , This value was based on
data supplied by the manufacturer , data determined for the
Coors facility , and supported by theoretical analysis of the
system. The energy requirement , including steam production, was
estimated at about 675 Btu per pound ( 1 , 568 kJ / kg ) of water
evaporated. This compares favorably with the 1, 200 to 2, 000 Btu
per pound ( 2 , 790 to 4 , 650 kJ / kg ) water required in most
conventional heat dryers.
10.8 References
1. Perry , R.H. and C.H. Chilton, editors. Chemical Engineers i

Handbook , Fifth Edition. New York. McGraw-Hill, 1973.
2. McCabe , W .L. and Julian C . Smith. Unit Operations of
Chemical Engineering , Third Edition. New York. McGraw-Hill,
1976.
3. .
Faust, A.S • / Wenzel, L.A • f Clump, C.W• t Maus, L. and L.B
Anderson. Principles of Unit Operations. Corrected Second
Printing. New York. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. July 1962.
4. Treybal, R.E. Mass-Transfer Operations. New York. McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc.. 1955.
5. Rich, L.G. Unit Operations of Sanitary Engineering. Photo-
Offset. Linvil G. Rich. Clemson, South Carolina. 1971.
6. Combustion Engineering , Incorporated . Steam Tables.

Available from Combustion Engineering , Inc • / Windsor ,
Connecticut 06095.
10-3 2
7. USEPA . Current and Potential Utilization of Nutrients in
Municipal Wastewater and Sludge. First Draft. Office of
Water Program Operations . Washington , D . C . 20460 .
July , 1978.
8. Yamamota , J .H ., Schnelle , J. F • Jr., and J . M. O ’ Donnell.

/
" High-Nitrogen Synthetic Fertilizer Produced from Organic

Wastes." Public Works. January , 1975.
!l
9. Krzeminski , J . " Sludge Drying Processes: More Flexibility —

Higher Costs." Sludge Magazine. p 32. May-June, 1978.
10. USEPA . A Review of Techniques — for
—
Incineration of Sewage
. mw n mi uu. IIDJI- «
Sludge with Solid Wastes .

i II MI HI
Office of Research and

Development. Cincinnati, Ohio 45268. EPA 600/ 2-76- 288.
December 1976 .
,
11 . Regional Wastewater Solids Management Program., Los Angeles

Orange County Metropolitan Area ( LA/OMA Project ). Sludge
Processing and Disposal . A State of the Art Review .
Whittier, California. April , 1977.
12. Metropolitan Engineers. BEST Process Feasibility Study.
Prepared for Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle. October ,
1975.
13. Davis. W. and R .T. Haug. " Los Angeles Faces Several Sludge
Management Problems ." Water and Wastes Engineering. April,
1978.
14. Regional Wastewater Solids Management Program , Los Angeles/
O r a n g e C o u n t y M e t r o i p o 1 i t a n A r e a ( L A/ O M A P r o j e c t ,
Carver-Greenfield Process Evaluation. Whittier, California.
December , 1978.
10- 33
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 11 . High Temperature Processes


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 11
HIGH TEMPERATURE PROCESSES
11.1 Introduction
High temperature processes have been used for combustion of

municipal wastewater solids since the early 1900s. Popularity of
these processes has fluctuated greatly since their adaptation
from the industrial combustion field. In the past , combustion of
wastewater solids was both practical and inexpensive , Solids
were easily dewatered and the fuel required for combustion was
cheap and plentiful , In addition , air emission standards were
virtually non existent.
-
In today's environment , wastewater solids are more complex and
include sludges from secondary and advanced waste treatment ( AWT)
processes. These sludges are more difficult to dewater and
thereby increase fuel requirements for combustion , Due to
environmental concerns with air quality and the energy crisis,
the use of high temperature processes for combustion of municipal
solids is being scrutinized.
However , recent developments in more efficient solids dewatering

processes and advances in combustion technology have renewed an
interest in the use of high temperature processes for specific
applications. High temperature processes should be considered
where available land is scarce , stringent requirements for
land disposal exist , destruction of toxic materials is required ,
or the potential exists for recovery of energy , either with
wastewater solids alone or combined with municipal refuse.
High temperature processes have several potential advantages

over other methods ( 1 ):
Maximum volume reduction , Reduces volume and weight of

wet sludge cake by approximately 95 percent , thereby
reducing disposal requirements.
• Detoxification. Destroys or reduces toxics that may

otherwise create adverse environmental impacts ( 2 ).
• Energy recovery. Potentially recovers energy through

the combustion of waste products , thereby reducing the
i
overall expenditure of energy.
11-1
Disadvantages of high t e m p e r a t u r e p r o c e s s e s include ( 1 ):
Cost. Both capital and o p e r a t i o n and maintenance costs,

including c o s t s for s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l, a r e g e n e r a l l y
higher than for other disposal alternatives.
O p e r a t i n g p r o b l e m s, High temperature operations create

high maintenance requirements and can reduce equipment
reliability.
S t a f f i n g s. Highly skilled and experienced o p e r a t o r s are

r e q u i r e d f o r h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e p r o c e s s e s, Municipal
salaries and o p e r a t o r status m a y have t o be raised in
m a n y locations t o attract t h e proper p e r s o n n e l.
E n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s. Discharges to atmosphere
( p a r t i c u l a t e s a n d o t h e r toxic o r n o x i o u s e m i s s i o n s ) ,
s u r f a c e w a t e r s ( s c r u b b i n g w a t e r ), a n d l a n d ( f u r n a c e
residues ) m a y r e q u i r e extensive t r e a t m e n t t o assure
protection o f the environment ( 3 ) .
This chapter describes both proven high t e m p e r a t u r e p r o c e s s e s
and t h o s e h a v i n g h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y o f s u c c e s s, a s i n d i c a t e d
b y current research , Multiple- hearth and fluid bed furnaces ,
t h e m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d s l u d g e c o m b u s t i o n e q u i p m e n t in t h e
United S t a t e s, E u r o p e , and G r e a t Britain , a r e discussed , a s
w e l l a s n e w e r f u r n a c e t y p e s s u c h a s t h e electric f u r n a c e ,
t h e s i n g l e h e a r t h c y c l o n i c f u r n a c e, and m o d u l a r c o m b u s t i o n
units. N e w thermal processes f o r wastewater solids reduction
are also described , T h e s e p r o c e s s e s include s t a r v e d - a i r
combustion and c o- combustion o f s l u d g e s and o t h e r r e s i d u e s.
A l s o p r e s e n t e d in t h e c h a p t e r are e x a m p l e s that i l l u s t r a t e
the methodology used in s e l e c t i n g and designing processes and
equipment.
11.2 Principles o f High T e m p e r a t u r e Operations
Combustion is t h e rapid exothermic oxidation o f combustible

e l e m e n t s in f u e l . Incineration is complete combustion,
Classical pyrolysis is the destructive distillation , reduction,
o r thermal c r a c k i n g and condensation of organic matter under heat
and /o r pressure in the a b s e n c e o f o x y g e n , Partial pyrolysis,
or starved - air combustion, is i n c o m p l e t e combustion and occurs
when insufficient o x y g e n is provided t o satisfy the combustion
r e q u i r e m e n t s. T h e basic e l e m e n t s o f e a c h p r o c e s s are s h o w n
o n F i g u r e 1 1- 1 . C o m b u s t i o n o f w a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s , a t w o - s t e p
process , involves drying followed by burning.
11- 2
EXCESS
AIR AIR SUPPLEMENTAL
( OXYGEN ) ~ FUEL ( IF REQUIRED )
1 F
MOISTURE, EXCESS AIR,
SLUDGE i COMBUSTIBLE PARTICULATES, STACK GASES
.
ELEMENTS, INERTS FURNACE NOx , SOx , HC, C02,
FEED MOISTURE * OTHER PRODUCTS OF ( NOT
COMPLETE COMBUSTION COMBUSTIBLE )
t
ASH ( RELATIVELY INERT )
( A ) INCINERATION ( COMPLETE COMBUSTION )
HEAT
MOISTURE, PARTICULATES,
COMBUSTIBLE
SLUDGE COMBUSTIBLE NOx , SOx , HC, CO, C02, OFF GASES
FEED
ELEMENTS, INERTS,
MOISTURE
FURNACE CONDENSATES ( TAR & OIL )
OTHER HIGHER
. ( UP TO 600
HYDROCARBONS Btu /cf )
t
RESIDUE ( COMBUSTIBLE CHARACTERISTICS)
( B ) PYROLYSIS ( NO OXYGEN )
AIR SUPPLEMENTAL
( OXYGEN ) FUEL ( IF REQUIRED )
I MOISTURE,
PARTICULATES, COMBUSTIBLE
SLUDGE COMBUSTIBLE , CO, OFF - GASES
FURNACE NOx SOx
, 02
, HC, C
FEED * ELEMENTS, INERTS,

MOISTURE CONDENSATES ( TAR & OIL ) ,
OTHER PRODUCTS OF
( UP TO 400
Btu /cf
INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION
hr-
t
RESIDUE (CAN BE UP TO 30% COMBUSTIBLE )
( C ) STARVED- AIR COMBUSTION (OXYGEN DEFICIENT )
FIGURE 11- 1
BASIC ELEMENTS OF HIGH TEMPERATURE PROCESSES
11.2.1 Combustion Factors
11.2.1.1 Sludge Fuel Values
A value commonly used in sludge incineration calculations is

10,000 Btu per pound of combustibles ( see Table 11-1 ). It is
important to clearly understand the meaning of combustibles. For
combustion processes , solid fuels are analyzed for volatile
solids and total combustibles, The difference between the two
measurements is the fixed carbon, Volatile solids is determined
by heating the fuel in the absence of air. Total combustibles
is determined by ignition at 1, 336 °F ( 725 ° C ). By definition,
11- 3
the difference in weight loss is the fixed -carbon I n the
volatile solids determination used in sanitary engineering (see
.
Standard Methods , Reference 5 ), sludge is heated in the presence
of air at 1 ,021°F ( 550°C ). This measurement is higher than the
volatile solids measurement for fuels and includes the fixed
carbon. Numerically , it is nearly the same as the combustibles
measurement. In the following , if volatile solids is used in the
sense of the fuels engineer , it will be followed paranthetically
by the designation "fuels usage." If the term " volatile solids "
or " volatiles " is used without designation , it will indicate
sanitary engineering usage and will be used synonymously with
"combustibles. "
TABLE 11- 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OCCURRING DURING COMBUSTION
High heat value

Reaction - *3
of reaction3' Reference
C +
c
o2
+ 1/ 2 02
——
-_ C 2
°
CO
- 14 , 100 Btu/lb of C
- 4 , 000 Btu/lb of C
4
CO + 1/ 2 02 — C 2
° -4 , 400 Btu/ lb of CO 4
H 2 + 1/2 02 H2 -61, 100 Btu/lb of H 2 4

°
CH 4 + 202 ——- C02 + 2 H 20 - 23 , 900 Btu/lb of CH 4 4
2H S
2
C + H
+ 302
20 ( gas ) —
— 2 S02 + 2 H
CO + H 2
20 - 7 , 100 Btu/lb of H 2S
+ 4 , 700 Btu /lb of C
4
Calculated
Sludge combustibles co2 + H O

2 - 10 , 000 Btu/ lb of Estimated
combustibles
aNegative sign convention indicates an exothermic reaction.

^ High heat value assumes the latent heat of water generated
is available for use: conversely, low heat values assumes
the latent heat of water is not available hence no water
is condensed.
1 Btu/lb = 2 , 324 J/kg
The amount of heat released from a given sludge is a function of

the amounts and types of combustible elements present , The
primary combustible elements in sludge and in most available
supplemental fuels are fixed carbon , hydrogen , and sulfur.
Because free sulfur is rarely present in sewage sludge to any
significant extent and because sulfur is being limited in fuels ,
the contributions of sulfur to the combustion reaction can
be neglected in calculations without compromising accuracy .
Similarly , the oxidation of metals contributes little to the heat
balance and can be ignored.
-
11 4
Solids with a high fraction of combustible material ; f o r e x a m p l e, ~
g r e a s e and s c u m , h a v e high f u e l v a l u e s ( see T a b l e 11 - 2 ). Those

which contain a large fraction o f inert materials ; for e x a m p l e,
grit o r chemical precipitates, have low fuel values. Chemical
precipitates m a y a l s o e x e r t a p p r e c i a b l e h e a t demands w h e n
undergoing high t e m p e r a t u r e decomposition , This further reduces
their effective fuel value.
TABLE 11- 2
REPRESENTATIVE HEATING VALUES OF SOME SLUDGES ( 6 )
Combustibles , High heating value ,

Material percent Btu/lb of dry solids
Grease and scum 88 16 ,700

Raw wastewater solids 74 10 , 300
Fine screenings 86 9 ,000
Ground garbage 85 8 ,200
Digested sludge 60 5 ,300
Chemical precipitated solids 57 7 ,500
Grit 33 4 ,000
1 Btu/lb = 2 , 324 MJ/kg
The following are experimental methods from which s l u d g e heating

value m a y be estimated or c o m p u t e d :
• Ultimate analysis--a n analysis t o determine the amounts

of basic feed constituents. These constituents are
moisture, o x y g e n , carbon, hydrogen, sulfur , nitrogen , and
ash. In addition, it is typical t o determine chloride
and other elements that may contribute t o a i r emissions
o r ash disposal problems. Once the ultimate analysis has
been c o m p l e t e d , D u l o n g ’ s formula ( Equation 1 1- 1 ) can be
used to estimate the heating value of the sludge .
D u l o n g's formula is:
B t u /lb = 14 , 544 C + 6 2, 208 ( H 2 ~

02 ) + 4, 0 5 0 S ( 11-1 )
8
w h e r e C , H 2 , 02 , a n d S r e p r e s e n t t h e w e i g h t f r a c t i o n
o f each element determined by ultimate analysis. This
formula does not t a k e into account endothermic chemical
reactions that occur with chemically conditioned or
physical - chemical s l u d g e s.
T h e ultimate analysis is used principally f o r developing
the material balance, from which a heat balance can be
made.
1 1 -5
• Proximate a n a l y s i s — a relatively low - cost analysis in
in which moisture content , volatile combustible matter,
fixed carbon, and ash are determined , The fuel value of
the sludge is calculated as the weighted a v e r a g e o f the
fuel values o f its individual c o m p o n e n t s.
• C a l o r i m e t r y — this is a direct method in which heating

value is determined experimentally with a bomb calori -
meter . Approximately 1 gram o f material is burned in a
sealed , submerged container. T h e heat o f combustion is
determined by noting the t e m p e r a t u r e rise of the water
bath. Several samples must be taken and then composited
t o obtain a representative 1 g r a m s a m p l e, Several t e s t s
should be run, and the results m u s t be interpreted by an
e x p e r i e n c e d a n a l y s t. N e w b o m b calorimeters c a n u s e
s a m p l e s u p t o 2 5 g r a m s and this t y p e o f unit should be
used where possible.
The above tests give approximate fuel values for sludges and
allow the designer t o proceed with calculations which simulate
o p e r a t i o n s o f a n incinerator , If a unigue sludge will be
p r o c e s s e d , or unusual operating conditions will b e used , pilot
t e s t i n g is advised , Many manufacturers have test furnaces
especially suited for pilot t e s t i n g .
11.2.1.2 O x y g e n Requirements for C o m p l e t e Combustion
Air is t h e n o r m a l s o u r c e o f o x y g e n f o r c o m b u s t i o n , a l t h o u g h
pure o x y g e n feed s y s t e m s are sometimes used , Theoretical air
and o x y g e n requirements for t h e combustion reactions are shown
in Table 11-1. F o r rigorous a n a l y s e s, the constants g i v e n in
Table 1 1-3 should b e used , F o r general applications in which
fuel oil, methane, and /o r s l u d g e are used , a rule of thumb is
that it requires 7.5 p o u n d s ( 3 . 4 k g ) o f air t o r e l e a s e 1 0,0 0 0 B t u
( 1 0 . 5 5 MJ ) from s l u d g e o r s u p p l e m e n t a l fuel ( 7 ).
I n p r a c t i c e , incinerator o p e r a t i o n s r e q u i r e a i r in e x c e s s o f
theoretical requirements for complete combustion , Excess a i r
added to the combustion chamber increases the opportunity
f o r c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e f u e l a n d o x y g e n. T o e n s u r e c o m p l e t e
combustion , it is n e c e s s a r y t o maintain 5 0 t o 1 5 0 p e r c e n t excess
air over the stoichiometric amount required in the combustion
zone. When the amount o f excess air is inadequate, o n l y partial
combustion o f c a r b o n o c c u r s, a n d c a r b o n m o n o x i d e , s o o t , a n d
odorous hydrocarbons are produced.
The excess air required f o r c o m p l e t e combustion a d v e r s e l y affects
t h e c o s t o f o p e r a t i o n , b e c a u s e additional h e a t is needed t o
raise t h e excess air t e m p e r a t u r e t o t h a t of t h e exhaust gases.
S u p p l e m e n t a l fuel may be needed t o furnish this additional heat.
Thermal economy therefore demands that excess air be held t o the
minimum value required t o effect c o m p l e t e combustion. T h e amount
11-6
of excess air required varies with the type of incineration
equipment, the nature of the sludges to be incinerated , and the
disposition of the stack gases , j The impact of excess air use on
the cost of fuel in sludge incineration is shown on Figure 11- 2.
TABLE 11- 3
THEORETICAL AIR AND OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS

FOR COMPLETE COMBUSTION ( 4 )
lb/lb of substance
Substance . . -. *
rjr ni nn ii
Air Oxygen
Carbon 11.53 2.66
Carbon monoxide 2.47 0.57
Hydrogen 34.34 7.94
Sulfur 4.29 1.00
Hydrogen sulfide 6.10 1.41
Methane 17.27 3.99
Ethane 16.12 3.73
Ammonia 6.10 1.41
1 lb/lb = 1 kg/kg.
11.2.1.3 Factors Affecting the Heat Balance
The heat released by burning the wastewater solids must be

sufficient to raise the temperatures of all entering substances
from ambient levels to those of the exhaust and solid residue
streams. Also, any radiant heat loss from the combustion struc-
ture must be included. If the heat is sufficient , the process is
termed autogenous , If it is not sufficient , supplemental fuel
must be burned to make up for the heat deficit.
A number of variables influence the amount of supplemental fuel

required. As shown on Figure 11 - 2, the amount of excess air
required to produce complete combustion has an important effect .
Water associated with the sludge also exerts significant demands .
For example, it takes almost 2, 000 Btu per pound ( 4.64 MJ /kg ) to
vaporize water and raise the temperature of the water vapor to
exhaust temperatures , When allowances are made for radiation
losses and for heating of gas streams and sludge feed solids , it
is found that approximately 3 , 500 Btu ( 3.69 MJ ) are required for
every pound ( 0.45 kg ) of water evaporated in a multiple- hearth
furnace ( 8 ).
The following example illustrates how the feed solids
concentration required for autogenous combustion is determined.
11-7
10 r
ASSUMPTIONS
PEED: 30% SOLIDS
COMBUSTIBLES: 70% OF THE DRY SOLIDS
a COMBUSTIBLE HEAT VALVE :: 10,000 Btu/lb
SUPPLEMENTAL FUEL: NATURAL GAS
Q J l
LU
cc
3
LU 4
oe
uu
D
Uk
!
z
-J
<
f-
c
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< 2 DUE TO
LU 5 SUPPLEMENTAL
1
LLl EXCESS AIR FOR
-J__
Q
£s
FUEL 110%)
D
4J*5 T5
LU
3-0
>
flQ TJ
< c
C
< 3
> m
H c 2
< o
LU
x e
SLU
U
X 1f
4 VtfSMUIHRi II 11
-.
,
V
I J
LU
0 20 40 60 BO 100 120 140 160
EXCESS AIR, percent
FIGURE 11- 2
EFFECT OF EXCESS AIR AND EXCESS TEMPERATURE ON

SUPPLEMENTAL FUEL REQUIREMENTS
Example
A d e s i g n e r uses a p r o x i m a t e a n a l y s i s t o derive t h e f o l l o w i n g
values f o r a g i v e n s l u d g e : volatile solids c o n t e n t ( fueIs
usage--66 percent, fixed carbon content — 11 percent , and inert
content — 23 percent. The sludge is t o be dewatered and burned in
a multiple-hearth incinerator. The solids concentration required
for autogenous combustion in a multiple-hearth incinerator can be
determined .
T h e s l u d g e heating v a l u e c a n be estimated by multiplying
the a p p r o x i m a t e fuel value of s lud g e -- 1 0 , 0 0 0 B t u p e r pound
( 23.2 MJ /kg ) by the combustible fraction in the sludge. In this
11-8
example , the combustible fraction is the sum of the volatile
solids ( fuels usage ) and fixed carbon, or 77 percent , Therefore ,
sludge heating value is:
10,000 Btu/lb x 0.77 = 7,700 Btu per pound ( 17.89 MJ /kg )
The minimum percent sludge solids required to maintain autogenous

combustion can be determined by equating the heat released by
combustion to the heat required by the water. Therefore:
( P )( Q ) = ( 100 - P )( W )
where :
P = Minimum percent dry solids in sludge required for
autogenous combustion
Q = Fuel value of sludge , Btu per pound of dry solids
W Heat required to evaporate one pound of water in a
multiple-hearth furnace , Btu
The above equation is solved for P:
P Q T W <1 0 0> -
( 11 2 )
For this example:
3 , 500 ( 100 ) 31.3 percent

P
7, 700 + 3 , 500
If the solids could be dewatered to 31.3 percent, they would be

combusted autogenously . However , feed solids concentrations of
this magnitude are seldom achieved without chemical conditioning .
Allowances for the effect of chemical conditioning should
therefore be made. Assume conditioning requirements are
25 percent lime and 3 percent ferric chloride by weight of dry
solids fed. Therefore , for every 100 pounds ( 45.4 kg ) of sludge
,
dewatered , 28 pounds ( 12.7 kg ) of chemicals are added . Assuming

there is no heating value in the lime and ferric chloride, the
100
combustible fraction of the feed solids is reduced to 128 x 0.77
= 60 percent and the sludge heating value is 6 , 000 Btu per pound
( 13.9 MJ /kg ). Using Equation 11- 2, the dewatered sludge must be
36.8 percent solids to be autogenous.
11-9
Figure 11 - 3 shows a family o f curves that c a n be used t o
c a l c u l a t e the minimum p e r c e n t solids r e q u i r e d at various d r y
solids heating v a l u e s. This method o f estimating t a k e s into
account the effect of moisture content , inerts, and combustibles
on the combustion process and can be used for basic sizing prior
to detailed analysis.
For example, in the above analysis, a sludge heating value of
6, 000 Btu per pound of solids ( 13.9 MJ/kg ) was calculated. From
Figure 11-3 , the 6 , 000 Btu per pound ( 13.9 MJ /kg ) curve crosses
the break - even p o i n t a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 36 p e r c e n t dry solids .
T h e importance of dewatering the s l u d g e is illustrated o n
Figure 11- 4. The amount of supplemental fuel required is plotted
as a function of feed moisture content and combustible solids
concentration.
T h e amount of s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l can be reduced if heat can
be recovered from the p r o c e s s exhaust g a s e s and r e u s e d . As
an e x a m p l e , heat m a y be transferred from the furnace f l u e
g a s t o i n c o m i n g combustion air by means of heat e x c h a n g e r s
( r e c u p e r a t o r s ). A l t h o u g h e n e r g y r e c o v e r y can significantly
improve thermal e f f i c i e n c y , heat r e c o v e r y equipment c a n be
expensive and can only be recommended after complete economic
evaluation.
11.2.2 Incineration Design Example

T o evaluate combustion processes, a designer must determine if
the s l u d g e will burn a u t o g e n o u s l y . H e m u s t a l s o assess the
effects of different excess air rates, the effects of different
types and quantities of s u p p l e m e n t a l fuel , and combustion air
requirements.
Approximate and theoretical methods for calculating combustion
requirements are presented in the following examples A summary
is then provided that c o m p a r e s t h e results o f e a c h method .
Either method provides the information necessary for preliminary
evaluation and c o n c e p t u a l d e s i g n of a s l u d g e incinerator.
When an ultimate analysis of the sludge is available or a good
estimate of s l u d g e constituents can be made , a theoretical
analysis is preferred.
11.2. 2.1 Problem Statement
The dewatered sludge production rate expected for a wastewater

treatment plant is 14, 000 pounds ( 6 , 350 kg ) per hour at
2 0 p e r c e n t solids. T h e dewatered material i s a mixture of
undigested primary and waste -activated s l u d g e s, with a volatile
( combustible ) c o n t e n t o f 77 p e r c e n t. T h e s l u d g e t e m p e r a t u r e
is 60 ° F ( 16°C ). T o limit hydrocarbon emissions , an afterburner
is used t o heat f u r n a c e e x h a u s t g a s e s t o 1 , 400 ° F ( 7 6 0 ° C ).
The design is based o n 1 0 0 p e r c e n t excess air ( t w o times the
theoretical r e q u i r e m e n t ). If s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l is required ,
11-10
Btu PER POUND OF WATER, tO3 Btuflb ( 1 x 103 Btu/Jb = 2.32 MJ/kg)
m
n
“Tl
m
o
H
o
Z °D
Tl
5Tl 70-<
>tn
Eo
rr
o
1X
in
TI
O rn o
Tl
7) > -<
M >~ H O cn
-
h» cZ c o
r*
I HO 20 o
-
h» m W
—
l * 2 ><
o z
mr i </>
zC to
c
Om u
C CD
(/ >
) m
oz
OD
2 <2
CD cr
cD
t/i
H
12 m
o °
z2 O
V)
H
C
30
m
SOLIDS CONTENT OF FEED SLUDGE , %
30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 18 18 17
60 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73
SOLIDS CONTENT OF FEED SLUDGE , %
FIGURE 11- 4
EFFECT OF SLUDCE MOISTURE CONTENT AND COMBUSTIBLE SOLIDS

CONTENT ON SUPPLEMENTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION
11-12
N o. 2 f u e l oil will be used , T w e n t y- five p e r c e n t e x c e s s air will
b e u s e d f o r combustion o f t h e f u e l o i l. T h e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e is
6 0 °F ( 1 6°C ); t h e a b s o l u t e h u m i d i t y o f t h e air i s 0 . 0 1 3 p o u n d s o f
w a t e r p e r p o u n d o f d r y air. H e a t c a p a c i t i e s o f d r y a i r, w a t e r
v a p o r , d r y s l u d g e s o l i d s , a n d w a t e r a r e 0 . 2 5 6 , 0 . 5, 0 . 2 5 a n d
1 . 0 B t u p e r p o u n d p e r °F , r e s p e c t i v e l y, ( 1 . 0 7, 2 . 1, 1 . 0, a n d
4 . 2 k J /k g /°C. T h e l a t e n t heat o f w a t e r is 9 7 0 . 3 B t u p e r p o u n d
( 2 , 2 5 3 k J /k g ).
1 1 . 2.2 . 2 A p p r o x i m a t e Calculation M e t h o d
A s s u m i n g 1 0, 0 0 0 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 2 3 . 2 MJ /k g ) o f s l u d g e , t h e h e a t
c o n t e n t o f the s l u d g e is:
Btu x 0 . 7 7 = 7, 7 0 0 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 1 7 . 9 MJ /k g )
10 , 000
lb
F r o m F i g u r e 1 1 - 3 , a v a l u e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 2 p e r c e n t s o l i d s in
t h e d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e i s r e q u i r e d f o r a u t o g e n o u s c o m b u s t i o n.
T h e r e f o r e , s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l i s r e q u i r e d a n d its q u a n t i t y m u s t b e
determined. The demand for supplemental fuel equals the heat
r e q u i r e d m i n u s t h e h e a t v a l u e o f t h e s l u d g e.
S t e p 1. Sludge Heating Value
T h e h e a t i n g value o f t h e s l u d g e
1 4, 0 0 0 l b s l u d g e 0 . 2 l b solids x 0 . 7 7 l b V S X 1 0 , 0 0 0 B t u
hr lb sludge l b solids lb VS
= 21.56 x 106 B t u p e r h o u r ( 22.75 K J/h r )
S t e p 2. Combustion Air R e q u i r e m e n t s
Therefore, combustion air r e q u i r e m e n t s
2 1 . 5 6 x 106 B t u x 7 . 5 l b d r y air x 2 ( excess air f a c t o r )

hr 1 0, 0 0 0 B t u
= 3 2, 3 4 0 p o u n d s d r y air p e r h o u r ( 1 4 . 6 8 t /h r )
Step 3 . H e a t R e q u i r e d t o R a i s e Ambient Air T e m p e r a t u r e
T h e basic f o r m u l a f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e h e a t r e q u i r e d is:
Q = Mass x heat capacity x temperature change ( 1 1-3 )
1 1 -1 3
5®rE
Heat required to raise dry air from 60 °F ( 15.6°C ) to 1 , 400° F

( 760 ° C )
32, 340 lb dry air 0.256 Btu

hr X
lb -° F x ( 1, 400°F - 60 ° F )
= 11.09 x 10 ^ Btu per hour ( 11.70 GJ /hr )
Heat required to raise the temperature of water vapor in air

from 60 °F ( 15.6 ° C ) to 1 , 400° F ( 760 ° C )
32,340 lb dry air 0.013 lb water 0.5 Btu

i
hr X
lb air x lb- F x ( 1,400°F - 60°F )
°
= 0.28 x 10 ^ Btu per hour ( 0.30 GJ /hr )
Step 4. Heat Required to Raise Solids Temperature

Heat required to raise the temperature of the volatile
( combustible ) material from 60 °F ( 15.6 ° C ) to 1 , 400 ° F ( 760°C )
14, 000 lb sludge 0.2 lb solids 0.77 lb VS 0.25 Btu

X
hr lb sludge lb solid X lb-° F
x ( 1, 400 °F - 60°F ) = 0.72 x 106 Btu per hour ( 0.76 GJ/hr )
Heat required to raise the temperature of inerts ( ash ) from

60 ° F ( 15.6 ° C ) to the ash discharge temperature of 200 ° F
( 93.3°C )
14,000 lb sludge x 0.2 lb solids x ( 1-0.77 ) lb inerts) 0.25 Btu

hr lb sludge lb solids lb-°F
x ( 200 °F - 60°F ) = 0.02 x 10 ^ Btu per hour ( 0.02 GJ /hr )
Step 5. Heat Required to Raise Temperature of Water

Associated with the Feed Sludge
This calculation does not include water formed during the
combustion reaction.
11-14
Heat required to raise the water temperature from 60°F
( 15.6°C ) to 212°F (100°C )
14,000 -lb sludge .X. 0.8 lb water 1.0 Btu (

- -
^
hr
r L r-
lb sludge
X
lb-°F x 212°
F - 60°F)
= 1.70 x 106 Btu per hour ( 1.79 GJ/hr )
Heat required to evaporate water
14,000 lb sludge .
.
X
0.8 lb water x 970.3 Btu
hr i
lb sludge lb
= 10.87 x 106 Btu per hr ( 11.46 GJ/hr )
Heat required to raise the temperature of water vapor to

1,400°F ( 760°C )
_ 14,000 lb sludge X 0.8 lb water X 0.5 Btu x (1,400 F

hr lb sludge lb-°F ° - 212°F)
= 6.65 x 10
^ Btu per hour (7.02 GJ/hr )
Step 6. Heat Required to Raise Temperature of
Water Formed During the Combustion Reaction
Assume water formed during the combustion reaction to

be 0.5 pound per 10 ,000 Btu ( 21.5 g/MJ ) of sludge and
s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l b u r n e d ( 9 ). The h e a t v a l u e o f t h e
sludge burned and supplemental fuel are equal to the heat
demands. Therefore, water formed during combustion must be
calculated on the basis of heat demands. Heat demands may be
approximated by summing the calculations thus far:
Heat required for Btu/hr x 106

Air
Dry air 11.09
Water vapor in air 0.28
Sludge
Volatile solids 0.72
Inerts 0.02
11-15
Heat required for Btu/hr x IQ 6
Sludge (continued )
Free water
Water 1.70
Evaporation 10.87
Water vapor 6.65
Total 31.33 ( 33.05 GJ/hr )
Water formed due to the combustion reaction
0.5 lb X 31.33 x 106 Btu

10,000 Btu hr = 1,567 pounds per hour (711 kg/hr)
The heat of combustion given is the " high heat of combus

tion ," which assumes all water formed is condensed , Heat
-
must be provided to evaporate this water and bring it up to
exhaust temperature.
Heat required to evaporate the water
1,567 lb water 970.3 Btu

hr lb = 1.52 x 106 Btu per hour (1.60 GJ/hr)
Heat required to raise the temperature of water vapor to

1,400°F ( 760°C )
1 ,567 lb water x 0.5 Btu x ( 400 oF

lf
_ 212°F)
hr 1D “ F*
Step 7 , Heat Required to Compensate for Radiation Losses

Assume a radiation loss of 5 percent of the total heat
demand. Total heat demand is
Heat required for Btu/hr x ip 6
Total from Step 6 31.33

Water formed during combustion
reaction
Evaporation 1.52
Water Vapor 0.93
Total 33.78 (35.64 GJ/hr )
-
11 16
Heat to compensate for radiation losses
33.78 x 106 Btu

x 0.05 = 1.69 x 106 Btu per hour ( 1.78 GJ/hr )
hr
Step 8. Determine Supplemental Fuel Required
Total heat requirements ( from Step 7 )
= 33.78 x 106 Btu/hr + 1.69 x 106 Btu/hr
35.47 x 106 Btu per hour ( 37.42 GJ /hr )
Total supplemental heat demand
= Heat demand minus heating value of sludge
= ( 35.47 x 106 - 21.56 x 106 ) Btu/hr
= 13.91 x 106 Btu per hour ( 14.68 GJ /hr )
Therefore , supplemental fuel ( No . 2 fuel oil ) must be

supplied to provide 13.91 x 10 ® Btu per hour ( 14.68 GJ /hr )
of heat.
Supplemental fuel also requires air for combustion , and this
air exerts a heat demand. The air required for supplemental
fuel is 1.25 times the theoretical value needed for
supplemental fuel .
Air required for supplemental fuel
13.91 x 106 Btu x 7.5 lb dry air x 1.25 ( excess air factor )
hr 10,000 Btu
= 13 , 000 pounds dry air per hour ( 5,920 kg/hr )
The 13 , 041 pounds ( 5 , 920 kg /hr ) dry air ( p l u s a n y w a t e r

formed by its reaction with the supplemental fuel ) must also
be raised to 1 , 400 °F ( 760° C ). By calculations similar to
those presented in Steps 1 through 8, it can be shown that
heat required to do t h i s ( a n d t o account for a d d i t i o n a l
11-17
radiation losses ) is 2 0 . 2 4 x 1 C)6 B t u per hour ( 21.35 GJ /hr ).
S i n c e o n l y 1 3 . 9 1 x 106 B t u p e r h o u r ( 1 4 . 6 8 G J /h r ) w a s
r e l e a s e d b y b u r n i n g s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l , t h e r e is a h e a t
deficit o f 20.24 x 1 Q 6 - 13.91 x 106 = 6.33 x 106 B t u p e r
hour ( 6.67 GJ /hr ). T h u s, the effect of adding supplemental
fuel w a s t o r e d u c e but n o t eliminate the initial deficit of
13.91 x 1 0 ® B t u per hour ( 1 4 . 6 8 GJ /hr ).
T o m a k e u p f o r t h i s d e f i c i t, m o r e s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l,
equivalent t o 6.33 x 1 0 B t u p e r hour ( 6.68 GJ /hr ) is added.
^
If 2 5 p e r c e n t excess air is used f o r this fuel, 5,934 pounds
p e r hour ( 2,6 9 4 kg /hr ) o f excess air will be required , T h e
heat released is again insufficient t o raise the air p l u s
w a t e r v a p o r f o r m e d t o 1, 4 0 0 °F ( 7 6 0° C ) a n d t o m a k e u p f o r
additional radiation l o s s e s, T h e deficit for this iteration
is 2.88 x 106 B t u p e r hour ( 3.04 GJ /h r ).
T h e calculation c a n be carried f o r w a r d f o r s e v e r a l m o r e
s t e p s. Table 11- 4 shows that progressively smaller addi -
tions of supplemental fuel and air are required for each
iteration a n d t h a t t h e a m o u n t o f air and f u e l n e e d e d f o r
each iteration is a fixed fraction ( 0.45 ) of the fuel
and air n e e d e d f o r t h e p r e v i o u s i t e r a t i o n , I n g e n e r a l,
if f u e l r e q u i r e d f o r e a c h i t e r a t i o n is r p e r c e n t o f t h a t
required for t h e previous iteration, then total f u e l required
= ( initial d e f i c i t )( l + r + r 2 + r 2 + ... + rn ). The
t e r m in the second bracket is an infinite geometric series
equal to rn. The series converges t o 1-1 r if the absolute
value o f r is less than one ( 1 0 ).
TABLE 11- 4
APPROXIMATE COMBUSTION CALCULATION -

SUPPLEMENTAL FUEL REQUIREMENTS
Heat input Heat demands

Supplemental Combustion
Heat value , Heat value , fuel requirements, air requirements,
Unit 106 Btu/hr Unit 106 Btu/hr 106 Btu/hr Ratio
3
lb/hr Ratio ^
Sludge 21.56 Slndqeand 35.47 13.91 32 ,340
excess air
c
Supplemental fuel 13.91 Supplemental fuel and 20.24 6.33 . 46 13,041
excess air
Supplemental fuel 6.33 Supplemental fuel and 9.21 2.88 .45 5 ,934 .46
excess air
excess air
excess air
3
Ratio of supplemental fuel to that in the previous iteration.
^Ratio of air to air in the previous iteration.
CRatio in this case is not applicable since sludge is included (100 percent excess
air vs 25 nercent excess air).
1 x 106 Btu/hr = 1,055 MJ/hr

1 Ib/hr = 0.45 kg/hr
1 1-1 8
«•
(
The total supplemental fuel requirements can be derived from

Equation 11 - 4.
Total supplemental fuel = Initial deficit x 1

( 11- 4 )
1- r
Total supplemental fuel
106 Btu 1
= 13.91 x hr X
1 - 0.45
Step 9. Total Air Requirements
The air requirements for the supplemental fuel alone can be

found from Equation 11- 5, an analog to Equation 11- 4 .
Total supplemental air requirements
= excess air for initial supplemental fuel addition x -j— ( 11-5)
Total supplemental air rquirements
13,041 lb air 1
x 1 0.45
hr -
= 23 , 735 pounds dry air per hour ( 10 , 766 kg dry air/hr )
Total dry air requirements
= air for sludge plus air for supplemental fuel
( 32, 340 + 23, 735 ) lb dry air/hr
= 56,075 pounds dry air per hour ( 25, 458 kg /hr )
Assuming an air density of 0.0749 pounds per cubic feet

( 1.2 kg /m ):^
11-19
Air flow rate
56,075 lb/hr hr
0.0749 X
60 min = 12,478 cubic feet per minute (5.9 mVsec)
Assume that No . 2 oil has heating value of 141 ,000 Btu per
gallon
Supplemental fuel rate
25.32 x ip 6 Btu/hr hr
141 ,000 Btu/gallon x 60 min
= 3.0 gallons per minute ( 0.18 1/s)
11.2.2.3 Theoretical Calculation Method

The method presented herein is based on the actual combustion
reactions and the method of approach used in steam generation
calculations (9). Table 11 5 is to be used for steam
- generation
calculations. A blank form is provided at the end of Chapter 11
for the reader's own use in making the calculations.
Step 1. ( Line b). Determine the fuel analysis and include

on the right hand side of the table ( ultimate analysis ).
Step 2. ( Lines 1 through 12). D e t e r m i n e t h e p o u n d s o f

component , moles of component , theoretical oxygen requirement
and moles of material contributed to the flue gas by the
f u e l , based on 100 pounds of f u e l feed . Assume complete
combustion and no loss of combustibles to the ash.
Step 3. ( Lines 13 , 14 , and 15 ). Assume the amount of excess

C> 2 to be used ( 100 percent ) and calculate the moles of excess
C> 2 required.
Step 4. ( Line 16 ). Calculate the amount of N 2 added from

the air from the total O 2 ( theoretical plus excess ).
Step 5. ( Lines 17 , 18, 19 , and 21 ). Calculate the amount of

dry air , water in the air , the amount of wet air from the
total dry air (O 2 + N 2 ).
Step 6. ( Lines 20 and s ) .

Calculate the moles of all
components in the flue gas and the moles of wet and dry flue
gas.
11- 20
TABLE 11-5
COMBUSTION CALCULATION - MOLAL BASIS
Table 11
-e CombM*tkxi GalcuMonft-Alot*!fteftlft
CondHJon .-
Aoi <
) r awnd
and Mitcettiraoui*
Futo ItlVAli ILBDC1
<.
L
Ru 0«(F, 3 ) Cemposidon
RM 0», and Air per Unit <ri Fitol *
Moles per Fuel UnH (AF) Sera BIOTOWN UJJL
r1DC lb, y liquid fuels N
*.
Mofces Fud Unit
1100 mans ftsaenus fuels E
i Par Md Fuel
* Males o Oa
I
N
Fu l
Constituent *
Fy
*
Unit, DM*
» MMt C m- Mul
*
sBl- II- TtHto
- COi
0 ,
N HJO CO
Fy i An l, «B R#ad (AF\ % oy W w Yd
* * A
E Ki uenl plwr ft q«3

I
50 * C M«
* * lift
1
2
C 10 COj
C tD CO
IH 12
12
M2
I JS
UT
» t
• fJ
iH
« < d, 4.71
3 CO to CO 20 I .5 A& U7
4 C usib turned
* ft/> ftMt
line h
12 « Ath 4Jt
r
5
$
Mi
$
14
I 32
« 2 US
I
.5
1
• 42
ft
100.0
CO
* 02 CO N2 %t
Iota# air fTAJassMgfled at byQHSAT 7ft % a
7 o (deduct) 4.77 32 Ml UK
Uftot f, g, ft For Gaseous Fuels
*
6
9
Hi
COJ
1.77 29
44
M3
i
1
&
O
-
WL fuel unit i(moles eaeft x mi wt ) m I
Itol, wt of fuW « ftmt f 100
.
10
H
H0
Ash
* IIH
Ml
16 4 JM &
Q
Density of fuel ® 60 Fi30 ih
- 394*
in lb
cufl
ft
12 Sum Jft0.0 UT Ml
Fud heat value, Bfoi /lb tft
| 1
* M tt L
Combustible In r fu ,. % "C I s
* **
0s and Air, Moles for Total Air Iff %
-
(s ec line d at rigid) - -
% ash «i
-
Carbon un burnod, lfc/100 lb fud
% MC" ;
13 O) ( She*?) rwH « Os, Nna 12 MB
furixiao ;
14 Q;> ( excess) » TA locVJO y Qh l2

; _ 141
Exit temp of flu gas f?
* . uftftF
Dry -bulb (ambient ) lamp, IF m
li OJ tgpplied lines 13 f 14 - •' h
-
Wet butt] temp F n
15 Ns supplied * 3,7$ x Ou lira 15 Ml Mi
* %
Net humid. fpsyehrometrtc chart) m% a
17 Air ( dry ) suppled - 0
*+N ? Ml :#f E‘ barometric pressure, in, Hg tu 9
«
r
3 Ml Sat press, H«0 at srob temp, en. Hg 9

KiO in air «• molat
-
air g
* * f JT
1rX£‘- ! : '>
-
.
A*, press, HsO en air liras (e x q), in. Hg r
-
=
19 Air ( wet) supplied Bfies 1? • • IB

* 1.71
Totai Wet Fsua Qas | &y Rua CSa e
20 Rua gas o nstsfeients
^ - lines 1 to 19 iolat . Ml Ml Ml Ml I Moles 11,71 Ml t
‘Note - for air at 30 ¥ and100% rfAatlV* humidity, g

^ .
O CH7 is often- used Standard.
21 ' ^
*
3
Determination of fUte Gats «mf CombufliM# Lou*s In &tu per Fuel Unit ( AF)
22 Rise gas corestifuants 00 4- 50 0 Nz H?0 00 Total
* * *
23 .
Mcjn fflwn ? j|p fi ( for Tj - tM 14 74 M ri#
24
25
Ih dry fkie gas
In
- metes eACh, line 20 >: JACPX ( #
MiO in> air « Tides H 0, Itel 18 x MppX (f$ fi)
*
—
« TJ) nm
- /;*i
:
111!
a
•14» <
111!
VftJfttT
mt
* *
2&
* m * -
tn tensfieAt, H 0 in fuai riHd« lines ( 5 |- 10) x Afc X ( fa- Tj) P
— .
ll Aftt VM « I
Z7 In fud * rnoisss, tines (5 + ID) x 1040 x IB
*
*
1
- •,
4 11ft
74441
M4n
26 Total i n wet ftsue gad

*
29 C<ue to c rtxin in refuse
* - liiw k x 14, IDO ion
*I - 4
3D Du ifi tmbumed CO In flue gas
* - rraHw C to CO x 42 x 9,755 KPdlP
*< -ftw
31 Tgtal Sue gas losses + unhurried CmUblgStible
ICO >: tin i for solid and tidiild NrdG
- Sfi 4 29 + 29 -r-
* ridlitlan ttt T«lJ 1174»
32 Best qf fyd iwitt
* 394 x Hr^*f i x 100if fer gaseous fy*U
33 Total now hod po fuel leirt
- line 32 — tint 31 >i,m
t Flue 9# » eiulyik by ORSAT. If CO U pr
* dwtamina dlairtftxdkNi of C, InI
balance 1» u«ed to
1u« 0
thus: * 4 . GENERAL NOTES:
All C In fual = C lm flue g*a cnn*tiau«nt* + C In refti , MalaaC In *a $ use of Sibie,

fp
1 ** taxi> a *used In Ihle
Motw C **l!ni ?il2. Molw c In CO,* | (nwt« ClAhiri - OHl C , is 11*M ruMua (sin)
In r «AiM) x % CO, by ORSAT 1 (COj CO) by ORSAT, from DHproMM .
^ * C In rrfuw
- c m coj.
.-
Mobs In C In CO B ndw C In kid - aaM
tt Dy Ci1 T| ar- 1 lb 1, 45 Ilf
1 in * 2.14
ttt Radiation assumed to beifixed percent of Una 1ft nasully 2 to 1percent ,
Copyright 1471 by the Babcock and Wllcwc Cdnpiny, Miner changes Nava ham
. 1 Lb/ cu It
-
to thl tobto to slkra tor of use with Hwsfi sfudgs, TeWefimybe
*
vHthout pwelulno. HMW«T r credit to Babcock and toll
shoukl be ghran .
11-21
Step 7 . ( Lines 22 t h r o u g h 26 ). Determine the sensible heat
content o f t h e g a s. A b a s e t e m p e r a t u r e o f 6 0 °F ( 1 5 ° C ) is
u s e d . T h e v a l u e s f o r m e a n s p e c i f i c h e a t c a n be f o u n d in
Reference 4 .
N o t e:mean m o l a r s p e c i f i c h e a t mean specific heat x
molecular weight.
Step 8 .
( Line 27 ). Determine the l a t e n t h e a t o f w a t e r in
the flue g a s.
Step 9 . ( Line 28 ). S u m all heat in flue g a s.
Step 1 0. ( Lines 2 9 , .
30 , and 3 1 ) Calculate heat losses d u e
t o carbon in refuse ( residue ), unburned C O in the flue g a s,
a n d r a d i a t i o n ( a s s u m e d t o be 5 p e r c e n t ), Sum all heat
losses.
S t e p 11 . .
( Line 3 2 ) Determine heat value of the s l u d g e per
1 0 0 p o u n d s , w e t basis.
S t e p 1 2. ( Line 3 3 ). Determine if the s l u d g e is a u t o g e n o u s

or requires supplemental fuel by subtracting line 32 from
line 31. A zero o r positive number indicates that the sludge
is a u t o g e n o u s, supplemental fuel is not required , a n d the
c o m p u t a t i o n i s c o m p l e t e. A negative number shows that
s u p p l e m e n t a l fuel is n e c e s s a r y. T h e method used t o determine
the a m o u n t of fuel required is shown in s t e p s 1 3 t h r o u g h 1 5.
S t e p 13. I f S t e p 1 2 indicates t h a t s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l is
required , proceed t h r o u g h another theoretical calculation
m e t h o d table for t h e s u p p l e m e n t a l fuel in t h e same manner a s
S t e p s 1 through 1 2 ( lines 1 through 33 ). This determines t h e
a m o u n t o f e x c e s s h e a t in t h e f u e l a f t e r t h e combustion
reaction. T a b l e 1 1 - 6 illustrates t h e s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l
calculation for this e x a m p l e.
S t e p 1 4. D e t e r m i n e t h e a m o u n t of supplemental fuel per
100 lb ( 45 kg ) o f wet s l u d g e.
lb s u p p l e m e n t a l fuel required
1 0 0 lb of s l u d g e, wet basis
h e a t required from fuel ( line 33 , Table 11 - 5 )

available heat from fuel ( line 33, Table 1 1- 6 )
9 1 , 139 B t u/100 l b s l u d g e
1,165, 443 B t u/100 lb fuel
7.82 lb f u e l/1 0 0 l b s l u d g e, w e t basis
-
11 22
TABLE 11- 6
COMBUSTION CALCULATION - MOLAL BASIS
Tabia 11-« Combustion Cakutotioni Wotef Basis

CondNbcn
*— Awtgned « Ofeewvod
Date
Furi » 1 fICL Sfi L
Flu 0« (F.&.) Gwrtposittein
.*
Fuel, OS nd Air par Urwt of Fuel
Moles
*
Males per Fuel IJniT (AF)
SwfXi
Fuel Unit
MCTFT HIP WEIT
1100 It), «itd of Squid luMi
UQQ rrtPteA, gaseous faris
L Per Mdl. Fud O ,0a
Fud Fuel wt Corv Mul * - Mel CO fijot An t , KB f r«i (AP} % by W1 at Ve4
H CcinststUKnt Unit, Diwi - rtrt' ti - Ttie
?
fl *- +* 02 Ns - HaO CO C «Ui
* *
E lb SOT uorit Piter SOz
W, 1ZJ
1 C te C02 Hi IZ TJI 1 TJM Ui £ £v* ; s i»
2 | CtaCO 12 . 5 I
1 ®
I
I b
.ps °* “
l* V .
2 CO ID COa 28 ;5 i a --
S' .'i l . N, 1.1
4 C unburned,
ln k -* I 1Z
w
.
L\ - W
.
.... ..
•
i fMaiffliB 1
^
ps“ -.sz ? AiA I
5 1ZJ 2 Ml S 3L 1#
: A;
^ iOft.O
v3* oo2 Oa 03 Na flt
* M 32 M» 1 MZ BJ2 _ c
I >#
$
1
- V * 5i.. TcrtaS air (TA ) assigned or by DSSAT 1ZI $ d
/ Gi deduct ( ) u 32 IJ1 1.11 *» i.r
•
'
- '
. -
r. L
,
*
V4 Lines ( , g, h Far Gaseojs Fidels
fH
J'
8 1.1 2B D -; •
% - i &. WtT fuel unit » S (moles each x mal. art) lb f
9
10
CD?
Mad
44
IB
( ’V
•
• 0 w>
Mol,
'
at of
'
fuel
- '
line f l100
' ’
** 0en itytfft l
^ «8OF £ 30 in.
^ n
-
11 AMl I .
.s v 5 * *
Fuel haat '•aM, Stu/ lb 21,441

.
ft
It
1Z Sum 100.0 13 M i.
Vjfr . ,
Pi .' sTJ" V
. .
* ** ir
;
*y-- -
;>
t
•
CctnfeusbWe In MUM, % JC" I J
Os Air , Matfls far Total Air
(a« line d at right}
«| |f ?* L -.
r
, : Carton unisumed , lb /100 It tual
% >
% asti in fuel x ioo - %‘CI - h
-
»
c'
--
»
1'
13 njqri 03 line 12
l HJI
'
£nlt t«mp of fly ® gt£, fe

14
15
Or («XC«M)
0?
- TrA - .IM x otr lira iz
too
supplinri * lines 13 f 14
2 JI
12JI
ZJI
Dry -oulb (amblent] te^p, n
14U F
;
II F m
-
Wet bum 1®rr(p F n
IS N supfNIwd
* - 3.7 $ x 0$, lira IS tIJI 4IJ4
<
R ®i hjrnd. piyic)wpma?rie c>«n) |§§ %
17 Air ( dry ) suppfieii - Dz Nz 11.13 0 *. barometric pr««sur , In. Hg 1IJ P
*
13 HiO in Sir - rridda dry air x A. „ IJS 2.24 ^, p .
S . prws HJC trt ambt®mp in. Hg (
19 Air (w
t) Sit sd -
0—A
stnes 17 -t- 19 S4.1I
A* 'ess . K
ô in Wnes q) <n. HE
fp X
' . r
* ^
2C Flu® gas canstHiwnts
- HraaltolB, tot l
^ J 31 ZJI 41,14 «J4 Tot
Mdes *i Wet Rw $as
i?Ji
Dry Flue Qai
Mil
5
21 ¥ Ni>t« — tqf aar ai 90 F and tiJCWi relative humidi!v *cn§; - A

0.037 is otten used as standard,
DetofftiNiatkin uf Finn Gas and CvmMU« Loinw in Btu per Fuel Ural (AF)
22 Flue gas constituents COi +SOa >
Lz Nz HjO CO Total
33 mean., is Ip (for r ,~ 11 A -IJ .
?l U L>
24 In dtys due gas - mofes each, Due 20 x Mu?
— fi)
- ^0 1BMI7iT41 UAV 477.7H
21,311
114,111
IT tt .
25 In N?0 in air * moles NjO, tine IB x Mey X (i? .v
^
26 in f«ne rieat. H?0 in furt molftt, tinas (5 + IQ)
-- x AfeP x Ctz - f's)
motes, BFI95 {5 + ID) X ItMO > IS
71,731
111,171
TM3I
11M7
27
28
tn Intent heal, H 0 m fuel
Total In wet flue gas
* BJI^JZI *
29 Cue to carbon in rehise - lint k y 14,100 »
30 C*U to tmburnzcS CO in flue gas
* - moles C to CO x 12 x 9.75-5 I
31 TdA flu®
^ + untamed oorT^JSbfci* lines 2B > 29 f - 304- IWdlfltJcyi ttl Talari V7M47
32 H
î velu* ol tuei unit . 1Q0 X -
line i tor solid and liquid fuels
394 x line i x IDS, for Ba&eouB iu -s-
^ ,
14444 «
33 Tonal excel
* ?»*t per h*d unli - Una 32 - lira 31 f ,1Mr44I
t Fluegtt inilyill by OHSAT |f CO t pnurt In flue giiw, carbon

balance I u««d io drtwislfti dlKritaiUon of C, Uwa:
. * GZHCftAL M0T15 :
* -
All C In fuel C in flue gat amUlutnti * C In refute Motes C In . • $«e text kw ate of tebfe -
fu«J = \ C by analyiJe -rtli
MeC in rduia < lina kmli Motet C In COy (mole# C In fuef - train C
tn refute ) x 1C02 by OH3AT % (CO + CO) br OflSAT,
Mole C in 00 = nal«iC In fu>< - radlti C bn rahiH mole C bn 03],
.
*
, - -
* Refuter et used In thl#
leble , it Ote reakfue (im)
from tfaprocatfl,
* * * o es kg .
tt By Dulwtg fermla (11 IJ or by eatiorlaiaerf, - i ib
1 in, W 2. S4
ttt Rsdlttkm atturwed lo be t fixed percent of line tMr noratUp 2

Copyright IJ1S by lbs Bsbcock m d Wilcox Company Minor changes heva bean .
- to 5 prat.
1 Hfeu/ lb » Z,fil
1 Ib/ cu ft 14 ka/ 3
- %
**
made to Oil tobia to allow 1W
*
* of uta tilth tawega sludge Tabia nay be
need without parralulon. HOHV1 , credit to Babcock Wilcox Coetpeny
.
ehould be given .
11-23
Step 15. Calculate the total fuel demand for 14, 000 pounds
per hour of wet sludge ( 6, 356 kg /hr ):
Total fuel
7.82 lb fuel
100 lb sludge x 14 , 000 lb
sludge /hr
= 1 , 095 pound fuel per hour ( 497 kg /hr )
From line i , Table 11- 6 , Btu value
= 1 , 095 lb fuel/hr x 20 , 440 Btu/lb
Step 16. Calculate the total combustion air requirements:

From Table 11- 5, line 17 combustion air required for sludge =
8.47 moles/100 lb sludge.
From Table 11 - 6 , line 17 combustion air required for

supplemental fuel = 61.83 moles/100 lb fuel.
/
Total dry air
8.47 moles air lb sludge

2
«
14, 000 hr
100 lb sludge
/ 61.83
\
moles air
100 lb fuel
1 , 095 lbh
^ )]
Uel 29 lb air
lb mole air
= 54, 040 pounds per hour ( 24, 534 kg /hr )
11.2.2.4 Comparison of Approximate and

Theoretical Calculation Methods
Table 11- 7 shows that the approximate method requires slightly
more fuel and air than the theoretical method , but the values are
close . This comparison shows that the approximate method is
suitable for preliminary evaluations , More detailed information
and combustion theory can be found in the literature ( 1,4,6,7,9,
and 11- 16 ).
11 - 24
mwarn
TABLE 11- 7
COMPARISON BETWEEN AN APPROXIMATE AND A THEORETICAL
CALCULATION OF FURNACE COMBUSTION
Approximate method (AM) Theoretical method (TM)
Calcula tion Calculation Difference
Value
reference
(AM) Value
reference
(TM)
-
AM TM
TM X 100
Item
a
Sludge heating value 10 ,000 Btu
lb VS
Assumed 1 ,661
lb as fed
Btua
line i
-
Table 11 4 -7.28
Furnace heat deficit 13.91 x 106 Btu Step 8 91 , 139 Btub ’
Table 11 4 - 9.01
hr 100 lb wet sludge line 33
Supplemental fuel heating

value
141 ,000
gal
BtuC Step 8 20 ,440 Btu
lb
Table 11 5
1 ine i
- -4.19
Supplemental fuel required 25.32 x 106 Btu Step 8 22.38 x 106 Btu Step 15 13.14
hr hr
Total combustion air 56,075 lb Step 9 54 ,040 lb Step 16 3.77

required Hr Hr
a
10,000 Btu/lb VS at 77 percent VS = 7 ,700 Btu/lb dry solids ,
1,661 Btu/lb as fed v 20 percent solids = 8 ,305 Btu/lb dry solids.
b91, 139 Btu/100 lb wet x 14 ,000 lb wet/hr
= 12.76 x 106 Btu/hr.
c 19 , 583 Btu/lb.
141 ,000 Btu gal i 7.2 lb gal
/ / =
1 Btu/lb = 2 , 324 J/kg
1 Btu/hr = 1,055 J/hr .
1 Btu/gal = 279 kj/m 3
1 lb/hr = 0.45/hr
11.2.3 Pyrolysis and Starved -Air Combustion

Calculations
Pyrolysis and starved - air combustion have received considerable
attention recently . The yield and composition of the gas and
residue depend upon several variables, The actual interrelation-
ships are so complex that final product characteristics must be
determined empirically.
Currently , data are insufficient to provide information for
designing pyrolysis equipment. Several large pyrolysis projects
have been proposed , and some are in start-up or early operation.
However , most work to 1979 has been at laboratory scale. At this
writing , there are no full-scale pyrolysis projects proposed or
under development that use sludge alone ; all are for solid waste
or specific industrial wastes .
Starved - air combustion , a partial pyrolysis process , has had
a number of successful tests , such as those conducted at
the Central Contra Costa Sanitary District ( 17 , 18 ), and the
Interstate Sanitation Commission ( 19 ) , and several modular
combustion units have used municipal solid waste , sewage sludge ,
and /or agricultural wastes, Starved -air combustion has also had
some failures such as at the Baltimore plant , which used only
solid waste. The furnace at Baltimore is now being modified for
further testing and use. Multiple - hearth furnaces have been
11- 25
i
tested for both s l u d g e and c o- disposal starved -air combustion.
This work on starved -air combustion by multiple-hearth furnaces
h a s b e e n sufficient t o a l l o w d e v e l o p m e n t o f e m p i r i c a l d e s i g n
criteria ( 17- 2 0 ).
Some engineers and manufacturers use a hearth loading rate
of 10 to 14 total pounds per square foot per hour ( 48.8 to
6 8 . 3 k g / m 2/ hr ) over t h e w h o l e effective hearth area w h i l e
assuming that up t o 1 5 percent of t h e input energy remains in
the ash a s a char. Other engineers and manufacturers use the
following design criteria which assumes a lower hearth loading
rate and an additional hearth area t o gasify the fixed carbon.
This d e s i g n results in a v e r y l o w combustible c o n t e n t in t h e
ash ( 2 0 ) :
15 percent of the combustible m a t t e r becomes fixed

carbon.
Fixed carbon is gasified at a rate of 0 . 5 t o 0.8 pounds
per square foot per hour ( 2.4 t o 3.9 kg /m 2/hr ).
Wet s l u d g e feed rate ( hearth loading r a t e ) varies between

8 and 1 2 total pounds. per s q u a r e foot per hour ( 39.0 and
58.6 k g /m 2/hr ).
Assuming afterburning , 8 5 percent o f the total feed energy
remains in the afterburner g a s e s.
Example
Estimate the required hearth a r e a of a multiple-hearth furnace t o

burn the sludge g e n e r a t e d from a 20 M G D ( 0.88 m - /s ) wastewater^
t r e a t m e n t plant by starved - air combustion and the heat c o n t e n t of
the hot g a s from the afterburner. A s s u m e the furnace feed is
4 0,0 0 0 p o u n d s per d a y dry solids ( 1 8 , 1 4 0 kg /d a y ). Assume that
the furnace feed is 4 0 p e r c e n t solids and that the solids are
6 5 p e r c e n t c o m b u s t i b l e s, A f t e r b u r n i n g t o 1 4 0 0 ° F ( 7 6 0 ° C ) is
required.
W e t s l u d g e feed r a t e
4 0, 000 lb d r y solids X 1 lb s l u d g e 1 day

0 . 4 lb d r y solids x 24 hr
v
day
= 4, 1 6 7 p o u n d s wet sludge p e r hour ( 1 ,8 9 0 k g /h r )
Fixed carbon r a t e
4 0, 0 0 0 lb d r y solids 0 . 6 5 combustible solids

X
day lb d r y solids
1 1- 2 6
lb fixed carbon 1_ d a y
x 0.15
lb combustible solids 24 hr
= 163 lb fixed carbon per hour ( 73.9 kg /hr )
Estimate hearth area and multiple- hearth furnace size , Hearth

area is considered as the sum of the area required to convert the
wet sludge to the fixed carbon stage and the area needed to burn
out the fixed carbon.
Hearth area
wet sludge feed - fixed carbon feed fixed carbon feed

allowable hearth loading rate gasification rate
4, 167 lb/hr - 163 lb/hr 163 lb/hr

10 lb/sq ft/hr 0.5 lb/sq ft/hr
726 square feet ( 67.44 m 2 )
After discussions with the furnace manufacturers , a 14 - foot

3-inch ( 4.34 m ) diameter, 8 hearth unit with an effective hearth
area of 760 square feet ( 70.6 m 2 ) is selected.
Estimate the heat content of hot gases leaving the afterburner:
Heat content
40 , 000 lb dry solids

day x 0.65 lblb combustible
dry solids
solids
10, 000. Btu 1 day

X 1
x 0.85
lb combustible solids 24 hr
Portions of this heat can be recovered and used benefically , for

example , to generate steam or hot water ( see Chapter 18 ).
BSP Division of Envirotech Corporation , and Nichols Engineering

and Research ( now part of Wheelabrator ) have developed a large
data base for evaluation of starved -air combustion operations.
11- 27
Even with the amount of work that has been completed to date ,
however , calculations for starved - air combustion are still
empirical. Because starved -air combustion is extremely complex
and not completely understood , it is desirable to pilot any
starved - air combustion process and , where possible , test at
full -scale. There are several excellent texts and articles on
combustion , but none deal to any great degree with oxygen -
deficient combustion. Starved - air combustion is discussed in a
number of publications ( 17-30 ).
11.2.4 Heat and Material Balances
Analysis of high temperature processes must include heat and
material balances. Once provided , equipment can be sized and
operating costs estimated. Throughout the remainder of this
chapter , heat and material balances are displayed for several
alternative combustion processes , all being fed the same
hypothetical sludge. A flowsheet for a hypothetical wastewater
treatment plant is depicted on Figure 11- 5. Design data for 5 ,
^
15 , and 50 MGD ( 0.22, 0.66 , and 2.19 m /sec ) wastewater treat-
ment plants using this configuration are shown in Table 11-8.
The " A " and " B " alternatives vary only in the percent solids feed
( 20 percent and 40 percent , respectively ) and the addition of
conditioning chemicals to obtain a dewatered cake of 40 percent
solids. Use of conditioning chemicals reduces the percent
combustibles of the " B " alternatives.
In Section 11.3 , detailed heat and material balance tables are
presented for each furnace type , The tables also display the
amount of fuel and power each type of furnace requires , for each
different treatment plant alternative, Balances given are for
yearly average conditions, Operational costs can be estimated
from the requirements for supplemental fuel and connected
horsepower. General sizes and types of support facilities , such
as ash handling equipment , water supply for the air pollution
control equipment , and operating fuel requirements can also be
estimated on the basis of the data shown in the heat and material
balance tables.
In any steady-state balance , all inputs must equal all outputs.
The following is a representative example of a heat and material
balance for the Alternative IA in Section 11.3.1.
Alternative IA — Heat Balance

Inputs 106 Btu /hr
Combustibles in sludge 13.91

Supplemental fuel 2.64
Total 16.55 ( 17.46 GJ /hr )
11- 28
Outputs 106 B t u /h r
Furnace exhaust 15.96
Ash 0.04
Radiation 0.32
S h a f t c o o l i n g air ( u n r e c o v e r e d
portion ) 0.22
Total 1 6 . 5 4 ( 1 7 . 4 5 G J /h r )
V a l u e s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y e q u a l ; t h e b a l a n c e c h e c k s. N o t e t h a t
shaft c o o l i n g air is a n internal l o o p i n t h e s y s t e m. Since it is
neither a n input o r o u t p u t , o n l y t h e u n r e c o v e r e d p o r t i o n n e e d b e
considered in t h e heat balance.
Alternative I A — Material B a l a n c e
Inputs 1 b/h r
D r y solids in t h e s l u d g e 1 ,8 0 6
W a t e r in t h e s l u d g e 7, 224
Supplemental fuel 143
Combustion air 2 2,0 6 0
Total 3 1 , 2 3 3 ( 1 4, 1 8 0 k g /h r )
Outputs l b/h r
Ash 415
Furnace exhaust 3 0, 8 1 7
Total 31 , 2 3 2 ( 1 4, 179 k g /h r )
A g a i n , v a l u e s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y e q u a l ; t h e b a l a n c e c h e c k s.
R e f e r e n c e 2 3 c o n t a i n s v a l u a b l e information on h e a t a n d material
b a l a n c e s.
11.3 Incineration
I n c i n e r a t i o n i s a t w o-s t e p o x i d a t i o n p r o c e s s i n v o l v i n g f i r s t
drying and then combustion, Drying and combustion may be
accomplished in separate units or successively in the same
unit, depending upon temperature constraints and control
p a r a m e t e r s. The drying step should not be confused with
preliminary d e w a t e r i n g , which i s u s u a l l y d o n e m e c h a n i c a l l y p r i o r
t o i n c i n e r a t i o n. I n a l l f u r n a c e s , t h e d r y i n g a n d c o m b u s t i o n
p r o c e s s e s follow t h e same p h a s e s: raising the t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e
f e e d s l u d g e t o 2 1 2 ° F ( 1 0 0 °C ), e v a p o r a t i n g w a t e r f r o m t h e s l u d g e,
i n c r e a s i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e w a t e r v a p o r a n d a i r, a n d
1 1- 2 9
increasing the temperature of the dried sludge volatiles to
the ignition point , Although presented in simplified form ,
incineration i s a complex process involving thermal and chemical
reactions which occur at varying times , temperatures , and
locations in the furnace .
AERATION
BAR GRIT PRIMARY (CARBONACEOUS SECONDARY CHLORINE
SCREENS REMOVAL SEGMENTATION OXIDATION } SEDIMENTATION CONTACT
V { T f
SCUM TO LAN D hi L L
CL ?
RAW SEWAGE
l\
\ V>
PRIMARY
EFFLUENT j
-
HP
-
r
MIXED
LIQUOR
L FINAL
EFFLUENT *
'
r i
« i
*
SCREENINGS
TO LANDFIP l
_ 1(
3
a
ZJ
tn
RETURN ACTIVATED SLUGSE { RAS}
GRIT TO >-
LANDFILL E
<
*
s
a:
< a.
s.
THICKENER OVERFLOW
LL *
a.
O
ui THICKS NED WAS WASTE ACTIVATED
H
<
* SLUDGE ( WAS!
I
u
V WAS
i
TMtCKEMMG
1
’Ai,
DEWATERED SLUDGE EXHAUST GAS

* *
TO ATMOSPHERE
SLUDGE SCOPE OF
DEWATERING HIGH / CHAPTER
TEMPERATURE
PROCESS
1
’
ASH TO LANDFILL
FIGURE 11- 5
HYPOTHETICAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT FLOWSHEET
Manufacturers have developed a variety of equipment , each of

w h i c h h a s a d v a n t a g e s a n d d i s a d v a n t a g e s ( 1 9 , 3 1- 3 4 ) There are .
two major wastewater sludge incinerator equipment t y p e s used in
the United States: t h e m u l t i p l e-h e a r t h a n d t h e f l u i d b e d The .
,
e l e c t r i c furnace, which i s r e l a t i v e l y new has been used a n d , as
11- 30
o f 1 9 7 9 , is p l a n n e d for u s e in s e v e r a l w a s t e w a t e r treatment
p l a n t s. A f o u r t h t y p e is the single hearth c y c l o n i c furnace.
T h i s f u r n a c e has b e e n used in G r e a t Britain , b u t its o n l y
application in the United States has been in industrial s e r v i c e.
These four s y s t e m s are described in detail in this section, Heat
and material balances are included for each t y p e , assuming each
is used in the hypothetical wastewater treatment plants described
in F i g u r e 1 1- 5 and Table 1 1 - 8 .
TABLE 11- 8
HYPOTHETICAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT DESIGN DATA
-
I ( 5 MGD flow) -
II ( 15 MGD flow) -
III (50 MGD flow)
3
Alternative A B A B A B
Sewage flow, MGD 5 5 15 15 50 50
Sludge solids ,
lb/day dry basis 10 , 320 10 , 320 31 , 000 31, 000 103 , 000 103 ,000
Volatile solids , percent
of dry solids 77 77 77 77 77 77
Furnace operation , hr/week 40 40 80 80 168 168
Sludge solids to furnace ,
lb/hr , dry basis 1,806 1,806 2 , 713 2,713 4 , 292 4 , 292
Conditioning chemicals ,
lb/hr , dry basis 3 * 0 325 0 488 0 772
Total feed to furnace ,
lb/hr , dry basis 1 ,806 2, 131 2 , 713 3 , 201 4 , 292 5 , 064
Solids content of furnace
feed , percent by weight 20 40 20 40 20 40
Furnace loading rate ,
lb/hr , wet basis 9 ,030 5 , 327 13 ,565 8 ,003 21, 460 12 , 660
Volatile content of fur
nace feed , percent of
-
total solids 77 65 77 65 77 65
*.WMF
*
aThe A alternatives have a 20 percent solid feed sludge while

the B alternatives have a 40 percent solids feed sludge including
conditioning chemicals.
b
15 percent lime (CaO) and 3 percent ferric chloride (FeCl 3 ) , dry
weight basis for the 40 percent cake only.
1 MGD 0.04 m 3/s
1 lb/hr = 0.45 kg/hr
11.3.1 Multiple- Hearth Furnace
The multiple-hearth furnace ( MHF ) is the most widely used sludge

incinerator in t h e United S t a t e s. A s o f 1 9 7 7 , a p p r o x i m a t e l y
3 4 0 units had been installed for wastewater sludge combustion
( 3 5 ). The MHF is durable, relatively simple to o p e r a t e, and can
handle wide fluctuations in feed quality and loading r a t e s. T h e
1 1- 31
MHF is designed for continuous operation. Start up fuel require
- -
ments and the extended time needed to bring the hearths and
internal equipment up to temperature from a completely cold
condition normally preclude intermittent operations. The MHF is
-
a vertically oriented , cylindrically shaped , refractory lined
steel shell containing a series of horizontal refractory hearths,
one above the other. MHFs are available with diameters ranging
-
from 4 feet 6 inches to 29 feet ( 1.4 to 8.8 m ) and can have from
4 to 14 hearths. A cross section of a typical MHF is shown on
Figure 11 - 6. A central shaft extends from the bottom of the
furnace to the top and supports rabble arms above each hearth.
There are either two or four rabble arms per hearth. Each arm
contains several rabble teeth , or plows , which rake the sludge
across the hearth in a spiral pattern. Sludge is fed at the
-
periphery of the top hearth ( see Figure 11 6 ) and is rabbled
toward the center , where it drops to the hearth below. On the
second hearth , the sludge is rabbled outward to holes at the
periphery of the bed. Here the sludge drops to the next hearth.
The alternating drop hole locations on each hearth and the
-
counter current flow of rising exhaust gases and descending
sludge provide contact between the hot combustion gases and the
sludge feed. Good contact ensures complete combustion. The drop
holes on the "out" hearths distribute the sludge evenly around
the periphery of the hearth beneath. The drop holes also
regulate gas velocities.
Sludge is constantly turned and broken into smaller particles by

the rotating rabble arms , Thus , a large sludge surface is
exposed to the hot furnace gases, This procedure induces rapid
and complete drying , as well as burning , The rabble arms also
form spiral ridges of sludge on each hearth , The surface area of
these ridges varies with the angle of repose of the sludge , and
the angle varies with the moisture content of the material.
Because of the ridges, the actual surface area of sludge exposed
to the hot gases is considerably greater than the hearth area.
An effective area of up to 130 percent of the hearth area is
available. Two access doors are generally provided at each
hearth. -
They have fitted cast iron frames and machined faces
to provide reasonably tight closure , An observation port is
provided in each door.
Figure 11 7 shows an interior cut away view of the MHF. The
- -
central shaft of the furnace is a hollow iron column cast
in sections ; shaft speeds are adjustable from about 1/2 to
1 1/2 revolutions per minute.
- The hollow rabble arms are
connected to machined arm sockets in the shaft, The shaft and
-
rabble arms are air cooled and normally are insulated , A cold
air tube runs up the center of the shaft , Air lances extend from
the cold air tube out to the ends of each rabble arm . Ambient
air of regulated pressure and volume is forced through the cold
air tube and lances by means of a blower , The cold air exits
from the tips of the lances , flowing backward through the space
between the lances and the rabble arm walls to the annular space
in the central shaft known as the hot air compartment. This flow
-
11 32
COOLING AIR v
t
DISCHARGE SLUDGE CAKE,
DAMPER SCREENINGS,
AND GRIT
X - 1
t t
\
EXHAUST
STJ
I
BURNERS
mt SUPPLEMENTAL
FUEL
COMBUSTION AIR
SCUM
I SHAFT COOLING
AIR RETURN
SOLIDS FLOW
/
AUXILIARY
AIR PORTS
RABBLE ARM DROP HOLES
2 OR 4 PER
HEARTH
GAS FLOW
CLINKER /
BREAKER
& RABBLE
ARM
DRIVE
I
ASH
DISCHARGE 3
«»
COOLING A l R T
*> 11
*&£ * *
FIGURE 11- 6
CROSS SECTION OF A MULTIPLE- HEARTH FURNACE
11- 33
M
K •
OUT HEARTH
LUTE CAP
•r.
U.
vl
2
Sii
A STEEL SHELL
IN HEARTH
RABBLE ARM
HOT AIR
COMPARTMENT
COLD AIR ARM HOLDING PIN
TUBE
AIR LANCE 4*
RABBLE ARM TEETH

i
SAND SEAL
I
CENTER SHAFT
GEAR DRIVE
COOLING
AIR
& SHAFT COOLING
AIR HOUSING
F i AIR FAN
TTT
CORPORATION
COORTfST W DIVISION Of 6NV1RONTECH
FIGURE 11- 7
- HEARTH FURNACE
11- 34
of air cools the arms , The air is conducted through the hot air
compartment , cooling the shaft , The air is either discharged to
the atmosphere via the exhaust gas stack or returned to the
bottom hearth of the furnace as preheated air for combustion.
Cooling air vented to the atmosphere represents a heat loss of
roughly the same magnitude as the radiation loss from the furnace
structure.
The MHF can be divided into four zones , as shown on Figure 11 - 8.
The first zone , which consists of the upper hearths , is the
drying zone. Most of the water is evaporated in the drying zone.
The second zone , generally consisting of the central hearths, is
the combustion zone. In this zone , the majority of combustibles
are burned and temperatures reach 1 , 400 °F to 1 , 700 °F ( 760°C to
927°C ). The third zone is the fixed carbon burning zone, where
the remaining carbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide , The fourth
zone includes the lowest hearths and is the cooling zone. In
this zone, ash is cooled by the incoming combustion air. The
sequence of these zones is always the same , but the number of
hearths in each zone is dependent on the quality of the feed , the
design of the furnace, and the operational conditions.
NORMAL NORMAL
SLUDGE /ASH AIR
TEMPERATURES TEMPERATURES
\\\\\
s °
160 F
s DRYING ZONE °
600 to \
900°F \
x\V\ \\\\
\\\\v
1400° to
COMBUSTION ZONE °
1400 to
1700°F
V °
1700 F
\ \\\\\
1400 to ,
° FIXED CARBON 1400° to \
1800°F „
\\\\
BURNING ZONE
\
°
1800 F
\\\\\
\
\
100 to° ASH COOLING
400°F ZONE
\\\\\
T
SLUDGE AIR
FLOW FLOW
FIGURE 11- 8
PROCESS ZONES IN A MULTIPLE-HEARTH FURNACE
11-35
When t h e heating value o f the sludge is insufficient t o sustain
a u t o g e n o u s combustion , the additional heat r e q u i r e d is s u p p l i e d
by adding supplemental fuel t o burners located a t various p o i n t s
in t h e f u r n a c e. B u r n e r s m a y o p e r a t e either c o n t i n u o u s l y o r
intermittently and on all o r selected hearths.
A measure o f t h e quantity o f water e v a p o r a t e d from t h e s l u d g e
during burning is t h e d r o p in t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e hot g a s e s as
t h e y p a s s b e t w e e n t h e c o m b u s t i o n z o n e and t h e g a s o u t l e t.
In a M H F , g a s t e m p e r a t u r e s in t h e c o m b u s t i o n z o n e m a y e x c e e d
1 , 700 ° F ( 927 °C ). These g a s e s sweep over the cold , wet sludge fed
t o the drying zone, giving u p considerable portions o f their heat
in evaporating the water. While t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f the solids is
o n l y marginally increased in t h e d r y i n g zone , the g a s t e m p e r a t u r e
is drastically reduced , typically t o t h e r a n g e o f 600 t o 9 0 0 °F
( 316 t o 4 8 2 °C ). Exhaust g a s t e m p e r a t u r e s should be maintained a t
l e s s t h a n 9 0 0 ° F ( 4 8 2 ° C ) b y c o n t r o l l i n g air f l o w t o p r e v e n t
distillation of o d o r o u s g r e a s e s and t a r s from the drying solids.
If t e m p e r a t u r e s are s o controlled , it m a y be possible t o o p e r a t e
M H F s w i t h o u t d e v i c e s s u c h as a f t e r b u r n e r s , w h i c h a r e u s e d t o
reduce o d o r s and concentrations o f unburned h y d r o c a r b o n s.
H o w e v e r , afterburning MHF , exhaust g a s e s will probably be needed

in areas with v e r y stringent c a r b o n y l and unburned hydrocarbon
emission 1 imitations. In afterburning , furnace e x h a u s t g a s e s
are conveyed t o a c h a m b e r w h e r e their t e m p e r a t u r e is raised b y
direct c o n t a c t w i t h i g n i t e d s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l ; t h e o f f e n d i n g
p o l l u t a n t s are o x i d i z e d t o C C> 2 and w a t e r , Afterburning ,
however , r e q u i r e s s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l , which raises o p e r a t i n g
costs significantly. In this r e s p e c t , t h e MHF is a t a disadvan-
t a g e relative t o FBF and single hearth cyclonic furnaces , which
d o not require afterburning , The reason m a y be seen when the
air - s l u d g e c o n t a c t p a t t e r n s in t h e s e f u r n a c e s a r e c o n t r a s t e d
a g a i n s t t h e p a t t e r n in t h e M H F . In the MHF , warm air and
unburned solids are contacted a t the top of the furnace, Any
c o m p o u n d s distilled from the solids a r e i m m e d i a t e l y vented from
the furnace at t e m p e r a t u r e s t o o low t o e f f e c t their destruction.
In c o n t r a s t , t e m p e r a t u r e s in F B F and s i n g l e h e a r t h c y c l o n i c
f u r n a c e s are h i g h ( 1 , 200 t o 1 , 600 °F [ 6 4 9 t o 760 ° C ] ) and n e a r l y
uniform throughout t h e furnace. S l u d g e and air are injected into
the l o w e r portion of the furnace , and a n y objectionable c o m p o u n d s
distilled f r o m t h e s o l i d s m u s t t r a v e r s e t h e entire l e n g t h o f
t h e h o t f u r n a c e b e f o r e b e i n g vented , In the FBF and single
hearth cyclonic f u r n a c e s , ,
therefore the volume o f the furnace
a b o v e t h e s l u d g e i n j e c t i o n z o n e is in e f f e c t a n a f t e r b u r n e r,
supplying a m p l e c o n t a c t time and t e m p e r a t u r e for the destruction
o f p o l l u t a n t s. A f l o w s h e e t f o r t h e M H F p r o c e s s is s h o w n o n
F i g u r e 1 1- 9.
The MHF can be provided with instrumentation t o c o n v e y critical

operating data t o a central control panel. T e m p e r a t u r e d a t a c a n
be monitored f o r each hearth and for other points in t h e exhaust
g a s s y s t e m , such a s the f u r n a c e exhaust , heat recovery device
1 1-3 6
outlet , and scrubber exhaust, The temperature can be controlled
o n e a c h h e a r t h t o w i t h i n t 4 0 ° F ( 2 2 °C ) Instrumentation such .
a s C O2 o r O2 m e t e r s c a n b e u s e d t o c o n t r o l t h e f l o w o f e x c e s s
a i r, thereby conserving fuel and reducing the overall operating
cost . M a l f u n c t i o n s s u c h a s b u r n e r s h u t d o w n , f u r n a c e o v e r-
temperature , draft loss, and feed shutdown can be monitored
In the event of power or fuel failure, the furnace should
.
be shut down automatically and the shaft cooling a i r fan
automatically transferred t o a standby power source , This
procedure will provide continued cooling and prevent serious
deformations of the shaft and the rabble arms due to high
temperature .
Further details on instrumentation are provided in
Chapter 17 .
GAS EXHAUST
« .
SHAFT CQOUNO AlR NOT RETURNED
mmcio
DRAFT FAN
,
FRfeOmEft
AND VEfiTlJRI i
SHAFT COOMNG F U HN ACS HEAT SOILER !
AIR RETURN EXHAUST RECOVERY EXHAUST !
BOILED ,!
sw. - . ri
7
•*<< •
1:
\ WET SCRUBBED
!
SLUDGE RECOVERABLE HEAT
1* l
i
FEED
SCRUBBER
* WATER
MULTIPLE 1
HEARTH
FURNACE
SUPPLEMENTAL DRAIN
^ FUEL
RADIATION
FREDOOLiR AND
VENTURI WATER
C0M 8U&TIQN AIH
bj CONNECTED POWER
1
ASH
SHAFT
*
COOLING AIR
FIGURE 11- 9
FLOWSHEET FOR SLUDGE INCINERATION IN A

MULTIPLE- HEARTH FURNACE
11 37 -
Problems encountered with multiple- hearth furnaces have included
( a ) failure o f rabble arms and teeth, ( b ) failure o f hearths, and
( c ) failure of refractories. Improvements in materials used in
constructing the rabble arms and teeth have reduced the first
problem , increasing their ability to withstand high temperatures.
M a n y r e f r a c t o r y p r o b l e m s result because furnaces are n o t
c a r e f u l l y heated and cooled during start - u p and shutdown.
T w e n t y-four hours or more are required t o bring the furnace up t o
t e m p e r a t u r e or to cool it. This is an operational disadvantage
since start -up fuel costs can be significant. However, there are
several installations that d o o p e r a t e intermittently without
significant refractory problems. The normal procedures at these
installations is t o fire s u p p l e m e n t a l fuel t o maintain the
t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e furnaces during t h e h o u r s when t h e y a r e
not in use, thus reducing long reheat times. This procedure,
known as " hot standby " is not generally economical. MHFs should
not be operated at temperatures above 1 ,800 ° F ( 982°C ) due to the
metals exposed to the temperature. Thus with high energy fuels
( for e x a m p l e , sewage scum ), there m a y be p r o b l e m s with h i g h
t e m p e r a t u r e s in the combustion zones .
Heat and material balances for the hypothetical treatment plant
alternatives listed in Table . 11- 8 are presented in Table 11- 9 and
s h o u l d be used with the flowsheet p r e s e n t e d in F i g u r e 11 - 9.
Figure 1 1- 9 is the flowsheet f o r a typical multiple - hearth
furnace. Figures 11- 1 0 through 11- 15 are generalized curves f o r
capital and operating and maintenance costs for multiple- hearth
furnaces. Table 1 1-10 gives typical hearth loading rates for
multiple -hearth furnaces .
As expected , there are important differences between Alternatives
" A " ( 20 percent solids feed ) and " B " ( 40 percent solids feed )
in t e r m s o f equipment size , c a p i t a l c o s t s , and operation and
maintenance c o s t s. This illustrates t h e value of preparing
comparative cost tables for all options. Specific discussions
of the MHF can be found in the literature ( 6 , 1 5 , 16 , 31 , and
37- 52 ).
The recycle concept is relatively new in MHF applications ( 53 ).
This c o n c e p t ( 54 ) is a modification of the m u l t i p l e - hearth
designed "....t o control sludge combustion t o burn where it is
designed t o burn, rather than t o let it burn where it wants to
g o " ( 55 ). Recycle includes three control loops: an exit gas
loop, a drying rate control loop, and a furnace combustion loop
( see F i g u r e 1 1 - 1 6 ). T h e exit g a s l o o p allows hot g a s e s t o
be exhausted from either o r both the t o p - drying hearth and
the combustion z o n e. F o r w e t s l u d g e , most or a l l of the air
would be exhausted from the drying hearth , ensuring minimal fuel
consumption ( conventional MHF ). For hot or dry sludges, most of
the air would be drawn from the combustion zone so as to p r e v e n t
uncontrolled burning on the upper hearths .
The drying rate control loop takes the air exhausted from the
drying hearth and h e a t s this air with exhaust g a s e s from the
combustion zone via a n air h e a t e r ( r e c u p e r a t o r ). T h e h e a t e d
11 - 38
exhaust from the drying zone is returned as preheated combustion
air to the furnace. This reduces the overall excess air require -
ments. The gas from the combustion zone exits from the first
recuperator and enters a second , which serves as a preheater for
makeup combustion air. Additional heat can be withdrawn from the
combustion zone gas it passes through a scrubber and is vented by
means of a heat recovery boiler.
TABLE 11- 9
HEAT AND MATERIAL BALANCE FOR SLUDGE INCINERATION

IN A MULTIPLE- HEARTH FURNACE3
Alternatives
IA IB I IA IIB IIIA 11 IB
'
5 MGD
'
5 MGD 15 MGD 15 MGD 50 MGD 50 MGD
20 percent 40 percent 20 percent 40 percent 20 percent 40 percent
Stream solids solids solids solids solids solids
Furnace design
-
Diameter , ft in.
Number of hearths
-
18 9
7
-6
14 3 -7
22 3 16-9
6
-
22 3
10
-7
18 9
Hearth loading rate , lb

wet solids/sq ft/hr 7.3 9.3 7.4 9.5 8.4 10. 3
Sludge feed
b b b
Lb dry solids/hr 1 ,806 2 ,131 2,173 3 ,201 4 , 292 5 ,064
^
Heat value, 10 Btu/hr
Volatile content , percent
13.91 13.91 20.89 20.89 33.06 33.06
dry solids 77 65 77 65 77 65
c
Supplemental fuel
No. 2 fuel oil, lb/hr 143 0 205 0 312 0
Heat value, 106 Btu/hr 2.64 0 3.79 0 5.77 0
Combustion air
°
Mass at 60 F , lb/hr . . 22 ,060 27,531 32 ,959 41,544 51,945 66,740
Shaft cooling air
Mass, lb/hr 19,273 9,178 24 ,321 13 ,766 34,416 19 ,273
Shaft cooling air return
°
Mass at 325 F , lb/hr 16,560 0 20,880 0 29,520 0
b
Heat value, 10 Btu/hr 1.26 0 1.59 0 2.25 0
Shaft cooling air not
recovered
Heat loss , 106 Btu/hr 0.22 0.71 0.28 1.06 0.40 1.48
Ash
Mass at 500 F , lb/hr 415 740 624 1 , 110 987 1 ,757
Heat value,
°106 Btu/hr 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.10 0.09 0.15
Radiation
Heat loss. 106 Btu/hr 0.32 0.21 0.41 0.26 0.53 0.33
Furnace exhaust
d e d e d e
Mass, lb/hr 30,817 32,123 46,102 48,434 72,735 77,643
Heat value, 106 Btu/hr 15.96 12.94 23.93 19.48 37.81 31.11
Boiler exhaust
Heat value at 500 F >
106 °
Btu/hr 13.26 .4
9.6 19.73 12.28 31.11 19.61
Recoverable heat
70 percent efficiency ,
106 Btu/hr 1.89 2. 31 2.94 5.04 4.69 8.05
Precooler and Venturi water
feed
Flow at 70°F , gpm 90 86 135 130 215 209
11-39
TABLE 11- 9

IN A MULTIPLE- HEARTH FURNACE3 (CONTINUED )
Alternatives
" WtOTV"" ““***
‘
1
IA IB IIA 11 B 11IA IIIB

5 MGD 5 MGD 15 MGD 15 MGD 50 MGD 50 MGD
Scrubber water feed

Flow at 70 F , gpm 182 174 273 260
° 429 418
Scrubber drain
Flow , gpm 296 264 428 398 676 638
Temperature , °F 98 98 98 98 98 98
Gas exhaust
Mass, lb/hr 26,667 38,938 44,278 58,646 61,116 91,393
Temperature , °F 142 170 139 168 138 166
Heat value , 10 Btu/hr 9.44 6.00 14.01 6.80 22.09 10.82
Connected power
Horsepower 238 93 305 178 305 238
Installed cost,
dollars
^ thousand 2 ,000 1,600 2 , 200 2 ,000 2,400 2,000
VJWI1 1 i . .- .
rewtEwr w,«
Footnotes for Table 11 8. -

aAll data supplied by the manufacturer.
âlternatives
Solids for B alternatives (40 percent solids feed ), larger than A
(20 percent solids feed), due to conditioning chemicals.
-
See Table 11 7.
Q
Afterburner not included.
dAt 800 °F.
eAt 1,000 °F.
^Costs as of early 1978.
2
1 x 106 Btu/hr = 1,055 MJ/hr
1 gpm = 0.06 1/s
1 ft = 0.31 m
1 in. = 0.02 m
1 MGD = 0.04 m 3/s
The furnace combustion control process allows the furnace

to operate with sludges with a very high volatile content ( for
example, large amounts of scum ) or those requiring supplemental
fuel. This loop integrates the functions of the exit gas loop
and the drying rate loop, providing for automatic control of the
process without regard to feed quality.
The manufacturer of the furnace which uses the recycle concept
claims that strict limits on gaseous emissions can be met without
use of an afterburner , The air that is exhausted has not con-
tacted wet sludge ( the sludge in the drying zone ) and thus has
not distilled off odors or excess hydrocarbons from the sludge .
Figure 11-16 is a flowsheet for a 50 MGD ( 2.2 m 3/s ) plant .
11- 40
5.G
_c
5 4.0
lTi
IT
O -
II
_
C
cc
*& 3.0
-C
--
+
cc
c
C ASSUMPTIONS ;
2 ,0
E HEATUP TIME TO
EFFECTIVE HEARTH AREA REACH 1 400* F
c SQ FT
*
HR
LU
CC CESS THAN 400 18
4OM0O 27
o
LL1
BOG- MOG 36
cc: MOO2.O0O 54
GREATER THAN 2,000 108
ULI
1.0
LL. FREQUENCY QF STAflTUF IS A FUNCTION OF INDIVIDUAL UNIT
FUEL IS NATURAL GAS OR FUEL OIL
0 500 1,000 1 ,500 2 ,000 2, 500
EFFECTIVE HEARTH AREA, sq ft 1 sq ft < « 0,093 m 2 )
FICURE 11- 10
MULTIPLE-HEARTH FURNACE START-UP FUEL REQUIREMENTS ( 36 )
Disadvantages of the recycle concept include those inherent

i n t h e MHF c o n s t r u c t i o n , a s w e l l a s p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
ducting hot gases and with recuperators .
Additional instruments
and equipment add to operating and maintenance costs .
These
costs may be o f f s e t by a reduction i n supplemental f u e l demand .
One municipal sludge i n s t a l l a t i o n similar t o t h a t depicted on
-
F i g u r e 11 16 i s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n i n S a n M a t e o , C a l i f o r n i a The.
r e c y c l e c o n c e p t h a s been used i n t h e MHFs f o r many y e a r s t o
p r o d u c e bone c h a r ( a " h o t " f e e d m a t e r i a l ) i n t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y .
11 41-
PLANT CAPACITY , MGD ( 1 MGD = 0.04 m3/ s)
10 100
100
7
6
6
4
3
%
§
* 10
9
c
o 8
7
E 6
5
H 4
CO
8 3
O 2
-
t
u
CL
CD 1.0
8
O B
a 7
6
4
3
0,1
100 2 3 4 6 6 789 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 78 910,000 2 3 4 5 6 789100,000
WET SLUDGE FEED, Ib/hr fl Ib/hr = 0.45 kg/hr )
FIGURE 11- 11
MULTIPLE- HEARTH FURNACE CONSTRUCTION COST ( 36 )
11.3.2 Fluid Bed Furnace

The first fluid bed wastewater sludge furnace was installed in
1962. There are approximately 60 operating units in the United
States ( 35 ) and many more in Europe. The fluid bed furnace
( FBF ) is a vertically oriented , cylindrically shaped , refractory
lined steel shell that contains a sand bed and fluidizing air
-
diffusers. The FBF is normally available in sizes from 9 to
25 feet ( 2.7 to 7.6 m ) in diameter. However , there is one
11-42
industrial unit with a diameter of 53 feet * ( 16.2 m ). A cross
section of the fluid bed furnace is shown on Figure 11- 1 7. T h e
sand bed is approximately 2.5 feet ( 0.8 m ) thick and sits on a
refractory- lined grid. This grid contains tuyeres through which
air is injected into the furnace at a pressure of 3 to 5 psig
( 21 t o 34 kN/m gage ) to fluidize the bed . The bed expands to
^
approximately 100 percent of its at rest volume. Temperature o f
the bed is c o n t r o l l e d b e t w e e n 1 , 4 0 0 ° F and 1 , 5 0 0 ° F ( 7 6 0 ° C a n d
816 ° C ) by auxiliary burners located either above or below the
sand bed. In some installations , a water spray or heat removal
s y s t e m above the bed c o n t r o l s the furnace t e m p e r a t u r e. In
essence , t h e r e a c t o r is a s i n g l e c h a m b e r unit in which both
drying and combustion occur in either the dense or dilute phases
in the sand bed . All of the combustion g a s e s pass through t h e
combustion zone with residence times o f several s e c o n d s a t
1, 400 ° F to 1, 500 ° F ( 760 ° C to 816° C ). Ash is carried out the t o p
of the furnace and is removed by air pollution control devices,
u s u a l l y venturi scrubbers. Sand carried o u t with t h e ash
must be replaced. Sand losses are approximately 5 percent of the
bed volume for e v e r y 300 hours o f operation. Feed t o the furnace
is introduced either above o r directly into the bed.
Air flow in the furnace is determined by several factors.

Fluidizing and combustion air must be sufficient t o expand the
bed t o a proper density yet low enough to prevent the sludge from
rising to and floating on t o p of the bed . Too much air blows
sand and products of incomplete combustion into the off -gases.
This depletes stored heat energy and increases fuel consumption
unnecessarily . Minimum oxygen requirements must be met t o assure
complete oxidation of all volatile solids in the sludge cake.
T e m p e r a t u r e s m u s t be s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h t o assure c o m p l e t e
d e o d o r i z i n g but low e n o u g h t o p r o t e c t the r e f r a c t o r y , heat
exchanger, and flue gas ducting , T h e quantities of excess air
are maintained at 20 t o 45 percent t o minimize effects on fuel
costs ( see Figure 11- 3 ). The fluid bed furnace operates at lower
excess air rates than typically experienced in MHF operations.
This accounts for the g r e a t e r heat efficiency of the fluid bed
system at similar exit t e m p e r a t u r e s . The intense and violent
mixing of the solids and gases within the fluid bed results in
uniform conditions of temperature, composition, and particle size
distribution throughout the bed . Heat transfer between the g a s e s
and the solids is extremely rapid because of the l a r g e surface
area available.
There are t w o basic p r o c e s s configurations f o r the FBF . In

the first p r o c e s s , the f l u i d i z i n g air passes t h r o u g h a heat
exchanger , or r e c u p e r a t o r, prior to injection into the combustion
chamber. This arrangement is known as a hot windbox design. In
the second process, the fluidizing air is injected directly into
the furnace. This a r r a n g e m e n t is known as a cold windbox design.
The first arrangement increases the thermal efficiency of the
process by using the higher temperature of the exhaust gases t o
preheat the incoming combustion air.
1 1- 43
PLANT CAPACITY, MGD ( 1 MGO * a04 m3/*)
1 10 100
100.000
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
104300
8
£i*
7
e
E
DC
O 4
m 3
5
2 2
O
1 ,000
9
a
7
6
s
4
3
100
100 2 3 4 6 07 «» 1,000 2 3 4 6 6 789 10,000 2 3 4 6 6 789 100,000
WET SLUDGE FEED, Ib/hr ( 1 1b/hr - 0.4S kg/hr>

FIGURE 11- 12
MULTIPLE-HEARTH FURNACE OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE

LABOR REQUIREMENTS ( 36 )
P r e h e a t i n g t h e i n c o m i n g c o m b u s t i o n a i r f r o m 7 0 ° F t o 1, 0 0 0 ° F ( 2 1°C
t o 5 3 8 °C ) c a n y i e l d a r e d u c t i o n i n f u e l c o s t s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y
61 percent per unit wet sludge ( 39 ) . Air preheating costs
can represent 15 percent of the f l u i d b e d f u r n a c e c o s t;
therefore, a careful economic analysis i s needed to determine
-
cost effectiveness for a given situation .
11 44-
1 ,000,000 CURVE NO . SLUDGE TYPE
i
8 2
PRIMARY
.
PRIM + FERRIC CHLORIDE {Fe l3 >
.
/ *, e.
2, 8
5 3 PRIM, + LOW LIME

r
4 4 .
PRIM + WASTE ACTIVATED SLUDGE 4 W.A.SJ
3
3 6 PRIM* + 1 WAS + F«Cl3 J
6 £PRIM* + FfiOg) + WAS 9
> 2 7 WAS
s B
8
WAS + F*a 3 A
100,000 DIGESTED PRIMARY
£
o 8
l 8
7
H e
5
> 4
3
GO
3
% 2
X
ii
ASSUMPTIONS
> HEAT VALUE OF VOLATILE SOLIDS 10,000 Biu/lb
3 6 LOADING RATES, lb/«Q Hflir:
S3 4 CURVE NO, RATE
E 3 1,8 14
&
2,4,8,73 6.B
D 3 IS
ui 3
CL 6 M
D L00
a
LU
| SEE TABLE 11*10 FOR FEED SLUDGE DATA
COMBUSTION TEMPERATURE 1,400* F
CL DOWNTIME IS A FUNCTION OF
S INDIVIDUAL SYSTEM
_
—
UJ
3 4 40% EXCESS AIR , NO PREHEATER
U 3 START UP FUEL NOT INCLUDED ; 73,COC Biuftq It
FOR STARTUP
2 FUEL IS NATURAL GAS OR FUEL OIL
100 I 11 1 Ilf I 1 LILLI I

10 2 3 4 B 6788100 2 3 4 6 67881,000 2 3 78810,000 2 2 4 88 788100,000
D R Y S L U D G E F E E D , I b / h r { 1 l b/ h r - 0.45 k g / hr )
FIGURE 11- 13
MULTIPLE-HEARTH FURNACE FUEL REQUIREMENTS ( 36)
Violent mixing in the fluidized bed assures rapid and uniform

distribution of fuel and a i r , and consequently , good heat
transfer and combustion .
The bed i t s e l f provides substantial
heat storage capacity .
This helps to reduce short term
t e m p e r a t u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s t h a t m a y r e s u l t' f r o m v a r y i n g f e e d
-
heating values .
This heat storage capacity also enables quicker
-
s t a r t u p,t h e s h u t d o w n p e r i o d h a s b e e n s h o r t ( f o r e x a m p l e,
if
overnight ) .
Organic particles remain in the sandbed until
.
The violent motion of the bed
they are reduced to mineral ash
comminutes the ash material, preventing the buildup of clinkers .
The resulting fine ash i s constantly stripped from the bed by the
upflowing gases .
1 1-4 5
100,000,000
*****
9
B
7 LOADING RATES, lWKr / q it |WET $LUQOEi
6
ASSUMPTIONS:
*
5 SMALL PLANTS LARGE PLANTS
>
4 SOLIDS CONCENTRATION, % < 2$ MKaO > 2» MGD
s 3 14-17 6.0 iao
to 18- 22 6.5 11.0
m 23^ 30 7,0 12.0
2 31 SLO 12.0
FULL TIME OPERATION

5
-X
10,1X10,000
7
> 6
5
5
_sd 4
*
3
LU
cc
2
a
in
ft
DC 1 ,000,000
UJ 9
5 8
O 7
CL 6
< 5
U 4
£E
H 3
U
UJ
UJ
2
IGQ ,OOO Mill

100 2 3 4 & a 789 1,000 2 3 4 & 6 78910,000 2 3 4 & 6 780100,000
EFFECTIVE HEARTH AREA , tq ft ( 1 sq ft - 0 093 m2)

,
FIGURE 11- 14
MULTIPLE-HEARTH FURNACE ELECTRICAL POWER REQUIREMENTS ( 36 )
An oxygen analyzer in the stack controls air flow into the

reactor. This type of control has limited application , since air
flow ranges have upper and lower rates required for proper bed
fluidization. The rate of use of auxiliary fuel is controlled
by furnace exhaust gas temperature , Shutdown controls must
be provided for emergency situations , Further details on
instrumentation are provided in Chapter 17.
Heat and material balances for the hypothetical treatment
plant alternatives (Table 11 8 ) are presented in Table 11 11.
- -
-
Figure 11 18 is the flowsheet for a typical FBF system .
- -
Figures 11 19 and 11 20 are generalized curves depicting fuel and
power required for FBF systems.
-
11 46
PLANT CAPACITY, MGD ( 1 MOD - 0 04 m3M
,
10 100
1 ,000,000
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
t
JS 100,000
9
o
T3
7
6
< 5
cr 4
UJ
f“
< 3
2
LLf
O 2
<
z
yj
I-
10 #000
9
z
< 7
2 ©
5
4
3
1 ,000
too 2 3 4 6 6 7 6 9 1 ,000 2 3 4 6 6 789104)00 2 3 4 6 8 7 89 004)00
*
WET SLUDGE FEEDf fb/hr ( 1 to/hr - 0* 45 kg/hr )
FIGURE 11- 15
MULTIPLE- HEARTH FURNACE MAINTENANCE MATERIAL COSTS ( 36 )
The FBF i s r e l a t i v e l y simple t o o p e r a t e , has a minimum of

mechanical components, and typically has a slightly lower capital
c o s t t h a n t h e MHF . Normal o p e r a t i o n of t h e FBF produces exhaust
t e m p e r a t u r e i n e x c e s s o f 1, 4 0 0 ° F ( 7 6 0 ° C ) .
Because the exhaust
gases are exposed to this temperature for several seconds ,
carbonyl and unburned hydrocarbon emissions are minimal , and
s t r i c t hydrocarbon emission regulations are met without the use
of an afterburner . However , i t i s important that operating
.
conditions be optimum t o assure this emission level a t a l l times
11- 47
i
TABLE 11- 10
TYPICAL HEARTH LOADING RATES FOR A MULTIPLE-HEARTH FURNACEa
Typical wet
Chemical sludge loading
Type of sludge
Percent
solids
Percent
combustibles
concentration ,
mg/1
^ rate ,c
lb/sq ft/hr
Primary 30 60 N/Ad 7.0 - 12.0
Primary plus ferric
chloride (FeCl ) 16 47 20 6.0 - 10.0
Primary plus low lime ^ 35 45 298 8.0 * 12.0
Primary plus waste
activated sludge (WAS)
- 16 69 N/A 6.0- 10.0
Primary plus (WAS plus
FeCl3) 20 54 20 6.5 - 11.0
(Primary plus FeCl )
plus WAS ^ 16 53 20 6.0 - 10.0
WAS 16 80 N/A 6.0 - 10.0
WAS plus FeCl 3 16 50 20 6.0 - 10.0
primary 30 43 N/A 7.0 - 12.0
aData supplied by the manufacturer.

Âssumes no dewatering chemicals ,
c Low number is applicable to small plants, high
number is applicable to large plants.
^ N/A -
not applicable.
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m2/hr
Problems with the FBF have occurred primarily with feed

e q u i p m e n t a n d t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l s. W h e n s l u d g e i s i n j e c t e d
directly into the bed , screw feeders may jam if the sludge
has been overdried or if it solidifies at the point of
i n j e c t i o n. W h e n s p r a y n o z z l e s h a v e b e e n u s e d , t h e r m o c o u p l e s
h a v e o c c a s i o n a l l y b u r n e d o u t. T h e s e p r o b l e m s h a v e g e n e r a l l y
b e e n s o l v e d b y t h e u s e o f d i f f e r e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s.
There have been some problems with preheaters and with sand
scaling on the venturi scrubber . I n s o m e i n s t a l l a t i o n s, t h e r e
have been serious erosion problems in the scrubber due to
the excessive carryover of bed material and the resulting
s a n d b l a s t i n g e f f e c t. T h e f l u i d b e d f u r n a c e c a n b e o p e r a t e d a t
2, 2 0 0 ° F ( 1, 2 0 4 °C ) w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n m o d i f i c a t i o n s a n d i s
s u i t a b l e f o r h i g h e n e r g y s l u d g e s, Combustion at temperatures
o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 ° F ( 1 , 0 9 3 °C ) c a n c r e a t e m a n y s i d e e f f e c t s s u c h a s
a s h f u s i o n, h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e c o r r o s i o n , s c a l i n g , a n d c l i n k e r
f o r m a t i o n. S i n c e a m i n i m a l a m o u n t o f a i r i s a l w a y s r e q u i r e d
for bed fluidizing, energy savings from turndown ( feed reduction )
a r e m i n o r. More detailed information can be found in the
l i t e r a t u r e ( 3 9 , 4 0, 4 1, 4 3, 4 8, 4 9 , 5 0 , a n d 5 6-6 3 ).
1 1- 4 8
Stwee FEED GAS EXHAUST
RECYCLE FAN J ,
& 2B% SOL 105 100 HP
m , ooa s u/ ib
*
VOLATILES,
SCT-% ASH ) \
DDMau tlOK
SLUDGE
^
AIR FAN
HP /
INDUCED
DRAFT FAN
HOC HR
DRYING
ZDNE
PECUPEEATOK
EXHAUST
63,736 Elm 11,313 sc hp
S
HP
* *
S Jqff F /
\
0
SLUDGE
SUPPLEMENTAL COMfiuSTH>N
FUEL Z0Ni
n «jooEf\ WET
S£ PrUBBfc R
RtCUPEHATQR
tCOtf * F SCftUBBf Rr “ ' — *
* \
WATER. 1
ASH
COOLING
/
ZONE
23..S69 Elm
I
1
1 Ih/fir - * 237A J/Stg
'
1 Helm “ 47 x Iff
"
rr ^-
's
HFAT
RECOVERY
BOHER
°
350 F
A &H
FIGURE 11- 16
HEAT BALANCE FOR THE RECYCLE CONCEPT IN A
MULTIPLE- HEARTH FURNACE ( 55 )
1 1 . 3.3 Electric Furnace
The first electric furnace was installed in Richardson , T e x a s, in
1975. The electric , o r infrared , furnace ( EF ) is a horizontally
oriented , rectangular , s t e e l shell containing a moving horizontal
woven-wire belt. T h e unit is lined with ceramic-fiber blanket
insulation. Electric furnaces are available in a r a n g e of sizes
f r o m 4 f e e t ( 1.2 m ) wide b y 2 0 f e e t ( 6 . 1 m ) l o n g t o 9 . 5 f e e t
( 2 . 9 m ) wide b y 9 6 feet ( 2 9 . 3 m ) l o n g . Larger sizes are
currently being developed. A typical cross section is shown o n
Figure 11 - 21.
Sludge is fed into t h e EF through a feed h o p p e r that discharges

o n t o t h e woven -wire belt. S h o r t l y after t h e sludge is deposited
o n the belt , it is leveled by means o f a n internal r o l l e r t o a
layer approximately one inch thick ( 2.5 cm ), across t h e width o f
the belt. A rabbling device is provided o n several new installa-
tions t o b r e a k u p t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e s l u d g e l a y e r t o a f f o r d
better combustion .
This l a y e r o f s l u d g e moves under t h e infrared
h e a t i n g e l e m e n t s , which p r o v i d e s u p p l e m e n t a l e n e r g y f o r t h e
incineration process, if required , A s h is discharged from t h e
end of the belt t o the ash h a n d l i n g s y s t e m , Combustion air f l o w
is c o u n t e r c u r r e n t t o the s l u d g e flow , with most o f t h e combustion ,
a i r b e i n g i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e a s h d i s c h a r g e end o f t h e u n i t .
Excess air r a t e s for the E F v a r y from 20 t o 70 p e r c e n t , T h e E F
is d i v i d e d i n t o a f e e d z o n e , a d r y i n g and combustion z o n e ,
and a n ash discharge zone. T h e feed and discharge zones a r e each
8 feet ( 2 . 4 m ) long , T h e l e n g t h of t h e drying and combustion
z o n e varies with t h e design.
1 1- 4 9
EXHAUST AND ASH
il
fl PRESSURE TAP
SIGHT
Y GLASS
It FREEBOARD
i BURNER
SAND
FEED
¥
* h
4
1 «
* ¥ 9 f
- I * 1
i 3 r
4
THERMOCOUPLE -
4
* i
TUYERES
F
I
FLUIDIZED
ft
4
*
4
SAND BED *
FUEL
I -'
i
SLUDGE !*
4
V
f
4
< k
GUN
INLET “ - ¥
4
¥
PRESSURE TAP
REFRACTER
ARCH
>
STARTUP
PREHEAT
FLUIDIZING D BURNER
AIR INLET WINDBOX I FOR HOT
WINDBOX
FIGURE 11- 17
CROSS SECTION OF A FLUID BED FURNACE
11- 50
TABLE 11- 11
HEAT AND MATERIAL BALANCE FOR SLUDGE

INCINERATION IN A FLUID BED FURNACE3
Alternatives
IA IB IIA IIB IIIA IIIB

Furnace design
Inside diameter , ft 14 12 18 14 22 18
Loading rate , lb wet
solids/sq ft/hr 56.9 47.0 53.3 47.0 56.5 45.0
Sludge feed b b b
Lb dry solids/hr 1,806 2 , 131 2,713 3.201 4, 293 5,064
Heat value , 10
^
Btu/hr
Volatile solids , percent
13.91 13.91 20.89 20.89 33.06 33.06
dry solids 77 65 77 65 77 65
c
Supplemental fuel
Mass, lb/hr 151 0 224 0 353 0
Heat value, 10 Btu/hr 2.80 0 4.14 0 6.52 0
Combustion air
Mass, lb/hr 19 ,353 16,250 28,976 23,576 45,978 38 ,620
Heat value, 10 ^ Btu/hr 4.4 0 6.7 0 10.6 0
Ash
Mass, lb dry solids/hr 416 746 623 1,117 959 1,772
Heat value , 106 Btu/hr 0.12 0.14 0. 18 0.26 0.29 0.42
Water flow , gpm 20 32 30 43 40 70
Radiation
Heat loss, 10 ^ Btu/hr 0.42 0.29 0.63 0.44 1.00 0.71
Recoverable heat
d e d G d e
106 Btu/hr 3.5 6.2 5.3 9.4 8.4 12.7
Recuperator Yes No Yes No Yes No
Venturi water
Recycle water , gpm 83 68 124 102 197 161
Makeup water at 70 F , gpm 10 12 15 19 24 30
°
Scrubber water feed
°
Flow at 70 F , gpm 365 345 548 565 868 824
Scrubber drain
Flow at 130 F , gpm 391 359 582 600 924 900
°
Gas exhaust
Volume , cfm 5,042 3,972 7,524 5,949 12,007 9,459
Temperature , F ° 120 120 120 120 120 120
Connected power
Horsepower 218 162 320 234 425 350
Installed cost,
dollars
^ thousand
1,100 1, 000 1,400 1,100 1,600 1,500
a
-
All data provided by Dorr Oliver , Inc.
âlternatives
Solids for B alternatives (40 percent solids feed) larger than A
(20 percent solids feed), due to conditioning chemicals.
,
-
See Table 11 7.
c
Afterburner not required.
d o
At 1,400 F.
eAt 1,650°F.
Costs as of early 1978.
1 ft = 0.01 m
2
1 gpm = 0.06 1/s
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /hr 1 cfm = 4.72 x 10 4 m3/s “

1 x 106 Btu/hr = 1,055 MJ/hr
1 MGD = '
0.04 m Vs
11- 51
FUftNACfe IXHAUST GAS EXHAUST
i i
COMBUSTION AIR
4
, INDUCED
DRAFT FAN
RECUPERATOR
WET SC RUBBER
*
SCRUBBER
4
VENTURI WATiFl
BED COHS FQR

HEAT RECOVERY
*
( NOT USED IN
THUS ANALYSIS }
4
< D C
I
#
- DRAIN
*
RAPI ATIQN FLUID

iED
FURNACE
* BicYCI.e *ATER
^
"
ASH
*
SUPPLEMENTAL
FUEL " MAKEUP WATER
SLUDGE FEED *
*
AIR
CONNECTED POWER
*
<
FIGURE 11- 18
FLOWSHEET FOR SLUDGE INCINERATION IN A FLUID BED FURNACE
A flowsheet for the typical electric f u r n a c e is shown o n

Figure 1 1- 22. Heat and material balances for the hypothetical
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t alternatives ( T a b l e 1 1 - 8 ) a r e p r e s e n t e d in
Table 1 1-1 2. I n addition t o the alternative cases I , I I , and
been included ,
^
I l l , b a l a n c e s f o r a 1 M G D ( 0 . 0 4 m /s ) t r e a t m e n t p l a n t h a v e
T h e EF is suited t o small w a s t e w a t e r treatment
plants.
The effective belt loading rate of a l a r g e EF is slightly g r e a t e r

than the hearth loading r a t e o f a multiple- hearth furnace. T h e
supplemental energy requirements o f the EF are lower than the
requirements o f the MHF , FBF , or the cyclonic furnace. B e c a u s e
electricity is used t o provide the supplemental energy , no fuel
is burned , and c o n s e q u e n t l y , n o excess air for this purpose is
required. However , when the generation e f f i c i e n c y o f electricity
is included , the s u p p l e m e n t a l energy requirements are similar for
a l l f u r n a c e s. E l e c t r i c i t y , r a t h e r than fossil f u e l , is t h e
e n e r g y s o u r c e f o r t h e EF. Electricity is generally a more
expensive energy source than t h e fossil f u e l used by the other
unit t y p e s. Depending upon t h e e n e r g y c o s t differential, the
1 1- 5 2
a d v a n t a g e o f l o w excess air m a y be r e d u c e d . W h e n a u t o g e n o u s
s l u d g e is available , t h e o n l y difference between the EF and other
p r o c e s s e s with low excess air r a t e s would be the motive p o w e r.
1 000,000 CURVE NO . SLUDGE TYPE

1 PRIMARY ii
7 PRIM. + FERRIC CHLORIDE EFiClJ
$
3
3 PRIM* + LOW LIME
*,6*,7
5
4 4 PRIM, + WASTE ACTIVATED SLUDGfc (WAS) 9 a
> 3 .
PRIM + (WAS + F CI3)
*
s .
(PRIM + F ®CW + WAS
3 7 WAS J
IT}
8 WAS + F Cl Jy
£
i t
O 9
* ^
DIGESTED PRIMARY j
II
—
P"< “
>.
13-* 5
*
CD 4
3
2
X
>
I0fcx » -
9 Mi
3
M 7
CO 6
c 5
o 4 ASSUMPTIONS:
3 LOADING RATES PER TABLE 1*1*10
E
to
Q 2 INCOMING SLUDGE TEMPERATURE !$ 57 * F
i
Ui COMBUSTION TEMPERATURE i 1,400 * F
a: -
DOWNTIME FOR COOL DOWN EQUALS
D
a
Ui
°°8e1
1«
STARTUP TIME
FREQUENCY FOR STARTUP® IS A FUNCTION
£T OF INDIVIDUAL SYSTEMS
_l £ EXCESS- AIR IS 100%
UJ 4 FUEL IS NATURAL GAS OR FUEL OIL
IL 3 NO STARTUP FUEL F $ INCLUDED
( SEE FIGURE 11-101
2
100
J
i 1 I 1
ID 2 3 4 E 789100 2 3 4 5 67991.000 2 3 4 $ 6 78010,000 2 3 4 S 6 71# 100,000
DRY SLUDGE FEED, pounds per hour ( 1 Ib/hr = 0.46 kg/hr)
FIGURE 11- 19
FLUID BED FURNACE FUEL REQUIREMENTS ( 36 )
Low capital cost combined with m o d u l a r construction m a k e s the EF

attractive, especially for small treatment s y s t e m s , Because o f
t h e u s e o f ceramic - f i b e r b l a n k e t insulation i n s t e a d o f solid
refractories , the electric f u r n a c e m a y be shut d o w n and heated u p
without t h e r e f r a c t o r y p r o b l e m s t h a t c a n occur in t h e o t h e r
furnaces. This m a k e s t h e EF suitable f o r intermittent operation.
H o w e v e r, each r e s t a r t requires supplemental energy ( e l e c t r i c i t y ),
1 1- 5 3
s i n c e t h e r e i s no heat sink s i m i l a r t o t h e sandbed i n the FBF
Currently , no EF u n i t s are installed with a capacity of over
.
1, 2 0 0 p o u n d s p e r h o u r .
>
£
<0
f!
100,000,000
r
5
-
X
6
4
> 3
-
5
E
7
o
LU
10.000,000
CL a
7
=
a>
UJ
f l£
6
5
4
3
CC
UJ
2
5
O
Qu
1.000,
<
o
cc
H
o
1 5
4
ASSUMPTIONS:
FULL TIME
Hi OPERATION
3
UJ
2
100,000 i Mill I
10 2 3 4 i §7
*»100 2 5 4 * 6 7*91,000 2 3 4 16 7 6910,000 2 % 4 C $ 7 89100,000
BED AREA, *q ft {! sq ft - 0.093 m 2}
FIGURE 11- 20
FLUID BED FURNACE ELECTRICAL POWER REQUIREMENTS ( 36 )
The EF appears t o be a f e a s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e f o r both small and

large systems due to i t s inherent simplicity and low cost .
However , the EF requires considerably more f l o o r space than
furnaces which are vertically oriented .
Another concern i s the
r e p l a c e m e n t o f v a r i o u s c o m p o n e n t s s u c h a s t h e w o v e n -w i r e b e l t
(3 -
to 5 year life ) and the infrared heaters ( 3 year l i f e ) - .
These items represent a sizable portion of the capital cost .
Replacement costs must be considered in any overall evaluation .
Connected power , whether f o r heating o r motive power, may create
1 1- 5 4
a large electric demand charge in some areas. This may be the
case whether the energy is used or not. Also, time - of - day
charges could be significant. One concern is the high voltage ,
240 to 480 V , required for the furnace infrared heaters, This
may create safety problems in small plants, where workers are
unaccustomed to high voltage equipment.
BELT
RADIANT
DRIVE -!
i INFRARED
I ROLLER HEATING r- WOVEN WIRE
! r LEVELER £ LEM ENTS I CONTINUOUS BELT
SLUDGE FEED [
COOLING COOLING
* p RABBLING
AIR AIR l
GAS
n
AIRLOCK-
^ r .
f 1 — ..
I DEVICE
O 0 <J
i-
G
zw
. :
0 D & $ o a o —**C*=*&
r = COMBUSTION
-40L*
EXHAUST O > GO
/ 1
•
~
.—*Z* AIR
a
) g*
o
u o
a
o
a
u o
o
o
o
o °o T)\ .
2
X
*
ZZjp i
T
ASW
DISCHARGE
FIGURE 11-21
CROSS SECTION OF AN ELECTRIC INFRARED FURNACE
Because the gas flow in an EF runs countercurrent to the sludge

flow , the furnace will probably require an afterburner to comply
with strict carbonyl and hydrocarbon emission regulations. This
would increase the supplemental energy requirement , the amount of
equipment , and the capital and operating costs to levels greater
than those shown in Table 11-12. Allowing for the low excess air
requirements and the countercurrent flow pattern, air emission
control equipment would generally be smaller than control
equipment on MHF or FBF units of similar feed capacity.
11.3.4 Single Hearth Cyclonic Furnace

Cyclonic furnaces were developed by the British ( 64 ), and several
units are operating in Great Britain. However , as of 1979 , there
are no units processing wastewater sludge in the United States.
The cyclonic furnace is sometimes called a single-rotary hearth
furnace .It is a vertical, cylindrical , refractory- lined , steel
shell , normally provided with a domed cover. There is one
rotating hearth and a fixed plow that moves the combustible
material from the outer edge of the hearth to the center. The
furnaces are currently available with hearths to 30 feet ( 9.1 m )
in diameter , but larger sizes can be built. The sludge is
fed by a screw feeder and deposited near the periphery of the
rotating hearth. A sectional view of the furnace is given on
Figure 11- 23.
11- 55
GAS EXHAUST
i.
CDMlQUSTtON
Alfl INDUCED
DRAFT FAN
RECUPERATOR
FURNACE HEAT BOILER

# RECOVERY
EXHAUST BOiLEft EXHAUST
VENTURI
51 WIT
SCRUBBER
! r
«
RECOVERABLE
t SCRUBBER
WATER
,
’
VENTURI
WATER
SLUDGE SUPPLEMENTAL COOLING '

FEED ENERGY AIR.
•*
! -
m
COMBUSTION CONNECTED POWER
ELECTRIC FURNACE AIR
1
'
RADIATION ASH
FIGURE 11- 22
FLOWSHEET FOR SLUDGE INCINERATION IN AN ELECTRIC INFRARED FURNACE
T h e c y c l o n i c f u r n a c e d e s i g n d i f f e r s f r o m t h e m u l t i p l e-h e a r t h
and fluid bed designs in that i t does not allow the combustion
a i r to pass upward through the feed material Combustion air .
and supplemental fuel, if required , are injected tangentially
into the combustion chamber above the rotating hearth This .
creates a swirling ( cyclonic ) action that mixes the gases and
allows adequate contact between the oxygen and the furnace feed .
The gases from the combustion process spiral upward t o the
outlet . The f u r n a c e e x h a u s t t e m p e r a t u r e i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1, 500 °F
( 816 °C ) . Heat could be recovered from the exhaust with a heat
recovery boiler followed by a recuperator The ash i s moved t o .
the middle of the hearth , where i t drops through to a quench tank
for final disposal .
The rotating hearth i s sealed a t the edges
by a water bath .
11- 56
TABLE 11- 12

IN AN ELECTRIC INFRARED FURNACE3
Alternatives
IA IB I IA IIB 11 IA 11 IB
5 MGD 5 MGD 15 MGD 15 MGD 50 MGD 50 MGD 1 MGD
20 percent 40 percent 20 percent 40 percent 20 percent 40 percent 40 percent
Stream solids solids solids solids solids solids solids
Furnace design
Number of units 2 1 2 1 3 2 1
Overall width , ft 8.5 8.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 8.5 6
Overall length , ft 72 72 88 88 96 88 32
Belt area/furnace ,
sq ft 382.6 382.6 560.5 560.5 616.8 479.5 94.5
Loading rate, lb wet
Solids/sq ft/ hrb 11.8 13.9 12.1 14.3 11.6 13.2 11.3
Sludge feed
C C C
Lb dry solids/ r 2,131
Heat value, 10 Btu/
hr
Volatile solids,
^ 1,806
13.91 13.91
2,713
20.89
3,2G1
20.89
4,292
33.06
5,064
33.06
427
2.79
percent dry solids 77 65 77 65 77 65 65
Water, lb/hr , 7,224 3 ,200 10,582 4,800 17 ,172 7,596 641
Heat value , 10
Btu/hr 0.28 0.12 0.41 0.18 0.65 0.29 0.02
Supplemental power
d
Electric infrared ,
kW 280.8 0 402.5 0 643.8 0 0
6 e « ®
Heat value, 10 Btu/ 2.98 4.27 6.82
hr 0 0 0 0
Combustion air
Mass at 60 F , lb/hr 17,736 24 ,786 26,676 37 , 184 42,161 4,962
°
Heat value, 106 Btu/
58 ,044
hr 0.26 0.36 0.38 0.54 0.61 0.85 0.07

Ash
°
Mass at 500 F , lb/hr 415 747 624 1,120 987 1 ,772 149
Heat value , 10
hr
^ Btu/ 0.10 0.18 0.16 0. 28 0.24 0.44 0.04
Radiation
Heat loss, 10
hr
^ Btu/ .36 .18 .47 .24 .77 .43 .07
Furnace exhaust
f f f g
Mass, lb/hr 26,351 29, 3729 39 ,616 44 ,0649 62,628 69, 7329 5,880
Hea t va 1 ue , 10 Btu/
hr 14.95 14.03 22.42 21.09 34.54 .
33 34 2.70
Boiler exhaust
Heat value at 500 F,
IQ6 Btu/hr
°
13.00 0.53 19.49 12.79 31.33 20.23 1.71
Recoverable heat
106 Btu/hr 1.37 3.05 2.05 5.81 2.25 9.18 0.69
Scrubber water feed
Flow, at 70 F , gpm
° 397 201 584 314 1,049 498 201
Scrubber drain
Flow, gpm 390 196 606 306 1 ,081 485 196
Temperature, F ° 120 120 120 120 120 120 150
Gas exhaust
Mass, lb/ht 29,538 35,811 39 ,616 53,838 54,744 85,186 7,183
Temperature, F°
106
120 120 120 120 120 120 120
Heat value, Btu/
hr 1.98 2.77 • 2.96 4.18 4.71 6.57 0.55
Total
connected power
Horsepower 22 25 30 40 50 60 7
Total installed cost,3
thousand dollars 1,000 700 1,300 900 1 ,500 1 ,200 300
3
A1I data supplied by Shirco , Inc.
b
Useable (effective) area of belt.
CSolids for B alternatives (40 percent solids feed), larger than A
alternatives (20 percent solids feed ), due to conditioning chemicals .
d
See Table 11 7.
-
Afterburner not included.
CAutogenous with combustion air preheated to 500
°F. kW =* 10,600
Btu/hr to allow for generation efficiency.
fAt 750 °F.
gAt 1,200 °F.
^3Does not include supplemental power requirements for infrared heaters.
1 ft * 0.31 m
1 sq ft = 0.093 m2
2
1 lb/sq ft/hr =
4.9 kg/m /hr
1 x IQ6 Btu/hr = 1 / 055 MJ/hr
1 gpm = 0.06 1/s
1 MGD = 0.04 m 3/s
11- 57
EXHAUST
CYCLONIC ACTION
ROTATING HEARTH
FIXED PLOW
COMBUSTION A I R
TANGENTIAL
AIR PORTS —
i SLUDGE
INLET
BURNER |TYP)
ASH DISCHARGE IN
CENTER OF FURNACE
FIGURE 11 -23
CROSS SECTION OF A CYCLONIC FURNACE
A general flowsheet for the furnace i s given on Figure 11 24 - .

Heat and material balances for the hypothetical treatment plant
- .
a l t e r n a t i v e ( T a b l e 1 1- 8 ) a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1 1 1 3
The rotary hearth furnace has a relatively low capital cost

and i s mechanically simple , since i t has only one rotating
hearth . However , the feed mechanism i s similar t o t h a t of the
fluid bed furnace and has the same plugging problem , Because
exhaust temperatures are high , afterburners or supplemental
heaters are generally not required to achieve compliance with
strict carbonyl or hydrocarbon air emission regulations .
As with
t h e FBF , good o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s must be maintained i f low
gaseous emission limitations are to be met . The rotary hearth
furnace requ res 30 t o 80 percent excess a i r
'
.
11- 58
&A5 EXHAUST
4
FURNACE HJEAT
RECOVERY
EXHAUST * 101 LER INDUCED
DRAFT FAN
1'
'
PRIMARY Aifi
1 ‘ RECUPERATOR
. RECOVERABLE
H EAT m- WET SCRUBBER
SCRUBBER
WATER
>V
DRAIN
SINGLE
SUPPLEM£*nAL HEARTH
ASfi
FUEL CYCLONIC
FURNACE PRECOOLiR WATER
SLUDGEfEED | i
*
*
CONNECTED POWER
*
ASM
FIGURE 11- 24
FLOWSHEET FOR SLUDGE INCINERATION IN A CYCLONIC FURNACE
11.3.5 Design Example: New Sludge Incineration

Process
To minimize increasing disposal costs, a municipal wastewater

treatment plant with an average daily flow of 5 MGD ( 0.22 m /s )
must modify its present solids handling and disposal system , The
^
plant uses a conventional activated sludge process with anaerobic
digestion of combined primary sludge, waste- activated sludge, and
s cum . Table 11 - 14 shows the basic plant data. The digested
sludge is vacuum filtered and is hauled to the local landfill.
This landfill is scheduled to close. The new landfill site has
somewhat limited capacity and is located several miles from the
treatment plant , Projected disposal costs for the new site are
very high. The treatment plant site has very little unoccupied
space. The area surrounding the plant has been heavily developed
by meat packing and rendering operations , These industries
discharge large amounts of animal greases and oils to the
treatment plant. Naturally , they are concerned about industrial
sewer s e r v i c e charges resulting from any action by the plant.
11-59
TABLE 11- 13
HEAT AND MATERIAL BALANCE FOR SLUDGE

INCINERATION IN A CYCLONIC FURNACE3
Alternatives
IA
5 MGD
IB
5 MGD
11 A
15 MGD
IIB
15 MGD
-
II LA
50 MGD
IIIB
50 MGD
Furnace design
Diameter , ft 19.50 13.75 24.00 17.00 30.25 21.50
wet solids/sq ft/hr 30.4 30.9 30.1 30.1 29.9 29.7
Sludge feed
b b b
Lb dry solids/hr 1,806 1,806. 2,7
!3 2'712 4, 292b 4, 292
b b b b
Heat value , 106 Btu/hr 14.27 14.27 21.43 21.43 33.91 33.91
Volatile solids , percent b b b
dry solids 77 77 77 77 77 77
Q
Supplemental fuel
Mass, lb/hr 132 0 184 0 546 0
^
Heat value , 10 Btu/hr 2.48 0 3.46 0 10.28 0
Primary air
Mass, lb/hr Q 19,665 19 ,665 29,519 29,519 46,694 46,694
Temperature , F 1,100 60 1,100 60 1,100 60
Burner air
Ash
Mass at 60
^%
Mass at 260
, lb/hr
* , lb/hr
2 ,280
415
0
415
3,178
624 624
0 9,430
987
0
987
Heat value , 106 Btu/hr 0.19 0.19 0.29 0.29 0.46 0.46
Radiation
Heat loss, 10 Btu/hr 0.90 0.60 1.17 0.80 2.00 1.00
Waste heat boiler NO Yes No Yes No Yes
Recuperator Yes No Yes No Yes No
Furnace exhaust
Mass, lb/hr 30 ,692 23 ,765 45 ,817 35 ,675 77, 143 57 ,424
Temperature, 1,420 1,411 1,420 1,421 1 , 420 1 ,420
Heat value , 10 Btu/hr 19.90 13.48 29.75 20.34 50.10 32. 38
Boiler/recuperator exhaust
Temperature, F, ° 960 500 960 500
10.32
960
39.45
500
16.51
Heat value , 10 Btu/hr 15.66 6.87 23.43
Recoverable heat boiler
-
^
10 Btu/hr 0 4.63 0 7.01 0 11.11
Precooler water feed
°
Flow at 60 F , gpm 12 5 19 7 30 15
Scrubber water feed
Flow at 60°F, gpm 292 197 437 296 699 507
Scrubber drain
Flow , gpm 319 207 477 311 763 535
Temperature, F ° 120 110 120 110 120 110
Gas exhaust
Mass, lb/hr 23,468 21,209 34 ,969 31,B3 B 62,225 49,002
Temperature,°F 120 110 120 110 120 110
Heat value , 10 ^ Btu/hr 1.79 1.62 2.67 2.43 4.75 3.74
Connected power
Horsepower 175 125 260 190 460 290
dollars
^
Installed cost , thousand
1, 300 1,000 1,600 1,100 N/A 1 ,500
a
All data provided by AFB Engineers/Contractors sole U.S. distributors of the Lucas Cyclonic Furnace.
b
c
Data used by manufacturer is slightly different from that developed in Table 11 7. -
Afterburners not required ,
d
Not available.
e
1 ft = 0.31 m
1 x 106 Btu/hr = 1 » 055 MJ/hr
1 gpm = 0.06 1/s
1 MGD = 0.04 m 3/s
11- 60
Most o f the industrial wastes discharged t o the plant are removed
in t h e p r i m a r y t a n k s , a n d t h e r e s u l t is a c o m b i n e d s c u m a n d
s l u d g e with an e x t r e m e l y high heating value.
TABLE 11- 14
DESIGN EXAMPLE: WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT OPERATING DATA
Parameter Value
Plant flow, MGD 5

Sludge to disposal , lb/day dry
basis 10 ,320
Solids heat value , Btu/lb dry
basis 11 ,000
Volatile solids to digester ,
percent of dry solids 77
Sludge solids content , percent
solids by weight 20
Vacuum filter operation , hr/
week 40
1 MGD = 0.04 m 3/s

1 Btu/lb = 2 ,324 MJ/kg
1 1 . 3.5.1 Approach
A c o n s u l t a n t w a s hired t o e v a l u a t e s e v e r a l d i s p o s a l m e t h o d s ,
including land disposal, composting , h e a t treatment , combustion ,
and continuation o f landfill disposal. Combustion w a s identified
as t h e m o s t cost - effective solution. T h e high energy c o n t e n t o f
the s l u d g e and the limited available land for s l u d g e disposal
influenced this decision. The digestion s t e p w a s eliminated from
the d e s i g n so that the full heat value of the sludge could be
used in combustion. It was e x p e c t e d that this would obviate the
need f o r a n y supplemental f u e l. T h e existing d i g e s t e r s would b e
converted t o s l u d g e thickening /s t o r a g e units, and the existing
vacuum filters would provide an incinerator feed solids c o n t e n t
of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 p e r c e n t.
At present, the vacuum filter operates 6 t o 8 hours a day,
5 days per week, Because o f the limited plant area, n o s p a c e
is a v a i l a b l e f o r f i l t e r c a k e h o l d i n g facilities. T h e r e f o r e ,
t h e f u r n a c e will b e d e s i g n e d t o o p e r a t e in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h
t h e v a c u u m f i l t e r s. A r e v i e w o f t h e v a r i o u s f u r n a c e s y s t e m s
indicated that because of the high heating value of the
1 1- 61
s l u d g e, the intermittent operation requirements, and the s p a c e
l i m i t a t i o n s , a f l u i d bed s y s t e m w o u l d b e t h e m o s t c o s t - a n d
e n e r g y- effective solution.
1 1 . 3.5.2 Preliminary Design
F l u i d b e d f u r n a c e m a n u f a c t u r e r s w e r e p r o v i d e d t h e d a t a in
Table 1 1-1 5 for analysis and development of heat and material
balances. T a b l e 11- 1 6 and Figure 11- 25 show all sizing criteria ,
a s well a s the requirements for peripheral equipment , O n the
basis o f this and additional d a t a , a 1 5-foot ( 4.6 m ) diameter
fluid bed furnace w a s specified , A r e c u p e r a t o r t o recover the
h e a t in t h e exhaust g a s and r e t u r n it t o the f u r n a c e ( hot wind
box design ) was included.
TABLE 11- 15
DESIGN EXAMPLE: SLUDGE FURNACE DESIGN CRITERIA
Parameter Value
Sludge feed
Solids c o n t e n t , p e r c e n t b y
weight 20
Volatile solids c o n t e n t ,
p e r c e n t o f d r y solids 77
Heat v a l u e, B t u/l b of d r y
solids 11, 000
F u r n a c e o p e r a t i o n , h r/w e e k 40
A v e r a g e solids loading r a t e ,
lb/hr , d r y basis 1, 8 1 0
1 B t u/l b = 2, 3 2 4 M J/k g
1 l b/hr = 0 . 4 5 k g/h r
Detailed design of the complete system actually begins with

t h e d a t a p r o v i d e d b y t h e f u r n a c e m a n u f a c t u r e r. More than
o n e m a n u f a c t u r e r s h o u l d be c o n s u l t e d f o r d e s i g n d a t a. Air
e m i s s i o n s m u s t be estimated a n d t h e s e estimates s u b m i t t e d
t o local , s t a t e , and federal authorities in o r d e r t o obtain a
p e r m i t t o c o n s t r u c t. B e c a u s e o f t h e s m a l l o r i f i c e s in t h e
v e n t u r i s c r u b b e r , p o t a b l e m a k e u p w a t e r a t 5 g p m ( 0 . 3 1/s ) i s
required. The impingement scrubber water flow of 397 gpm
( 2 4 1 /s ) , 0 . 6 M G D ( 0 . 0 3 m /s ) , will b e s e c o n d a r y e f f l u e n t.
^
N o t e that the s c r u b b e r water flow is 1 2 p e r c e n t o f the a v e r a g e
p l a n t flow and a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e p l a n t ' s minimum
f l o w . B e c a u s e t h i s r e t u r n f l o w is e x p e c t e d t o b e of l o w B O D
a n d o f h i g h S S , it w i l l be returned t o a p o i n t u p s t r e a m o f
-
11 6 2
TABLE 11- 16
DESIGN EXAMPLE: HEAT AND MATERIAL BALANCE

FOR A FLUID BED FURNACE3
Stream , unit Value
Furnace design
Inside diameter , ft 15.0
Loading rate , lb wet solids/
sq ft/hr 51.2
Sludge feed
Lb dry solids/hr 1,810
^
Heat value , 10 Btu/hr
Volatile solids , percent of
19.91
dry solids 77
Supplemental fuel 0
Combustion air
Mass, lb/hr 22 ,950
Heat value , 10 ^ Btu/hr 5.40
Ash
Mass , lb dry solids/hr 416
Heat value , 10 b Btu/hr 0.12
Water flow , gpm 20
Radiation
Heat loss 10 ^ Btu/hr 1.27
Furnace exhaust
Temperature , F 1,400
°
Recoverable heat g
70 percent efficiency , 10
Btu/hr 4.2
Recuperator Yes
Venturi water
Recycle water , gpm 94
5
Makeup water at 70
°F, gpm
Scrubber water feed

Flow at 70 F , gpm
° 397
Scrubber water drain
Flow at 130 °F , gpm 410
Gas exhaust
Volume, cfm at 120 F ° 6 ,162
Connected power , hp 240
Startup fuel requirements

Weekday operation , 16 hr
shutdown, 10° Btu/hr
- 0
Monday morning operation,
64 hr shutdown , 106
-
Btu/hr 0.4 2 C
aData supplied by Dorr 01iver , Inc.

- 1 ft = 0.30 m
bAt 1,400 F. ° 1
^
lb/sq ft/hr = 4.89 kg/m /hr
c
Fuel required: 1 x 106 Btu/hr = 1 055 MJ/hr
/
1 hr on Saturday. 1 cfm = 4.7 x 10“4 m 3/s

1 hr on Sunday. 1 gpm = 0.06 1/s
1/2 hr on Monday morning.
-
11 63
the aeration tank ( see Chapter 16 ). The temperature of the
sidestream , 130°F ( 54°C ), was not considered to have an adverse
effect on the secondary process.
0
mOMAI
' C CVUAI ICT eico
U i * 4. ** *'
ion c
^ * • ¥* ‘*V
GAS EXHAUST
1400* F
< I
5.4 s ID6 Btu/hr
COMBUSTION AIR
n
i i
—I 22.950 \ Whr
INDUCED DRAFT FAN
.r J
RECUPERATOR
.
WET &C RUIBER
v\
V 397 gpm at 70 F °
V VENTURI &CHUB6 ER WATER
4.2 x 10 s Btu/hr
4 ZD f 41 Q jprn
* 130* F
HEAT RECOVERY H
* DRAIN -
-m
1.27 M 10B © Su/tir FLUID
BED
RAO lAT ION FURNACE
94 gpm
;
0.12 x tO
'* Bajflv
- •
SUPPLEMENTAL FUEL
0 RECYCLE WATER
AS
^
416 Ih dry /hf
5 gpm at 70 F 20 gpm
19.91
* lGE 8iu.%
SLUDGE FEED
<
* MAKEUP WATER
1810 lb CfryThr AIR
m SOUPS
>
I AWWMtt
' '
* 240 hp
CONNECTED POWER
*
t x 10 Bw /ftr = 106b MJtor
1 gpm = 0.06 \h
1 lb/hf = 0.4b kg/hr
1 cfrn 10 4.7 x IcH m /s ^
FIGURE 11- 25
DESIGN EXAMPLE: HEAT AND MATERIAL BALANCE IN

A FLUID BED FURNACE
Contracts for disposing of the wet ash must be established .

Methods for transporting the ash slurry , conveying it to trucks
at the plant site , and discharging it from the trucks at the
disposal site must be investigated and designed.
Options for using available excess heat should also be examined.

-
As shown in Table 11 16 , 4.2 x 10 Btu per hour ( 4.4 GJ/hr )
are available for use. However , heat is available only ^
intermittently and not necessarily at the time it is most needed .
Another approach is to transfer the heat to hot water tanks and
use the heated water for space heating. Alternatively , the heat
can be utilized in an absorption refrigeration unit to produce
chilled water. This water can be stored and used to satisfy
subsequent space cooling demands.
11-64
Other design considerations t o be investigated include but are
not limited t o:
• Ash dewatering methods

Ash hauling by owner or by separate contractor
Type of auxiliary equipment such as s l u d g e c o n v e y o r s,
fans, and feed equipment
Heat r e c o v e r y methods
Electrical distribution
Control philosophy
Sophistication of instrumentation and control
S u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l availability and s t o r a g e ( for start -u p
and problem periods )
Area clearance, including access platforms
Furnace housing requirements
Structural requirements, for e x a m p l e , seismic and wind

factors
Noise levels and other safety requirements
Heating , ventilating , and cooling the area near the
furnace
S p a r e parts
• Level and quality o f staffing

These points relate o n l y t o t h e installed s y s t e m , A n important
consideration is t h e i n t e r f a c i n g o f t h e e x i s t i n g p l a n t w i t h
t h e construction of t h e f u r n a c e , A l l s y s t e m s and details
r e l a t i n g t o t h e f u r n a c e s h o u l d be discussed w i t h t h e f u r n a c e
m a n u f a c t u r e r and , in some c a s e s , m a d e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f
t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r , F o r e x a m p l e, t h e c o m b u s t i o n a i r f a n s , t h e
r e c u p e r a t o r ( if u s e d ), t h e h e a t r e c o v e r y boiler ( if used ) ,
s c r u b b e r s , a n d s o m e o r a l l o f t h e c o n t r o l s s h o u l d be p a r t o f
the total contract.
11.4 Starved - Air Combustion
S t a r v e d - air combustion ( S A C ) h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t o be an
effective method for burning sludge in a furnace ( 17-20, 22, 24,
26 , 29, 3 0 ). Strict air quality standards c a n be met with SAC , and
l a r g e a m o u n t s of s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l are n o t required.
1 1- 6 5
The key to SAC is the use of less than theoretical quantities
of air in the furnace -- 30 to 90 percent of stoichiometric
requirements. This makes SAC more fuel- efficient than incinera-
tion in an MHF. This is shown on Figure 11- 26. When a SAC-MHF
is combined with an afterburner , an overall excess air rate of
25 to 50 percent can be maintained , as compared to an excess air
rate of 75 to 200 percent for multiple- hearth incinerator with an
afterburner.
EXHAUST EXHAUST
SUPPLEMENTAL 25 TO 50%
* FUEL EXCESS AIR
10 TO 25% EXCESS
AFTERBURNER AFTERBURNER
11, 300° F > AIR FOR FUEL
°
(1,200 F|
100% THEORETICAL 10 TO J0%
AIR FOR FUEL
*THEORETICAL AIR
1
yj
> £ >
3 i
_
3
V
3
GB
<
>
LLl
m
u
3
_
<
>
MJ
i
D
Q
2 n U.
50 TO 150% 0% EXCESS Am
EXCESS AIR
*
MUT1PLE MULTIPLE
HEARTH HEARTH
FURNACE FURNACE
100% 30 TO 90%
THEORETICAL AIR THEORETICAL AIR
75% TO 200% OVERALL 25% TO 50% OVERALL

EXCESS AIR RATE EXCESS AIR RATE
MClNERATfON $TARVED
- —
Alfi COMBUSTION
=
vi
“3 *
ASSUMPTION: AUTOGENOUS SLUDGE FEED
FIGURE 11- 26
COMPARISON OF EXCESS AIR REQUIREMENTS: INCINERATION IN A

MULTIPLE-HEARTH FURNACE VS . STARVED- AIR COMBUSTION
SAC is, in effect , incomplete combustion The reaction products .

, ,
are combustible gases tars and oils and , a solid char that can
have an appreciable heating value . The relative proportion
of each varies with the amount of heat applied and the feed
moisture .
Generally , higher reaction temperatures
heating
yield
gas.
simpler
This
products and greater quantities of low value
is at the expense of combustible solid products ( 25 ).
-
11 66
The low heating value gases may be burned , and the heat generated
can be recovered and used beneficially, Alternatively , the gas
may be cooled and stored for subsequent off-site use .
The most
effective utilization appears to be the burning of the total
gas stream , with subsequent recovery of portions of the heat
generated. Off-site use appears to be impractical because:
• The gas fuel value is low . Thus , delivery of any

significant quantity of energy requires the transport of
very large volumes of gas.
• Cooling of the gas for off -site use would result in

permanent loss of much of its heat content.
• The condensates ( tars, oils ) produced when the gas is

cooled are high strength and corrosive. Containing
the condensates and disposing of them are significant
problems.
• The condensates themselves have significant heat
values. The heating values of the gas is diminshed when
condensates are removed .
In full-scale test work ( 17 ), the SAC combustible exhaust gas
was found to have a heating value of 90 Btu/standard dry cubic
foot ( 3.4 MJ/ m ). The gas contained hydrogen, carbon monoxide ,
^
carbon dioxide , methane , ethylene , butane, nitrogen , oxygen ,
water , and some higher hydrocarbons.
SAC ash may contain combustible material ; the amount depends upon
furnace operation. SAC reduces sludge to an ash containing from
3 to 30 percent combustibles, including up to 20 percent fixed
( elemental ) carbon. More combustibles can be released to the
gas stream by adding more air , oxygen, or steam to the lower
part of the furnace. This has the advantage of transferring part
of the heat in the residue to the gas stream. However , the
transfer leaves the residue depleted in heat value. In some
circumstances , it may be better not to burn out the residue
completely . Conceivably, char could be used as an adsorbent or
as a filter aid for sludge conditioning prior to dewatering.
The operating temperature of the furnace can be controlled
within a wide range , The lower temperature limit is the point
when the rate of decomposition of high molecular weight organic
compounds becomes too low , about 1 , 300 ° F ( 704 ° C ). The upper
temperature limit is defined by the point at which there is ash
melting or damage to refractories , about 1 ,800° F ( 982°C ) ( 22 ).
One temperature consideration is that vaporization of heavy
metals must be minimized , since it is difficult to remove heavy
metals from the gas stream with conventional scrubbing equipment.
It is therefore preferable to burn the sludge at as low a
temperature as possible , Full-scale test work ( 17 ) and other
published data ( 18 , 19 , and 20 ) indicate that 1 , 500 ° F ( 816 ° C )
appears to be a reasonable operating temperature for minimum
heavy metal vaporization.
11-67
Fluid bed , electric, and cyclonic furnaces could also be operated
in a SAC mode , T o date , none has been o p e r a t e d in this manner
with a sludge feed , Operation in a SAC mode is particularly well
suited t o t h e MHF. T h e r e a p p e a r s t o be little incentive to
operate the FBF in this mode because ( 1 ) excess air rates for SAC
and the FBF are about the same, and ( 2 ) an afterburner would be
required for a converted MHF whereas afterburning is not needed
where the FBF is used in the incineration mode. Several types of
furnaces , including a n FBF ( 21 ) , have b e e n o p e r a t e d in the
starved -air combustion mode on wood wastes to p r o d u c e charcoal.
11.4.1 Development and Application

Starved - air combustion o f sludge, and /or refuse-derived fuel, was
successfully demonstrated in a full -scale test at the Central
Contra Costa Sanitary District ' s wastewater treatment plant in
Concord , California ( 1 7 ). T h e use o f refuse - derived fuel is
discussed in Section 11- 5. The furnace and an afterburner were
operated at 1, 400 ° F ( 760 ° C ) without supplemental fuel addition.
The feed was primary and trickling filter sludge from a mostly
domestic wastewater. The combined sludge had a heating value
of 9 , 0 0 0 B t u p e r pound ( 20.9 MJ / kg ) o f combustible solids , a
combustible solids content o f 7 5 p e r c e n t , and a feed s l u d g e
solids concentration of 24 percent ( 17 ). The Concord SAC reactor
was a c o n v e r t e d six - h e a r t h , 1 6 - foot 9 - inch ( 5.1 m ) diameter
MHF . Dewatered s l u d g e was burned by using approximately
50 percent of the theoretical air requirement, and an exhaust
g a s was p r o d u c e d with a heating value o f 90 B t u per standard
dry cubic foot ( 3 , 353 MJ /m ). All of the exhaust gas was burned
^
in an a f t e r b u r n e r a t 1 , 400 ° F ( 760 ° C ). T h e r e s u l t i n g S A C ash
contained 3 0 p e r c e n t c o m b u s t i b l e s, o f which 2 0 p e r c e n t w e r e
fixed carbon. Other important results and conclusions of this
two- month SAC test program were:
Starved -air combustion was easier to control than

incineration ( the furnace was also run in an incineration
mode ).
Hearth t e m p e r a t u r e could be used to control the furnace ,
with air addition as the manipulated variable.
Air addition t o the furnace should be a u t o m a t i c a l l y
controlled .
0 Particulate production per pound of solids fed was about
50 percent lower than conventional incineration.
0 The completeness of the reaction depends upon the amount
of air fed , not on t e m p e r a t u r e.
0 The most corrosion resistant alloys for high temperature
conditions were Type HK stainless steel and Inconel 6 9 0.
For low temperature conditions the most corrosion
resistant alloys were Hastelloy C-176 and Inconel 625.
11-68
GAS EXHAUST
SHAFT POOLING AIR NOT RETURNED
'
SHAFT COOLINO AIR
i
RETURNED TO AFTERBURNER
AFTERBURNER
INDUCED
COMBUSTION * DRAFT FAN
AIR AFTERBURNER
SHAFT COOLI.NO
AIR RETURNED
FURNACE
EXHAUST
FRECOOLER
AND VENTURI
—/ j
/
TO FURNACE
zu\
AFTERBURNER BOILER EXHAUST
EXHAUST
WET SCRUBBER
HEAT
SLUDGE RECOVERY
BOILER I
FEED
SCRUBBER
*
i
RECOVERABLE
WATER
MULTIPLE HiAT
HEARtH
STARVED
AIR REACTOR
4 - SUPPLEMENTAL
FUEL
DRAIN
-
HP
RADIATliQN
PRECOOLEfi AND
COMBUSTION AIR
VENTURE WATER
x
CONNECTED POWER
i i
ASH
9P
SHAFT
Cr * AIR
COOLING
FIGURE 11- 27
FLOWSHEET FOR STARVED- AIR COMBUSTION IN A

A f l o w s h e e t f o r a n MHF o p e r a t e d a s a SAC r e a c t o r i s p r o v i d e d i n
F i g u r e 1 1- 2 7 . C o m p a r i s o n w i t h F i g u r e 1 1- 9 s h o w s t h e d i f f e r e n c e
to be the addition of an afterburner Heat and material .
balances for the hypothetical treatment plant alternatives
( T a b l e 1 1- 8 ) a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1 1-1 7 T a b l e 11-18 t a k e s .
selected data from the heat and material balances previously
p r e s e n t e d t o p e r m i t d i r e c t comparison o f SAC w i t h i n c i n e r a t i o n
options . Direct comparisons are made for an autogenous sludge ,
and feed rates to a l l systems are identical except for that to
the cyclonic furnace .
SAC a p p e a r s t o h a v e an a d v a n t a g e o v e r a l l
11- 69
TABLE 11- 17
HEAT AND MATERIAL BALANCE FOR STARVED- AIR COMBUSTION
OF SLUDGE IN A MULTIPLE-HEARTH FURNACEa
Alternative (all 40 percent solids)

IB IIB 11IB
Stream 5 MGD 15 MGD 50 MGD
Furnace design
Diameter , ft in.
Number of hearths
- -
12 9
6
14 -3
7
-8
16 9
Hearth loading rate , lb wet

solids/sq ft/hr 12.1 12.0 11.4
Sludge feed
Lb dry solids/hr 2, 131 3 , 201 5 ,064
Heat value , 106 Btu/hr 7.35 10.73 16.90
Volatile solids, percent dry
solids 65 65 65
Supplemental fuel 0 0 0
Combustion air b b
Mass, lb/hr ob 780 1 , 500
Temperature , ° F 0 60 60
Shaft cooling air

Mass, lb/hr 9 , 178 10,095 15 ,602
Mass at 350 F , lb/hr 6 ,480 8 ,640 13,380
°
Shaft cooling air to stack
Mass at 325 F , lb/hr
° 0 0 0
Shaft cooling air to afterburner
° 2 ,698 1,455 2 , 222
Ash
Mass , lb/hr 787 1,181 1, 869
Temperature , UF 500 500 500
Heat value , 106 Btu/hr 0.23 0.34 0.54
Radiation
Heat loss , IQ6 Btu/hr 0.44 0.62 0.94
Furnace exhaust
°
Mass at 800 F , lb/hr 11, 010 16 , 250 25,658
Heat value , 10 ® Btu/hr 6.82 10.16 16.05
Afterburner combustion air

Mass at 60 F , lb/hr 4 ,382 ° 8 ,805° 14 ,098°
°
Afterburner exhaust :
'
- Mass, lb/hr
Temperature, F
°
17 , 368
1,495
26 , 537
1,495
42, 041
1 ,495
^
Heat value , 10 Btu/hr 12.76 19.18 30.04
Boiler exhaust
Heat value at 500 °F, 106 Btu/hr 6.76 9.18 13.04
Recoverable heat
*
'
70 percent efficiency , 10°
Btu/hr 4.2 7.0 11.9
- -
‘" HU dfiWI...” '"
•
aAll data supplied by the manufacturer.

DIn addition to shaft cooling air returned to furnace.
cIn addition to shaft cooling air returned to afterburner .
,*
^Costs as of early 1978.

1 ft = 0.30 m 1 lb/hr = 0.45 kg/hr
-^
1 in. = 0.02 m ? 1 x 10 Btu/hr = 1,055 MJ/hr
1 lb/sq ft/hr - 4.9 kg/m /hr 1
1
gpm 0.06 1/s
MGD = 0.044 m 3/s
-
11 70
TABLE 11- 17
HEAT AND MATERIAL BALANCE FOR STARVED- AIR COMBUSTION
OF SLUDGE IN A MULTIPLE- HEARTH FURNACE3 (Continued )
Alternative (all 40 percent solids)
IB IIB 11IB
«»» .
« •fell''. **
>
Stream 5 MGD 15 MGD 50 MGD
Precooler and Venturi water feed

Flow at 70 F , gpm 51 77 121
°
Scrubber water feed
Flow at 70 F , gpm 102 153 243
°
Scrubber drain
Flow, gpm 160 240 380
Temperature , °F 98 98 98
Gas exhaust
Mass , lb/hr 14 , 280 21,480 34 ,080
Temperature , F 120 120 120
^ 4.62 5.96 7.94
Connected power
Horsepower 78 123 218
0
Installed cost, thousand dollars 1,400 1,600 2 , 300
aAll data supplied by . the manufacturer .

in addition to shaft cooling air returned to furnace.
CIn
a
addition to shaft cooling air returned to afterburner.
costs as of early 1978.
1 ft
in.
= Q.30 m 1 x 10 Btu/hr
1 gpm = 0.06 1/s
- 1 ,055 MJ/hr
1 = 0.02 m ?
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /hr 1 MGD = 0.044 m 3/s
but t h e FBF in t e r m s of air required , as indicated by lesser

exhaust flow r a t e s , SAC h a s less connected h o r s e p o w e r t h a n
the other options , and e x c e p t for the FBF , higher exhaust
temperatures and thus, greater potential for energy recovery.
Additional details of the test work and S A C a p p l i c a t i o n can

be found in the literature ( 8, 17- 30 , 65 , 66 , 67 ). Additional
information can a l s o be g a i n e d by w o r k i n g with t h e furnace
manufacturers.
11.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of SAC
Test work , much of which is still underway , shows that SAC in an

MHF using sludge alone has many a d v a n t a g e s over incineration or
other combustion processes.
11-71
TABLE 11- 18
HEAT AND MATERIAL BALANCE COMPARISON OF STARVED- AIR
COMBUSTION AND INCINERATION
-
Starved air
Item
-
Multiple hearth
incinerator3
Fluid bed
furnaceb
Electric
furnace0
Cyclonic
furnace 0
combustion
multiple hearth6
- g
Alternative IA
’ Sludge feed , lb dry
solids/hr 1 ,806 1,806 1,806 1 , 806
Supplemental fuel,
106 Btu/hr 2.64 2.80 2.98f 2.48
Furnace exhaust
Mass, Ib/hr 30 ,817 19 ,353 26,351 30 ,692
Temperature , F ° 800 1 ,400 750 1 ,420
Recoverable heat
70 percent effi
ciency , 106 Btu/
hr
- 1.89 3.50 1.37 2.97g
Connected power
Horsepower 238 218 22h 175
Alternative IB
Sludge feed , lb dry
solids/hr 2 ,131 2,131 2 ,131 1 ,806 i 2 ,131
Supplemental fuel ,
106 Btu/hr 0 0 0 0 0
Furnace exhaust
Mass, Ib/hr 32,123 16 ,250 29 ,372 23,765 17,638
Temperature , F° 1,000 1,650 1,200 1,411 1 ,495
Recoverable heat
70 percent effi
ciency , 106 Btu/
-
hr 2.31 6.2 3.85 4.63 4.20
Connected power
Horsepower 93 162 25h 125 78
Alternative IIB
Sludge feed, lb dry
solids/hr 3 , 201 3 ,201 3,201 2,712 3 , 201
Supplemental fuel ,
106 Btu/hr 0 0 0 0 0
Furnace exhaust
Mass, Ib/hr 48 ,434 23,576 44 ,064 35 ,675 26 , 537
Temperature , F 1,000 1,650 1,200 1 ,421 1,495
Recoverable heat
^ -
70 percent effi
ciency , 10 Btu/
hr 5.04 9.40 5.81 7.01 7.00
Connected power
Horsepower 178 234 40h 190 123
Alternative IIIB
Sludge feed , lb dry
solids/hr 5 ,064 5,064 5 ,064 4 ,292 5 , 064
Supplemental fuel,
106 Btu/hr 0 0 0 0 0
Furnace exhaust
Mass , Ib/hr 77 ,643 38 ,620 69 ,732 57,424 42,041
Temperature, F ° 1,000 1,650 1 ,200 1, 420 1,495
Recoverable heat
70 percent effi
ciency , I06 Btu/
-
hr 8.05 12.7 9.18 11.11 11.90
Connected power
Horsepower 238 350 60h 290 218
aSee -
Table 11 9.
bSee -
Table 11 11.
CSee
dSee
-
Table 11 12.
eSee
-
Table 11 13.
Table 11 17.
-
fInfrared heaters (kW = 10,600 Btu to allow for generating efficiency).
^bDoes
Recuperator only.
not include power requirements for infrared heaters.
iBased data used by manufacturer is different from that for other furnaces.
1 x 106 Btu/hr = 1,055 MJ/hr
11-72
The S A C p r o c e s s provides a g r e a t e r solids t h r o u g h p u t because o f
t h e h i g h e r allowable hearth loading r a t e s. ( T h i s assumes that
a p o r t i o n o f t h e c o m b u s t i b l e s r e m a i n in t h e a s h. ) O p e r a t i o n
o f a m u l t i p l e - h e a r t h f u r n a c e with S A C p e r m i t s h e a r t h l o a d i n g
r a t e s 30 t o 5 0 p e r c e n t h i g h e r t h a n an o p t i m u m incineration
m o d e. This can be explained in t e r m s o f heat r e l e a s e and g a s
velocity , although other factors also affect loading r a t e. In
incineration, t h e heat liberated in t h e furnace by combustion o f
t h e f e e d s o l i d s m u s t b e l i m i t e d t o p r e v e n t h igh - t e m p e r a t u r e
d a m a g e t o the furnace refractories. U n d e r SAC , heat liberation
is minimized in t h e f u r n a c e b y air c o n t r o l with combustibles
passing o u t in a g a s form t o a n auxiliary combustion chamber , o r
a f t e r b u r n e r. T h e a f t e r b u r n e r w h i c h h a s n o m o v i n g mechanical
p a r t s , c a n be designed f o r t h e high t e m p e r a t u r e s. Thus , with
the t w o-s t a g e combustion p r o c e s s which occurs under S A C , high
f u r n a c e t e m p e r a t u r e is not a limiting condition. G a s velocity is
another factor which affects hearth loading r a t e. An excessive
g a s velocity entrains l a r g e quantities o f solids particles in
t h e f u r n a c e , l e a d i n g t o g a s c l e a n u p d i f f i c u l t i e s. W i t h S A C ,
considerably l e s s air is used in t h e f u r n a c e than with incinera-
tion, and this can be traded -off against the increased v o l u m e o f
c o m b u s t i b l e g a s e s c r e a t e d b y h i g h e r h e a r t h l o a d i n g r a t e s.
Therefore, for a fixed maximum gas velocity , a g r e a t e r hearth
loading r a t e can be applied with SAC t h a n with incineration.
A s e c o n d a d v a n t a g e o f f e r e d b y S A C is r e d u c e d f u e l u s a g e w h e n
afterburning is required , Even when it is possible t o d e w a t e r
the s l u d g e feed t o a n a u t o g e n o u s state, ( eliminating the n e e d
for s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l t o the furnace ), a considerable q u a n t i t y
o f fossil f u e l is s t i l l r e q u i r e d f o r t h e a f t e r b u r n e r in a n
incineration mode, Essentially no fuel is required for the
a f t e r b u r n e r in an SAC m o d e.
S A C o f f e r s m o r e s t a b l e o p e r a t i o n and e a s e o f c o n t r o l , with
minimal furnace r e s p o n s e t o feed c h a n g e s, With incineration,
increasing o r decreasing the feed rate results in a corresponding
rise o r f a l l in hearth t e m p e r a t u r e since the solids combustion
rate increases or decreases, With SAC, the extent of the
heat -generating combustion reactions a r e limited by t h e available
oxygen s u p p l y. Fluctuations in feed rate will not c h a n g e the
t e m p e r a t u r e l e v e l b e c a u s e it d o e s n o t c h a n g e t h e a m o u n t o f
combustion occurring , provided air r a t e d o e s not c h a n g e.
A fourth a d v a n t a g e o f S A C over incineration is that it p r o d u c e s

fewer air emissions. SAC's l o w e r furnace g a s velocity , f o r the
same s o l i d s loading r a t e , r e s u l t s in less particle entrainment
and reduced particulate emissions. During full-scale t e s t s at
Concord , particulate production with S A C was a b o u t 5 0 p e r c e n t
less t h a n incineration u n d e r e q u a l solids feed c o n d i t i o n s ( 1 7,
1 8 ). Furthermore , p a r t i c u l a t e s leaving t h e furnace w e r e l a r g e r
than t h o s e from incineration. T h e s e particulates a r e more easily
removed by cyclones or other simple g a s cleanup equipment. At
Concord , nitrogen oxide and s u l f u r oxide emissions a l s o a p p e a r e d
1 1- 7 3
t o be l o w e r w i t h SAC . I t i s probable t h a t when organic nitrogen
i s oxidized , one of the reaction products i s nitrogen oxides .
T h e r e a c t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d f o r N O:
-
O r g a n i c N + O2 NO + H 2 0
Thus , incineration of sludge, which contains a fairly large

organic nitrogen fraction , produces nitrogen oxides , When
o r g a n i c n i t r o g e n i s s u b j e c t e d t o S A C , h o w e v e r , l i t t l e o r g a n i c- N
i s converted to nitrogen oxide because l i t t l e oxygen is
available . The organic nitrogen i s instead converted t o ammonia .
The ammonia , when oxidized ( for example, i n the afterburner ) i s
converted to nitrogen gas and water .
4NH 3 + 302 2N 2 + 6 H 2O
As long as afterburner temperatures are maintained below

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1, 6 0 0 ° F ( 8 7 1 ° C ) , c o n v e r s i o n o f N 2 t o n i t r o g e n
oxide i s also minimized . Thus , the key to lower nitrogen oxide
p r o d u c t i o n w i t h SAC a p p e a r s to be i t s ability to direct organic
nitrogen destruction toward ammonia formation, rather than to
oxide formation .
Data supporting the observation of low sulfur oxide emissions in
the Concord tests are limited .
Measurements indicate t h a t much
of the sulfur in the feed solids ends up in the ash (17 ) With .
incineration, most of the feed sulfur i s delivered to the stack .
O t h e r a d v a n t a g e s o f SAC i n c l u d e t h e f a c t t h a t e s s e n t i a l l y
a l l equipment needed i s currently available and has a long
p e r f o r m a n c e h i s t o r y , and t h a t most e x i s t i n g MHFs c a n be e a s i l y
r e t r o f i t t e d t o o p e r a t e i n a SAC mode .
D i s a d v a n t a g e s of SAC s h o u l d a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d i n d e s i g n . The
afterburner r e q u i r e m e n t can l i m i t u s e o f S A C i n e x i s t i ng
installations for several reasons . The a f t e r b u r n e r i s n o r m a lly
a large chamber and , s p a c e m a y not be available . F l o o r l o a d i n gs
of existing buildings can easily be exceeded b y a l a r g e
-
refractory lined device . Supplemental fuel and a i r must be
supplied to the afterburner , requiring additional space for
piping and equipment .
A second disadvantage i s t h a t SAC r e q u i r e s more i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n
t h a n d o e s i n c i n e r a t i o n , P r o p e r c o n t r o l i s e s s e n t i a l f o r good SAC
operation; therefore , temperature controllers must be included on
each hearth to control air feed rate , D r a f t and o t h e r common
incinerator instrumentation must also be provided and maintained .
1 1- 7 4
If for some reason the furnace exhaust g a s e s have t o bypass the
a f t e r b u r n e r , t h e y m a y c r e a t e e m i s s i o n v i o l a t i o n s, Furnace
exhaust g a s e s are high in p o l l u t a n t s , such as h y d r o c a r b o n s and
o t h e r n o x i o u s p r o d u c t s o f i n c o m p l e t e c o m b u s t i o n. T h e y c o u l d
flare in the atmosphere, causing stack d a m a g e. Also, these g a s e s
a r e corrosive. All construction materials in the g a s s t r e a m must
be p r o p e r l y selected , a s described previously. Corrosion results
found a t t h e full -s c a l e test in Concord , California , a r e found in
the literature ( 1 7 ).
Additionally , combustibles in the SAC ash may create ultimate

disposal p r o b l e m s. F o r e x a m p l e , in a landfill , t h e y m a y not be
as inert a s incinerator ash.
1 1 . 4.3 Conversion of Existing Multiple- Hearth

Incineration Units t o SAC
O n e of t h e g r e a t e s t a d v a n t a g e s o f S A C is that most existing units
can be converted t o o p e r a t e a s SAC r e a c t o r s. T h i s r e t r o f i t t i n g
i n v o l v e s r e l a t i v e l y f e w c h a n g e s. T h e c o s t s a n d b e n e f i t s are
site-specific. O n e definite incentive for conversion is that
the e x i s t i n g unit m a y be a b l e t o h a n d l e increased s l u d g e
loads without the addition o f more incinerators. This incentive
is demonstrated in a design example presented later in this
section. Assuming an increase in solids loading of approximately
30 p e r c e n t , the basic c h a n g e s necessary are :
CHANGE REASON
Add an afterburner ( if existing Required to burn combustible

system has an afterburner, its fuel gas prior to exhaust.
size may have to be increased ).
If furnace is large enough, top
hearth may be used as an after-
burner; however , refractories
must be examined .
Add combustion air flow Required to control SAC

control and temperature p r o c e s s.
controllers.
Possibly replace combustion May be required to control
air fan. '
reduced air flow rate .
Modify induced draft fan--may Required because t o t a l unit,
need change only in speed or including afterburner, uses
damper position. approximately 50 percent
excess air, while an
M H F i n c i n e r a t o r u s e s,
including afterburner, 75 t o
200 p e r c e n t excess air. S e e
F i g u r e 1 1- 2 6.
1 1- 75
CHANGE REASON
Review and modify venturi Required to maintain high

and wet scrubber. performance with lower air
f l o w s. Also may need
precooler section if boiler
is not in process train.
Add additional emission control Required depending upon
equipment. local air emission control
regulations regarding
applicability of new source
p e r f o r m a n c e s t a n d a r d s.
Modification of process may
change applicable standards.
Review furnace system and Good practice for any major

and replace remote process revision..
instrumentation .
Generally " tighten up " furnace SAC process depends on good
system. air control .
Peak and poke
holes must be modified along
with other openings into
the furnace to reduce
uncontrolled air leakage
into the furnace.
With these modifications and any others found necessary during

the review of the site - specific system , the retrofitted MHF
system will be suitable for SAC operation.

Multiple-Hearth Sludge Incinerator to a
Starved -Air Combustion Reactor
A 20-MGD ( 0.88-m 3/s ) domestic wastewater treatment plant in the

Midwest has been incinerating primary and waste-activated sludge
in two multiple- hearth furnaces , All sludge is thickened prior
to dewatering on vacuum filters that produce a 25 percent solids
feed cake. Polymers are used in the vacuum filters, The ash
from the furnaces is sluiced to ash holding ponds , and the
supernatant is recovered and returned to the plant influent
sewer. Stabilized ash is removed from the ponds at least once a
year and hauled to the local landfill.
One furnace is normally required for sludge reduction ; however,

the original design provided 100 percent redundancy. The plant
is currently overloaded and both multiple-hearth furnaces are
used simultaneously about three months of the year.
11- 76
Substantial g r o w t h in w a s t e w a t e r f l o w s are a n t i c i p a t e d in t h e
n e x t f o u r y e a r s. P l a n n i n g f o r a n 1 0-M G D ( 0 . 4 4- m 3/s ) e x p a n s i o n
is c u r r e n t l y u n d e r w a y. T h e d e s i g n will h a n d l e projected f l o w s
t h r o u g h 1 9 8 8. I n addition, n e w air emission r e g u l a t i o n s w e r e
r e c e n t l y p r o m u l g a t e d limiting h y d r o c a r b o n, c a r b o n y l , and carbon
monoxide emissions to about half of the current incinerator
e m i s s i o n s. T h e c i t y h a s b e e n g i v e n n o t i c e t o c o r r e c t t h i s
situation o r b e s u b j e c t t o f i n e s levied b y t h e l o c a l a i r q u a l i t y
m a n a g e m e n t d i s t r i c t ( A Q M D ). A t i m e e x t e n s i o n t o r e v i e w a n d
c o r r e c t t h i s p r o b l e m h a s been g r a n t e d t o t h e c i t y. Data for the
e x i s t i n g p l a n t are s h o w n in T a b l e 1 1-1 9
TABLE 11- 19
DESIGN EXAMPLE: WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT OPERATING DATA
Parameter Value
Plant operating conditions

Design flow , MGD 20
Total solids , lb/day dry
basis 40 , 800
Volatile solids, percent of
dry solids 75
Furnace operating conditions
Operating hours/week 168
Loading rate , lb/hr dry basis 1 ,700
Solids content of feed , per
cent dry weight
- 25
Loading rate , lb/hr wet basis 6, 8 0 0
3
1 MGD = 0.044 m /s
1 lb/day = 0.45 kg/kg
1 1 . 4.4.1 Approach
T h e c i t y r e t a i n e d a c o n s u l t a n t t o p r e p a r e a f a c i l i t i e s p l a n/
p r o j e c t r e p o r t t o o b t a i n Construction G r a n t s f u n d i n g f o r a p l a n t
e x p a n s i o n t o 3 0-M G D ( 1 . 3 2- m 3/s ). B e c a u s e o f t h e u r g e n c y o f t h e
air emissions problem , the city authorized the hiring of air
pollution experts to assist the consultant in developing an
interim p l a n consistent with t h e g o a l s o f t h e expansion.
F o l l o w i n g s e v e r a l d e t a i l e d d e s i g n e s t i m a t e s, a f t e r b u r n i n g a t
1 , 2 0 0 ° F ( 6 4 9 ° C ) f o r o n e- h a l f s e c o n d w a s d e t e r m i n e d t o b e t h e
m o s t c o s t - effective solution. This approach was also felt to
g u a r a n t e e a continuous a n d d e p e n d a b l e o p e r a t i o n while s a t i s f y i n g
a l l r e g u l a t i o n s.
1 1- 7 7
Since afterburning was proposed , it w a s also decided t o study
S A C. S A C c o u l d p o s s i b l y i n c r e a s e existing f u r n a c e c a p a c i t y a n d /
o r reduce the equipment t o be added .
Prior t o review o f SAC , it
w a s determined that , in the incineration mode, each furnace would
require an afterburner, and that a new furnace and afterburner
would be required f o r the plant expansion t o 30- M G D ( 1 . 3 2- m /s ). ^
1 1 . 4.4 . 2 Preliminary Design
Two e x p e r i e n c e d m u l t i p l e- h e a r t h f u r n a c e m a n u f a c t u r e r s w e r e
provided the data in Table 11- 19. Detailed heat and material
b a l a n c e s w e r e d e v e l o p e d f o r i n c i n e r a t i o n and s t a r v e d - air
combustion — both followed by external afterburning , T h e schemes
u s e d t h e e x i s t i n g vacuum f i l t e r s t o p r o v i d e a feed cake o f
2 5 p e r c e n t s o l i d s, A l s o, e a c h m a n u f a c t u r e r w a s t o a n a l y z e
t w o additional cases t h a t entailed use of improved dewatering
equipment t o produce a feed cake solids content of 3 5 p e r c e n t.
Both of these cases u s e d SAC , but one had a n external afterburner
and the second used the t o p hearth o f t h e p r e s e n t furnace as the
afterburner. The m a n u f a c t u r e r s were asked t o use the existing
furnace t o determine the capacity of each of t h e four s y s t e m s.
The cases considered w e r e a s follows:
Case I Add a n e x t e r n a l afterburner and heat recovery boiler t o
each furnace. One additional furnace is required t o
s a t i s f y f u t u r e loading .
C a s e II C o n v e r t e x i s t i n g f u r n a c e s t o S A C. A d d a n e x t e r n a l
afterburner and heat recovery boiler t o each furnace.
O n e additional furnace is required t o satisfy future
loading .
Case III C o n v e r t e x i s t i n g f u r n a c e s t o S A C. Add a n e x t e r n a l
afterburner and heat recovery boiler t o each furnace.
S l u d g e feed rate calculated using allowable r a t e s for
S A C with i m p r o v e d d e w a t e r i n g e q u i p m e n t ( 3 5 p e r c e n t
solids ). N o t e that a f t e r b u r n e r t e m p e r a t u r e is 1 , 430° F
( 7 7 7° C ). N o additional furnaces required f o r future
loading .
Case IV Convert e x i s t i n g f u r n a c e s t o S A C and use t o p hearth
as a n a f t e r b u r n e r. A d d a h e a t r e c o v e r y boiler t o
each furnace . Sludge feed rate calculated from
a l l o w a b l e r a t e s f o r S A C with i m p r o v e d d e w a t e r i n g
equipment ( 3 5 p e r c e n t solids ) and desired afterburner
t e m p e r a t u r e of 1, 200 ° F ( 649 °C ) .N o additional furnaces
are required f o r f u t u r e loading .
Table 1 1- 20 shows a s u m m a r y o f the manufacturer's calculations
for the four cases and the e x i s t i n g condition. A n interesting
c o m p a r i s o n c a n b e m a d e b e t w e e n C a s e s I and I I . Both cases
u s e a n a f t e r b u r n e r and r e c o v e r h e a t but C a s e I I utilizes
S A C. H e a t r e c o v e r y g a i n s b y u s i n g S A C a r e i m p r e s s i v e The .
^
city would save 1.33 x 1 0 B t u per hour ( 1.40 GJ /hr ) by using
SAC , which would produce an annual fuel savings of slightly
1 1- 7 8
TABLE 11- 20
DESIGN EXAMPLE: HEAT AND MATERIAL BALANCES

FOR MULTIPLE- HEARTH FURNACES
Existing
condition Case I'< A K* ::::
Case II Case III Case IV
Modified b b
Type of operation Incinerator incinerator SAC SAC b SAC
Furnace design C
Number of furnaces 2 3
C
3 2C 2C
Diameter , ft-in.
Number of hearths »
16 -9
7
-
16 9
7
16 9
7
- -
16 9
7
-
16 9d
7
Hearth loading rate ,
lb wet solids/sq
ft/hr 7.0 7.0 7.0 10.2 10.2
Afterburner . None External External External Internal
(top hearth)
Sludge feed
Lb dry solids/hr 1,700 1, 700 1,700 3 ,473 2 , 957
hr ^
Heat value , 10 Btu/
12.75 12.75 12.75 26.05 22.18
Volatile solids, per
cent dry solids
- 75 75 75 75 75
Feed solids , percent 25 25 25 35 35
Afterburner supple
mental fuel
-
Mass, lb/hr N.A. 189 128 0 0
Heat value , 10
Btu/hr N.A. 3.77 2.44 0 0
Furnace combustion air

° 17 , 833 17,833 9 , 822 12 ,507 9 ,867
Shaft cooling air

Mass , lb/hr 15 ,939 15 ,939 15 ,939 15,939 15 ,939

to furnace
Mass at 350 F ,
lb/hr
° 13 ,548 . - 13 ,548 9 ,840 12,480
. 9 , 867
Shaft cooling air to

stack ,
Mass at 350 F,
lb/hr
° 2 ,391 2 ,391 5 ,919 0 0
Heat value , 106
Btu/hr 0.35 0.35 1.09 0 0
Shaft cooling air to

afterburner
Mass at 350 °F ,
Btu/hr N.A. 0 180 3 ,660 6 ,072
Ash
866e
e e
Mass , lb/hr 425 425 478 975
Heat value, 106
Btu/hr 0.04 0.04 0.14 0.28 0.25
Radiation
Heat loss , 10 ^ Btu/hr 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29
N.A. - Not applicable.

aAll data supplied by the manufacturer. 1 ft = 0.30 m
b
SAC -
Starved air combustion .
CNumber of furnaces required in 1988 (30 MGD), for
1 in. = 0.02 m
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m 2/hr
increased sludge quantities with one furnace on 1 lb/hr «= 0 . 4 5 kg/hr
standby.
dNote , top hearth is afterburner, therefore , not
1 x 106 Btu/hr = 1,055 MJ/hr
included in hearth loading calculations. 1 gpm = 0.06 1/s
6
Includes combustible heat content. 1 MGD = 0.044 m 3/s
^ Existing system does not include boiler.
11- 79
TABLE 11- 20
DESIGN EXAMPLE : HEAT AND MATERIAL BALANCES FOR

MULTIPLE- HEARTH FURNACES ( Continued )
Existing
condition Case I Case II Case III Case IV
Modified ;b
Type of operation Incinerator incinerator SAC b SAC
b
SAC
Furnace exhaust
° 24 ,209 24 , 209 16 ,145 21,454 17 /448
hr ^ 12.07 12.07 11.23 14.87 10.55
Afterburner combustion
air
Mass at 60 F , lb/hr N.A. 2 , 555 4 ,296 11,534 10,989
°
Afterburner exhaust
Mass , lb/hr N.A. 26 ,764 19 ,366 32 ,987 28 ,437
Temperature , °F N.A. 1 , 200 1 ,200 1,430 1 , 200
hr ^ N.A. 15.84 14.05 24.24 21.64
Boiler exhaust
Heat value at 400
106 Btu/hr °F , N.A. 9.51 8.78 13.92 12.89
Recoverable heat
106 Btu/hr 2.24f 4.43 3.69 '
7.22 6.13
Precooler and Venturi

water feed
Flow at 70 F, gpm
° 51 51 45 65 65
Scrubber water feed

Flow at 70 F , gpm 243 243 282 456 456
°
Scrubber drain
Flow , gpm 306 306 338 536 532
Gas exhaust
Mass , lb/hr 21 , 368 20 ,759 15 ,480 26 ,220 27 ,837
Temperature , F 120 120 120 120 120
Heat value , 106 Btu/hr 6.35 7.53 4.11 8.52 2.64
N.A. - Not applicable.

aAll data supplied by the manufacturer. 1 ft = 0.30 m
b 1 in.
SAC Starved -air combustion. 0.02 m
2
CNumber of furnaces required in 1988 (30 MGD ), for 1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /hr
‘
increased sludge quantities with one furnace on 1 lb/hr == 0.4 5 kg/hr

'
standby.
d
Note , top hearth is afterburner , therefore , not
1 x 106
Btu/hr = 1 ,055 MJ/hr
included in hearth loading calculations. 1 gpm = 0.06 1/s ^
3
eincludes combustible heat content. 1 MGD = 0.044 m /s
^ Existing system does not include boiler.
o v e r $ 3 0 , 0 0 0 a t $ 2 . 7 0 p e r 106 B t u ( $ 2 . 6 0 p e r G J ) H o w e v e r, .
it a p p e a r s that this savings would n o t justify the conversion
w h e n compared with t h e l a r g e capital e x p e n d i t u r e.
1 1- 8 0
Cases III and IV both use SAC , but start with a cake that has
been dewatered t o 3 5 p e r c e n t solids , R e c o v e r a b l e heat q u a n t i t i e s
are f a r higher than for Cases I and II. Case IV , which does n o t
use a n external afterburner has a c a p i t a l c o s t a d v a n t a g e over
Case III. Also, the s y s t e m could easily handle t h e e x p e c t e d
s l u d g e loads through t h e d e s i g n y e a r. The fuel savings would be
a l m o s t $ 9 0 , 0 0 0 p e r y e a r , a n d t h e e n e r g y g e n e r a t e d w o u l d be
sufficient t o save another $ 2 5 0 , 000 p e r y e a r ( a t 1 0 , 6 0 0 Btu /kWhr
[ 1 1 . 1 8 MJ / kWhr ] a n d $ 0 . 0 5 /k W h r ). T h e s e s a v i n g s a l o n e w o u l d
j u s t i f y c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e s o f over $ 3 , 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 ( 2 0 y e a r s a t
7 p e r c e n t p e r y e a r ), In addition , t h e r e w o u l d be a c a p i t a l
savings because a third furnace would n o t be required .
After receiving detailed c o s t estimates , the city authorized the

Case IV design. T h e flowsheet is given o n F i g u r e 1 1- 2 8.
11.5 C o- Combustion of S l u d g e and O t h e r Material
The net fuel value o f sludge d e p e n d s o n the fraction of its total

combustible solids, the fuel value of those combustible solids
( g e n e r a l l y about 1 0, 0 0 0 Btu p e r pound [ 23.24 MJ /kg ] ), and t h e
a m o u n t o f w a t e r p r e s e n t. Wastewater treatment plant sludge
g e n e r a l l y h a s a h i g h w a t e r content and , in s o m e c a s e s , f a i r l y
high levels of inert materials. A s a result , its net fuel v a l u e
i s o f t e n l o w . A u t o g e n o u s combustion o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
plant s l u d g e is generally o n l y possible when the sludge solids
content is 3 0 t o 3 5 p e r c e n t o r g r e a t e r. These solids c o n t e n t s
are o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o achieve by c o n v e n t i o n a l d e w a t e r i n g
t e c h n i q u e s; c o n s e q u e n t l y, s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l i s r e q u i r e d f o r
t h e combustion o p e r a t i o n. I f s l u d g e is combined w i t h o t h e r
combustible materials in a co- combustion scheme , a furnace feed
can be created that has both a low water concentration and a heat
value high e n o u g h t o sustain a u t o g e n o u s combustion and m a y b e
cost - effective.
11.5.1 C o-Combustion with C o a l and Other Residuals
M a n y materials can be combined with s e w a g e s l u d g e t o create a

f u r n a c e f e e d with a h i g h e r h e a t v a l u e t h a n s l u d g e , Some of
these materials a r e c o a l ; m u n i c i p a l solid w a s t e ; wood w a s t e s ;
sawdust ; textile wastes ; and agricultural w a s t e s , s u c h as corn
stalks, rice husks, and bagasse ( 68 , 6 9 ). Virtually a n y material
that can be burned can be combined with s l u d g e in a c o- combustion
p r o c e s s. A n a d v a n t a g e o f c o - c o m b u s t i o n is t h a t a m u n i c i p a l
or industrial waste material can often be disposed of while
providing an a u t o g e n o u s s l u d g e feed , t h e r e b y solving t w o disposal
p r o b l e m s.
1 1 -8 1
2,64 a IQ6 StU/fw
.
GAS EXHAUST
27,837 Ifc Tir $ 12 F
^
9,B67 Ifo/ hf 6,072 iWhr 0

m ^ SNA FT COOLING AIR
NOT RETURNED
INDUCED
SHAFT
' DRAFT FAN
COOLING
AIR # 35G»F
6
41.56 aid BtiiiTir
* ea
21 ,S x 10 t4 /hr HEAT m AOD°F
* # RECOVERY
28,*37 \h/hr BOILER BOILER
# 1200
^ EXHAUST
VENTURI WET SCRUBBER
l '“WMwmt ' Wto*1 wa

RECOVERABLE
V
10,869 lb/hr I AFTERBURNER HEAT
COMBUSTION | ^ ITOP HEARTH }
f
4.28 s 10& B Em/hr
ASR @ ?0& EFF * MNCY
22,18
SLUDGE FEED
^ ittn/tir
a 10
* 456 qpttn
2,067 IfcVRr DRY > 70®f
3S% SOLIDS FEED 4*
(
f SCRUBBER
. WATER
MULTIPLE
HEARTH
STARVED
AIR
REACTOR *
0 --
SUPPLEMENTAL
532 ®wi
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FUEL
6 Btu/ hr
0.29 x 1 Qw
RADIATION
°
65 gpm # 70 F
FRE COOLER AND
9,667 Ih /hr VENTURI WATER
#
COMBUSTION
AIR
.
1 Btv.«Tir - 1055i/hr
0.25 x 10 BtuAw HWhr ." 045 ka/hr
15,438 Ib/lnr
ASH BBB IfenTw -
Igpm Q,C6 I/s
SHAFT COOLING APR
FIGURE 11- 28
DESIGN EXAMPLE: STARVED- AIR COMBUSTION IN A

Recent studies have shown that the addition of pulverized coal to

liquid sludge prior to dewatering can markedly increase the cake
solids content ( 70- 73 ). A drier filter cake is produced ; thus,
the net heat value of the sludge - coal mix is much greater than if
the coal were added to the filter cake following filtration.
Also, the sludge- coal mix is homogenous , which leads to better
combust ion. It may be possible to reduce the amounts of
inorganic filter aids ( lime , ferric chloride ) required and
produce an autogenous feed . This approach may become appropriate
11-82
in m a n y p l a n t s that are close t o coal mines o r coal -fired p o w e r
stations. C o a l , however , is not a w a s t e material , a n d its use t o
improve filtration and increase the fuel value of t h e furnace
feed is not as desirable a s using a combustible waste for these
p u r p o s e s. T w o p l a n t s , one in Rochester , New Y o r k , and an o t h e r
in Vancouver, Washington, are experimenting with sawdust a s a
filter aid prior t o combustion , The results t o date have been
very g o o d , but detailed data are not available , Minneapolis has
tried using woodchips a s a s u p p l e m e n t a l fuel ( 7 0 ).
1 1 . 5.2 C o- Combustion with Mixed M u n i c i p a l Refuse ( MMR )
Currently there are more than t w e n t y s l u d g e and mixed municipal

r e f u s e ( M M R ) c o- c o m b u s t i o n s y s t e m s , including incineration ,
pyrolysis, and starved -air combustion , that are being o p e r a t e d ,
t e s t e d , o r d e m o n s t r a t e d in f u l l - s c a l e p l a n t s ( 7 4 - 7 7 ). The
s y s t e m s described in this section have been o p e r a t e d a t full -
scale and have been developed sufficiently to be implemented
whenever t h e y p r o v e c o s t -effective.
T h e r e a r e t w o basic a p p r o a c h e s t o c o - c o m b u s t i o n o f s l u d g e
w i t h M M R: ( a ) use o f r e f u s e c o m b u s t i o n t e c h n o l o g y b y a d d i n g
dewatered o r dried s l u d g e t o a n M M R combustion unit , a n d ( b ) use
of s l u d g e combustion t e c h n o l o g y by adding raw o r p r o c e s s e d M M R
as a s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l t o t h e s l u d g e f u r n a c e , T a b l e 1 1 - 2 1
illustrates the c o m m o n l y used approaches t o co- combustion.
TABLE 11- 21
CONVENTIONAL APPROACHES TO CO- COMBUSTION OF WASTEWATER

SLUDGE AND MIXED MUNICIPAL REFUSE
Mixed municipal refuse technology

Grate-fired (refractory or waterwalled )
Sludge dried via flue gases
Sludge dried via steam from furnace
Sludge added directly to furnace
Vertical packed bed reactors (sludge added
to bed )
Air (Andco Torrax)-
Oxygen (PUROX , a Union Carbide System)
Sludge technology
-
Multiple hearth
Incineration
Starved -air combustion
Fluid bed
1 1-8 3
GAS
EXHAUST
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PIT ASH TO LANDFILL
Wi
OKK'. TJ: MIXED MUNICIPAL
FIGURE 11- 29
TYPICAL GRATE- FIRED WATERWALLED COMBUSTION UNIT
11.5.2.1 Refuse Combustion Technology
-
Historically , grate fired refractory and waterwalled combustion
units have been used to burn raw mixed municipal refuse.
-
Figure 11 29 illustrates this approach. This practice is common
throughout Europe , where there are several hundred installations.
When sludge disposal became a problem , the first approach was to
burn the sludge with the refuse. The quantity of sludge was
normally small compared to the refuse, This was attempted in
several locations , but efforts were generally unsuccessful , with
failures due to the following problems:
Uniform mixing of sludge and refuse was difficult to
accomplish on a large scale. Poorly mixed feeds produced
alternate " hot" and " cold " feeds , resulting in erratic
furnace operation.
Biodegradation of materials in the refuse/sludge holding

bins caused unacceptable odors, Detention times in these
bins are often several days long , which is sufficient for
biological action to be established .
-
11 84
• H i g h moisture c o n t e n t o f t h e s l u d g e a n d i n a d e q u a t e
furnace detention times sometimes caused non-a u t o g e n o u s
combustion and w e t residues.
H o w e v e r , a s previously s t a t e d , s e v e r a l s y s t e m s c u r r e n t l y in
o p e r a t i o n have been designed specifically t o incinerate MMR with
sewage s l u d g e ( 7 8 ). A number o f these are described below.
S l u d g e Drying via Steam Generated by Furnace
Several g r a t e-fired , waterwalled combustion units in Europe are

p r e s e n t l y incinerating r e f u s e a n d s e w a g e s l u d g e. A t Dieppe ,
France, 5 4 t o n s ( 49 t ) o f MMR and 21 tons ( 19 t ) o f dried s l u d g e
a r e incinerated d a i l y ( 79 ). D i g e s t e d s l u d g e with a s o l i d s
c o n t e n t o f four p e r c e n t is p u m p e d from the wastewater treatment
p l a n t and dried with 350 ° F ( 177 ° C ) process steam in t w o thin- film
e v a p o r a t o r s t o a solids c o n t e n t o f 5 5 p e r c e n t. The vapors
g e n e r a t e d a r e r e t u r n e d t o t h e f u r n a c e . T h e dried s l u d g e is
c o n v e y e d t o t h e c h a r g i n g c h u t e s o f t h e furnace a n d is mixed
with t h e solid w a s t e from the receiving pit. A small plant at
Brive, France ( 80 ), is similar t o that at Dieppe , e x c e p t that it
uses r a w s l u d g e.
S l u d g e D r y i n g via Furnace Flue G a s e s
A waterwalled combustion unit at the Krefeld plant near

D u s s e l d o r f , G e r m a n y , p r o c e s s e s 6 0 0 t o n s ( 5 4 4 t ) o f M M R and
4 5 t o n s ( 4 1 t ) o f dry w a s t e w a t e r solids daily ( 75-77, 8 1 ). T h e
facility g e n e r a t e s electricity f o r t h e wastewater t r e a t m e n t p l a n t
and incineration facility and e x p o r t s hot w a t e r for use in the
c o m m u n i t y. R a w s l u d g e , with a s o l i d s c o n t e n t o f 5 p e r c e n t ,
is pumped from the wastewater treatment p l a n t t o the disposal
f a c i l i t y . T h e s l u d g e is c e n t r i f u g e d t o a solids c o n t e n t o f
2 5 p e r c e n t and then f l a s h -dried in a vertical-shaft flash- drying
c h a m b e r w i t h 1 , 5 0 0 ° F ( 8 1 6 ° C ) f l u e g a s e s at f r o m t h e r e f u s e
combustion unit , T h e p o w d e r e d s l u d g e is t h e n i n j e c t e d into
t h e furnace i m m e d i a t e l y above t h e t o p o f t h e flame ( s u s p e n s i o n
firing ). T h e facility h a s been in operation for four y e a r s.
T w o p l a n t s in t h e United S t a t e s u s e f l u e g a s e s g e n e r a t e d in
g r a t e-fired , r e f r a c t o r y-walled combustion units t o d r y w a s t e-
w a t e r s o l i d s p r i o r t o c o m b u s t i o n with M M R ( 7 4 ). I n A n s o n i a ,
C o n n e c t i c u t , s l u d g e w i t h f o u r p e r c e n t s o l i d s is dried in
a disk - t y p e , co - c u r r e n t s p r a y d r y e r w i t h 1 , 2 0 0 ° F ( 6 4 9 ° C )
incinerator flue g a s e s. Dried s l u d g e and v a p o r s are injected
into the incinerator for suspension burning. The p l a n t capacity
is 200 tons 181 t ( ) p e r d a y o f solid w a s t e. P r e s e n t l y , t h e
s l u d g e is not being incinerated but used a s a soil conditioner.
Holyoke , M a s s a c h u s e t t s, uses a similar incinerator and a v e r a g e s
250 t o n s ( 227 t ) p e r week o f r e f u s e and 1 9 t o n s ( 1 7 t ) p e r w e e k
of d r y s l u d g e t h r o u g h p u t. H o w e v e r, the s l u d g e is dewatered t o 28
p e r c e n t solids prior t o drying in a r o t a r y unit using hot flue
g a s e s. Dried s l u d g e and v a p o r s a r e added t o t h e furnace above
the combustion z o n e.
1 1 -8 5
Sludge Added Directly to Furnace
Recently at Norwalk , Connecticut, a process was tested in which

- -
a stoker fired incinerator was used to co combust sludge and
refuse ( 82 ,83 ). In this project , sludge with a solids content
of five percent was sprayed onto the front wall of the charging
chute to form a thin sludge layer on top of the refuse , The
-
sludge layer dries and burns during the 30 minute residence time
in the combustion unit. This process has been incorporated into
the design of a plant at Glen Cove, New York , that will burn a
mixture of 25 tons ( 23 t ) per day of sludge ( 20 percent solids
content ) and 175 tons (159 t ) per day of mixed municipal refuse.
The plant is designed to produce 2.2 megawatts of power ,
sufficient to meet the demands of the wastewater treatment plant
and the incineration facility , Construction of the Glen Cove
facility is scheduled to be completed in 1982.
Vertical Packed Bed
There are two vertical packed bed , solid waste , starved air
combustion systems currently available in the United States:
-
- -
Andco Torrax and PUR0Xtm (see Figure 11 30 ).
-
The Andco Torrax system (84 , 85 ) is a vertical shaft , slagging
type furnace in which unprocessed municipal solid waste is
charged into the unit from the top. The refuse is burned at
the bottom of the ram at 3 ,000°F ( 1 ,649°C ) by the addition of
small quantities of air heated by countercurrent heat exchange
with the afterburner exhaust. The combustible off - gases are
afterburned at 2 ,000°F ( 1 ,093°C ) and processed by electrostatic
precipitators. Wet sludge has been added to an existing 75 ton
( 68 t ) per day system , but detailed test data are not presently
available.
The PUROX system , a trademark of Union Carbide, is a vertical

furnace for combustion of a processed refuse ( 86 , 87). Proces
sing includes shredding and ferrous metal separation , The PUROX
-
system uses pure oxygen rather than air. The refuse is burned at
3 ,000°F ( 1 ,649°C ), and a fuel gas is produced that has a heat
value of 385 Btu per standard dry cubic foot 14.3 MJ/m dry ).
The molten slag produced at the high combustion temperature is^
primarily inert silica. A processed refuse and sludge mixture
j
was successfully run through the test unit for two months at
South Charleston , West Virginia ( 87 ). Average wet test feed
rates were 90 tons (82 t ) per day . Test data indicated that the
refuse- to- sludge ratio was 4.26:1. Lower ratios were not tested
because the availability of sludge was limited , The pure oxygen
feed rate was approximately 0.2 tons of oxygen per ton ( 0.2 t
0 2/t ) of feed . Fuel gas production and quality , and slag
-
production and quality from mixed refuse sludge feeds , did not
differ radically from that of pure refuse combustion in the PUROX
reactor. Heavy metals in the sludge were trapped in the slag and
were not discharged with the exhaust gases.
-
11 86
MIXED
MUNICIPAL
OFF GAS REFUSE
>
$?
*
:: :
::
-
I
FEEDER
SHREDDED
MIXED
MUNICIPAL
r
(
REFUSE REFUSE / UPPER
PLUG 'i STACK
\ 1
SHAFT > l
ifft
FURNACE OFF GAS
FEEDER DRYING /
tit
ZONE i m
GASES
SOLIDS .N DRYING
ZONE SOLIDS
COMBUSTION
ZONE
%
PYROLYSIS
ZONE
OFF GAS
RECYCLE
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ZONE — GASES
'
f
SHAFT
FURNACE
COMBUSTION LYv > /.

±n
MOLTEN
MATERIAL
)r
rx OXYGEN PRIMARY
AIR
COMBUSTION
AND !
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ZONE
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GRANULAR ! SLAG
RESIDUE {; DROPOFF
AND
WATER QUENCH
QUENCH " J
PURCX REACTOR ANDCO'TORRAX REACTOR

(COURTESY OF UMIQW CARBIDE CORPORATION! ( COURTESY OF ANDCO INCOHPORATED]
FIGURE 11- 30
VERTICAL SHAFT REACTORS
1 1 . 5.2.2 S l u d g e Combustion Technology

The m o s t widely used s l u d g e combustion methods are t h e multiple-
hearth and fluid bed furnace , Both types of units have
s u c c e s s f u l l y b u r n e d r e f u s e, Although the electric furnace
and the cyclonic furnace appear to be capable of refuse and
s l u d g e combustion , n o f u l l - s c a l e w o r k h a s b e e n d o n e t o d a t e.
F i g u r e 1 1-3 1 p r e s e n t s r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r s u s t a i n i n g a u t o g e n o u s
combustion when s l u d g e is mixed with refuse.
Multiple- Hearth Incineration
Several plants in Great Britain and Europe have been practicing
co-incineration in multiple-hearth furnaces for several years.
However , serious problems such as severe erosion of the hearths ,
poor temperature control , refractory failures , and air pollution ,
1 1- 8 7
2
-
I
SLUD-GE SOLIDS CONTENT, %
FIGURE 11- 31
AUTOGENOUS COMBUSTION REQUIREMENTS FOR CO- DISPOSAL
11-88
h a v e b e e n experienced ( 88 ). All of t h e s e p r o b l e m s a p p e a r t o be
a direct result o f p o o r solid w a s t e processing prior to addition
into t h e furnace. P o o r p r e-processing causes e x t r e m e variations
in feed heat value, which in t u r n causes wide and uncontrollable
t e m p e r a t u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s in t h e f u r n a c e , T h e s e r e s u l t in
r e f r a c t o r y failures a n d air emission p r o b l e m s.
T h e s e p r o b l e m s w e r e r e s o l v e d in t e s t w o r k c o n d u c t e d a t t h e
C e n t r a l C o n t r a C o s t a S a n i t a r y District w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
p l a n t a t C o n c o r d , C a l i f o r n i a ( 1 7 ). A l l r e f u s e w a s s h r e d d e d ,
air - classified , and s c r e e n e d p r i o r t o u s e. T h i s p r o v i d e d a
feed which w a s relatively free of metals and had a r e a s o n a b l y
consistent heating value, as w e l l as a consistent p a r t i c l e size.
W h e n t h e f u r n a c e w a s o p e r a t e d in a n incineration m o d e , n o n e
o f t h e p r o b l e m s e n c o u n t e r e d in G r e a t B r i t a i n o r E u r o p e w e r e
experienced , but t e m p e r a t u r e control w a s still difficult. This
was corrected by operating the furnace in a S A C mode. This work
a n d t h e E u r o p e a n e x p e r i e n c e indicates t h a t f o r M H F f u r n a c e s
p r e-processing of municipal r e f u s e is required and SAC of refuse
and s l u d g e is p r e f e r r e d over M H F incineration.
Multiple- Hearth , Starved -Air Combustion

C o- combustion of s l u d g e with p r o c e s s e d municipal solid w a s t e w a s
first s u c c e s s f u l l y performed by SAC in a multiple- hearth furnace
d u r i n g a s m a l l - s c a l e t e s t in N o v e m b e r 1 9 7 4 a t B u r l i n g a m e ,
C a l i f o r n i a ( 89 ). A full -scale prototype test was later
implemented a t C o n c o r d , California ( 1 7 ). A flow d i a g r a m o f t h e
test s y s t e m is g i v e n on Figure 1 1- 32. T h e test SAC - MHF burned a
combination of w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e and r e f u s e- derived f u e l ( RDF ) in
several ratios varying from 1 0 0 p e r c e n t s l u d g e t o 1 0 0 p e r c e n t
RDF .
M u n i c i p a l r e f u s e w a s s h r e d d e d , a ir - classifiedi, a n d s c r e e n e d
t o p r o d u c e a r e f u s e - derived f u e l , T h e RDF had a h e a t i n g
value o f 7, 5 0 0 B t u per p o u n d ( 17.4 MJ /k g ) of d r y solids and a
moisture content o f 25 p e r c e n t. A combined feed r a t e of up t o
1 0 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r h o u r ( 4 , 5 4 0 k g /h r ) w a s a p p l i e d t o t h e 6 -h e a r t h ,
1 6 -foot 9 - inch ( 5.1- m ) diameter SAC -M H F. Because o f t h e addition
o f R D F , t h e h e a t v a l u e o f t h e feed w a s g r e a t l y increased a s
compared t o s l u d g e alone. This produced a fuel g a s heat value
averaging 136 B t u per standard d r y cubic foot ( 5.07 MJ /m d r y )
and a f t e r b u r n e r t e m p e r a t u r e s u p t o 2, 500 ° F ( 1 , 371 °C ).
^
Stable
furnace control w a s achieved b y regulating the addition o f air t o
maintain hearth t e m p e r a t u r e •
Results o f the test indicate that t o maximize e n e r g y conversion ,
RDF should be fed t o a mid - furnace hearth , and s l u d g e t o the t o p
o r second hearth , In other w o r d s , t h e point o f s l u d g e addition
r e m a i n s a s in c o n v e n t i o n a l s y s t e m s , a n d t h e R D F i s t r e a t e d
like a n y other fuel and added t o t h e combustion zone , T h e ash
handling system must be capable of handling small amounts of
m e t a l. T e s t r e s u l t s indicate that a u t o g e n o u s combustion o f
a 16 percent solids sludge cake can be accomplished with an
RDF -t o- s l u d g e w e t ratio o f 1:2.
1 1- 89
RAW
SLUDGE
AIR TO WixUMa
AFT 6 RHURN6 R
l CENTRIFUGE
J ROTARY
Hf'iwiivvw >
Ti
dr
CYCLONE
BLENDER
SLUDGE
r
\
"
\
U A | R LOCK
* AIR r %
-U ’
l
I
RE FUSE
OE RIVED
FUEL
GAS FUEL i
EXHAUST GAS
AFTERBURNER j
MULTIPLE
HEARTH
FURNACE
REJECTS TO
LANDF i LL
ee £
< MIXED
f
ASH
5 SHREDDER * MUNICIPAL
REFUSE
t
HEAVY MATERIAL
TO LANDFILL
FIGURE 11- 32
FLOWSHEET FOR CO- COMBUSTION FULL SCALE TEST AT THE

CENTRAL CONTRA COSTA SANITARY DISTRICT , CALIFORNIA
This type of system is being reviewed for several plants, with

implementation expected for the Central Contra Costa Sanitary
District and the City of Memphis , Tennessee .
The flow sheet for a multiple- hearth furnace used for combustion
of sludge and solid waste is similar to Figure 11- 27, except that
a refuse -derived fuel is added to the middle hearth ( s ). Heat
and material balances for the hypothetical treatment plant
alternatives ( Table 11 - 8 ) are presented in Table 11 - 22. The
effect of a 20 percent sludge solids feed versus a 40 percent
sludge solids feed is again exhibited . An important item in
this table is the recoverable heat , which is four times greater
than that for other sludge - only combustion processes ( see
Table 11-18 ). This shows the effect of the addition of refuse-
derived fuel .
Also, in Case IIB , note the effect of excess air
on the afterburner temperature With 40 percent excess air , a .
temperature of 2 , 450 ° F ( 1 , 343 ° C ) would be expected ( consistent
with Cases IB and IIB ) ; however, a temperature of 1,800 ° F ( 982°C )
occurs with an excess air rate of 150 percent.
Specific information specifically concerning co-combustion by SAC
in a MHF can be found in the literature ( 8,17, 18, 35,69 , 74-77,81,
89-96 ).
11 -90
TABLE 11- 22
HEAT AND MATERIAL BALANCE FOR CO- COMBUSTION BY STARVED- AIR

COMBUSTION IN A MULTIPLE- HEARTH FURNACE3
Alternative
. K« » *> ?-
“
..
IA IB IIA.,. IIB IIIA IIIB

Furnace design
Diameter , ft in.
Number of hearths
- -6
22 3 16 9
7
- -
25 9
6
18 9
8
- -9
25 9 -a
22 3

wet solids/sq ft/hr 11.4 10.8 11.8 11.3 12.5 12.1
Sludge feed
Lb dry solids/hr 1,806 2,131 2,713 3,201 4,292 5 ,064
Percent of total furnace
'
feed 50 50 50 50 50 50
c
Volatile content , percent 77 65 77 65 77 65
RDF feed
Lb dry solids/hr 7,224 4,267 10,850 6 ,400 17,172 10,128
Percent of total furnace
feed 50 50 50 50 50 50
Volatile content, percent? 84 84 84 84 84 84
Percent moisture 20 20 20 20 20 20
Combined feed rate

Total lb wet solids/hr 18,060 10,664 27 ,126 16,000 42,930 25,320
Heat value , 106 Btu/hr 20.28 11.12 30.71 16.38 47.29 25.53
RDF to sludge ratio, wet
basis 1:1 1:1 1:1 1:1 1:1 1:1
:
Furnace combustion air ,
lb/hr 12,753 7,320 19 , 316 10, 782 29,747 16,806
d-
Excess air rate , percent 40 40 40 40 40 150
A
Ash
Mass , lb/hr & 1,749 1,589 2 ,627 2 ,384 4 ,158 3,772
Heat value, 10 Btu/hr ,0.50
-0.46 0.76 0.69 1.20 1.09
Afterburner combustion air :

Mass, lb/hr 34,123 . 25,867 51 ,049 39 ,065 81 ,838 112 ,888
Afterburner exhaust
Mass , lb/hr 63,186 42,260 94,861 63,461 150 , 355 151,240
Temperature , °F
^ 63.27
2,290
42.80
2,457
95.27
2,294
64.29
2,458
150.9
2,294
101.8
1,800
.•*
Radiation
Heat loss, 10 ^ Btu/hr 1.62 1.12 2.33 1.61 3.57 2.45
Recoverable heat
70 percent efficiency,
106 Btu/hr ' •
23 20 42 26 70 42
Connected power
Horsepower 555 343 725 418 725 555
Installed cost, thousand

dollarse
- 2,800 2 ,200 3,000 •
2,400 3,500 3,000
a . . .
All data supplied by the Eimco BSP Division- of Envirotech* Corporation.
bSolids for B alternatives (40 percent solids feed), larger than A alternatives
(20 percent solids feed).
3
°Sludge volatiles heat value 10 ,000 Btu/lb: RDF volatiles heat value 8,500 Btu/lb. 1 MGD * 0.04 m /s
d
e
For total system - furnace and afterburner. .
.
1 ft = 0.3 m
1 in. = 0.02 m
_
Costs as of early 1978. 1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /hr
1 x 106 Btu/hr = 1,055 MJ/hr
11-91
Fluid B e d
M u n i c i p a l s o l i d w a s t e a n d w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e h a v e b e e n c o-
incinerated in a fluid bed f u r n a c e in Franklin , Ohio, since 1 9 7 1
( 9 7 ). I n t h e s o l i d w a s t e s e p a r a t i o n p r o c e s s, a w e t p u l p e r
removes ferrous metal and heavy solids from 150 tons ( 136 t )
p e r d a y o f s h r e d d e d r e f u s e. Fiber is recovered from t h e p u l p e r
e f f l u e n t b y selective s c r e e n i n g a n d elutriation. All u n r e c o v e r e d
residuals from the fiber-r e c o v e r y s t e p a r e c o n v e y e d t o a barrel
thickener. S l u d g e f r o m a 2 . 5-M G D ( O.ll -m /s ) s e c o n d a r y w a s t e w a t e r
^
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t i s a d d e d t o t h e t h i c k e n e d r e s i d u a l s, a n d t h e
combined s t r e a m i s d e w a t e r e d in a c o n e p r e s s t o a solids c o n t e n t
o f 4 5 p e r c e n t b e f o r e i n j e c t i o n into t h e furnace , The furnace
f e e d i s b l o w n i n t o t h e b e d a b o u t o n e f o o t o v e r t h e t u y e r e s.
B e c a u s e h e a v y inert materials accumulate within t h e bed , t h e r e is
b u i l d u p in bed v o l u m e, a n d a s m a l l a m o u n t o f bed material m u s t b e
r e m o v e d p e r i o d i c a l l y f r o m t h e furnace. The preparation steps
r e d u c e t h e a m o u n t o f noncombustible material in t h e f u r n a c e feed
t o b e t w e e n t h r e e a n d six p e r c e n t a n d t h e feed size t o 1/2 inch
( 1 . 2 7 c m ) o r l e s s ( 9 7 ).
I n a conventional d r y s h r e d d i n g and separation o p e r a t i o n , t h e

f e e d s t o c k w o u l d n o t b e a s u n i f o r m a s i t is a t t h e F r a n k l i n
f a c i l i t y. If t h e feed t o t h e fluid bed f u r n a c e i s n o t uniform i n
both size and density, heavy material tends to sift downward
t h r o u g h t h e bed. T h i s m a t e r i a l m u s t b e removed q u i c k l y o r it
could upset the air flow through the bed. Systems have been
d e v e l o p e d t o remove settled , noncombustible material c o n t i n u o u s l y
f r o m t h e bed.
An FBF system using sludge cake and RDF produced by a dry

p r o c e s s i n g a p p r o a c h w a s c o n s t r u c t e d in D u l u t h , Minnesota, a n d t h e
s h a k e d o w n o p e r a t i o n s b e g a n in 1 9 7 9. A p r o c e s s f l o w s h e e t o f t h e
s y s t e m i s p r e s e n t e d o n F i g u r e 1 1-3 3.
1 1 . 5.3 Institutional Constraints

C o- combustion of s e w a g e s l u d g e with m u n i c i p a l solid w a s t e is a
viable and socially beneficial approach to solids disposal
p r o b l e m s. N o t o n l y a r e b o t h w a s t e s d i s p o s e d o f in a n environ-
m e n t a l l y a c c e p t a b l e m a n n e r, b u t b e n e f i t s c a n b e a c c r u e d b y
utilizing the waste heat or combustible exhaust gases for
e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n. C o s t -e f f e c t i v e n e s s, h o w e v e r, i s v e r y
s i t e - s p e c i f i c , a n d in g e n e r a l , c o- c o m b u s t i o n s y s t e m s a r e
not economically feasible without federal and state funding
( 8 1 ,9 8 ,9 9 ). T h i s i s d u e t o t h e relative c o s t s o f d i s p o s a l a n d
relative q u a n t i t i e s o f t h e f e e d material involved. F o r e x a m p l e ,
s o l i d w a s t e q u a n t i t i e s , d r y b a s i s , a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y t e n times
t h a t o f s l u d g e q u a n t i t i e s a n d c a n be d i s p o s e d o f a t o n e t e n t h
t h e c o s t o f s l u d g e. T h e r e f o r e , s l u d g e d i s p o s a l c o s t s h a v e a
s i g n i f i c a n t i m p a c t o n solid w a s t e o p e r a t i o n s , y e t solid w a s t e i s
t o o c o s t l y o n a unit e n e r g y b a s i s t o s u p p l e m e n t fossil f u e l s.
To assist in funding , the federal government has adopted
1 1-9 2
guidelines for allocating costs for co combustion systems ( 100 ).
As solid waste disposal and fossil fuel costs increase and
-
funding becomes more available , co disposal economics will
become favorable in more applications. Although the technical
-
feasibility of co combustion of sludge and solid waste has been
demonstrated , there remain a number of institutional constraints
-
that may have to be resolved prior to implementation of a large
-
scale co combustion project , Because full scale operations are
limited and the technology is growing , risk analyses should be
-
conducted. These analyses would provide authorities with a basis
for making a decision and with an understanding of the impacts
of that decision ( 101 ).
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FIGURE 11- 33
FLOWSHEET FOR CO- COMBUSTION AT THE WESTERN LAKE SUPERIOR

SANITARY DISTRICT , DULUTH , MINNESOTA
In many localities , wastewater treatment and solid waste disposal

are controlled by different governmental agencies . Many
communities have contracts with private firms for refuse handling
and disposal that release ownership of the refuse to the
contractor. In such cases , the municipality is not able to do as
it wishes with the refuse. Some contracts are long term , lasting
15 to 20 years. Although there have been legal opinions that
these agreements can be modified for the benefit of the public,
these opinions have not been tested in court. In recent waste
11-93
disposal c o n t r a c t negotiations , local g o v e r n m e n t s have a t t e m p t e d
t o retain ownership o f the refuse, with t h e private firm a c t i n g
strictly a s a collector and hauler. Retaining ownership o f the
w a s t e material would simplify resource recovery operations.
Consolidation o f the g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c i e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
solid a n d l i q u i d w a s t e d i s p o s a l would a l s o s i m p l i f y d i s p o s a l
operations as t h e y relate t o co- d i s p o s a l , With more e m p h a s i s
o n co- combustion techniques by both federal and s t a t e agencies,
serious institutional p r o b l e m s may be resolved by g o v e r n m e n t a l
interaction with local agencies.
1 1 . 5.4 Conclusions a b o u t C o-Combustion

O f all areas o f technological g r o w t h in combustion, co- combustion
m a y h a v e the g r e a t e s t p o t e n t i a l ( 8 1 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 3 ) for use. C o-
combustion i s a r e l a t i v e l y n e w v e n t u r e , a n d its use m u s t
b e t h o r o u g h l y r e s e a r c h e d a n d t e s t e d , a n d p r o j e c t economics
evaluated . M a n y solid w a s t e projects have failed f o r economic
r e a s o n s. Additionally, institutional requirements must be
satisfied before t h e project can reach fruition.
11.6 Related Combustion Processes Used in W a s t e w a t e r

Treatment
S e v e r a l h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e p r o c e s s e s a r e u s e d in w a s t e w a t e r
treatment plants for purposes other than wastewater sludge
reduction. These processes include reduction o f other wastewater
solids such a s screenings , grit , and scum , and a l s o t h e regenera-
t i o n o f c h e m i c a l s s u c h a s l i m e a n d c a r b o n. H i g h t e m p e r a t u r e
equipment configurations are basically the same as those
d i s c u s s e d in Sections 1 1 . 3 a n d 1 1 . 4 , b u t some new t y p e s o f
furnaces are introduced in the sections that follow.
11.6.1 S c r e e n i n g s, Grit , a n d S c u m Reduction
Besides s l u d g e , other solids produced in a w a s t e w a t e r treatment

plant ( s c r e e n i n g s , g r i t , and scum ) c a n be p r o c e s s e d in h i g h
t e m p e r a t u r e s y s t e m s. Some of the unique operating problems
p r e s e n t e d by these materials are described below :
S c r e e n i n g s tend t o c l o g feed mechanisms and should be

shredded before being fed t o t h e incinerator. B u l k y and
noncombustible materials should be removed and disposed
o f in a landfill.
Grit is o f t e n o d o r o u s , e x t r e m e l y a b r a s i v e , n o r m a l l y
contains f a i r l y l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f o r g a n i c s , a n d i s
relatively d r y , thus m a k i n g it a u t o g e n o u s l y combustible
i n m a n y cases , B e c a u s e of the odors, high t e m p e r a t u r e
disposal t e n d s t o be t h e desirable stabilization method.
1 1-9 4
• Scum and grease are very difficult to handle because o f
their adhesive properties; however , they have a very high
heating value up to 16 , 700 Btu per pound ( 37.8 MJ /kg ) o f
dry solids ( Table 11- 2 ) ( 104 ). Air flow must be adequate
t o assure that the scum is totally burned ; if it is not ,
the furnace will smoke. To provide thorough mixing and
thus proper burning , the scum and air should be injected
into the furnace at the same point. S c u m has been fed
through atomizers, but this feed system was not totally
effective because the resulting vapors and smoke have
been difficult to control ( 105 ).
A separate furnace may be difficult to justify for any one of the

a b o v e materials b e c a u s e their q u a n t i t i e s , a s c o m p a r e d with
sludge, are small. In some cases , the material can be blended
with feeds and disposed of in existing sludge furnaces. Burning
of the residues will not u s u a l l y cause capacity p r o b l e m s.
Although scum can provide considerable heating value, it can also
create s i g n i f i c a n t p r o b l e m s with smoking and hot s p o t s . T h e
latter may damage refractory material. Screenings and grit can
also c r e a t e hot s p o t s , but t h e y g e n e r a l l y cause considerably
fewer problems than scum.
Complete mixing of feeds can eliminate hot spots due to

nonhomogeneity , but mixing is often difficult to achieve , The
location o f t h e mixing s t e p is also a serious concern , When
combined with sludge before dewatering , screenings , grit , or scum
can c a u s e d e w a t e r i n g equipment p r o b l e m s , T h e s e c a n include
excessive wear , filter blocking , and poor dewatered cake release.
On the o t h e r hand , it is difficult and c o s t l y t o p r o d u c e a
homogeneous mixture when materials are combined after dewatering.
Since the materials are removed separately and require different

dewatering techniques, they may in many instances be disposed
o f m o r e appropriately by m e a n s o t h e r than high t e m p e r a t u r e
processing . Several plants have provided digestion for sludge ,
and incineration for screenings , grit , and scum , with sludge g a s
used as the fuel for the furnace , Other plants have provided
separate furnaces for scum reduction , In one plant , a separate
furnace was provided for screenings only .
Furnaces for screenings , grit , and scum in small plants ( less
^
t h a n 1 0 M G D [ 0 . 4 4 m /s ] ) , t e n d t o be single - c h a m b e r b a t c h
o p e r a t i o n s with little o r no air emission c o n t r o l devices.
However , high excess air rates and large quantities o f fuel are
used t o make the burning relatively clean and odor-free. Such
an operation is costly. For large plants, the furnaces described
in Sections 1 1 . 3 and 11.4 a r e used . However , while several
multiple-hearth furnaces a r e used successfully for scum ( 106 ),
a starved -air combustion operation is desirable to control the
combustion process and prevent serious temperature excursions ,
localized hot s p o t s, and smoking — all typical problems when scum
is burned .
1 1-9 5
T o address the problem o f scum burning , Nichols Engineering and
Research C o r p. h a s d e v e l o p e d a f u r n a c e specially suited f o r high
e n e r g y l i q u i d s that a r e l i g h t e r than w a t e r , s u c h a s g r e a s e ,
w a s t e o i l s , a n d scum. T h e i r WATERGRATEtm f u r n a c e is s h o w n
o n Figure 1 1-34. It is a two- chamber , refractory-lined furnace
that uses water a s the feed g r a t e. A s the material is burned ,
the ash sinks and is removed . T h e lower chamber is a reducing
furnace ( starved air ), a n d t h e resulting combustible g a s e s are
burned in t h e upper chamber , which functions as an afterburner,
t h e r e b y p e r m i t t i n g b e t t e r c o n t r o l o f t h e p r o c e s s. M o r e t h a n
t e n units have b e e n installed and a r e o p e r a t i n g . S o m e h a v e
experienced severe p r o b l e m s with scum t r a n s p o r t and feed s y s t e m s
external t o the furnace .
Other small , modular furnaces ( s e e Section 11.7 ) have consider-
able potential for screening , grit , and scum reduction , provided
that pollution control devices are adequate t o meet strict air
emission c o d e s. U S E P A a n d t h e S t a t e o f California h a v e b e e n
conducting several tests on modular furnaces to determine
expected air emission levels ( 107 ).
11.6.2 Lime Recalcination
Lime is often used t o remove phosphorus , suspended solids , and

t r a c e metals from wastewater , It is g e n e r a l l y added prior to
primary clarification ( 108 , 109 ) or following a biological process
( 108, 110 ). Often, e n e r g y and economic a n a l y s e s indicate lime
r e c o v e r y and r e u s e t o be viable , s i n c e n e t lime r e q u i r e m e n t s
a r e l o w e r a n d t h e m a s s o f s o l i d s f o r d i s p o s a l is l e s s w h e n
recovery is practiced . There is considerable experience with the
recalcining and reuse o f lime from w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s. T h e s e
techniques, with suitable modifications , are also used t o recover
lime in wastewater applications.
I n t h e l i q u i d p r o c e s s , t h e bulk o f t h e lime r e a c t s t o f o r m
calcium c a r b o n a t e ( CaCOg ). The resultant slurry, commonly
called lime s l u d g e, can be t h e r m a l l y p r o c e s s e d for r e c o v e r y o f
calcium oxide ( quicklime or CaO ), while simultaneously oxidizing
any e n t r a p p e d organic solids. T h e recalcining reaction is:
CaCOg + heat CaO + COg 11 - 1 7
T h e economics o f l i m e recalcination a s a chemical r e c o v e r y

p r o c e s s d e p e n d u p o n a n u m b e r o f v a r i a b l e s: efficiency of
rejection o f inert material, moisture content of feed material,
thermal efficiency o f the drying and recalcining s y s t e m , c a p t u r e
of CaO a s a usable p r o d u c t , and reactivity ( c a p t u r e of CaO ) in
t h e p r o d u c t ( 111 ).
1 1-9 6
THERMOCOUPLE : m
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COURTESY NICHOLS ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CORPORATION
FIGURE 11- 34
CROSS SECTION OF THE WATERGRATEtm FURNACE FOR SCUM INCINERATION
11- 97
Economies are realized when lime is recovered and reused , s i n c e
n e t l i m e r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d the a m o u n t o f material t o b e disposed
of are drastically reduced. However , lime recovery is expensive
and always energy- intensive because recalcining is endothermic.
Generally , wastewater lime sludges are low in organic material
( volatiles ) that can contribute t o the heat value of the sludge,
s o s u p p l e m e n t a l fuel requirements t o calcine the wet s l u d g e cake
are substantial . T h e major o p e r a t i n g c o s t of recalcination is
s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l , F u e l c o s t c a n be minimized by c o n t r o l o f
excess a i r a t a r a t e n o g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t r e q u i r e d t o assure
c o m p l e t e combustion a n d c o m p l e t i o n o f the chemical reaction.
Fuel c o s t s may also b e lowered b y reducing the water content o f
the feed . An overall economic balance m u s t be made t o determine
if the f u e l savings e x c e e d the added c o s t o f dewatering .
C o m p l e t e recovery o f spent lime cannot be expected for several
reasons . Lime s l u d g e contains inert materials t h a t m u s t be
wasted from the s y s t e m or the quantity o f s l u d g e t o be handled
will build - u p i n f i n i t e l y , Magnesium hydroxide and calcium
p h o s p h a t e are p r e c i p i t a t e d a l o n g w i t h CaCOj a n d s h o u l d b e
r e m o v e d p r i o r t o recalcination t o r e d u c e r e c y c l e o f inerts.
C o m p l e t e rejection o f M g ( 0 H ) 2 and other inerts , such a s silica,
can never be achieved , However, w e t and d r y classification s t e p s
can limit recycle o f inerts, thus providing a relatively clean
p r o d u c t . T h e s e classification s t e p s n e c e s s a r i l y r e j e c t some
CaCC> 3 and CaO, so that t h e recovery of available lime is limited
t o 6 0 t o 77 p e r c e n t ( 108, 112 ).
Three high temperature systems have been used for lime

r e c a l c i n a t i o n: t h e m u l t i p l e - h e a r t h f u r n a c e , t h e fluid bed
furnace ( pellet bed and sand bed ), and the r o t a r y kiln calciner.
I t h a s a l s o b e e n claimed t h a t t h e electric f u r n a c e h a s t h e
c a p a b i l i t y t o recalcine , b u t n o installations exist. The
multiple-hearth furnace is most frequently used in wastewater
treatment plant s l u d g e recalcining , while the fluid bed furnace
is typically used in w a t e r treatment p l a n t s. Both t h e r o t a r y
k i l n a n d t h e fluid bed are w i d e l y u s e d o n industrial sludge,
primarily by t h e pulp and paper industry . As with other high
t e m p e r a t u r e p r o c e s s e s, o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t ion
and h e a t r e c o v e r y a r e a v a i l a b l e. A d e t a i l e d discussion o f
lime recalcination is beyond t h e scope o f this c h a p t e r. More
information is available in the literature ( 1 0 8-1 1 9 ).
11.6. 3 Activated Carbon Regeneration

T h e use o f activated c a r b o n f o r r e m o v a l o f o r g a n i c contaminants
from water and wastewater is an established practice, In m o s t
a p p l i c a t i o n s , r e g e n e r a t i o n and reuse o f s p e n t carbon are required
for o v e r a l l c o s t -effectiveness , Most c a r b o n absorption processes
u s e g r a n u l a r c a r b o n in p a c k e d c o l u m n s , T h e r e is a g r o w i n g
interest in the addition o f powdered carbon t o unit processes
such as activated s l u d g e s y s t e m s. Table 1 1- 23 summarizes the
m e t h o d s available f o r carbon regeneration ( reactivation ).
1 1 -9 8
TABLE 11- 23
CARBON REGENERATION METHODS ( 120)
Granular Powdered
Thermal
Fluid bed
-
Multiple hearth X
L X
Transport reactor NA X
Rotary kiln X L
Indirect heated
vertical moving bed X NA
Radiant heated belt
reactor X X
Chemical
Wet air oxidation NA X
Chemical oxidation X NA
Solvent extraction X NA
Acid or base extrac
tion
- X NA
Biological regenera-
tion L L
X = has been done on pilot or full scale. -

L limited success
NA = not attempted.
Typical granular and powdered carbon systems are briefly

summarized below. Also, the JPL process for carbon reactivation
in a wastewater treatment plant is discussed.
11.6.3.1 Granular Carbon Systems ( GAC )

Regeneration of granulated carbon ( 121 ,122 ) is usually conducted
in a multiple-hearth furnace in five steps: dewatering the
slurry to about 50 percent solids , drying the carbon , pyrolyzing
the absorbed organics , oxidizing the pyrolysis residue ( carbon
reactivation ), and quenching the reactivated carbon in water and
washing it to remove fines.
In a multiple - hearth furnace, about 30 minutes are required
for regeneration , with dwell times of 15 minutes for drying ,
5 minutes for pyrolysis , and 10 minutes for reactivation.
Loading rates for multiple - hearth furnaces must be adjusted
40 pounds ( 18 kg ) of spent carbon per day
^.
to provide about 1 square foot ( 0.09 m ) of hearth area per
The off-gases from
11-99
a carbon regeneration furnace are relatively high in carbon
particles and unburned organics , Afterburning and wet scrubbing
are suggested. The injection of steam at 1 pound per pound of
carbon ( 1 kg/kg ) reduces the apparent density of the carbon and
increases the iodine number. Heat required for the process ,
including steam but excluding any afterburner fuel requirements ,
is approximately 4 , 250 Btu per pound (9.88 MJ/kg ) of carbon
regenerated. Further details on the MHF regeneration process can
be found in the literature ( 123 ).
The electric furnace is also becoming an alternative for granular
carbon regeneration , with several units either under construction
or in the planning stages. A test unit is being installed in
Pomona , California , to develop detailed long -term data.
11.6.3.2 Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC )

During the regeneration of powdered carbon , organics must
be removed from the micropores , and since PAC is generally
associated with excess waste biomass , these solids must be
incinerated simultaneously ( 120 ,124 ). Also, PAC is much smaller
in particle size than GAC and must be handled with care during
combustion to prevent excessive losses and excessive loadings of
particulates on emission control systems.
-
Multiple hearth systems have been used successfully to regenerate
PAC ( 123 ,125 ). -
MHF regenerated carbon appears to be of virgin
- -
quality and has been reused in a 40 MGD ( 1.75 m 3/s ) plant.
- -
Available data on a 50 gpm ( 30 1/s ) pilot plant indicate similar
results with fluid bed technology ( 126 ).
Use of the transport reactor has been demonstrated on a
- - -
80 to 90 percent of the spent carbon.
-
10 ton-per day (9 t/day ), full scale facility with a recovery of
This reactor is a fast
co current thermal plug flow system ( 127 , 128 ). The unit is
-
operated for regeneration of spent carbon from corn syrup
manufacturing.
11.6.3.3 -
Jet Propulsion Laboratory Activated Carbon
-
Treatment System (JPL ACTS )
Extensive laboratory and pilot testing by the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory in Pasadena , California , has led to the development of
an activated carbon treatment system for wastewater ( 129 ,130 ).
-
The system is based on starved air combustion of sludge. All PAC
used in this process is produced by the SAC of sewage sludge and
lignite coal. The system was tested for the Orange County
-
Sanitary District in a 1 MGD ( 0.04 m
Huntington Beach , California.
Vs
) pilot plant at
The flowsheet for the Orange County plant is shown on

Figure 11- 35. Sludge from the primary sedimentation tank is
dewatered in a filter press to 35 percent solids. The sludge
-
cake is flash dried to 90 percent solids before passing into the
-
11 100
rotary kiln. Activated carbon and ash are generated by starved -
air combustion of the carbon-sludge solids. Activated carbon-ash
mixture is fed back to the secondary clarifier to complete the
carbon cycle. A portion of the carbon- ash is purged from the
kiln to prevent build - up of inert materials. The energy value of
the purged carbon can be recovered in a separate furnace.
CARBON + SEWAGE SOLIDS

5% SOLIDS }
RAW
!!
EFFLUENT EFFLUENT EFFLUENT
SEWAGE
#
PRIMARY J SECONDARY GRAVY FILTER
( DEGRITTED )
CLARIFIER H CLARIFIER (MIXED MEDIA )
,II SEWAGE
SOLIDS +
I CARBON
* FINES
t
ACTIVATED CARBON
(10% SLURRY )
CARBON + SEWAGE SOLIDS
1F
{
- 5 % SOLIDS )
35- 40% 90%

FILTER PRESS SOLIDS FLASH SOLIDS THERMAL
( DEWATERING ) * DRYER REGENERATION
t UNIT
LIGNITE COAL ASH

(MAKEUP ENERGY PURGE
+ CARBON )
FIGURE 11- 35
JPL ACTIVATED CARBON TREATMENT SYSTEM ( 129 )
Various practical problems ( primarily corrosion at high

temperatures ) associated with the kiln and flash - dryer have
caused the developers to substitute a multiple- hearth furnace for
these two system elements , No actual test work with the MHF has
been done to date.
Activated carbon makeup requirements are dependent on adsorption
characteristics. Under some circumstances , the carbonized sludge
can satisfy the makeup requirements. Otherwise , activated carbon
makeup is necessary. Lignite coal is a source of low ash carbon
with an adsorptive capacity comparable to commercial activated
carbons. Lignite coal also provides, at low cost , the necessary
makeup energy to the system.
Preliminary economic studies by the developers indicate that the
JPL- ACTS process for wastewater treatment is competitive with
activated sludge for plant flows exceeding 175 MGD ( 7.67 nT /s ) .
11-101
11.7 Other High Temperature Processes
There are a number of high temperature conversion processes that

differ substantially from those previously discussed , Some are
presently being used for combustion or co - combustion of
wastewater sludge , and others are claimed suitable for sludge
processing . These processes include:
• High pressure/high temperature wet air oxidation
• REACTO-THERMtm ( Met -Pro Corporation , Systems Division )
Modular control 1 ed - air incinerators for codisposal

( Consumat , Kelly , and others )
Also , numerous thermal processes are being developed , mainly

of the pyrolysis or starved -air combustion type ; which are
applicable to wastewater sludge or mixtures of sludge and solid
waste ( Table 11- 24 ). These processes are potentially important
because they produce a high heating value fuel gas that may be
directly usable in existing furnaces and burners. Of the true
pyrolytic processes ( thermal decomposition in the absence of
air ), only the Pyro- Sol process appears to be sufficiently
developed to be considered here for codisposal and perhaps
sludge disposal. Some of the processes shown in Table 11- 24
have been discussed previously ( PUROX and Andco-Torrax ). Other
developing processes with potential for sludge burning include
the Bailie process , the Wright-Malta process, and Molten Salt
pyrolysis.
11.7.1 High Pressure/High Temperature Wet Air Oxidation

Any burnable substance may be oxidized in the presence of water
at a sufficiently high temperature ( flameless combustion ).
Therefore , this process can be an alternative to incineration
while providing a similar ash residue ( 134 ).
The high pressure / high temperature wet air oxidation process
( HPO ) is similar to thermal conditioning , except that higher
temperatures and pressures and much more air are used to effect
complete oxidation , Figure 11-36 is a composite representation
of results of wet oxidation for a typical sewage sludge, showing
volatile solids content or COD content in the solid phase and
the total sludge as a function of total oxidation in both phases.
The vertical distance between the two curves is the content
in the liquid phase , Up to about 50 percent total oxidation ,
reduction in the volatile solids or COD in the liquid phase are
minimal ; above 50 percent, the volatile solids and COD of both
phases are reduced to low values. At 80 percent total oxidation,
about 5 percent of the original total volatile solids in the
sludge is in the solid phase and 15 percent is in the liquid
phase.
11-102
r TABLE 11- 24
BASIC TYPES OF PYROLYSIS , THERMAL GASIFICATION , AND

LIQUEFACTION REACTORS - NEW , DEMONSTRATED , OR UNDER
DEVELOPMENT ( 131, 132 , 133 )
Main products
Solids flow and Examples of processes , Fuels or char

bed conditions developers, R&D programs Feedstock materials Steam
Vertical-flow reactors
Moving packed bed Forest Fuels Mfg ., Inc. (Antrim , FARa X
(gravity solids flow ; N.H.)
also called fixed bed ) Battelle Northwest (Richland , WA) Refuse X X
American Thermogen (location un
known)
- Refuse X
Andco/Torrax Process (Buffalo, NY) Refuse X

*
H .F. Funk Process -5 (Murray Hill, Refuse X
NJ)
Tech-Air Crop/Georgia Inst. Tech. FAR X
(Atlanta , GA)
Union Carbide Purox Process Refuse , FAR X
(Tonawanda , NY) -
Motala Pyrogas (Sweden) Refuse X
Urban Research & Development Refuse X
(E. Granby , CT)
Wilwardco, Inc. (San Jose , CA ) FAR, sludge X
U. of California (Davis, CA) FAR X
Foster Wheeler Power Products Refuse , tires X
(London , England)
Destrugas Process (Denmark) Refuse X
Koppelman Process (Encino, CA) FAR X
Moving stirred bed BSP/Envirotech (Belmont , CA) Sludge , refuse X X

(gravity solids flow) Nichols Research & Engr. (Belle Sludge , wood X X
Mead , NJ)
Garrett Energy Research & Engr. Manure X
(Claremont, CA )
Hercules/Black , Crow & Eidsness Refuse X
(Gainesville , FL)
Moving entrained bed Occidental Petroleum Co./Garrett Refuse X

(may include Flash Pyrolysis Process (La
mechanical bed trans- Verne , CA ) »
port)
Fluidized reactors Copeland Systems Inc. (Oak Brook , Sludges X

IL)
Coors Brewing Co./U. Of Missouri Refuse , FAR X
(Rolla , MO)
Energy Resources Co. (ERCO) Refuse , FAR X
(Cambridge , MA)
Hercules/Black Grow & Eidsness Refuse X
(Gainesville , FL)
Bailie process/Wheelabrator Refuse X
Incin. Inc. (Pittsburgh , PA )
A.D. Little Inc./Combustion Refuse X
Equipment Assoc. (Cambridge ,
MA/New York , NY )
Horizontal and inclined Devco Management Inc. (New York , Refuse X

flow reactors • NY)
Tumbling solids bed Monsanto Landgard/City of Refuse X X

Baltimore , MD Watson Energy
Systems (Los Angeles, CA)
11-103
TABLE 11- 24
BASIC TYPES OF PYROLYSIS , THERMAL GASIFICATION , AND

LIQUEFACTION REACTORS - NEW , DEMONSTRATED , OR UNDER
DEVELOPMENT ( 131, 132 , 133 ) (Continued )
Main products
Solids flow and Examples of processes, Fuels or char

bed conditions developers , R&D programs Feedstock materials Steam
Horizontal and inclined

flow reactors (con
tinued)
- Ecology Recycling Unlimited , Inc.
(Santa Fe Springs, CA)
Refuse X
Pyrolenergy System/Arcalon Refuse, FAR X

(Amsterdam)
Pan American Resources, Inc. Refuse, FAR X
( West Covina , CA)
Kobe Steel (Japan) Tires X
JPL/Orange County , CA (Fountain Sludge X
Valley , CA )
Rust Engineering (Birmingham , AL) Refuse , sludge X
Tosco Corp/Goodyear Tire and Tires X
Rubber (Los Angeles, CA/Akron,
OH)
Agitated solids bed Deco Energy Co. (Irvine, CA) Tires X

Enterprise Co. (Santa Ana, CA ) Refuse X
Kemp Reduction Corp. ( Santa Refuse, FAR X
Barbara , CA)
PyroSol (Redwood City , CA) Fluff from X
scrapped autos
Static solids bed Thermex , Inc. (Hayward , CA) Tires X
Molten metal or salt

beds
Floating solids bed Michigan Tech. U. (Houghton , MI) Refuse, FAR X
(horiztonal flow) (Puretech Pyrolysis System)
Mixed molten-salt Battelle Northwest (Richland , WA ) Refuse X
bed (various
possible flow
-
Anti Pollution Systems, Inc.
(Pleasantville, NJ)
Refuse , sludge X
schemes)
Multiple-reactor systems
Combined entrained- U. of California (Berkeley , CA ) Pulping liquor X
-
bed/static bed
reactor system
Combined moving
-
packed bed/entrained -
Battelle Columbus Laboratories
(Columbus, OH)
^ Paper , biomass X
bed reactor
Combined mechanically Mansfield Carbon Products , Inc. Refuse X
conveyed static
solids-bed/moving
- (Gallatin , TN)
packed-bed reactor
^Forestry and/or agricultural residues.

b
Pressure above atmospheric.
11-104
_
l 100
z rev
L - v/X.
UJ
E
z
- 90
O
o
8 8#3 \, ®
h" 80
mmm
UJ
D
-J
’&
mrnrnm
LL
z
70 £*
MNk
LL
O
3
*
60
mmm
o
Q<
50 ^mmmm Ilk 5fc
. .
^
.
SOLUBLE
Q
*
o
co
Q
-
J
f
40
30 “Hifck
Ess?
^ ^Silll .
-V'
co 20
m
u INSOLUBLE
H
10
5
o
> i
o
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
O X I D A T I O N- %
COURTESY ZIMPRO INC.
FIGURE 11- 36
VOLATILE SOLIDS AND COD CONTENT OF HEAT TREATED SLUDGE
The degree to which organic materials are oxidized i s a

f u n c t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e, r e a c t i o n t i m e , a n d q u a n t i t y o f a i r
( or oxygen ) supplied .
The process may be applied t o d i l u t e
s u s p e n s i o n s o f s l u d g e r e q u i r i n g o n l y t h i c k e n i n g, However, the
solids content should be four to six percent to minimize reactor
volume r e q u i r e m e n t s and t o m a i n t a i n a t h e r m a l l y s e l f -s u s t a i n i n g
reaction . Solids concentrations greater than about 10 percent
create problems w i t h mixing and consequent mass transfer
of the oxygen .
There i s i n s u f f i c i e n t data to indicate any
advantage from use of pure oxygen rather than a i r as the oxidant
source .
1 1- 1 0 5
The high pressure /high temperature wet air oxidation process is
shown schematically in Figure 11 - 37. Thickened sludge , at about
six percent solids , passes through a grinder to reduce the size
of all feed solids to less than 1/4 inch ( 0.64 cm ).
SLUDGE HEAT
GROUND EXCHANGER
SLUDGE LU
STORAGE o 5<
TANK o UJ REACTOR
Cl
- 1
<J1
SLUDGE o
LU
Q
* N
o *
X
#
GRINDER SLUDGE HIGH X. U STEAM

gHj IrU J
3 |-SLUDGE &
FS£0 PUMP PRESSURE
SLUDGE PUMP INJECTION
AIR {POSITIVE
T
t AIR
DISPLACEMENT ^
AIR
TO
BOILER
-
(START UP
ATMOSPHERE STEAM!
PRESSURE
CONTROL
AIR COMPRESSOR VALVE
POWER
RECOVERY
ALTERNATE METHODS GASES (OPTIONAL!
OF DEWATERING GAS
CLEAN-UP
UNIT h )
FILTER PRESS
LEVEL SEPARATOR
VACUUM FILTER CONTROL
STERILE
NON -PUTRESCIBLE CENTRIFUGE VALVE
SOLIDS
DRAINAGE BEDS
OXIDIZED
LAGOONS SLUDGE
SLURRY
( 1) WET SCRUBBING , CARBON
ABSORPTION, OR AFTERBURNING
SUPERNATANT
COURTESY ZIMPRO INC.

FIGURE 11- 37
FLOWSHEET FOR HIGH PRESSURE / HIGH TEMPERATURE WET AIR OXIDATION
The slurry is then pressurized , The air quantity supplied is the

stoichiometric amount required for complete oxidation of the
combustible sludge solids ( about 7.5 lb per 10, 000 Btu ) ( 2 g /J ).
The pressure applied must be sufficient to prevent the water from
vaporizing at the temperature selected for the reaction.
The sludge-air mixture is then passed through a heat exchanger,

where it is heated to close to the desired reaction temperature
by the reactor effluent stream and introduced into the reactor
for oxidation. Temperatures and pressures up to 500 ° F ( 260 °C )
and 1 , 000 to 1 , 800 psig ( 6 , 895 to 12, 411 kN/ m ) are used with
detention times of 40 to 60 minutes. The oxidized slurry is then
^
cooled in the heat exchanger , gases are removed in a vapor-liquid
11-106
separator , and the gases are reduced to atmospheric pressure
through a pressure control valve. The gases are processed to
eliminate odors. They consist mainly of oxygen , nitrogen, carbon
dioxide , and water vapor. Nitrogen oxides are formed from the
organic nitrogen present in the feed , but no nitrogen is fixed
from the air . Elemental sulfur , hydrogen sulfide , and organic
sulfur compounds are oxidized to sulfate ( SO4 ). Gas clean up -
methods have included wet scrubbing , activated carbon absorption ,
afterburning with fossil fuel, and catalytic oxidation , With
the last two methods, energy recovery is possible through use of
-
heat recovery boilers , gas liquid heat exchangers , and similar
.
-
methods ( 135 137)
Slurry from the gas- liquid separator is removed through a
-
liquid level control valve and dewatered for final disposal , At
high degrees of oxidation, the residual solids resemble ash from
thermal incineration and are easily dewatered to a high solids
content by conventional means ( settling , centrifugation , or
vacuum filtration).
The liquid phase is recycled to the treatment plant or given
separate treatment for reduction of the residual soluble
organics. Treatment and effects of this liquid stream are
discussed in Chapter 16.
High pressure/high temperature wet air oxidation processes
generate excess heat when they operate with a high heating
value sludge and an adequate solids content ( approximately
six percent ). Still , a source of high pressure steam ( separate
boiler or an existing plant system ) must be provided for
-
start up.
There are over ten HPO systems in operation on sewage sludge in
the United States. The most notable of these are Rockland County
and Rensselaer , New York , and Akron , Ohio. These units operate
at approximately 500°F ( 260°C ) at pressures of 1,000 to 2,000 psi
( 6 ,895 to 13 ,790 kN/m ). The capacities of the units as well
^
as the sludge oxidized are very different in each of these plants
Rockland County processes 12.4 tons per day ( 11.3 t/day ) of a
-
mixed digested primary plus waste activated sludge. The Akron
facility ( Botzum Plant ) oxidizes 50 tons per day ( 45 t/day ) of
waste activated sludge. The Rensselaer facility oxidizes a more
-
-
conventional mixture of primary plus waste activated sludge.
Shutdowns with HPO systems are associated with the high pressures
involved , heat exchanger scaling and corrosion , and required
supernatant liquid treatment. The HPO process may provide a good
system for oxidation of toxic and hazardous waste materials , and
research in this area is under way ( 138 ).
Lack of extensive operating data prevents reliable estimation of
the cost of HPO as a means to sludge disposal. It appears that
if equipment maintenance and replacement costs are reasonable ,
the costs would be competitive with thermal processing. The only
11-107
additional element of cost is treatment of the recycle stream.
Electrical energy requirements are shown in Figure 11 - 38.
Additional information can be found in the literature ( 134-139 ).
mn nnn
1 ¥VjVVV
9
Q
7
5
tO 4
to
it 3
> PRIMARY +
WASTE ;
2
ACTIVATED
3
SLUDGE
10,000
> 3
a
-c 7
5 6 nan WASTE
5 ACTIVATED
13
C 4 SLUDGE ^
a
o 3
£ ASSUMPTIONS :
Q 2 SLUDGE FEED
UJ
cc PRIMARY + WAS = 4,0% SOLIDS,
69% VOLATILES
ID -
WAS ^2.5% SOLIDS, ©3% VOLATILES
a
Ui
L000
9
-
VOLATILES 10,DOG Btu/lb
oc REACTOR PRESSURE
8 PRIMARY + WAS 1 ,700 pwg
CC
LU
7
6
-
WAS 1,000 pita
CONTINUOUS OPERATION
S 5 INCLUDES:
o
CL 4 PRESSURIZATION PUMPS
SLUDGE GRINDERS
o 3 DECANT TANK DRIVES
DC BOILER FEED PUMPS
AIR COMPRESSORS
O 2 TYPE OF ENERGY REQUIRED : ELECTRICAL
LLi
NOTE: FUEL IS REQUIRED
UJ ONLY AT START -UP
I
100
1,0 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 910 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9100 2 3 4 5 6 7891,000
TREATMENT CAPACITY, gpm ( 1 gpm = 0.06 I/ s)
FIGURE 11- 38
WET AIR OXIDATION - ELECTRICAL ENERGY REQUIREMENTS ( 36 )
Another HPO unit presently being tested for feasibility with a

feed of sewage sludge is the Vertical Tube Reactor ( VTR ). This
is a deep-well type of process in which the required pressure is
obtained simply by the depth of the well. The Municipal Environ-
mental Research Laboratory of USEPA is conducting test work with
a VTR system in Colorado. Data should be available in 1980.
11-108
11.7.2 REACT -0-THERMtm
This is a three-stage combustion device with SAC in the first two
stages followed by complete combustion in the third stage , This
proprietary system developed by Met -Pro Corporation , Systems
Division , is unique in that auxiliary fuel and air are burned in
the primary combustion chamber ( first stage ) and the resulting
gases pass into the rotary chamber , where the sludge is burned .
The interior design of the rotary kiln second stage recovers the
heat generated in the first stage and transmits this heat through
a stainless steel helix and chains to the sludge , The residue,
which contains some combustibles , is deposited into a fixed ,
cylindrical ash chamber, where it is removed by an auger , The
gases from the rotary chamber flow into the secondary combustion
chamber ( third stage ), and air and fuel are added as required to
complete the combustion of the gases and destroy odors prior to
discharge to atmosphere. The unit is available as a complete,
skid - mounted package ( see Figure 11-39 ). The unit is primarily
designed for low- volume applications ( 50 to 300 gallons per hour
of wet sludge [ 0.05 to 0.30 1 /s ] ). Two units are presently
operating on a physical - chemical sewage sludge in Prudhoe Bay ,
Alaska.
STACK
SECONDARY ASH REMOVAL ROTARY PRIMARY

COMBUSTION CHAMBER CHAMBER COMBUSTION CHAMBER
CHAMBER
SECONDARY
6 LOWER
SECONDARY
BURNER
ACCESS SLUDGE
DOOR
VIEW*
PQPT
—
- PRIMARY
BURNER
ASH
REMOVAL
OR I VC
HEAT TRANSFER R O T A R Y CHAMBER

DISCHARGE CONVEYER MEDIA DRIVE
COURTESY MiET RO COKPORATIQM, 5 5TEDIVISION
^ *
FIGURE 11- 39
REACT-0- THERMtm SLUDCE / LIQUID WASTE DESTRUCTION
11-109
Detailed heat and material balances are available from the
manufacturer for specific applications. Emission test data from
the manufacturer indicate that the unit , operated at rated
conditions , can meet USEPA's New Source Performance Standards.
However , the New Source Review Rule may be applicable in
some areas and Best Available Control Technology ( BACT) may be
required.
11.7.3 -
Modular Starved Air Incinerators
-
Modular controlled air incinerators are static , and contain
-
two chambers. The first chamber is operated by starved air
combustion , and the gaseous products of combustion are passed
-
to the second chamber where combustion is completed and odors
are destroyed ( see Figure 11 40 ) ( 107 ). A number of these
-
incinerators have been installed for municipal and industrial
solid waste. There are also units under study for co disposal of
-
municipal refuse and sewage sludge ( 141 ). There are no known
installations ( or test data ) for sludge alone. However , the
unit appears to be suitable for sludge reduction. The units
are available in modules from 60 pounds per hour ( 27 kg /hr ) to
250 tons per day ( 227 t/d ). Equipment manufacturers ( Consumat ,
Kelley , and others ) state that USEPA New Source Performance
Standards can be met without additional air pollution control
equipment ; however , the New Source Review Rule may be applicable
in some areas and BACT may be required. A test program being
funded jointly by the EPA and the State of California is
currently underway at Little Rock , Arkansas , to obtain definitive
air emission data on municipal solid waste incineration. Further
literature ( 107 ,140 145 ).
-
-
information on controlled air incinerators is included in the
11.7.4 Pyro-Soltrn Process

-
The Pyro Sol process is a pyrolysis project presently operating
-
on solid waste. In the Pyro Sol process , waste is fed to a
pyrolysis unit which , in the absence of oxygen and in the
presence of heat , causes chemical decomposition of the waste.
Products of the process are a gas and char/ash residue. A 5 0 to’
- -
75 ton per day ( 45 to 68 t/d ) ( MMR ), full scale plant is in
operation in Redwood City , California , A flowsheet of that
system is presented in Figure 11 41. -
-
The process is autogenous , but heat up and standby energy is
provided by natural gas. A portion of the produced gas is burned
in eight radiant heat tubes to provide heat for the endothermic
pyrolysis process , The solids are fed by an airlock and moved
through the furnace by means of a vibrating conveyor.
The resulting gas ( largely hydrogen [H 2 ] and carbon monoxide

[CO] ) exits from the pyrolyzer at approximately 1 ,100°F ( 543°C )
^
and less than 0.5 inches of water column ( 125 N/m ) and enters
11-110
SEE NOTE
BELOW
*-
r SEE NOTE
BELOW
SECONDARY g
BURNING
'V REACTOR
BURNER REACTOR
%
1600° - 20MDF
^ B '’
i 200°F SECTION
--
-i
AFTERBURNER
SECONDARY
4 4
AIR SUPPLY FAN CONTROL
IGNITION
BURNER
w
V
\ PRIMARY /
* +
O O O C C C
L
O O O T CHAMBER
COMBUSTION AIR SUPPLIED
AT HIGH VELOCITIES
(pi First f sjar Cbi Second Mdjof CDiif

^ ûralian
SEE NOTE
BELOW
SE LF-SUSTAINING
DIRECT - FLAME AFTERBURNER
;
SMOKE ZONE
Vr V
4 4 w 4
-
i:in
FORCED AIR
id Third Majo# Configuration
NOTE: STACK TO ENERGY RECOVERY EQUIPMENT
AND /OR EMISSION CONTROL DEVICE
OF NECESSARY )
FIGURE 11- 40
MODULAR CONTROLLED- AIR INCINERATOR CONFIGURATIONS ( 140 )
11-111
a d r y c y c l o n e w h e r e the particulate m a t t e r l a r g e r than 1 0 microns
is r e m o v e d . T h e h o t g a s i s p u l l e d t h r o u g h a w e t s c r u b b e r /
quencher where the remaining particulates are removed , The
small amount of w a t e r that circulates to the scrubber/q u e n c h e r,
receives primary and s e c o n d a r y treatment , including filtration,
before disposal t o the plant sewer or t o an on-site treatment
plant. T h e scrubbed g a s has a heating value of 4 0 0 -5 0 0 B t u /cu ft
( 1 4 . 9 t o 1 8 . 6 MJ /m 3 ).
&0SLIX
MAKE -UP WATER
TREATMENT
F LED
PAQftl.Cf[T WATER
ENCLOSURE DC At KA 1 U H
MANIFOLD RFH* KN
WA I L'
4
LNE
BELT FEEDER A!RLOCK
CONvEYO« CERAMIC K
FIBER .;K
si >V
INCONEL VfcASTE HEAT RECOVERY MANIFOLD <•
HEAT TUBES
i
aoiLFn
My'
""
--
EXTERIOR PANELS
OQNvFYOR 1
CYCLONE SCHUSBEH
BLUWLR \
WAT.TF
V IE RAT INLi BEE HEAT
SuflGF MOW STORAlit
* TANK
BOILEF
COURTESY FYRO SDL INCORPORATED

TO
a ESI DU L
I HtAT MEiNT
SYSTEM
FIGURE 11- 41
PYRO- SOL LIMITED PYROLYSIS SYSTEM
T h e g a s is transferred t o a s u r g e tank and fed from there t o a

s t e a m boiler , T h e s t e a m can be used as process s t e a m o r t o drive
a t u r b o- g e n e r a t o r.
P y r o-Sol, with feeds of up t o 50 percent moisture , can achieve

a net e n e r g y production o f 6 0 p e r c e n t o f the input heat value
in the fuel g a s. D u e t o the high r e c o v e r y o f input heat value
with r e l a t i v e l y w e t c a k e s , as c o m p a r e d with normal solid w a s t e,
t h i s p r o c e s s s h o u l d be a m e n a b l e t o c o- d i s p o s a l a n d p o s s i b l e
s l u d g e combustion.
11-112
11.7.5 Bailie Process
The Bailie Process integrates a combustion fluid bed furnace
with a pyrolysis fluid bed reactor ( 146 - 147 ). The process, shown
on Figure 11 -42, involves feeding solid waste into the pyrolysis
fluid bed reactor , The endothermic pyrolysis reaction is
maintained in the 1 , 300 to 1, 500 °F ( 704- 816 °C ) range by recycling
hot fluidized sand from the combustion reactor. The fuel for the
combustion reaction is contained in the same recycle from the
pyrolytic reactor and from char collected in the combustion and
pyrolysis gas cyclones. Some of the pyrolysis gas is returned to
the pyrolytic reactor to control reaction kinetics. Both excess
pyrolysis gas and char may be recovered.
COMBUSTIOM PYROLYSIS
PRODUCTS
TQ STACK "8 fu>
.
•u AMVMWP'fMMtMl GAS
PRODUCT
CYCLONE
Hi
t t
"
.
—
]
:
CYCLONE F77EE3
i
COMBUSTION PYROLYSIS
FLUID FLUID
BED BED
REACTOR REACTOR
CHAR CHAR MIXED

\X RECYCLE RECYCLE MUNICIPAL
REFUSE
%NS is
y
Si
hr .
SAND
BED
’ ^ LOCK
HOPPER
SAND RECYCLED
RECYCLE j""
' ‘ .zP SCREW PYROLYSIS
FEEDER GAS
COLD GAS HOT
\ WIND
GlSYFHBUTlGN / BOX \
c Mil4
" '»“
AIR BLOWER
A
PYROLYSIS GAS
RECYCLE BLOWER
FIGURE 11- 42
BAILIE PROCESS FLOWSHEET ( 146 )
The Bailie Process is a potentially important method of sewage

sludge pyrolysis. Less auxiliary fuel is needed for incineration
of the sludge , and a number of energy recovery options are
available. Heat from the off gases can be recovered and a
combustible fuel gas is generated.
The Bailie Process is patented and has been piloted . No
full-scale test has been conducted , but the manufacturer states
that one is planned in the near future.
11.7.6 Wright - Malta Process

The Wright -Malta Corporation ( W-M ) is developing a pressurizied
rotary kiln gasifier-gas turbine system for generating electric
11-113
power f r o m municipal solid w a s t e and wastewater s l u d g e ( 148 , 149 ).
Figure 1 1-43 shows the p r o c e s s in t e r m s of e n e r g y flows . The
pressurized gasifier p r o d u c e s a hot , low heat value fuel g a s that
is combusted and fed directly t o the g a s turbine. T h e turbine
drives a n electrical g e n e r a t o r and the associated air c o m p r e s s o r.
T h e hot exhaust is used t o p r e h e a t t h e s l u d g e and t o raise s t e a m
t e m p e r a t u r e in a heat recovery boiler. T h e steam is s u p e r h e a t e d
a n d p a s s e d b a c k t o t h e kiln , w h e r e it c o o l s a n d c o n d e n s e s ,
supplying heat for the gasification process.
MIXED
MUNICIPAL
REFUSE 2E35 331D
22BS ' COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
__ ROTARY
^ Kl LM
GASlFlER 900%
27m
3250
1960%
SLUDGE
fT '
43C 345 f
2S0 470
RESIDUE
135
COMP -
'
Mi A\ R
1095 RiS$0& TURBINE 85C
10 MW
SUPERHEATER
GENERATOR
1910 960* f
90
l 1960
660* F 2000
HEAT
EXCHANGER
730
1100 S0Q %
V
120
1270
440%
250
®
NOTE : ALL UNITS IN 10 BTu /day 11065 375 “ f 140 SLUDGE
UNLESS NOTED PREHEATER
110 1130
SLUDGE 290%
\7
EXHAUST
FIGURE 11- 43
WRIGHT- MALTA PROCESS FLOWSHEET ( 150 )
W a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e contributes a b o u t four p e r c e n t of the organic

fuel to the system , At the pressures involved , the water
e v a p o r a t e d from the s l u d g e provides motive f o r c e for t h e turbine
in a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r o d u c t s o f combustion f r o m t h e f u e l g a s
produced . The cycle is comparable t o the combined cycle s y s t e m
used in electrical p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n , w h e r e h o t g a s turbine
exhaust f l o w s t o a boiler t o p r o d u c e s t e a m. T h e turbine exhaust
1 1-1 1 4
in t h e W - M p r o c e s s g e n e r a t e s s t e a m in t h e kiln . This steam,
along with the burned fuel gas, drives the turbine . The
r e s u l t i n g fuel e f f i c i e n c y is c l o s e t o t h e c o m b i n e d c y c l e
efficiency. This p r o c e s s appears ideal f o r very moist fuels , and
t h e h i g h m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f t h e s l u d g e is beneficial . The
W r i g h t- Malta process h a s been o p e r a t e d in a batch mode o n a b e n c h
scale . Further p r o g r e s s depends o n d e v e l p m e n t o f a r o t a r y kiln
t h a t c a n be o p e r a t e d a t h i g h p r e s s u r e s a n d t e m p e r a t u r e s.
11.7.7 Molten S a l t Pyrolysis

Bench-scale studies w e r e conducted by Battelle-Pacific N o r t h w e s t
L a b o r a t o r i e s o n t h e p y r o l y s i s o f r e f u s e in m o l t e n s o d i u m
carbonate ( 150 ) . The products of reaction were studied for
different conditions with steam, air, a n d o x y g e n a s the gasifica-
t i o n a g e n t s. While t h e p r o c e s s i n g o f m u n i c i p a l r e f u s e in
t h e m o l t e n s a l t ( s o d i u m c a r b o n a t e ) r e a c t o r w a s f o u n d t o be
t e c h n i c a l l y feasible, t h e lack o f a c o s t- effective m e t h o d o f a s h
r e m o v a l and t h e p r o b l e m s of refractory degradation h a v e hindered
further development. This t y p e of p r o c e s s is not new. H o w e v e r,
n o i n f o r m a t i o n i s available a s t o t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e
p r o c e s s t o s l u d g e d i s p o s a l.
11.8 Air Pollution Considerations

I n any combustion p r o c e s s , air emissions are a major concern a n d
m a y be the most difficult and costly environmental consideration
t o s a t i s f y. O n t h e f e d e r a l l e v e l , t h e U S E P A h a s e s t a b l i s h e d
s t a n d a r d s o f p e r f o r m a n c e for municipal incinerators ( solid w a s t e )
and wastewater s l u d g e incinerators. I n co- combustion schemes
i n v o l v i n g m u n i c i p a l solid w a s t e a n d w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e , b o t h
s t a n d a r d s will probably a p p l y , with allowable emissions being
p r o r a t e d according t o t h e fractions o f energy in t h e solid w a s t e
a n d in t h e s l u d g e. I n S e p t e m b e r , 1 9 7 8 , t h e U S E P A p u b l i s h e d
p r o p o s e d emission s t a n d a r d s for new , modified , o r reconstructed
electric utility s t e a m generating units t h a t burn fossil fuel o r
a c o m b i n a t i o n o f fossil f u e l s a n d o t h e r fuels s u c h a s solid
w a s t e s. T h e s e g u i d e l i n e s offer s o m e indication o f air pollution
requirements in co- combustion schemes.
G e n e r a l l y , these guidelines indicate t h a t new s l u d g e furnaces

will h a v e t o c o m p l y with t h e following s t a n d a r d s:
National Ambient Air Quality S t a n d a r d s ( S t a t e I m p l e m e n t a-
tion Plans ).
National Emission Standards f o r H a z a r d o u s Air P o l l u t a n t s,
s u b p a r t s A and E.
S t a n d a r d s o f P e r f o r m a n c e f o r N e w S t a t i o n a r y S o u r c e s,
p a r t s A , 0, a n d probably E , if c o- combustion is p r o p o s e d.
N e w S o u r c e Review Rule.
1 1- 115
• Regulations Pertaining to Prevention of Significant
Deterioration o f Air Q u a l i t y.
I n all c a s e s , t h e m i n i m u m s t a n d a r d s a r e s e t b y t h e U S E P A .
However , s t a t e and local jurisdictions may p r o m u g a t e stricter
standards.
A basic p r o b l e m in e v a l u a t i n g a n y e m i s s i o n i s p r e d i c t i n g t h e
e f f e c t o n t h e o v e r a l l air b a s i n , Projecting emissions and
e s t i m a t i n g r e s u l t i n g a i r q u a l i t y is , at b e s t , a n i m p e r f e c t
science . Air basins in which critical air quality levels are
consistently exceeded have been studied in d e p t h and have been
the object of mathematical modeling , The results of these
efforts h a v e b e e n mixed.
11.8.1 National Ambient Air Quality Standards ( NAAQS )-

State I m p l e m e n t a t i o n P l a n s ( S I P )
Federal air quality r e g u l a t i o n s are derived from the Clean Air

A c t A m e n d m e n t s o f 1 9 7 0 , t h e E n e r g y S u p p l y and Environmental
Coordination A c t of 1974, and m o s t recently , the C l e a n Air A c t
Amendments of 1977 ( 151 ). T h e N A A Q S established threshold levels
of air p o l l u t a n t s below which n o adverse effects would occur.
T h e s e l e v e l s w e r e d e s i g n e d t o p r o v i d e a n a d e q u a t e m a r g i n of
s a f e t y so as t o p r o t e c t t h e p u b l i c health.
Air p o l l u t a n t s are classified into t w o groups: primary p o l l u t a n t s

and secondary pollutants, Primary pollutants are those emitted
directly from sources , while s e c o n d a r y p o l l u t a n t s are formed by
chemical and photochemical reactions of primary p o l l u t a n t s with
the a t m o s p h e r e , as shown on F i g u r e 1 1-4 4. Primary p o l l u t a n t s
include c a r b o n m o n o x i d e ( C O ) , h y d r o c a r b o n s ( o r g a n i c g a s e s ) ,
oxides o f nitrogen ( NOx ) , s u l f u r dioxide ( S O 2 ), total s u s p e n d e d
particulates ( T S P ) and lead ( P b ). Photochemical oxidants and
nitrogen dioxide ( NO 2 ) are the principal s e c o n d a r y p o l l u t a n t s.
T h e s e f o r m a visible b r o w n - y e l l o w h a z e , The quantity of
s e c o n d a r y p o l l u t a n t s is dependent o n the availability o f sunlight
a s much as o n the availability o f primary p o l l u t a n t s , Health
effects o f contaminants are summarized in Table 11- . 2 5
The 1970 Amendments t o the Clean Air Act required each s t a t e t o

develop its own State Implementation Plans ( SIP ) to meet the
f e d e r a l s t a n d a r d s by 1 9 7 5 o r 1 9 7 7, t h e d a t e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e
severity of the s t a t e air quality p r o b l e m s , T h e 1 9 7 7 A m e n d m e n t s
extended the attainment deadlines and detail s o m e appropriate
control measures. F o r t h o s e areas which h a v e not y e t attained
N A A Q S , s t a t e s must have a p p r o v e d implementation p l a n revisions by
J u l y 1 , 1 9 7 9 , which p r o v i d e f o r attainment by December 3 1 , 1982 .
If a s t a t e demonstrates t h a t such attainment is not p o s s i b l e , it
m u s t submit a second p l a n revision by December 3 1 , 1 9 8 2 , which
provides f o r attainment by December 31 , 1 9 8 7. For areas a l r e a d y
m e e t i n g N A A Q S s t a n d a r d s, i m p l e m e n t a t i o n p l a n s m u s t i n c l u d e a
p r o g r a m t o p r e v e n t s i g n i f i c a n t d e t e r i o r a t i o n of air q u a l i t y .
11-1 1 6
The USEPA guidelines require the SIPs to provide for emission
controls, transportation controls , source monitoring , ambient
air quality monitoring , and procedure for review and approval
of new sources of air pollution prior to construction . The
USEPA has the authority to approve or disapprove these plans
and to promulgate an acceptable plan if the submitted plan is
disapproved . The USEPA, state air resources boards and local air
quality management districts also have the authority to restrict
issuance of permits for construction of stationary sources if
emissions from that source would cause a violation of any air
quality standards , This is accomplished by an emission offset
policy. In both nonattainment and nondegradation areas , major
stationary sources may be constructed only by permit and must at
least meet applicable new source performance standards.
PHOTOCHEMICAL
OXIDANTS
REGULATED VIA STATE

IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
( LIMIT POLLUTANTS TO
PROTECT PUBLIC HEALTH I
PRIMARY SECONDARY
POLLUTANTS SUNLIGHT
POLLUTANTS
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY

STANDARDS
( CLEAN AIR AMENDMENTS OF 1977 )
FIGURE 11 -44
AIR EMISSIONS
11.8.2 National Emission Standards for Hazardous

Air Pollutants ( NESHAPS )
Subpart A of NESHAPS ( 40 CFR 61 ) comprises general provisions
covering definitions , applications , reporting , and waivers.
Subpart E deals with mercury emissions and applies to all opera-
tions that burn or dry wastewater sludge. The NESHAPS standard
( Federal Register, Vol. 40 , No. 199 , Tuesday , October 14, 1975 )
is currently seven pounds of mercury ( 3.2 kg ) per 24-hour period
for any source.
11-117
TABLE 11- 25
HEALTH EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS ( 152 )
Pollutant levels
TSP SO2 CO 03 NO2 Health

Air quality
level bq/m 3
-
Pg/m 3
-
mg/m 3
-
(24- hour), (24 hour), (8 hour), (1 hour), (1 hour)
yg/tn 3 ug/m 3
- effect
descriptor General health effects Cautionary statements
Signif ican t
harm
1,000 2,620 57.5 1,200 3,750 1
!
Premature death of ill All persons should remain

and elderly. Healthy indoors , keeping windows
people will experience :
• and doors closed , All
adverse symptoms that persons should minimize
affect their normal physical exertion and avoid
activity. traffic.
Emergency 875 2,100 40.0 1,000 3,000 Hazardous
-
Premature onset of cer
tain diseases in addition
Elderly and persons with
existing diseases should
to significant aggrava
tion of symptoms and
- stay indoors and avoid
physical exertion. General
decreased exercise toler
ance 'in healthy persons.
- population should avoid out
door activity.
-
Warn ng 625 1,600 34.0 800 2,260
Significant aggravation Elderly and persons with
of symptoms and decreased existing heart or lung
exercise tolerance in disease should stay indoors
Very persons with heart. or and reduce physical activity.
unhealthful lung disease , with wide
spread symptoms in the
-
healthy population.
C
Alert 375 800 17.0 400 1,130
Mild aggravation of Persons with existing heart
symptoms in susceptible or respiratory ailments
(JnhealthfuL persons, with irritation should reduce physical
symptoms in the healthy exertion and outdoor activity.
population.
NAAQS 260 365 10.0 240 t
Moderate
50 percent b b
75 80 • 5.0 120 a
of NAAQS
Good
0 3 0 0 a
3
NO index values reported at concentration levels below those spec.lied by “ Alert. Level ” criteria.
b
Annual primary NAAQS. -
c 3 ' 3
400|jg/m was used instead of the O 3 Alert Level of 200 pg/m .
1 1 . 8.3 S t a n d a r d s o f P e r f o r m a n c e f o r N e w Stationary
Sources ( NSPS )
Subpart A o f N S P S ( 4 0 C F R 6 0 ) involves g e n e r a l p r o v i s i o n s
covering definitions , performance tests, authority , and
monitoring requirements. S u b p a r t 0 is applicable t o incinerators
that burn municipal wastewater sludge and requires that
particulates discharged cannot b e in excess o f 1.30 p o u n d s per
t o n ( 0.65 kg /t ) of d r y s l u d g e feed and that the g a s d i s c h a r g e d
s h a l l n o t h a v e m o r e t h a n 2 0 p e r c e n t o p a c i t y ( 1 5 4 ). F o r
c o-combustion , S u b p a r t E is applicable t o a l l incinerators with a
c h a r g i n g r a t e g r e a t e r t h a n 5 0 t o n s p e r d a y ( 4 5 t / d ) with
municipal refuse c o m p r i s i n g 50 p e r c e n t o r more of the c h a r g e.
Subpart E requires that particulates discharged be no g r e a t e r
t h a n 0 . 0 8 g r a i n s p e r s t a n d a r d d r y c u b i c f o o t ( 0 . 1 8 g /m 3 d r y )
corrected t o 1 2 p e r c e n t carbon dioxide.
1 1-1 1 8
11.8. 4 New Source Review S t a n d a r d s ( N S R )
This regulation , ,4 0 CFR 51.18, requires a p r e c o n s t r u c t i o n review

of all n e w or modified stationary sources t o determine if the
source will meet a l l a p p l i c a b l e emission r e q u i r e m e n t s o f the
State Implementation Plans and t h e USEPA's Emission Offset Policy
( 44 CFR 3274, January 1 6 , 1979 ).
The reviewing authority is u s u a l l y a s t a t e agency that can apply

stricter e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s t h a n t h e U S E P A r e g u l a t i o n s , T h e
state also sets emission offset required for stationery sources
affected by the NSR. Federal law requires emissions offsets in
areas where N A A Q S are violated for a particular p o l l u t a n t if:
1. The new source could , after installation o f a p o l l u t a n t

control device , emit > 50 tons p e r year ( 45 t /yr ) o f the
offending pollutant; o r
2. Could emit > 1 0 0 t o n s p e r y e a r ( 9 1 t /y r ) o f t h e offending

p o l l u t a n t were there no pollution control device or were
the existing device t o fail.
State and local authorities m a y mandate a stricter criterion , In

addition , the lowest achievable emission r a t e is required for a n y
regulated source that mandates B e s t Available Control T e c h n o l o g y
( BACT) .
T h e p r e s e n t d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e t e r m " p o t e n t i a l emissions " i s
u n c o n t r o l l e d e m i s s i o n s o r , t h o s e a n t i c i p a t e d if t h e emission
c o n t r o l device is b y p a s s e d o r nonfunctional , T h i s use o f
potential emissions in the regulations has a serious effect on
which sources come under the perview o f this regulation , For
example , if only one t o n per y e a r ( 0.9 t /y r ) of actual emissions
were e x p e c t e d and t h e control device w a s 9 8 p e r c e n t efficient ,
the " potential emissions " would b e 50 t o n s per year ( 4 5 t /yr ).
The definition o f " potential emissions " is t h e subject o f pending
c o u r t action , and this action is expected t o be settled in late
1979.
1 1 . 8.5 Prevention of S i g n i f i c a n t Deterioration ( P S D )
R e g u l a t i o n 4 0 C F R 5 2 . 2 1 limits increases in p a r t i c u l a t e and

sulfur dioxide concentrations t o specified increments a b o v e base
levels measured in attainment areas , D a t a on t o t a l emissions
f o r t h e entire a i r basin a r e r e q u i r e d in o r d e r t o e v a l u a t e
incremental increases in s p e c i f i c emissions d u e t o operation o f
a n y new o r modified furnaces. I f t h e potential emission r a t e o f
a r e g u l a t e d pollutant ( s ) exceeds 2 5 0 tons p e r y e a r ( 227 t /yr ) and
the allowable emission rate exceeds 50 t o n s per y e a r ( 45 t /yr ),
t h e n this regulation m u s t be used and public notice is required.
1 1-119
11.8.6 T h e Permit Process
P e r m i t s f o r construction a n d /o r o p e r a t i o n o f p r o c e s s e s t h a t
discharge gases to the atmosphere are the primary means for
control of air emissions by a s t a t e and , in some cases, the local
jurisdictions. R e g u l a t i o n s applicable t o a specific p l a n t site
m u s t be t h o r o u g h l y reviewed t o determine if permits are required
f o r the p r o p o s e d project . G e n e r a l l y , s l u d g e incineration and
m o s t other combustion operations require permits, T h e form and
s t a g e s o f p e r m i t r e q u i r e m e n t s will v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y b e t w e e n
s t a t e a n d l o c a l a g e n c i e s a n d m u s t be e x p l o r e d a t t h a t l e v e l.
F e d e r a l p e r m i t s f o r P S D r e g u l a t i o n s m a y be r e q u i r e d . I n t h e
S a n Francisco Bay A r e a of California , f o r e x a m p l e, t w o s t a g e s of
p e r m i t s a r e required ( 1 5 4 ). These are:
• Permit t o c o n s t r u c t — t o be applied f o r and g r a n t e d before

construction o f a facility may p r o c e e d.
• Permit t o o p e r a t e--t o be issued a f t e r construction a n d

g e n e r a l l y a f t e r point sources have p a s s e d stack emission
tests.
11.8.7 Air Emissions T e s t P r o c e d u r e s

T h e criteria p o l l u t a n t s a s defined in the Clean Air Act of 1 9 7 7,
are particulate matter, SOg , N0X , C O, hydrocarbons , and ozone.
T h e U S E P A h a s p r o m u l g a t e d s t a c k emission s a m p l i n g a n d t e s t
p r o c e d u r e s f o r t h e s e p o l l u t a n t s, H o w e v e r, s t a t e a n d l o c a l
a g e n c y p r o c e d u r e s m a y differ somewhat f r o m those of USEPA a n d
from each o t h e r. F o r e x a m p l e , s o m e agencies define p a r t i c u l a t e s
a s filterable particulate m a t t e r while others c o u n t the total
catch ( including condensible p o l l u t a n t s ), F o r this reason, a
m e a s u r e m e n t m a d e u n d e r o n e j u r i s d i c t i o n m a y not be d i r e c t l y
applicable t o a n o t h e r.
11.8.8 Design E x a m p l e
T h e r e a r e m a n y r e g i o n a l a n d l o c a l variations in t h e r u l e s,
t e s t p r o c e d u r e s , a n d m e t h o d o l o g i e s u s e d t o a t t a i n t h e N A A Q S.
Therefore , firm guidelines for p r o c e d u r e s cannot be provided t o
e n c o m p a s s a l l a r e a s o f t h e n a t i o n. D e s i g n e r s m u s t d e t e r m i n e
federal , s t a t e, and local requirements a t a n e a r l y project s t a g e
and meet with U S E P A Regional officers and a s well a s state a n d
local officials t o negotiate changes o r additions t o the p r e s e n t
r e g u l a t i o n s b a s e d o n t h e p r o j e c t d e s i g n , construction , a n d
initial o p e r a t i o n . T h i s is j u s t t h e s t a r t ; c o n t a c t m u s t b e
continued with the U S E P A Regional Offices, and s t a t e and l o c a l
air quality m a n a g e m e n t districts t h r o u g h o u t t h e project . Also,
t h e F e d e r a l R e g i s t e r a n d n a t i o n a l a n d statewide n e w s l e t t e r s
s h o u l d be monitored b e c a u s e t h e y p r o v i d e a g o o d s o u r c e f o r
p r o p o s e d c h a n g e s in requirements.
11-120
The following design example provides a framework for project
analysis. It is based upon experience with the San Francisco Bay
Area Air Quality Management District ( BAAQMD ) which governs a
nonattainment area. The BAAQMD generally promulgates rules more
restrictive than federal requirements , This particular area was
selected for the example since the local authority ( BAAQMD ) has
developed a complex set of regulations that many areas may be
using as guidelines.
The first step is to identify the applicable emission regulations
-
( 154 156 ) and then establish the requirements for emission
control devices. These requirements are reviewed with several
manufacturers to determine feasibility and cost before the device
is incorporated into the design. The last step is the startup
and testing of the control device and the receipt of a permit
to operate. To maintain the operating permit , good plant
.
monitoring , operations , and maintenance procedures are required
11.8.8.1 Identify Applicable State

and Local Regulations
New Source Review ( NSR )
Combustion processes are subject to the NSR rule adopted by the
California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) for application by the
BAAQMD . NSR is required by the USEPA in the Bay Area and in
other regions where clean air standards are violated , NSR
governs the issuance of permits to construct new or modified
stationary sources of air pollution.
The requirements apply only to facilities that would emit large
amounts of pollutants. These requirements are that:
• The facilities must employ " best available ( emission )

control technology " ( BACT ), Section 1308( a)( 154 ).
• The applicant must meet current air quality regulations

regarding all sources of emission that it owns or
operates in the Bay Area. Section 1307.1 ( 154 ).
• The applicant must offset proposed emission increases in

NO x' CO , and HC with more than equivalent restrictions
at other sources in the region. Section 1309( a ) ( 154 ).
The NSR rule is probably the most difficult environmental
regulation facing the designer. The NSR rule requires that
new stationary sources which emit pollutants above a certain
criterion level be approved if they use BACT. The criterion
levels are: 150 pound per day ( 68 kg/d ) each for NO x' SOx , HC ,
,
and TSP ; and 1 ,500 pound per day ( 681 kg/d ) for CO. Below these
levels , a permit may be granted without regard to NAAQS , and BACT
need not be applied. A permit can be issued where BACT is used
and the criterion is not met ; however , the NSR rule allows no
exemption from BACT.
11-121
Another requirement is that existing facilities owned or operated
by the applicant must meet all air pollution regulations, Any
wastewater treatment plant , or other facility operating under
common ownership, must be upgraded to meet existing regulations
before a new source can be added .
Recent rulings make exemptions
to this doubtful.
The third requirement of the NSR rule applies to stationary
sources that will emit more than 250 pounds per day ( 114 kg /d )
of NO x > SOx , H C , or TSP and more than 2 , 500 pounds per day
( 1135 kg /d ) of CO. This requirement is intended to prevent the
plant from contributing to violations or increased violations of
the clean air standards. Since some standards in the Bay Area
are already being violated , no sources with controlled emissions
above this level can be built unless project proponents reduce
emissions from another source , thus offsetting the air quality
effects of the project. In other words, if BACT is employed , and
if the emission level is above 250 pound per day ( 114 kg /d ), the
project cannot be built unless offsets are applied . The project
proponents can offset the project ' s emissions by modifying other
facilities to reduce emissions or by shutting down polluting
facilities.
In the p a s t , the B A A Q M D has required that the offset facilities
be in the vicinity of the proposed project so that the portion of
the air basin surrounding the project receives the benefit of
the offset. The rule also requires that the amount of emission
reduction be slightly higher than the amount of emission increase
anticipated from the project. The c u r r e n t offset a m o u n t is
1.2 times the emission. For example, an industry can purchase
a paint shop presently discharging 500 pounds per day ( 227 kg /d )
of hydrocarbons , close the shop , and credit the industry
with : 500 -4 1.2 = 417 pounds per day ( 184 kg /d ).
The feasibility of offsets depends on the availability of
suitable existing polluting plants , t h e cost o f p u r c h a s e o r
modification , and the p u b l i c acceptability o f the offset.
If suitable p l a n t s are found , p u r c h a s e of additional control
devices t o reduce emissions will probably be more politically
a c c e p t a b l e than purchasing a privately owned f a c i l i t y and
closing it down. The cost of any of these alternatives would be
extremely high.
The alternative route for a large-scale plant would be t o obtain
an exemption from the offset portion of the new source review
rule. T h e rule provides exemptions for a new stationary source
that " represents a significant advance in the development of a
technology that appears to offer extraordinary environmental or
public health benefits o r other benefits of overriding importance
to the public health or welfare." An exemption granted by the
B A A Q M D would require concurrence of C A R B and the USEPA. While an
exemption may be provided , the likelihood that one would be given
at t h e p r e s e n t time is s l i g h t. Facilities t h a t p o t e n t i a l l y
represent an advance in technology are normally reviewed at the
USEPA h e a d q u a r t e r s in W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., r a t h e r t h a n l o c a l l y .
11-122
The BAAQMD is seriously considering adoption of an NSR rule that
would apply the offset requirement only t o CO and HC , but not
to N0 X . This is . important t o any combustion process proposed ,
because N 0 X control is u n p r o v e n a n d v e r y c o s t l y . B A C T w o u l d
continue to apply as previously stated .
Prevention of Significant Deterioration ( P S D )
T h e USEPA p r e v e n t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t deterioration rule is
designed to prevent increases in air pollutant concentrations
that are below the national health standards in a particular air
basin. T h i s is in c o n t r a s t t o t h e N e w S o u r c e Review Rule
designed t o prevent increases in levels of air pollutants that
already exceed standards. In the San Francisco Bay Area , levels
for two pollutants , particulates and sulfur dioxide, are below or
better than standards. If BACT is applied , as required by NSR,
and if controlled emissions of SO 2 or TSP d o n o t e x c e e d the
50 - t o n p e r y e a r ( 45 - t / y r ) criterion l e v e l , P S D will add n o
additional constraints.
New Source Performance Standards ( NSPS )
Sludge incinerators will be subject t o BAAQMD NSPS regulations.
These limits are 1.30 pound per ton ( 0.65-kg /t ) of dry solids ,
with gas discharge of not more than 20 p e r c e n t opacity.
Limitation o n Pollutant Concentrations
The BAAQMD requires, as do many other jurisdictions , that the
concentration of major pollutants in the gas stream ( NO x' S x ,
HC , T S P , a n d C O ) b e l i m i t e d t o s o m e m a x i m u m v a l u e. T h e °
limits established for the San Francisco Bay Area are shown in
Table 11 - 26. If supplemental fuel is used in an incinerator, a
correction is required t o remove the product of combustion of the
fuel from the calculation . Note that the concentrations shown in
Table 11- 26 are based upon concentrations per standard dry cubic
foot ( m d r y ) c o r r e c t e d t o a s t a n d a r d o f six p e r c e n t o x y g e n.
^
This correction is applied in the design portion of this example,
11.8.6 . 3. Regulatory agencies v a r y in their treatment of these
corrections , but generally , all require the gas volumes to be
c o r r e c t e d t o some standard concentration of C O 2 ( u s u a l l y
12 percent ) or 02 ( usually six or nine percent ). Some require a
supplemental fuel correction, which can have a significant effect
on the allowable emissions.
11.8 . 8.2 Establish Air Pollution Abatement Procedures

Requirements
T h e d e s i g n e r of a n incineration f a c i l i t y m u s t d e v e l o p t h e
following information about the flue g a s characteristics before
control devices can be designed : total flue gas flow rate , flue
g a s temperature , particle size distribution , chemical composition
of emissions , corrosiveness of g a s over the operating r a n g e, and
moisture content.
1 1 -123
TABLE 11- 26
SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA - MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE

POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS ( 155 )
C o n c e n t r a t i o nb
3
Component
Particulates 0 . 0 5c
sox 300
d, e
NOx 175
HCf 2 5d
3
B A A Q M D R e g u l a t i o n 2.
Âf lo lo t c co on rc re en ct tr ea dt i ot no s 6 p pe er r dc er ny t s Ot a n d a r d cubic
2.
CGrains/s d c f ( 2 . 3 s t d g/m 3 ).
d
p p m.
eFuel oil fired - there is no BAAQMD
s t a n d a r d f o r s o l i d f u e l.
^ N o n m e t h a n e h y d r o c a r b o n s.
Until recently , municipal sewage sludge furnaces have been

subject only to particulate emission controls, T h e r e f o r e,
limited basic d a t a a r e available o n emission r a t e s o f SOv and
N x f r o m s e w a g e s l u d g e f u r n a c e s. T a b l e 1 1 - 2 7 p r e s e n t s t h e
°
a v a i l a b l e d a t a o n u n c o n t r o l l e d e m i s s i o n s f r o m m u l t i p l e- h e a r t h
furnaces .
The following calculations and discussions are based on
A l t e r n a t i v e I I I A ( 5 0 - M G D [ 2.2- m 3 /s ] p l a n t f l o w w i t h a
s l u d g e s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 2 0 p e r c e n t ), a s d e v e l o p e d i n
S e c t i o n 1 1 . 2.4 ( T a b l e 1 1 - 9 ). T h e i n c i n e r a t o r c o n s i d e r e d i s
t h e m u l t i p l e-hearth f u r n a c e ( MHF ) o p e r a t e d in the i n c i n e r a t i o n
m o d e. A u x i l i a r y f u e l i s a s s u m e d t o b e n a t u r a l g a s. Where
local regulations apply , the BAAQMD rules are used ( s e e
Section 1 1 . 8.8 . 1 a n d T a b l e 1 1- 2 6 and F i g u r e 1 1- 4 5 ). F i g u r e 1 1- 4 5
is e x c e r p t e d f r o m t h e B A A Q M D r u l e s. Installations u n d e r o t h e r
j u r i s d i c t i o n s will p r e s u m a b l y have d i f f e r e n t r e g u l a t i o n s:
Step 1 - Calculate Uncontrolled Emissions of

Criteria P o l l u t a n t s
a . Q u a n t i t y o f d r y s l u d g e s o l i d s = 5 1 . 5 t o n/d a y ( 4 6 . 7 t /d ).
1 1 -1 2 4
b. From Table 11 - 27, daily emissions are:
dry solids
Particulates: 51.5 tons x ton 33
pound
day dry solids
= 1 , 700 pound /day ( 771.8 kg /d )

S02: 51.5 tons dry solids x 1 pound
day ton dry solids
= 51.5 pound /day ( 23.4 kg /d )

51.5 tons dry solids x 5 pound
NOx: day ton dry solids
= 257.5 pound /day ( 116.9 kg /d )

51.5 tons dry solids 1 pound
HC:
day x ton dry solids
= 51.5 pound/day ( 23.4 kg /d )
TABLE 11- 27
UNCONTROLLED EMISSION RATES FROM MULTIPLE-

HEARTH FURNACES ( 157 )
Emission factor ,
lb/ton dry sludge
Pollutant solids
Particulates 33.0
sox 1.0
NOx 5.0
Hydrocarbons 1.0
CO 0.0
1 lb/ton = 0.50 kg/tonne
Step 2
n n
- -
Calculate Degree of Control Required to Meet NSPS
a " '
—
at asamamstaam3mnm»mmm m. « * » o.* ~~r ' ~
NSPS deals only with particulate emissions ( other pollutants are

covered by NSR ).
a. NSPS = 1.3 lb particulates/ton ( 0.65 kg /t )
1.3 pound 51.5 ton solids
b. Allowable particulates: ton day
67 pound /day ( 30.4 kg /d )
11-125
c. Required particulate removal efficiency:
1 67 pound day
1 ,700 pound day x 100 percent 96.1 percent
DIVISION 8 — CALCULA1ION METHODS AND GENERAL

SAMPLING PROCEDURES
cubic fec « of methane. CH , - .«
(c ) Ifiim tin figure » 2 l:i ( average altnospheric oxygen foment) mb-
frac tiun til oxygen a obtained in iiep (b) .
trart the ilei final
(a) Stoichiometric Combustion of Auxiliary Fuel *
CHAPTER I — CALCULATIONS 6 ,000 12,000 6.000 12,000
(d) Divide the result «1 step (t ) by 0.14
'K. ( This is n.2095 - 0.06.)
|8100 Calculation of cmiaaiona ol air contaminants shall be accom CH, + ,
20. , +
CO ,
2H 0
(e) Multiply the dry volume obtained in step ( a) by the quotient ob
plished by the calculation methods prescribed in this Chapter I, or by 12.000 standard cubic (act tW oxygen required. tained in step < d) to give the corrected dry volume on a 67, oxygen basis.
methods which yield equivalent results. All calculation methods not jpe
ofically prescribed in this regulation shall coofoim to accepted engineer - lb) 18.000 stand ard cubic fret of combust ion produc t . ( f) Divide the weight of air contaminant , in grains, by the corrected vol-
ing practice . ,
6,000 standard subir fret CO . 12 000 standard cubic feat H 0 , ume obtained in stop fe) to give the lorrerced concentration .
|8110 Correction lor the use ol auxiliary fuel shall be as specified in Example :
(c ) -100,000 + 12,000 = 412,000
f Bill, and correction to a basis of 6% oxygen by dry volume shall be u Assume an emitted gas c omposition as follows:
specified in g 8112. For ihc purposes of gg 8111 and 8112 the term " meas-
ured volume " shall mean the emitted or metered volume to be corrected, (d) 412,000 - 18.000 = 394.000 standard cubic f«t Component ( Vol.. wet ) % tVol drs) SC F
expressed in standard cubic feet . TABULATION OF VOLUME CHANGE (SCF)
CO , .
B 64 9 53 34,000
CO 2.03 2.24 8 ,000
|81ll AUXILIARY FUEL CORRECTION This calculation is in - O, 8.53 9.42 33, 600
tended to correct the measured volume to the volume which would have
Com poneHI Corircnon Finil N, 71 36 78.81 281,200
existed if the auxiliary fuel had not been introduced, and results obtained CO, 40, 000 6.000 34.000 HtO 944 0.00 37,200
CO 8,000 8.000
by this procedure shall be deemed to represent such correction. The O , 21 ,600 + 12,000 33.600 Total 100 00 100 00 394.000
method consists of four steps: N , 281, 200 281.200
,
H0 49 ,200 - 12,000 37,200 _
Also assume the weight of air contaminant is 7.9 pounds.
(a) Calculate the amount of oxygen required (or stoichiometric exsa ua
taotsof the auxiliary fuel, at the rate of coenbuehoa occurring during the
^ - ( a) 394.000 37 , 200 = 356,800 SCF dry volume .
Total 400.000 6,000 394,000
.
period of test
{ 8 ) 12 OXYCEN CORRE.CTlON This calculation is intended to cor -
( b) 33.600
l5b,So<l = ^.0942 . volume fraction of oxygen
(b) Calculate the composition and quantity of the products of such stoi- rect the measured concentration of an air contaminant to that which
chiometric combuation in oxygen would exist if the same quantity of air contaminant were contained in a
(c) 0 2095 - 0.0942 = 0 1153
dry volume corrected to an oxygen content of 6 5 . and results obtained by (d) 0 1153
(c) Add . to the measured volume, the amount of oxygen calculated in ^
this procedure shall be deemed to represent such correct uni Where correc 0 1495 = 0.782
step (a) non for the use of auxiliary fuel is applicable, the volume and cont|>osition
(e) (0 782) (.156.1100 ) = 275.800 SDCF, at fi'4 oxygen, the corrected
resulting from the correction procedore of g 8111 shall be taken as the
(d) Subtract, from the result of step (c ) , the volume of combiuboa volume.
measured volume for purposes of this section 8112. The method consists
products calculated in step ( b ) ; the result is the measured volume cor -
reeled (or auxiliary fuel use
of six steps : ( f) ( 7 9 lb) ( 7(>00 gr / lb) .
= 0 20 gr / SIXiF the corrected concentration.
275.8(H) SDCF
-
(a ) Sohtract JIIV water vajmr ctinu nt of the measured volume , to give a
EXAMPLE; Assume that the gases emitted from an operation using xu
* - dry volume. Where a concentration subject to thss correction is based on a measured
iluLry fuel total 400.000 standard cubic feet during a test period, and have volume, the correction shall consist of multiplying ihe concentration by
a composition as shown in the ' measured ' ’ column of the tabulae below . (b) Cal< ufaie the oxygen tonteni of the measured volume as a decimal the ratio of the measured volume to the corrected volume obtained in step
Assume further that auxiliary fuel usage during the test is 6.000 standard . -
fraction ol the ills tolume ohl iiitt d in step ( a ) . (e) above
FICURE 11- 45
SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT DISTRICT:

AUXILIARY FUEL AND OXYCEN CORRECTION ( 155 )
Step 3 - Select The Control Device for Satisfying NSPS
The actual selection of an emission control device is beyond the

scope of this manual. Equipment selection can be quite involved
and complex. Several excellent publications are listed in the
references to provide a detailed understanding of emission
control equipment ( 158 161 ). A number of publications are
available in the literature for further detail on theory ,
-
specific furnaces , and combustion (1 ,4,8 ,9 ,11 ,12,14 ,17 ,23 ,38 ,46 ,
58 ,61 ,74,98 ,105 ,141 ,158 181 ). Additional sources for detailed -
information include furnace manufacturers , emission control
device manufacturers , operating installations , and air quality
control consultants.
In this design example , a venturi followed by a tray - type

wet scrubber is selected . BAAQMD considers t h i s equipment
BACT.
11 126 -
Step 4 - C h e c k C o n f o r m a n c e with t h e N e w S o u r c e Review
Rule ( N S R )
a. The BAAQMD requires that all pollutants be below
1 5 0 p o u n d p e r d a y ( 6 8 . 1 k g / d ), e x c e p t C O w h i c h i s
1 , 5 0 0 p o u n d p e r d a y ( 6 8 1 k g /d ) ( u n l e s s B A C T i s a p p l i e d ).
A s p e r S t e p 1 , so 2 , H C, a n d C O m e e t this r e q u i r e m e n t,
e v e n a s u n c o n t r o l l e d emissions a n d n e e d n o t be considered
f u r t h e r under N S R.
Particulates and NOx r e q u i r e B A C T. Since t h e venturi a n d

w e t s c r u b b e r combination i s considered B A C T f o r p a r t i c-
u l a t e s, t h e p a r t i c u l a t e s criterion i s satisfied .
T h e venturi - s c r u b b e r combination will a l s o r e d u c e NOx t o
a certain e x t e n t. T h e N0-N02 distribution in flue g a s
f o r s e w a g e s l u d g e incinerators i s n o t well k n o w n , For
g e n e r a l c o m b u s t i o n , N 02 c o n t e n t r e p r e s e n t s 1 0 t o
2 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e NOx a n d c a n b e e f f e c t i v e l y r e m o v e d
b y the w e t s c r u b b e r , A s s u m i n g t h a t a t e n p e r c e n t N 02
c o m p o n e n t o f NOx i s r e m o v e d b y s c r u b b i n g , t h e NOx
emission rate d r o p s t o 2 3 2 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 1 0 5 k g /d ).
At present, very few control processes are effective
in r e d u c i n g NOx e m i s s i o n s. H o w e v e r, m a j o r r e s e a r c h
e f f o r t s a r e b e i n g m a d e t o s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m. T h e p r o c e s s
with t h e best p o t e n t i a l h a s been d e v e l o p e d and t e s t e d in
J a p a n o n l y. I t is a p a t e n t e d c a t a l y t i c ammonia i n j e c t i o n
p r o c e s s w h i c h r e d u c e s NOx b y 9 0 p e r c e n t . Current
r e s e a r c h in t h e United S t a t e s h a s b e e n c o n d u c t e d o n l y o n
a s m a l l s c a l e. T h e r e f o r e, in e f f e c t , t h e r e a r e n o f u l l y
d e v e l o p e d , available NOx c o n t r o l devices. Until f u l l -
s c a l e s y s t e m s f o r NOx control a r e tested a n e x e m p t i o n
,
o r variance will p r o b a b l y b e g r a n t e d.
Another p o t e n t i a l w a y t o r e d u c e NOx is v i a combustion-
controlled p r o c e s s e s s u c h as S A C , reduction o f excess
a i r, a n d s t a g e d combustion. F i r m d a t a a r e n o t available
with s e w a g e s l u d g e f e e d. P r e s e n t l y it is not k n o w n if
t h e 1 5 0 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 6 8 . 1 kg /d a y ) criterion f o r NOx can
b e m e t b y combustion c o n t r o l.
b. C h e c k t o s e e if emissions exceed t h e 2 5 0 p o u n d s p e r d a y
( 1 1 4 k g /d ) l e v e l a t w h i c h o f f s e t s m u s t b e obtained , I n
this e x a m p l e , t h e l e v e l s a r e below 2 5 0 p o u n d s p e r d a y
( 1 1 4 k g /d ); t h u s offsets a r e not r e q u i r e d .
Step 5 - C h e c k t h a t Concentrations o f Criteria P o l l u t a n t s

D o N o t Exceed R e g u l a t o r y Standards
T h e o b j e c t i v e is t o c a l c u l a t e p o l l u t a n t concentrations a t s o m e
s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n, s o t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n c a n b e
compared with emissions from other sources on an equivalent
basis. T h i s correction is m a d e b y first c a l c u l a t i n g p o l l u t a n t
1 1-1 2 7
gas flow ( under standard conditions ), then calculating total
standard exhaust gas flow and correcting the latter for auxiliary-
fuel. Finally , the pollutant concentrations are calculated
to a six percent oxygen basis , A detailed calculation for
hydrocarbons ( HC ) is presented below , It is assumed that HC
are not removed in the wet scrubbing system.
a. Calculate the volumetric HC flow at standard temperature
and pressure ( STP ). The volumetric flow rate of HC is
calculated as:
51.5 pound HC mole HC
day x pound
28 pound HC
cu ft
x pound359mole day
at STP x 1440 min.
= 0.46 standard cfm ( 2.17 x 10 4 std m /s )

“
-^
It is assumed HC are ethylene with a molecular weight
of 28.
b. Calculate exhaust gas flow at STP. The data in

-
Table 11 28 are available. Off gas temperature
and pressure are 800 °F ( 4 2 7 ° C ) and one atmosphere
respectively . The pollutant ( NOx , S 02 , HC , CO ,
particulate ) masses are small compared to the masses of
-
the constituents in Table 11 28 and thus were ignored in
calculating exhaust gas volume.
Total volumetric flow rate of the exhaust stream , wet
basis ; reduced to standard conditions:
60°F + 460°F
44 ,403 scfm x 800
°F + 460°F
= 18,325 scfm ( 8.65 std m /s) ^
Note: standard conditions are taken to be 60°F ( 16°C ) and
one atmosphere.
c. Correct for auxiliary fuel ( See Figure 11 - 45 and
Table 11 - 29 ). The intent of this calculation is to
correct the measured exhaust gas volume to the volume
that would have existed had auxiliary fuel not been
introduced . Assume here that 100 scfm ( 4.72 x 10 2 std
“
m /s ) of natural gas was used . The combustion of

^
100 scfm ( 4.72 x 10 2 std “
mVs
) of natural gas is
depicted by the following equation:
CH 4 + 202 > C02 + 2H 20

100 scfm 200 scfm 100 scfm 200 scfm
-
11 128
T h e a u x i l i a r y fuel correction p r o c e d u r e is:
1. C a l c u l a t e t h e a m o u n t o f o x y g e n , 2 0 0 s c f m ( 0 . 0 9 std
^ .
m /s ) f o r s t o i c h i o m e t r i c c o m b u s t i o n o f a u x i l i a r y
f uel
2. Calculate the quantity of combustion products

3 0 0 s c f m ( 0 . 1 4 s t d m 3 /s ).
3. Add t h e o x y g e n calculated , 2 0 0 s c f m ( 0 . 0 9 s t d m s )
to the measured gas volume 18, 325 scfm ( 8.65 std ^
m ’/ s ) , t h e n s u b t r a c t t h e v o l u m e o f c o m b u s t i o n
p r o d u c t s c a l c u l a t e d in S t e p 5 c 2, 3 0 0 s c f m ( 0 . 1 4 std
m 3 / s ). T h e s u m , 1 8 , 2 2 5 s c f m ( 8 . 6 0 s t d m 3 /s ) , i s
gas volume corrected for auxiliary fuel ( see
T a b l e 1 1- 2 9 ).
d. C o r r e c t f o r o x y g e n ( see F i g u r e 1 1- 4 5 ). T h e intent o f
t h i s calculation i s t o c o r r e c t t h e m e a s u r e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f contaminant t o t h a t which w o u l d exist w e r e t h e same
q u a n t i t y o f c o n t a m i n a n t c o n t a i n e d in a d r y v o l u m e ,
corrected t o six p e r c e n t o x y g e n. All calculations are
based o n t h e final flow r a t e a t S T P p e r T a b l e 1 1- 2 8 The.
p r o c e d u r e is a s f o l l o w s:
1. S u b t r a c t t h e v o l u m e o f w a t e r v a p o r , 7, 0 5 6 s c f m
^
( 3 . 3 3 s t d m /s ) f r o m t h e final v o l u m e , 1 8 , 2 2 5 s c f m
( 8 . 6 0 std m 3/s ), t o g i v e t h e d r y volume , 1 1 , 169 scfm
( 5 . 2 7 s t d m /s ).
^
2. C a l c u l a t e t h e o x y g e n c o n t e n t a s a decimal fraction o f
t h e d r y v o l u m e:
1 ,1 5 6 scfm =
0.1035 02
1 1,1 6 9 s c f m
3. S u b t r a c t t h e decimal fraction calculated in S t e p 5 d 2

f r o m t h e 0 . 2 0 9 5 ( a v e r a g e a t m o s p h e r i c o x y g e n c o n t e n t ):
0.2095 0.1035 0 . 1 0 6 0.
4. Divide the result of Step 5d 3 by 0.1495 ( this is

0.2095 0 . 0 6 ):
0.1060 0.709
0.1495
5. M u l t i p l y t h e d r y v o l u m e obtained in 5 d l , 1 1 , 1 6 9 s c f m
( 5 . 2 7 s t d m 3 /s ), b y t h e q u o t i e n t o b t a i n e d i n S t e p
.
5d 4, 0.709 0, to get the corrected dry volume on

a s i x p e r c e n t o x y g e n basis:
0 . 7 0 9 0 x 1 1 , 1 6 9 s c f m = 7 , 9 1 9 s c f m ( 3 . 7 4 s t d m /s ) ^
1 1- 1 2 9
-
’WKA MtAi
6 . Divide the volumetric HC flow of Step 5a , 0.46 scfm

( 2.17 x 10~4 std nd/s ) by the corrected dry volume
on a six percent basis to obtain concentration on a
six percent basis:
0.46 scfm x 106 = 58 ppm
7,919 scfm
TABLE 11- 28
DESIGN EXAMPLE: EXHAUST GAS DATA FROM A

Percent of
total gas Actual
Constituent lb/hr volume CFM
CO 2 7 ,749 6.1 2 , 712

N2 39 ,623 49.1 21, 793
02 4 ,813 5.2 2 , 315
Water vapor 20 ,551 39.6 17 , 583
Total 72 ,736 100.0 44 ,403

1 cfm = 0.028 m /min
^
TABLE 11- 29
DESIGN EXAMPLE: AUXILIARY FUEL CORRECTION FOR A

MULTIPLE- HEARTH FURNACE3
Percent of total CFM at Final CFM at

Component gas volume STP Correction STPb
C 2 6.1 1 , 119 -100 1,019
°
N2 49.1 8 ,994 8 ,994
02 5. 2 956 +200 1 , 156

Water vapor 39.6 7 ,256 -200. 7 ,056
Total 100.0 18 ,325 -100 . 18, 225
aSee Step 5(c ).

bSTP = Standard temperature and pressure = 60 F (15.6 C) at one atmosphere.
° °
3
1 cfm - 0.028 m /min
11-130
Step 6 - Compare Calculated Pollutant Concentrations
Against Emission Standards ( Table 11- 30 )
The emissions standard is 25 ppm. The HC limit is exceeded and
afterburning will be required.
From similar calculations , the concentrations in Table 11- 30 are
obtained ( corrected to six percent oxygen and auxiliary fuel,
prior to afterburning ).
None of the other pollutants ( particulates , NO x S0 X ) are in
violation of concentration standards. ’
TABLE 11- 30
DESIGN EXAMPLE: MULTIPLE- HEARTH FURNACE POLLUTANT

CONCENTRATIONS AFTER SCRUBBING3
Pollutant Concentration Standard
Particulates,
grains/sdcf 0.04 0.05
HCb, ppm 58 c 25
NOxd, ppm 147 175
SOxe, ppm 17 300
aCorrected for auxiliary fuel and to 6

percent oxygen.
uAs ethylene.
CDoes not include afterburning.
As N02 -
eAs S02 -
1 grain/sdcf = 2.3 std g/m ^
Step 7 - Summary
A venturi , wet tray-type scrubber and afterburning will satisfy
all emission requirements except NSR requirements for NOx. An
exemption is expected for NO X' since technology for NOx removal
is not sufficiently developed for field applications , Note that
not all jurisdictions require auxiliary fuel and oxygen correc-
.
tions As shown , the corrections can have profound impacts. T h e
type of control scheme required may hinge upon the regulatory
agency's decision as to whether such corrections are necessary.
The procedures used in Step 5 were taken directly from Regulation
2 of the BAAQMD Regulations ( 155 ).
11-131
11.9 Residue Disposal
The residues remaining after sludge combustion ( ash, particulates
from dry scrubbing , etc. ) must be disposed of. Due to the drain
of natural resources, the constructive utilization of residues,
particularly ash , is undergoing considerable research. Because
the ash concentrates the setteable material in wastewater, there
is an interest in recovering valuable scarce metals such as gold .
In Palo Alto, California, a firm is working o n methods to recover
such metals from the ash ( 182 ) .
In this case , recovery may be
cost -effective, since the treatment plant receives the wastewater
from many electronics firms and the scarce metal content is high.
In general , however, there is no economical process to use ash ;
consequently , it is typically disposed o f t o a landfill.
Residues ( ash ) from the combustion of municipal wastewater solids

generally contain high concentrations of trace metals. Leachate
from sites where incinerator ash is landfilled must be controlled
t o p r e v e n t metal contamination o f g r o u n d w a t e r. Many states
are b e g i n n i n g t o c l a s s i f y d i s p o s a l s i t e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o n e a r b y g r o u n d w a t e r and the material t o be
landfilled . Tables 11- 31 and 11- 32 describe methods used by the
State of California for classifying waste materials and disposal
sites. T y p i c a l l y , w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e furnace ash r e q u i r e s a
" p r o t e c t e d " C l a s s II - l site and municipal refuse incinerator
ash r e q u i r e s a h a z a r d o u s fill site . T h e s e are described o n
T a b l e 1 1 - 3 2. Outside t h e s e broad classifications , t h e ash
will require sampling and analysis, including detailed review by
state and local health agencies. A serious problem , however, is
that no standard analyses or procedures are presently available
that allow a particular ash to be classified ( leachability of
certain contaminants at various pH ' s and over different times ).
This type of analysis is expensive, and the results are difficult
to interpret. No data base is available to compare the labora-
tory results with actual field conditions. Work is being done in
this area and hopefully proper procedures and guidelines will be
developed.
Detailed design and operating data are beyond the scope of this
manual . M o r e detailed discussions o n landfilling ash and
s l u d g e l a n d f i l l i n g p r o c e d u r e s can be found in the literature
( 184, 185, 186 ).
11-1 3 2
TABLE 11- 31
DESCRIPTION OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE CLASSIFICATIONS ( 183 )
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
Consist of or contain toxic Consist of or contain Consist entirely of nonwater

substances and substances chemically or biologically soluble , nondecomposable
which could significantly decomposable material which inert solids.
impair the quality of usable
waters.
does not include toxic sub
stances nor those capable of
- Examples include:
significantly impairing the
Examples include: quality of usable waters. • Construction and
demolition debris ,
Saline fluids from water
• or Examples include: asphalt paving , inert
waste treatment pro - plastics , etc.
cesses • Garbage
• Vehicle tires
• Community incinerator
ashes
• Rubbish • Industrial wastes such
• Construction debris as clay products , glass ,
• Toxic chemical toilet such as paper , card - slags , tailings, etc
waste board , rubber , etc.
• Industrial brines • Refuse such as yard
clippings , litter ,
• Toxic and hazardous glass , etc.
fluids
• Pesticides or chemical • Dead animals
fertilizers or their
discarded containers
• Abandoned vehicles
• Sewage treatment resi -
• Other toxic wastes due such as solids from
screenings and grit
chambers , dewatered
sludge , and septic tank
pumpings
• Infectious materials
from hospitals or
laboratories
11-133
TABLE 11- 32
CLASSIFICATION OF WASTE DISPOSAL SITES ( 183)
Class I Class II Class III
Class I disposal sites are those at which Class II disposal sites are those at which Class III disposal sites are those at which
complete protection is provided for all protection is provided to water quality from protection is provided to water quality from
time for the quality of ground and surface Group 2 and Group 3 wastes. The types of Group 3 wastes by location , construction, and
waters from all wastes deposited therein and
against hazard to public health and wildlife
physical features and the extent of pro
tection of groundwater quality divides
- operation which prevent erosion of deposited
material.
resources. The following criteria must be Class II sites into the two following
met to qualify a site as Class I ; categories:
(a) Geological conditions are naturally Class II-l sites are those overlying usable
capable of preventing vertical groundwater and geologic conditions are
hydraulic continuity between liquids either naturally capable of preventing
and gases emanating from the waste in lateral and vertical hydraulic continuity
the site and usable surface or ground
waters.
- between liquids and gases emanating from the
waste in the site and usable surface or
groundwaters, or the disposal area has been
< b) Geological conditions are naturally
modified to achieve such capability.
capable of preventing lateral hydraulic
continuity between liquids and gases Class II-2 sites are those having vertical
emanating from wastes in the site and and lateral hydraulic continuity with usable
usable surface or groundwaters , or the groundwater but for which geological and
disposal area has been modified to
achieve such capability.
hydraulic features such as soil type , arti
ficial barriers, depth to groundwater , and
-
other factors will assure protection of the
(c) Underlying geological formations which
quality of usable groundwater underneath or
contain rock fractures or fissures of
questionable permeability must be adjacent to the site.
permanently sealed to provide a com
petent barrier to the movement of
- The following criteria must be met to qualify
a site as Class II:
liquids or gases from the disposal site
(a) Disposal areas shall be protected by
to usable waters.
natural or artificial features so as
(d) Inundation of disposal areas shall not to assure protection from any washout
occur until the site is closed in and from inundation which could occur
accordance with requirements of the as a result of tides or floods having
regional board. a predicted frequency of once in 100
(e ) Disposal areas shall not be subject to years.
washout. (b) Surface drainage from tributary areas
shall not contact Group 2 waters in the
(f) Leachate and subsurface flow into the
site during disposal operations and for
disposal area shall be contained within
the active life of the site.
the site unless other disposition is
made in accordance with requirements of (c ) Gases and leachate emanating from waste
the regional board. in the site shall not unreasonably
(g) affect groundwater during the active
Sites shall not be located over zones
life of the site.
of active faulting or where other
forms of geological change would impair (d) Subsurface flow into the site and the
the competence of natural features or depth at which water soluble materials
artifical barriers which prevent con
tinuity with usable waters.
- are placed shall be controlled during
construction and operation of the site
to minimize leachate production and
-
(h) Sites made suitable for use by man made
physical barriers shall not be located
assure that the Group 2 waste material
will be above the highest anticipated
where improper operation or maintenance elevation of the capillary fringe of
of such structures could permit the the groundwater. Discharge from the
waste , leachate , or gases to contact
usable ground or surface water.
-
site shall be subject to waste dis
charge requirements.
(i) Sites which comply with a, b, c , e, f,
g, and h, but would be subject to
inundation by a tide or a flood of
-
greater than 100 year frequency may be
considered by the regional board as a
limited Class I disposal site.
11-134
-
CerwfRjoili Aia n i or Observed
*
Comfeuftlon Calculittont— MoM B sl«
* Omit
*
and MrtceflftiOQu
*
Fuel L
Flue Da CF. Cwnjxisitifir'i
Fuel, Oj, and Air pev Draft of Fuel ^
Moles*per Fuel Unit (AF) Source I
Matas Fuel Ufwt / 100 3b. idiid QT liquid fuels N
l Per Mol. Fuel 0 0» , 1.100 moles, gaseous fuels £
I
N
Fuel
Ccpjstituerrt
Fuel W1 Con Mul» Mole?
Unit, Drvi - stit- ti- Theo
- COt
+ P= Ns MiO CD
Fuel Anal. a Fired (AF), % by wt or Vpt
*
E lb sor U nt plier Fteqd SGj c
* HB
\ C to CO? 12 1 5
2 C to CO 12 b
imp m
.5 0
3
*
CD to CO; 28 -5 tt
4 C ynfc rned ,
^
iine K 12 %.Slp« •
•-
.
ttfl
% jh
f
\ rjil
*J
5 HE 2 .5
£3 3- * co,
J0O.U
£ 5
0-2 (deduct}
32 1 ^^ iV
*v
, ,
Oi
.
Total aw (TA ) assigned Of by ORSAT
Co Ni
% d
c
7 32 1
1' * v-
‘
*> Lifin: f, g, h For Gaseous- Fuels t
<
N? 28 0
r
•V *
-
Wt fuel uftit a (moles each x md , wt) lb f
9
10
CO s 44 o . 1
>
: • Mol, w4 of fuel llrae f ; 103 - E
u
HrQ
Ash
IB Q
a
Density uf fuel # EG F 4c 30 in, -» line E Hb
4 curt
h
Fuel heat value, 8tu/lb tt

SOO.Q
t
12 Sum
Combustible to refuse, % “C" f
0? and Air , Males for Total Air
( see line >J at right )
- % Cflfbc/i unhurried „ Ib/ iQQ lb fuel
% "C"
13 -
z (tfieo) reqd « 0?, line 12
-
% ash in fuet 'x " 100 - % C - ' :
it
T.A . - 100 Exit temp of Rue ga , f ? F I

14 0? (excess) 100 x 0:?, line 12
Dry-bulk ( ambient ) temp, ft
* F m
15 Oi (total) supplied lines 13 \• 14- Wet -lwlb temp F n
16 NE ftuppfted - 3.76 x, Oa , 6nc 15 Rei humid (psychromeiric Chart) ! % a
17 A? r (cry) supplied
- 0? + Hi .
0* barametrir. pressure, in Hg
Set. press. HjQ Si amp temp, in. HE
P
q
18 H20 in air : males dry air x * .
19 Air ( wet) supplied - lines 1? 1 IB

A , press. HaO In
Total 1
Wet Flue Gas
air , lines vo x q), In. Kg
Dry Flue Gas
r
20 Flue E«5 constituents - lines 1 tc 30, total >

Moles j[ 5
21 Nate far — fL
ajr at SO F anri100% relative hwmrdi'ty ~ ,
g j * &037 is often used as standard.
•
Debsnnination of Fliw 6» mnd Combwiisbta itl 9Vu per Fuel Unil ( AF)
22 Rue gas constituents
^ COJ + SOJ 0? Mi HzO CO I Total
23 Mc>, mean, h to f
* ( fpr ( ' i
- w - te - 3
24
25
III dry flue gas » males each, line 20 .x Mcp X ( fz
In HjO in air - moles HjO, line 10 x Wc ?- x ( fa t'l) —
— Fj) cm
.
:
26 -
In sensheai HSjQinfuee mctJes, lines (5 + 10) v, Afe ? x (0 - Ti)
-
’
f
l
27 in. latent heat, M?Q in fuel mpfies, lines ( 5 + 10) x. 1040 x 18
28 Tefal in wet flue gas
29 Due to carbon in refuse
- line it x 14,100
30 Oue to wnbumed CO in flue gas
- moles C ta CO x 12 x 9.75 S
31
_
Total flue gas losses i unhurned cpmPuaSJble
100 x line ! for solid and liquid fuels
- lines 2B + 29 t 301 radiation ttt Total
32 Heat value pf fuel unit "
3 *t x line •» x 100. for gaseoys fuels
33 Teut exe ais tresi per fuel unit » Ita# 32 — Itaa 51
^ -
*
t Fti4« ga * analyxix by ORSAT. If CO i9 praifflll tin flue a darbon GENERAL NOTES:
balance ix uSexJ to determine distribution of C „ thus:
AIK C in fuel “ C In flu gaa eomtltuenla + C hn rafusa Mol C In
fu«l = 4 C by analy I* + 12 , * . ** «*
See text Tor uxe of table .
lUfusa , a uied in thU
Wolci c in refuse *line k -f-12. Moles C In COj * ratfcdu (aah)
in refuse] x|COj by ORSAT % ( C02 CO) by ORSAT,
* (modn C In fu«l - mol ** C table, I th
* r *
Inara the* procw
Mole In C In CO = nwl« C In fu l - mala C In refuie - mole C In
* * * *
tt By Dubng Formula ( 11- tJ or by calorimetry -
ttt Radiation aavumad to be a fixed percent of line 11, normally 2 to 5 percent .
-' -
I lb = 0 , 45 kg
1 In. J.W c a i
1 Btuv ib 2,31 J / ta
1 lb / cu ft = f
«
« Iv/oT
Copyright 1975 by the Babcock and Wilcox Company . Minor changes have been
made to this table to allow for ease of use with sewage sludge . Table may be
used without permission . However , credit to Babcock and Wilcox Company
should be given .
11-135
11.10 References
1 . Niessen , W R . .
Combustion and Incineration Processes .
Marcel Dekker , Inc 1978 . .
2. Shen, T T . . , M. Chen, and J Lauber. "Incineration of Toxic .
Chemical Wastes " . Pollution Engineering October 1978 . .
3 . Dunn, K S . .
"Incinerations Role in Ultimate Disposal of
Process Waste " .
Chemical Engineering 8 2:2 1 . . October 6,
1975 .
4 . Perry, R H , and C H. . Chilton . . . Chemical Engineers I
Handbook .
M c G r a w- H i l l I n c 5t h E d . . 1973 .
5 . Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater . American Public Health Association . 14t h Ed .
1976 .
6 . Owen , M B . .
"Sludge I n c i n e r a t i o n " Journal . Sanitary
Engineering D i v i s i o n - ASCE February 1957 . .
7 . Combustion Fundamentals for Waste Incineration . American
Society of Mechanical Engineers 1974 . , .
8. Howard , . .
F S , T D . .
Allen, and G F Kroneberger .
"Energy . .
P r o d u c t i o n t h r o u g h S l u d g e/R e f u s e P y r o l y s i s " J o u r n a l W a t e r .
Pollution Control Federation Vol 51 .
April 1979 . . .
9 . Babcock and Wilcox Steam, I t s . Generation and Use .
Babcock and Wilcox 38t h Ed 1975 . . .
10 . S m a i1, L L . . C a l c u l u s. A p p l e t o n- C e n t u r y -C r o f t s , Inc .
1949 .
11 . Baumeister , T , and L S Marks . . .
Standard Handbook for .
Mechanical Engineers McGraw H i l l I n c 1967 . - . .
12 . Corey , R C . .
Principles and Practices of Incineration .
Wiley Interscience 1969 . .
13 . Hicks, T G . .
Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations .
-
McGraw H i l l Inc 1972 . .
14 . North American Mfg Co . . Combustion Handbook . North
American Mfg Co 2n d Ed . . . 1978 .
15 . USEPA . Computer ized Desjign and Cost Estimation for
M u l t i p l e-H e a r t h S l u d g e I n c i n e r a t o r s , Office of Research
and Monitoring .
Cincinnati 45268 17070 EBP 1971 . . .
16 . Unterberg , W., G . R. Schneider , and R .J . Sherwood .
" C o m p u t e r i z e d P r e d e s i g n a n d C o s t i n g o f M u l t i p l e- H e a r t h
Furnace Sewage Sludge Incinerators. " A I Ch_E S y m p o s i u r n _
Series . 1972 .
11 136-
1 7. B r o w n a n d C a l d w e l l. Solid W a s t e R e s o u r c e R e c o v e r y F u l l
S c a l e T e s t R e p o r t. P r e p a r e d for t h e C e n t r a l C o n t r a C o s t a
S a n i t a r y District. March 1 9 7 7.
1 8. .
B r a c k e n , B .D • t R . B. S i e g e r , J R. C o e , a n d T.D . A l l e n.
" E n e r g y f r o m S o l i d W a s t e f o r W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t--A
Demonstration P r o j e c t ." Proceeds of the Annual Conference
o f t h e W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. 1 9 7 7.
1 9. Camp D r e s s e r M c K e e a n d A l e x a n d e r P o t t e r A s s o c i a t e s.
P h a s e 2 R e p o r t o f A l t e r n a t i v e s f o r N e w Y o r k- N e w J e r s e y
Metropolitan Area Sewage Sludge Disposal Management
P r o g r a m. P r e p a r e d f o r t h e I n t e r s t a t e S a n i t a t i o n
Commission -N e w Y o r k- N e w J e r s e y - C o n n e c t i c u t. J u n e 1 9 7 6.
2 0. G a l a n d a k , J • r a n d M. R a c s t a i n. " D e s i g n Considerations f o r
P y r o l y s i s o f M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e." J o u r n a l W a t e r Pollution
C o n t r o l Federation. V o l. 5 1. F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 9.
2 1. B a r r e t t , D. " P y r o l y s i s o f O r g a n i c W a s t e s." P r o c e e d i n g s o f
t h e Australian W a s t e M a n a g e m e n t C o n t r o l C o n f e r e n c e.
22 . K a s h i w a y a , M. " S t u d i e s o n S e w a g e S l u d g e P y r o l y s i s. "
P r o c e e d i n g s o n t h e Fifth U.S./J a p a n C o n f e r e n c e o n S e w a g e
T r e a t m e n t T e c h n o l o g y. 1 9 7 7.
2 3. L e w i s , F .M . " S l u d g e P y r o l y s i s f o r E n e r g y R e c o v e r y a n d
P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l ." Proceeds of the Second National
C o n f e r e n c e o n M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t and D i s p o s a l.
A u g u s t 1 9 7 5.
2 4. M a j i m a , T., T. K a s k a r a , M . N a r u s e , a n d M . H i r a o k a .
"Studies o n P y r o l y s i s P r o c e s s o f S e w a g e S l u d g e. "
P r o g r e s s i v e W a t e r T e c h n o l o g y. V o l. 9. 1 9 7 7.
2 5. O l e x s e y , R.A. " P y r o l y s i s o f S e w a g e S l u d g e." Proceedings

of the 1975 National Conference o n M u n i c i p al S l u d g e
M a n a g e m e n t a n d D i s p o s a l. 1 9 7 5.
2 6. S h e l t o n , R .D. " S t a g e W i s e G a s e f i c a t i o n in a M u l t i p l e
H e a r t h R e a c t o r." A C S S y m p o s i u m S e r i e s N o. 7 6 , Solid W a s t e
a n d Residues: Conversion b y A d v a n c e d T h e r m a l P r o c e s s e s.
American Chemical S o c i e t y. 1 9 7 8.
27. S i e g e r , R .B . " S l u d g e P y r o l y s i s: H o w Big a F u t u r e ? " Civil
E n g i n e e r i n g - A S C E. M a y 1 9 7 8.
28. S r i n i v a s a r a g h a v a n , R., T. E. W i l S Q n , a n d K . R . D e L i s l e.
" Evaluation o f P y r o l y s i s a s a W a s t e w a t e r S l u d g e D i s p o s a l
Alternative ." Proceeds of the Annual Conference of the
W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l Federation. 1 9 7 6.
29 . T a k e d a , N • t a n d M. Hiraoka. " Combined P r o c e s s o f P y r o l y s i s

a n d Combustion f o r S l u d g e D i s p o s a l." Environmental Science
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a t t h e K e n t u c k y C o a l C o n f e r e n c e. M a y 1 9 7 9.
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1 9 7 8.
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1 4 0. .
H a t h a w a y 9 S A. D e s i g n F e a t u r e s o f P a c k a g e I n c i n e r a t o r
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F.C.
"Air Pollution from Refuse - Sludge Coincineration in
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M a r c h 1 9 7 8.
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R e f u s e Collection a n d D i s p o s a l A s s o c i a t i o n M e e t i n g .
^
San
Leandro, California. M a r c h 1 9 7 8.
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1 4 7. Fluidized B e d Gasification P r o j e c t , D e p a r t m e n t o f Chemical
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Solid W a s t e a n d Residue: Conversion by A d v a n c e d T h e r m a l
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1 5 0. U S E P A. Feasibility S t u d y o f U s e o f M o l t e n S a l t T e c h n o l o g y
f o r P y r o l y s i s o f Solid W a s t e. O f f i c e o f a n d D e v e l o p m e n t.
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Association. V o l. 2 7. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 7.
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153 . U S E P A. Inspection Manual for Enforcement of NewSource

_ _ _
P e r f o r m a n c e S t a n d a r d s: S e w a g e Sludge Incinerators. O f f i c e
o f E n f o r c e m e n t. W a s h i n g t o n , D C 2 0 4 6 0. S t a t i o n a r y S o u r c e
E n f o r c e m e n t Series, E P A 3 4 0/1- 7 5-0 0 4. F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 5 .
1 5 4. S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a A i r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l D i s t r i c t.
N e w S o u r c e R e v i e w R u l e s. S e c t i o n s 1 3 0 4 t h r o u g h 1 3 1 1 . 2 .
D e c e m b e r 2 0 , 1 9 7 7.
155 . S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a A i r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l D i s t r i c t.
R e g u l a t i o n 2. A d o p t e d M a y 4, 1 9 6 0 , a n d a m e n d e d t h e r e a f t e r.
1 5 6. San Francisco Bay Area Air Pollution Control District.

R e g u l a t i o n 8. D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 6.
1 5 7. U S E P A. Supplement for Compilation of Air Pollutant

Emission F a c t o r s. R e s e a r c h T r i a n g l e P a r k , N o r t h Carolina
2 7 7 1 1. A P-4 2. 1 9 7 5.
1 5 8. B e t h e a , R.M . Air Pollution Control Technology; An

E n g i n e e r i n g A n a l y s i s P o i n t o f View . V a n N o s t r a n d - Reinhold
C o. 1 9 7 8.
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a n d W a t e r P r o g r a m s. R e s e a r c h T r i a n g l e P a r k , N o r t h Carolina
2 7 7 1 1. A P- 4 0. 2 n d E d . M a y 1 9 7 3.
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E n v i r o n m e n t a l R e s e a r c h I n f o r m a t i o n C e n t e r. C i n c i n n a t i
4 5 2 6 8. E P A-6 2 5/6-7 8-0 0 4. J u n e 1 9 7 8.
1 1-1 4 7
161. USEPA. Scrubber Handbook. Research Triangle Park , North
Carolina 27711. NTIS: PB 213 016. 1972. -
162. Calvert , S. " How to Choose a Particulate Scrubber."
Chemical Engineering . 84:18. August 29 , 1977.
163. Calvert , S. " Upgrading Existing Particulate Scrubbers."
Chemical Engineering . 84:23. October 24 , 1977.
164. Farrell , J . B . , H . O. Wall , and B. A . Kerdolff . " Air
Pollution from Sewage Sludge Incinerators : A Progress
Report . Presented at the U S ./Japan Conference ”
C i n c m n a t I. October 30, 1978. ^

165. Gilbert , W. "Troubleshooting Wet Scrubbers." Chemical
Engineering. 84:23. October 24 , 1977.
166. Glassman , I. Combustion. Academic Press. 1977.
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Incineration. " Presented at the Fifth Conference on
Acceptable Sludge Disposal~ Techniques. Orlando Florida.
January JI to February T , 1 978. Information Transfer ,
Inc., Rockville , Maryland 20852.
168. Jacknow , J. Environmental Impacts from Sludge
Incineration Present State of the Art.
- WWEMA Sludge
Furnace Technology Committee. 1976.
169. Kirchner , R.W. "Corrosion of Pollution Control Equipment."
Chemical Engineering Progress. 71:3. March 1975.
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Quality Control. Marcel Dekker , Inc. 1975. — , HIT'J 1 »VI
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McGraw Hill Inc. 1978.
172. Semrau , K.T. " Practical Process Design of Particulate
Scrubbers." Chemical Engineering. 84:20. September 26 ,
1977.
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Incineration." Journal of the Environmental Engineering
Division ASCE. 105:1. February 1979.
-
174. Stern , A . Air Pollution . Vol. I l l , 3 r d E d . Academic
Press. 1977.
175. Sugiki , A. "Survey of Economical and Technical Performance
for Emission Control Equipment Installed with Sludge
I n c i n e r a t o r s. " .
P r e s e n t e d a t t h e F i f t h U. S /J a p a n
Conference on Sewage Treatment Technology. 1977.
-
11 148
176 . W e i r, A • / D.G. Jones , L.P. P a p a y, S. Calvert , a n d S. Y u n g.
" F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g P l u m e O p a c i t y." Environmental Science
a n d T e c h n o l o g y. V o l. 1 0. 1 9 7 6.
1 7 7. U S E P A. Afterburner S y s t e m s S t u d y . Office o f Air P r o g r a m s.

R e s e a r c h T r i a n g l e P a r k , N o r t h C a r o l i n a 2 7 7 1 1. E P A - R 2-7 2-
0 6 2. 1 9 7 2.
1 7 8. U S E P A. A i r P o l l u t i o n A s p e c t s o f S l u d g e I n c i n e r a t i o n.
T e c h n o l o g y Transfer. Cincinnati , O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. EPA 6 2 5/
4- 7 5- 0 0 9. J u n e 1 9 7 5.
1 7 9. U S E P A. Air Pollution: C o n t r o l T e c h n i q u e s f o r H y d r o c a r b o n
and O r g a n i c S o l v e n t E m i s s i o n f r o m S t a t i o n a r y S o u r c ejs .
O f f i c e o f A i r a n d W a s t e M a n a g e m e n t. R e s e a r c h T r i a n g l e
P a r k, N o r t h Carolina 2 7 7 1 1. N T I S: P B- 2 4 0 5 7 7. O c t o b e r
1 9 7 3.
1 8 0. U S E P A. Air Pollution , C o n t r o l T e c h n i q u e s f o r Particulate

A i r P o l l u t a n t s. O f f i c e o f A i r a n d W a s t e M a n a g e m e n t .
R e s e a r c h T r i a n g l e P a r k , N o r t h C a r o l i n a 2 7 7 1 1. N T I S:
P B - 2 4 0- 5 7 3. 1 9 7 3.
1 8 1. U S E P A. Capital and Operating Costs of Selected Air

Pollution C o n t r o l S y s t e m s. O f f i c e o f A i r a n d W a s t e
Management and Office of Air Quality Planning and
S t a n d a r d s. R e s e a r c h T r i a n g l e P a r k , N o r t h Carolina 2 7 7 1 1.
E P A - 4 5 0/3- 7 6 - 0 1 4. 1 9 7 6.
1 8 2. G a b l e r , R.C • t a n d D.L. N e y l a n d . " Incinerated M u n i c i p a l
Sewage Sludge as a Secondary Source for Metals and
P h o s p h o r u s ." Proceedings of the National Conference on
S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t , D i s p o s a l a n d Utilization. Information
T r a n s f e r, I n c • t Rockville , M a r y l a n d 2 0 8 5 2. 1 9 7 7.
1 8 3. C a l i f o r n i a A d m i n i s t r a t i v e C o d e: Title 23 ; Chapter 3,
S t a t e W a t e r R e s o u r c e s C o n t r o l B o a r d : S u b c h a p t e r 1 5, W a s t e
D i s p o s a l t o Land .
1 8 4. U S E P A . T h e S a n i t a r y L a n d f i l l i n g o f S l u d g e a n d / o r A s h.
P r e s e n t e d a t t h e U S E P A T e c h n o l o g y Transfer S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t
a n d Disposal Seminar. B o s t o n , M a s s a c h u s e t t s. September
1 9 7 7.
1 8 5. U S E P A. P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l , M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e Landfills.
T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r. Cincinnati , O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. EPA - 6 2 5/1-
7 8- 0 1 0 , S W- 7 0 5. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
1 8 6. Reinhardt , J.J • t a n d D.F. K o l b e r g . P u l p a n d P a p e r Mill

S l u d g e D i s p o s a l Practices in Wisconsin.T A p r i l 5 , 1 9 7 8.
1 1 -1 4 9
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 12. Composting


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 12
COMPOSTING
12.1 Introduction
Although sludges have been composted as a minor constituent of
refuse in m a n y countries since the early 1900 s , only since the
early seventies has major attention been directed to composting
of municipal wastewater sludges in the United States.
A m a j o r s t u d y of the composting of w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s wa s
conducted at Salt Lake City from 1967 t o 1969 ( 1 ). This work
was followed in 1 9 7 2 by research at pilot - s c a l e wastewater
sludge composting facilities at the USDA Agricultural Research
Center at Beltsville , Maryland ( 2- 4 ) and full-scale operations at
C o u n t y Sanitation Districts of L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y p l a n t a t
C a r s o n , California . Based o n the operating e x p e r i e n c e s and
d e v e l o p m e n t s at these plants, new projects were undertaken at
B a n g o r , Maine ( 5 ) ; D u r h a m , N e w H a m p s h i r e ( 6 ) ; and Windsor ,
Ontario ( 7 ). A number of other plants are in various phases of
planning or development.
Sludge composting is the aerobic thermophilic decomposition of
organic constituents t o a relatively stable humus- like material
( 8 ). Environmental factors influence t h e activities of the
bacteria , fungi, and actinomycetes in this oxidation decomposi -
tion p r o c e s s and affects the s p e e d and course of composting
cycles. The volatility and t y p e of material , moisture content ,
oxygen concentration, carbon / nitrogen ratio, t e m p e r a t u r e , and
pH are k e y determinants in the p r o c e s s ( 9 ). S l u d g e is n o t
rendered t o t a l l y inert by composting . The composting process is
considered complete when the product can be stored without giving
rise t o nuisances such as odors, and when pathogenic organisms
have b e e n reduced t o a level such t h a t the material can b e
handled with minimum risk.
Compost produced from municipal wastewater sludges can provide a
portion of the nutrient requirements for growth of crops. The
organic matter in compost is particularly beneficial as a soil
conditioner , because it has been stabilized , decomposes slowly ,
and remains effective for a longer time than the organic matter
in uncomposted wastes. Composted sludge can improve the quality
of soils containing excessive amounts of sand or clay as well as
a l r e a d y more balanced soils. I m p r o v e d physical properties
include :
• Increased water content for sandy soils
• Increased water retention for s a n d y soils
12-1
Enhanced aggregation
Increased aeration for clay soils
Increased permeability for clay soils
Increased water infiltration for clay soils
Greater root depth
Increased microbial population
Decreased surface crusting ( 10 )
The persistence of organic chemicals, pathogenic organisms , or

heavy metals in some composted sludges may restrict the use of
the material for application t o c r o p s for human c o n s u m p t i o n
( 8 , 11 ). The composting process results in a significant nitrogen
reduction within t h e wastewater sludge and , therefore, a reduced
amount of nitrogen available t o t h e soil and plants.
Processes for composting wastewater sludge differ from those for
composting refuse . There are several principal advantages of
s l u d g e c o m p o s t i n g a s c o m p a r e d t o refuse composting , Sludge
composting does not require the complex materials management and
s e p a r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s n e c e s s a r y for most refuse c o m p o s t i n g
o p e r a t i o n s. Municipal w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e is more uniform in
c o m p o s i t i o n causing l e s s operating difficulties , The final
composted mixture utilizing s l u d g e is more suitable for marketing
because it generally does not contain the plastics , metal , and
glass commonly found in refuse compost , Sludge composting is
o f t e n viewed a s a n alternative d i s p o s a l method and does n o t
have t o be evaluated o n profit - making potential as some refuse
composting operations have been.
Classical and new solid waste composting techniques have been

modified for sludge composting . These can be classified as:
• Unconfined processes
• Windrow
• Aerated static pile
• Individual pile
• Extended pile
• Confined processes
Unconfined processes are not enclosed , although a roof may be
provided to protect the compost from precipitation , Unconfined
p r o c e s s e s m a k e use of p o r t a b l e mechanical e q u i p m e n t s u c h as
f r o n t - end l o a d e r s o r m i x e r s for c o m p o s t mixing and turning .
Confined s y s t e m s utilize a s t a t i o n a r y - enclosed container o r
reactor for composting .
12.2 The Composting P r o c e s s
Although each composting technique is unique , the fundamental
process is similar. The basic process steps are as follows :
• If required , bulking agents for porosity and moisture

control ( for example, recycled compost, wood chips , etc.)
or feed amendments for a source of limiting nutrients
-
12 2
such a s c a r b o n ( for e x a m p l e, sawdust , rice hulls, etc. )
are added t o the dewatered s l u d g e t o p r o v i d e a mixture
suitable for composting , T h e mixture m u s t be p o r o u s,
structurally stable , and c a p a b l e of self-sustaining the
decomposition reaction.
A t e m p e r a t u r e in t h e r a n g e o f 1 3 0 ° t o 1 5 0 ° F ( 5 5° t o 6 5°C )
is attained t o ensure destruction o f p a t h o g e n i c o r g a n i s m s
a n d p r o v i d e the d r i v i n g f o r c e f o r e v a p o r a t i o n , which
reduces the moisture c o n t e n t .
The compost is stored for extended periods after the
primary composting operation t o further stabilize the
mixture at l o w e r t e m p e r a t u r e s.
Additional air drying ( for e x a m p l e , windrowing ) may be
r e q u i r e d if t h e cured c o m p o s t is t o o w e t f o r f u r t h e r
processing .
• W h e n bulking a g e n t s are reused , a s e p a r a t i o n o p e r a t i o n is

required .
Composting r e p r e s e n t s- the combined activity of a succession of
mixed populations of bacteria, actinomycetes , and other f u n g i
associated with a -diverse succession o f environments , Moisture ,
t e m p e r a t u r e , p H, nutrient concentration , and availability and
concentration o f o x y g e n s u p p l y are principal factors which affect
the biology of composting ( 1 2 ).
1 2 . 2.1 Moisture
Decomposition of o r g a n i c m a t t e r is d e p e n d e n t upon moisture , T h e
lowest moisture content at which bacterial activity takes p l a c e
is from 1 2 t o 1 5 p e r c e n t ; h o w e v e r , l e s s than 4 0 p e r c e n t moisture
m a y limit t h e r a t e of d e c o m p o s i t i o n , T h e o p t i m u m moisture
content is in t h e r a n g e of 5 0 t o 6 0 p e r c e n t , If t h e mixture is
over 6 0 percent w a t e r , the proper structural integrity will not
be obtained .
Dewatered municipal sludges are usually too wet to satisfy
o p t i m u m c o m p o s t i n g conditions , T h e moisture c o n t e n t c a n be
reduced by blending t h e s l u d g e with a d r y bulking material or a
recycled product , and dewatering the s l u d g e t o a s g r e a t a n extent
as e c o n o m i c a l l y possible , T h e b e s t approach for a particular
site c a n b e determined f r o m a mass b alance of the particular
composting f a c i l i t y and b y a s i t e - s p e c i f i c economic a n a l y s i s
based o n the mass balance results , Figure 12-1 illustrates the
effect of the solids content o f dewatered sludge o n the required
mixing ratio of wood chips t o s l u d g e by volume for one c o m p o s t
o p e r a t i o n. T h e a m o u n t o f w o o d c h i p s n e e d e d f o r a 4 0 p e r c e n t
filter cake would b e about one- fifth t h e amount required f o r a
2 0 p e r c e n t solids cake , I n addition t o savings o n wood chips,
there would be a substantial reduction in material management
c o s t s a n d site sizes ( 1 3 ).
1 2- 3
5 NOTE : THIS CURVE IS SITE — SPECIFIC FOR
ONE COMPOST OPERATION . THIS
CURVE WILL SHIFT DEPENDING ON
THE RELATIVE VOLATILITY AND
LU
5 SOLIDS CONTENT OF THE WOOD
3 CHIPS AND SLUDGE .
3
O 4
>
LU
o
a
t/5
UJ
3
3
O
>
o .
X
CJ
Q
O 2
o
I
o
t~
<
cc
o 1
x
£
1
10 20 30 40 50
PERCENT SOLIDS IN SLUDGE
FIGURE 12- 1
EFFECT OF SOLIDS CONTENT ON THE RATIO OF WOOD

CHIPS TO SLUDGE BY VOLUME ( 14 )
12.2 2 . Temperature
For most efficient o p e r a t i o n, composting processes depend on

temperatures of f r o m 1 3 0 ° t o 1 5 -0 ° F ( 5 5 ° t o 6 5 ° C ) b u t n o t a b o v e
17 6 °F ( 8 0 °C ) . H i g h temperatures are also required for the
inactivation o f
,
h u m a n p athogens i n the sludge
p i l e , a t m o
.s p
M o i s t u r e c o n t e n t,
heric conditions,
aeration r a t e s s i z e a n d s h a p e o f
and nutrients affect the temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a compost
pile .
For example, temperature elevation w i l l be less f o r a
given quantity of heat released i f excessive moisture i s present,
1 2- 4
as heat will be carried off by evaporation. On .the other hand ,
low moisture content will decrease the rate of microbial activity
and thus reduce the rate of heat evolution.
i
12.2.3 pH
The optimum pH range for growth of most bacteria is between 6 and

7.5 and between 5.5 and 8.0 for fungi ( 14 ). The pH varies
throughout the pile , and throughout the composting operation, but
it is essentially self regulating. A high initial pH resulting
from the use of lime for dewatering will solubilize nitrogen in
the compost and contribute to the loss of nitrogen by ammonia
volatilization. It is difficult to alter the pH in the pile for
optimum biological growth , and this; has not been found to be an
effective operation control.
12.2.4 Nutrient Concentration

Both carbon and nitrogen are required as energy sources for
organism growth , Thirty parts by weight of carbon ( C ) are
used by microorganisms for each part of nitrogen ( N ); a C/N ratio
,
of 30 is therefore , most desirable for efficient composting ,
and C/ N ratios between 25 and 35 provide the best conditions .
The carbon considered in this ratio is biodegradable carbon.
Lower C/N ratios increase the loss of nitrogen by volatilization
as ammonia , and higher values lead to progressively longer
composting times as nitrogen becomes growth- rate limiting ( 12 ).
No other macro- nutrients or trace nutrients have been found to be
rate . 1 imiting in composting municipal wastewater sludge.
12.2.5 Oxygen Supply
Optimum oxygen concentrations in a composting mass are between

5 and 15 percent by volume ( 15 ) . Increasing the oxygen
concentration beyond 15 percent by air addition will result in a
temperature decrease because of the greater air flow. Although
oxygen concentrations as low as 0.5 percent have dceen observed
inside windrows without anaerobic -symptoms , at least 5 percent
'
oxygen is generally required for aerobic conditions ( 12 ).
12.2.6 Design Criteria and Procedures

The basic criteria for successful composting are that the
material to be composted be porous and structurally stable and
contain sufficient degradable material so that the degradation
reaction is self -sustaining ( that is, heat released by oxidation
of volatile material is sufficient to raise the mixture to
reaction temperature and to bring it to required dryness ) , In
this section, a procedure to meet these'
criteria of porosity ,
structural stability , and
-
sufficient biodegradability will
12-5
be discussed . An e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t d e s i g n consideration is
f l e x i b i l i t y. A c o m p o s t o p e r a t i o n m u s t be a b l e t o o p e r a t e
c o n t i n u o u s l y even with c h a n g e s in s l u d g e solids c o n t e n t and
volume . Changes in bulking agent supply and equipment failure
must also be anticipated , and the design must be flexible to deal
with these changes.
T o obtain minimal assurance t h a t t h e c o m p o s t i n g a c t i v i t y is
proceeding properly , the t e m p e r a t u r e and oxygen content within
the pile are constantly monitored . Equipment required to conduct
this monitoring includes a portable , 0 to 25 percent , dry-gas
oxygen analyzer which is used to measure the oxygen content ; a
p r o b e - thermistor - t y p e t e m p e r a t u r e indicator , with at least a
6 - foot probe and scale reading from 3 2° t o 212 ° F ( 0 ° to 100 ° C )
is also needed .
Additionally , monitoring of heavy metals , patho-
gens, and environmental parameters such as air and water quality
ensures a safe and acceptable compost and composting operation.
A comprehensive monitoring program is outlined in Table 12-1.
TABLE 12 1 -
SUGGESTED MONITORING PROGRAM FOR A

MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER SLUDGE
COMPOSTING FACILITY ( 17 )
Activity/time Component Analysis Frequency
Before composting Sludqe and bulking Heavy metals and PCB's Monthly
material
During composting Aerated pile or windrows Acceptable time , temperature, Temperature and oxygen con
dissolved oxygen relation - tent measurements taken at
-
ships , that is, 131 F ( 55 C) least 6 days during f ^rst
° °
and 5 to 15 percent oxygen 2 weeks. (Additional
content for 3 bo 5 days. measurements sometimes
required to get true
average).
After composting Compost ( prior to Certain selected indicator Monthly or bimonthly depending
marketing) heavy metals and pathogens. on use of compost.
Site monitoring during Personnel Physical examination prior Annua 1 ly

entire operation to employment and periodi
cally thereafter.
-
Protective equipment and Continuously
clothing as needed.
Odors Odor strength Continuously , but especially
during wet periods with
temperature inversions and
little to no wind.
odor filter pile
ness.
effective - Continuously
Log of odor complaints. Continuously

Dust Assessment of particulate Continuously but especially
concentrations. during dry period under
windy conditions
Leachate and runoff BOD and suspended solids. Monthly , downwind at locations
critical to public health
concerns.
Airborne spores Numbers generated and Monthly
transported .
Micrometeorologica 1 Temperature at 5 ft ( 1 . 5 m ) Continuously
and 25 ft ( 7.6 m)
Wind speed Continuously
Wind direction Continuous 1 y
12- 6
Four locations for t e m p e r a t u r e a n d o x y g e n m e a s u r e m e n t s a t both
ends o f e a c h p i l e are s h o w n o n F i g u r e 1 2- 2.
A
iK
o
H
X
O
O
O O
f in
X
I M
V t T
B
4
B
2
BASE "B"
*
FIGURE 12- 2
LOCATIONS FOR TEMPERATURE AND OXYGEN

MONITORING AT ONE END OF A WINDROW OR
INDIVIDUAL AERATED PILE
H a u g a n d H a u g ( 1 7 ) h a v e s h o w n t h e c o m p o s t r e a c t i o n i s s e l f-
s u s t a i n i n g w h e n t h e r a t i o W i s <_ 1 0 . T h i s r a t i o i s d e f i n e d
a s:
_ m a s s o f w a t e r in t h e initial c o m p o s t mixture
mass o f o r g a n i c s d e g r a d e d u n d e r c o m p o s t i n g conditions
I n w i n d r o w a n d mechanical c o m p o s t i n g , p o r o s i t y a n d s t r u c t u r a l
s t a b i l i t y a r e p r o v i d e d w h e n t h e s l u d g e i s mixed with r e c y c l e d
c o m p o s t p r o d u c t o r b u l k i n g a g e n t t o obtain a solids concentration
o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 0 t o 6 0 p e r c e n t. With a e r a t e d p i l e c o m p o s t i n g ,
a b u l k i n g a g e n t such a s wood c h i p s i s used t o p r o v i d e p o r o s i t y
a n d s t r u c t u r a l s t a b i l i t y. When the composting process is
c o m p l e t e , t h e bulking a g e n t s a r e g e n e r a l l y s c r e e n e d o u t o f t h e
c o m p o s t a n d r e c y c l e d back t o t h e mix p o i n t for reuse. T h e fine
p o r t i o n o f t h e b u l k i n g a g e n t i s u s u a l l y retained with t h e c o m p o s t
p r o d u c t b e c a u s e it p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e screen with t h e finished
c o m p o s t. Fresh b u l k i n g a g e n t m u s t be a d d e d a t t h e mix p o i n t t o
c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h i s material l o s s.
Mixture degradability can be adjusted by the addition of

m a t e r i a l s t h a t contain h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f d e g r a d a b l e o r g a n i c
m a t e r i a l . T h e s e materials a r e u s u a l l y d r y and r e d u c e t h e ratio W
b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e volatile fraction a n d decreasing t h e m o i s t u r e
fraction o f t h e mixture.
1 2- 7
F i g u r e 1 2- 3 s h o w s a g e n e r a l i z e d m a s s b a l a n c e d i a g r a m f o r t h e
c o m p o s t p r o c e s s. T h e r e c y c l e stream could consist of finished
c o m p o s t o n l y ( t y p i c a l f o r w i n d r o w a n d m e c h a n i c a l m e t h o d s ),
bulking agent only ( typical for aerated pile methods ) or a
combination o f bulking a g e n t a n d finished c o m p o s t , Amendment m a y
a l s o b e added with bulking a g e n t , T h e e x a c t q u a n t i t i e s o f t h e
various s t r e a m s a r e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e m a s s b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n s ( 1 2-1
a n d 1 2-2 ) derived f r o m F i g u r e 1 2-3 a n d the t y p e o f c o m p o s t i n g
p r o c e s s utilized .
A set of equations can be developed from an analysis of the

m a s s balance d i a g r a m. T w o g e n e r a l e q u a t i o n s have b e e n a r r a n g e d
t h a t a p p l y t o a l l c o m p o s t i n g m e t h o d s. E q u a t i o n 1 2 - 1 i s u s e d
to determine the recycled compost or wood chip quantity and
E q u a t i o n 1 2- 2 is u s e d t o determine t h e r a t i o W ( 1 7 ):
XR =
xc( sM -sc ) + XA( SM-SA ) + XB( SM-SB ) ( 12-1 )
( SR- SM )
w xc( l-sc ) + XA( 1-SA ) + XB( 1- SB ) + XR( 1-SR) ( 12-2 )

xCSCVCkC + xAsAvAkA + xBsBvBkB + xRSRvRkR
C o m p o s t P r o c e s s e s With N o E x t e r n a l Bulking A g e n t
T o d e s i g n a c o m p o s t f a c i l i t y employing no e x t e r n a l bulking a g e n t ,
the parameters ,SQ , ,k ,SR ,VR ,kR , a n d m u s t b e determined
^
a n a l y t i c a l l y, a s s u m e d , o r c a l c u l a t e d . T h e w e t w e i g h t o f r e c y c l e d
c o m p o s t ( XR ) i s c a l c u l a t e d , a s s u m i n g n o a m e n d m e n t o r e x t e r n a l
b u l k i n g a g e n t addition ( X = XB = 0 ), t o p r o v i d e a desired s o l i d s
^
c o n t e n t o f t h e mixture ( S ) in t h e 0 . 4 0 t o 0 . 5 0 r a n g e :
^
XR =
xc( sM -sc ) ( 1 2- 3 )
( SR- SM )
O n c e XR i s d e t e r m i n e d f o r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e ratio W i s
c a l c u l a t e d:
xcd ~
sc ) + XR( 1-SR ) ( 1 2- 4 )
xCsCvCkC + xRsRvRkR
If t h e ratio W i s l e s s t h a n t e n , the c o m p o s t mixture h a s
sufficient energy available for temperature elevation and water
evaporation. T h e r a t i o n u m b e r of t e n i s n o t a b s o l u t e b e c a u s e
climatic conditions affect the thermodynamic energy requirements.
In a hot , arid climate , W may be higher because evaporation of
w a t e r f r o m t h e c o m p o s t mass is increased b y a high h u m i d i t y
-
12 8
1
AMMENDMENT EXTERNAL
SA VA
xA' ' 'kA SULKING AGENT
KfrSfljVjfrkg iH2Q, co2, NH3)
DEWATERED
SLUDGE CAKE
*
MIXTURE COMPOSTING
t NWWOMfti
SCREENING PRODUCT
MIXING
PROCESS |IF REQUIRED)
#* -
xC'%vC‘kC
RECYCLE
Note: RECYCLE is defined as finished compost for the windrow and

mechanical systems and as recycled wood chips for the
aerated pile system.
The exact value for these parameters must be determined
from samples of the sludge , external bulking agent ,
amendment , and estimated for the recycle values unless
otherwise known.
Process Variables and Range of Average Values (in Parenthesis)
=
Total wet weight of sludge VR = Volatile solids content of
cake produced/day. recycle , fraction of dry
solids (0.00 to 0.90).
= Total wet weight of
amendment/day.
VB = Volatile solids content of
external bulking agent ,
XR = Total wet weight of fraction of dry solids
recycle/day. (0.55 to 0.90 ).
X0 = Total wet weight of external = Volatile solids content of
bulking agent/day. VM mixture , fraction of dry
X = Total wet weight of mixture/ solids (0.40 to 0.80 ).
M day. _
kL = Fraction of sludge cake
sc= Fractional solids content of
sludge cake (0.20 to 0.55).
volatile solids degradable
under composting conditions
(0.33 to 0.56 ).
SA = Fractional solids content of
amendment (0.50 to 0.95). kA = Fraction of amendment
volatile solids degradable
SR = Fractional solids content of under composting conditions
recycle (0.60 to 0.75). (0.40 to 0.60).
SB = Fractional solids content of = Fraction of recycle volatile
external bulking agent (0.50 kR solids degradable under
to 0.85).
composting conditions (0.00
= to 0.20).
SM Fractional solids content of
mixture (0.40 to 0.50).
kQB = Fraction of external bulking
vc = sludge
Volatile solids content of
cake , fraction of
agent volatile solids de
gradable under composting
-
dry solids (0.40 to 0.60) - conditions (0.00 to 0.40).
Digested ; (0.60 to 0.80) - = Fraction of mixture volatile
Raw. kM solids degradable under com -
= posting conditions (0.20 to
VA Volatile solids content of
amendment , fraction of dry 0.60).
solids (0.80 to 0.95).
FIGURE 12- 3
SLUDGE COMPOSTING MASS BALANCE DIAGRAM
12-9
d r i v i n g f o r c e a n d higher initial p i l e t e m p e r a t u r e s, In a cold
climate , m o r e b i o l o g i c a l e n e r g y is r e q u i r e d t o h e a t t h e p i l e t o
normal operating temperatures and thus W may have to be as low as
s e v e n t o t e n ( 1 7 ).
T h e r a t i o W c a n be r e d u c e d b y a d d i n g a m e n d m e n t. T h e p a r a m e t e r s
SA , VA , a n d kA are k n o w n , T h e a m e n d m e n t d r y weight is assumed ,
a n d a new r e c y c l e c o m p o s t mass ( XR ) is c a l c u l a t e d :
Xc ( SM -SC ) + XA ( SM-SA )
XR = ( SR~SM ) ( 1 2- 5 )
T h e r a t i o W is a l s o r e c a l c u l a t e d :
XQ ( 1-SC ) + XR ( 1-SR ) + XA ( 1-SA )

W
XcScVckc + XRSRVRkR + XASAVAkA -
( 12 6 )
If W i s s t i l l n o t b e l o w t e n , t h e q u a n t i t y o f a m e n d m e n t i s
increased and XR and W a r e r e c a l c u l a t e d until t h e W r e q u i r e m e n t
is satisfied .
If these guidelines are followed , a mixture with sufficient
e n e r g y t o c o m p o s t will b e p r o d u c e d , The actual values for the
p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s a r e s i t e -s p e c i f i c a n d t h e m o s t e c o n o m i c a l
design i s d e p e n d e n t o n accurate information a b o u t t h e composting
characteristics t h a t a f f e c t t h e m a s s and t h e r m o d y n a m i c b a l a n c e.
C o m p o s t P r o c e s s e s U s i n g E x t e r n a l Bulking A g e n t
D e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r p r o c e s s e s using e x t e r n a l b u l k i n g a g e n t are
similar t o t h o s e j u s t described e x c e p t t h a t t h e r e c y c l e r a t e is
c a l c u l a t e d in a d i f f e r e n t m a n n e r , In t h e f o r m e r p r o c e s s, t h e
ratio of total bulking agent to sludge is specified without
r e g a r d t o t h e m i x t u r e' s m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t , s i n c e i t i s n o t a s
i m p o r t a n t as t h e s t r u c t u r a l i n t e g r i t y o f t h e pile , T h e r e c y c l e
r a t e , XR , a n d m a k e u p s u p p l y a r e c a l c u l a t e d using E q u a t i o n s 1 2-7
a n d 1 2-8.
XR = ( 1- f 2 ) flXC ( 1 2- 7 )
XB “
fl XC “
XR ( 12-8 )
where f is defined as the ratio of external bulking agent

^
( recycle and makeup) to sludge
XR + XB
fl =
XC
12-10
and f 2 r e p r e s e n t s the fraction of total external bulking a g e n t
l o s t from the p r o c e s s b y volatilization o r because it r e m a i n s
with the finished c o m p o s t.
f2 = XB
XB + XR
T h e v a l u e s f o r f i a n d f 2 m u s t be a s s u m e d b a s e d o n o p e r a t i n g
experience at an existing facility. The range of values for f
a r e 0 . 7 5 t o 1 . 2 5 , a n d f o r f 2 a r e 0 . 2 0 t o 0 . 4 0. O n c e t h e s e
v a l u e s a r e c h o s e n , t h e a m o u n t o f r e c y c l e d b u l k i n g a g e n t ( XR )
^
a n d n e w e x t e r n a l b u l k i n g a g e n t ( Xg ) c a n be c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g
Equations 1 2- 7 and 1 2- 8.
The value of the ratio W is then calculated using Equation 1 2- 2,

indicating no amendment is used ( = 0 ). If W is l e s s than or
e q u a l t o t e n , then the mixture h a s sufficient e n e r g y t o c o m p o s t.
If W is g r e a t e r than t e n , t w o options f o r reducing the ratio are
possible. More e x t e r n a l bulking a g e n t can be used ( that is, f ]_
is increased ). If the bulking a g e n t is more volatile t h a n t h e
s l u d g e , W should be reduced . The r e c y c l e and m a k e u p quantities
of bulking a g e n t must be recalculated and W determined again , If
the bulking a g e n t is o f low volatile fraction , this a p p r o a c h will
n o t work because W will be reduced o n l y slightly , In this case ,
a m e n d m e n t m u s t be added .
F o r a n y a m o u n t o f a m e n d m e n t addition , t h e r a t i o W c a n a g a i n
be c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g E q u a t i o n 1 2- 2 . I n c r e a s i n g t h e a m o u n t o f
amendment until W is below ten will result in t h e p r o p e r c o m p o s t
energy balance.
T h e operation at B a n g o r , Maine , successfully c o m p o s t s s l u d g e by

the aerated pile method in winter months. N o amendment is used ,
and the ratio of external bulking agent ( bark ) to sludge by
v o l u m e i s 2 . 5 : 1. The value for W ranges from seven to ten
at this operation ( 1 7 ).
The best means t o determining t h e quantities of external bulking

a g e n t and amendment used will be a careful economic analysis o f
the p r o c e s s and accurate estimation of the process variables.
Table 1 2- 2 lists s o m e o f the density r a n g e s f o r various c o m p o s t
materials a s experienced at various c o m p o s t facilities.
12.3 Unconfined Composting S y s t e m s

I n t h e United S t a t e s , t h e w i n d r o w a n d a e r a t e d static p i l e
processes have been used almost exclusively for composting
dewatered municipal wastewater s l u d g e s , T h e basic s t e p s t o be
followed in these t w o processes are similar , but the processing
t e c h n o l o g y f o r t h e c o m p o s t i n g s t a g e d i f f e r s a p p r e c i a b l y. I n
12-11
t h e windrow m e t h o d , o x y g e n is d r a w n into the p i l e b y n a t u r a l
c o n v e c t i o n a n d t u r n i n g , w h e r e a s in t h e s t a t i c p i l e method ,
aeration is induced b y forced a i r circulation.
TABLE 12- 2
DENSITIES OF VARIOUS COMPOST

BULKING AGENTS ( 13 )
Density ,
Material lb/cu yd
Digested sludge 1 , 500 to 1 ,700

Raw sludge 1 ,300 to 1 ,700
New wood chips 445 to 560
Recycled wood chips 590 to 620
Finished compost 930 to 1,040
3
1 lb/cu yd = 0.595 kg/m
1 2 . 3.1 Windrow P r o c e s s
The windrow p r o c e s s is normally conducted in uncovered areas and
relies on natural ventilation with frequent mechanical mixing
o f t h e p i l e s t o maintain aerobic c o n d i t i o n s , In a r e a s of
s i g n i f i c a n t rainfall , it m a y b e desirable for o p e r a t i o n a l
reasons to provide a roofed structure t o cover the windrows for
composting s l u d g e . T h e l a r g e s t operating windrow p r o c e s s in t h e
United S t a t e s is located at the Joint Water Pollution Control
Plant o f the C o u n t y Sanitation Districts of Los A n g e l e s C o u n t y in
Carson, California.
In the windrow composting p r o c e s s, the mixture t o be c o m p o s t e d is
stacked in l o n g p a r a l l e l rows o r windrows. The cross section of
the windrows m a y be trapezoidal o r triangular , depending largely
o n the characteristics of the mobile equipment used for mixing
and turning the piles. The width of a typical windrow is 1 5 feet
( 4.5 m ) and the height is 3 t o 7 feet ( 1 to 2 m ).
Based o n processing 2 0 p e r c e n t solids s l u d g e, land requirements

for the windrow p r o c e s s are g r e a t e r t h a n for the aerated pile
p r o c e s s. Colacicco estimates a n e x t r a 2 5 p e r c e n t land usage for
the windrow p r o c e s s based o n windrows 5 feet ( 1.5 m ) high and
7 feet ( 2 m ) wide with a two-week composting period ( 1 8 ). Even
m o r e l a n d w o u l d b e n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e l o n g e r c o m p o s t i n g time
e x p e r i e n c e d in t h e Los A n g e l e s o p e r a t i o n s.
T h e mixing of a bulking a g e n t with the wet s l u d g e c a k e h a s

enabled the windrow process to be used for composting digested
dewatered sludge, B u l k i n g a g e n t s m a y include t h e r e c y c l e d
composted sludge itself or external agents such as wood chips,
12-12
sawdust , straw , rice hulls , or licorice root. The quantity of
bulking agent is adjusted t o obtain a mixture solids content of
40 to 50 percent , The use of a bulking agent also increases the
structural integrity of the mixture a n d t h u s , its ability t o
maintain a properly shaped windrow , Porosity of the mixed
material is greatly improved , which in turn improves the aeration
characteristics. External bulking a g e n t s can also provide a
source of c a r b o n for the c o m p o s t i n g p r o c e s s , T h e c a r b o n t o
nitrogen ( C/ N ) ratio of digested activated sludge is in the range
of 9 t o 1 5:1. If wood chips are used as the bulking agent , the
C / N ratio will be raised t o approximately 2 0 t o 3 0:1 in the
composting mixture.
Convective air m o v e m e n t within windrows is essential for

providing oxygen for the microorganisms, The aerobic reaction
p r o v i d e s heat for warming the windrows , This causes t h e air
to rise , producing a natural chimney effect , The rate of air
e x c h a n g e c a n be r e g u l a t e d b y controlling the porosity and
size o f the windrow ( 2 ). T h e turning of the windrow a l s o
introduces oxygen t o the microorganisms. This method of aeration
can be expensive if u s e d excessively t o obtain high o x y g e n
concentrations and may reduce the temperature within the windrow.
As a result of the biological decay process, temperatures in the
central portion of the windrow reach as high as 150 ° F ( 65°C ).
Operating temperatures of about 140 °F ( 6 0° C ) may be maintained in
the central portion of the windrow f o r a s l o n g a s ten d a y s.
Temperatures in the outer layers are considerably cooler and may
approach atmospheric conditions. During wet periods and winter
conditions , maximum t e m p e r a t u r e s may only be 130 ° t o 140 ° F ( 55°
to 60° C ). A high temperature maintained throughout the pile for
a sufficient period of time is important t o the control of
pathogens ( see Chapter 7 ). A satisfactory degree of stabiliza-
tion is indicated b y a decline in temperature , usually to about
113 ° t o 122 ° F ( 45° t o 50° C ). These variations in temperature are
illustrated in Figure 12-4.
L a r g e - s c a l e , 270 d r y t o n s p e r d a y ( 243 t / d a y ) processing of
digested primary sludge ( 23 percent solids ) using the windrow
process , with recycled composted sludge as the bulking agent , has
proven a viable method of sludge stabilization by the Los Angeles
County Sanitation Districts. Successful operation of the windrow
process using bulking a g e n t s such as wood chips and sawdust with
digested primary and secondary sludge has also been achieved at
Beltsville. This process has not proven suitable for composting
unstabilized primary or secondary sludges. At Beltsville during
early tests with windrows , undigested primary and waste- activated
s l u d g e s were found t o p r o d u c e offensive odors ( 3 ). Also,
composting of digested sludge did not kill all seeds , and these
were present in the final product.
T h e L o s A n g e l e s . C o u n t y Sanitation Districts are c u r r e n t l y

composting digested , centrifuged primary s l u d g e ( 23 p e r c e n t
solids ) in windrows mixed with r e c y c l e d c o m p o s t e d s l u d g e
1 2-13
( 60 percent solids ) in a 1:2.2 ratio ( dry weight). A compost
mixing machine is used to turn the mixture. Recycled compost is
added to the sludge before the windrow is constructed . Each
windrow must be turned two or three times a day for the first
five days to mix the material completely , minimize odors, and
ensure sufficient oxygen transfer , The sludge is then turned
once a day for about 30 days , depending on weather conditions.
-
Figure 12 5 shows a windrow being turned at Los Angeles.
u LL
O O
LLT LU
t£ CL
3 D
h* h
< <
tr £E
LU LU
.
Q .
Q
E
LU
2
LU
(
- -
(
FIGURE 12- 4
TEMPERATURE PROFILE OF A TYPICAL COMPOST

WINDROW ( 12 )
Large , portable , heavy materials handling equipment is required

for the windrow system. The Los Angeles operation requires four
windrow mixing -turning machines capable of turning 3 ,400 tons
per hour ( 3 ,084 t/hr ) of a density of 1 ,890 pounds per cubic
^
yard ( 1 ,120 kg /m ). This is equivalent to a volume capacity
of 3 ,600 cubic yards per hour ( 2 ,752 m /hr ). Three machines
^
operate continuously for two shifts a day . A fourth machine
is required to provide backup whenever any of the others is
being repaired. In case of rain all four machines must operate
continuously.
-
12 14
FIGURE 12- 5
TURNING A WINDROW AT LOS ANGELES COMPOST SITE
Sawdust , shredded paper, and w o o d c h i p s were the e x t e r n a l bulking

a g e n t s used in t h e B e l t s v i l l e w i n d r o w t e s t s . O n l y s h r e d d e d
paper w a s found t o be unsatisfactory ( 2 ). The windrow area a t
Beltsville was p a v e d with 1 8 inches ( 0 . 4 6 m ) o f crushed s t o n e
to s u p p o r t h e a v y equipment and the windrow c o m p o s t e r. The area
was later paved with asphalt and then with concrete to assure
p o s i t i v e leachate collection and t o eliminate rock pickup from
the collection equipment and d a m a g e t o t h e screening equipment .
T o s t a r t the windrow , a l a y e r o f wood c h i p s 1 5 inches ( 0 . 3 8 m )
d e e p a n d 1 5 f e e t ( 4 . 5 m ) w i d e w a s p l a c e d o n t h e p a v e d area .
Sludge ( 2 0 t o 2 5 p e r c e n t solids ) was distributed t o the c h i p s
a t a 1 : 3 v o l u m e r a t i o. T h e c o m p o s t m a c h i n e t h e n mixed the
s l u d g e a n d c h i p s. After s e v e r a l t u r n i n g s , t h e t w o materials
were t h o r o u g h l y mixed . T h e windrow w a s t u r n e d five t i m e s a
week, flattened after t w o weeks t o a 1 2- inch ( 0.30 m ) layer and
harrowed for further drying , g e n e r a l l y t o g r e a t e r than 6 5 p e r c e n t
solids. The material was then removed from the windrow area and
s t o c k p i l e d f o r a n additional 30 d a y s f o r curing p u r p o s e s. C u r i n g
was required t o i m p r o v e c o m p o s t quality and t o f u r t h e r control
p a t h o g e n s. After curing , the composted mixture was distributed
t o local g o v e r n m e n t agencies as screened o r unscreened material .
Wood c h i p s s e p a r a t e d during t h e screening operation were recycled
and reused as bulking agent. The use of a bulking agent may
substantially increase the c o s t of t h e composting process unless
the bulking agent is itself a w a s t e material ( 7 ). A t Beltsville ,
1 2-1 5
a fresh supply of wood chips was required to make up for the
estimated 2 5 t o 3 0 p e r c e n t l o s t in t h e c o m p o s t i n g p r o c e s s , S o m e
o f t h e bulking a g e n t w a s c o n s u m e d in t h e biological oxidation
p r o c e s s e s during composting , a n d a l a r g e p o r t i o n w a s l o s t in t h e
screening p r o c e s s.
1 2 . 3.1 . 1 Energy Requirements
Thermodynamic considerations in the composting of sludge a re

discussed in a r e c e n t article b y H a u g & H a u g ( 1 7 ). A s indicated
previously, t h e reaction is s e l f -s u s t a i n i n g w h e n t h e ratio W i s
l e s s t h a n t e n. O v e r 8 0 . p e r c e n t o f t h e h e a t r e l e a s e d b y t h e
biological reaction is u s e d t o e v a p o r a t e m o i s t u r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
t h e s l u d g e.
In t h e windrow p r o c e s s, the o n l y external e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t s

are g a s o l i n e for t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , diesel f u e l f o r o p e r a t i o n o f
composting machines, and e l e c t r i c i t y for l e a c h a t e t r e a t m e n t a n d
site services, including l i g h t i n g , I n t h e Beltsville windrow
t e s t s , which used w o o d c h i p s a s a bulking a g e n t , t h e following
e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n f i g u r e s have b e e n estimated ( 1 8 ).
Operating R e q u i r e m e n t s
p e r d r y t o n p e r d a y ( 0.9 t/d a y ) f o r a
1 0 t o 5 0 d r y t o n p e r d a y ( 9 t o 4 5 t/ d a y ) o p e r a t i o n
Labor 1.8 t o 3.0 h o u r s

Gasoline 1.1 gallons ( 4.5 1 )
Diesel F u e l 3.3 to 4.0 gallons ( 13.5 to 16.5 1 )
Electricity 3.0 t o 8 . 0 k W h r ( 1 2 t o 3 2 MJ )
W h e r e f i n i s h e d c o m p o s t i s u s e d a s t h e b u l k i n g a g e n t , and
increased windrow t u r n i n g f r e q u e n c y is p r a c t i c e d , a h i g h e r diesel
f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n s h o u l d be e x p e c t e d.
1 2 . 3.1 . 2 Public H e a l t h a n d Environmental I m p a c t s

Numerous studies h a v e indicated t h a t a c o m m u n i t y's w a s t e w a t e r
contains organisms which reflect the local prevalent endemic
d i s e a s e s ( 1 9 ). The pathogens borne by wastewater are not
e n t i r e l y inactivated during conventional s l u d g e digestion and
d r y i n g t e c h n i q u e s a n d m a y p e r s i s t in t h e s o i l f o r e x t e n d e d
periods of time, F i g u r e 1 2- 6 s h o w s t h i s t i m e - t e m p e r a t u r e -
d e s t r u c t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p of p a t h o g e n s f o r windrows ( 2 0 , 2 1 ).
Intensive s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d b y t h e L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y Sanitation
Districts indicate t h a t t o t a l coliform and Salmonella c o n c e n t r a-
t i o n s a r e r a p i d l y reduced in t h e first t e n d a y s o f c o m p o s t i n g in
t h e interior o f windrows, F o r interior s a m p l e s, final c o m p o s t
coliform concentrations of less than one per gram have been
1 2-1 6
attained , but higher values for exterior samples have been
measured consistently. Very low levels of virus , parasitic ova ,
and Salmonella have been assayed in the majority of final compost
samples.
TIME, days
3
MOST PROBABLE NUMBER
1° C = 5 /9 ( °F - 32 )
FIGURE 12 - 6
DESTRUCTION OF PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS AS A

FUNCTION OF TIME AND TEMPERATURE DURING
COMPOSTING OF DIGESTED SLUDGE BY THE
WINDROW METHOD
12- 17
Recycling large quantities of finished compost as bulking agent
provides good odor control for digested sludges , as long as
process upsets are kept under control. Interruption of regular
turning of the sludge may cause odor problems , since compost
windrows quickly become anaerobic under these circumstances.
Unpleasant odors may also be generated during periods of high
rainfall , as well as by poor mixture control and inefficient
mixing. In dry and windy areas , wetting of the compost windrows
should be practiced to prevent excessive dust generation.
A drainage and collection system is required for stormwater
runoff from the site because the contaminated water requires
treatment. The runoff may be returned to the wastewater
treatment plant , At Beltsville , a wooded area adjacent to the
site was spray irrigated ( 2).
Workers at a compost site should avoid inhaling dust. Respira -
tory protection , such as breathing masks , should be worn in
dusty areas , and the area should be sprinkled with water during
dry periods. Although recent experiments have shown high
concentrations of the fungus Aspergillus fumigatus, a secondary
pathogen , to be airborne at sludge composting sites , preliminary
data indicate that these higher spore levels are generally
restricted to the immediate composting area and should not pose a
significant health threat to surrounding residential , commercial ,
or industrial areas ( 22). However , individuals with a history of
lung ailments should not work in composting operations. Research
is continuing on potential health effects of exposure to the
fungus A. fumigatus
~~
( 23 to 27 ). For additional discussion , see
Chapter 7.
12.3.1.3 Design Example
This design example illustrates the procedure for a 10 MGD

( 0.45 mVs) municipal wastewater secondary treatment plant.
The dewatered , digested primary and secondary sludge ( 20 percent
solids ) is generated at the rate of one dry ton per million
gallons (.00024 t/m ). The compost facility will handle ten
^
dry tons per day ( 9 t/day ) at 20 percent solids , seven days per
week. The values for the process design variables are similar to
those reported for Beltsville. The availability and cost of
amendments and suitable land for the operation will strongly
influence the economic analysis of the project. This design
-
example , however , does not consider these site specific economic
parameters.
The design of this windrow composting facility is based on the

following assumptions:
• The water content and total weight of the compost mixture

will be reduced by approximately 40 to 50 percent
and volatile solids content will be reduced by about
20 to 40 percent. The density will decrease by 15 to
25 percent because of evaporation.
12 18-
The values for the process variables defined previously
are assumed to be as follows:
SC = 0.20 SR = 0.70 SA = 0.90 = 0.40

VC = 0.50 VR = 0.35 VA = 0.90 = 0.50
kc = 0.45 kR = 0.15 kA = 0.50
If the mixture has a high ratio of water to degradable

organics by weight ( W ratio greater than ten ) , amendment
will be added to reduce W .
The amount of finished compost to be recycled can be calculated
using Equation 12- 3.
Xc ( SM - S Q ) 50 ( 0.04 0.20)
XR = ( SR - SM ) ( 0.70 - 0.40 )
33.3 tons per day ( 30.3 t/day )
This indicates that if a mixture moisture content of 40 percent

is to be obtained , 0.67 tons ( .67 t/t ) of finished compost must
be added to each ton ( 0.9 tonne ) of sludge cake to be composted .
The ratio W is checked using Equation 12- 4 in order to determine

whether to compost.
W
Xc( i-sc ) + XR( 1-SR )
xCSCvCkC + xRsRvRkR
50( 1- 0.20 ) + 33.3 ( 1- 0.70 )
50( 0.20 )( 0.50 )( 0.45 ) + 33.3 ( 0.70 )( 0.35 )( 0.15 )
14.4
The calculated value for W is too high , indicating that amendment

addition is required , Increasing the recycle rate to create a
mixture of 50 percent solids ( XR = 50 tons per day [ 45 t /day ] )
would only lower W to 13.5 , because the proportion of degradable
organics does not increase significantly in the mixture.
Assuming that 1.0 ton ( 0.9 t ) amendment per ten tons ( 9 t ) of

sludge cake are added to the mixture , the recycle rate can be
calculated using Equation 12- 5:
12-19
=
Xc ( SM ~ SC ) + XA( SM SA )
~
XR ( SR-SM )
50 ( 0.40 - 0.20 ) + 5 ( 0.40 - 0.90 )

( 0.70 - 0.40 )
= 2 5 . 0 t o n s p e r d a y ( 2 2 . 7 t /d a y )
The amount of recycled compost has dropped from 0.67 tons per ton
( 0 . 6 1 t / t ) t o 0 . 5 t o n s p e r t o n ( 0 . 5 t/ t ) o f s l u d g e c a k e , The
r a t i o W is c a l c u l a t e d using E q u a t i o n 1 2-6:
W
XC ( 1 ~ SC ) + XR (1-SR ) + XA ( 1-SA )
^
xcsCvC C + XRS RVRJCR + XASAVAkA
50( 1-0.20 ) + 25( 1-0.70 ) + 5( 1-0.90 )
50( 0.20 )( 0.50)( 0.45) + 25( 0.70 )( 0.35 )( 0.15 ) + 5( 0.90 )( 0.90 )( 0.50)
9.2
This mixture of sludge cake , recycled compost, and amendment

is self-sustaining and will degrade properly, F i g u r e 1 2- 7
illustrates this p r o c e s s a n d s h o w s t h e materials b a l a n c e .
A 7-foot ( 2 m ) high , 6 5- f o o t ( 2 0 m ) l o n g , windrow with a b a s e
o f 1 5 f e e t ( 4 . 6 m ) i s c o n s t r u c t e d e a c h d a y. L o n g e r w i n d r o w s
c a n b e made if the windrow is e x t e n d e d e a c h d a y with t h e mixture
t o be c o m p o s t e d . T h e final v o l u m e o f c o m p o s t i n g a t t h e end o f
six weeks of turning is approximately 65 percent of the original
v o l u m e. In continuous operation there would be about 11
w i n d r o w s , 2 5 0- feet ( 7 6 m ) l o n g.
Each windrow m u s t be turned a t least t w o times p e r d a y for t h e
f i r s t f i v e d a y s t o mix t h e m a t e r i a l s c o m p l e t e l y , t o m i n i m i z e
o d o r s, a n d t o i n s u r e s u f f i c i e n t o x y g e n t r a n s f e r , After the
i n i t i a l f i v e-d a y p e r i o d , t h e w i n d r o w s m u s t be t u r n e d f r e q u e n t l y
e n o u g h t o maintain t h e p r o p e r o x y g e n l e v e l and t e m p e r a t u r e in t h e
c o m p o s t i n g m a t e r i a l . T h i s is d e p e n d e n t o n w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s.
O t h e r s i t e o p e r a t i o n s m u s t include a m i x i n g a r e a , maintenance a n d
operations building , a curing area to stockpile the finished
compost, and enough land area for handling all other site
o p e r a t i o n s and f o r f u t u r e e x p a n s i o n.
E q u i p m e n t required f o r the o p e r a t i o n includes a windrow turning

machine ; a front - e n d l o a d e r f o r s i t e p r e p a r a t i o n , d i s m a n t l i n g
-
12 20
piles and loading transfer trucks; and transfer trucks to haul
the sludge and amendment to the compost facility and to haul the
finished compost away.
DIGESTED
DEWATERED
SLUDGE
4 OFF GASES
WINDROW DRYING COMPOST

COMPOSTING (IF REQUIRED ) CURING AND
MIXING STORAGE
42 DAYS 6 DAYS 60 DAYS
RETENTION RETENTION CAPACITY
RECYCLED
COMPOST
AMENDMENT
7 DAY PER WEEK OPERATION

PERCENT
WET PERCENT DRY DENSITY VOLUME VOLATILE
LOCATION TONS SOLIDS TONS (Ib/cu yd) { cu yd) SOLIDS
1 50 20 10.0 1,600 63 50
2 5 90 4.5 1,000 10 90
3 80 40 32.0 1,300 123 50
4 41 5.0
5 39 70 27.0 1,000 78 35 1 ton = 0.907 tonne
6 26 70 17.5 1,000 50 35 -
1 Ib/cu yd 0.6 kg/m 3
7 14 70 9.5 1,000 28 35 1 cu yd - 0.76 m 3
FIGURE 12- 7
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM - WINDROW COMPOSTING

SLUDGE - 10 MGD ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANT
12- 21
Optimum windrow compost design will do the following :
Minimize hauling and handling cost.
Maximize use of existing equipment in the compost

operation.
Minimize the use of amendment which adds to the cost and

is not recoverable.
Maximize the solids content of the dewatered digested

sludge cake to minimize the amount of recycled compost
used for moisture control and also reduce the amount of
amendment required . The cost of dewatering should not
exceed the savings at the compost facility.
12.3.2 Aerated Static Pile Process
An aerated static pile system was developed in order to eliminate

many of the land requirements and other problems associated with
the windrow composting process and to allow composting of raw
sludge. This system consists of the following steps: mixing of
sludge with a bulking agent ; construction of the composting pile ;
composting ; screening of the composted m i x t u r e ; c u r i n g ; and
storage. A diagram of an aerated pile for composting sludge is
shown in Figure 12-8.
SCREENEDOR FILTER PILE

UNSCREENED SCREENED
COMPOST COMPOST
SLUDGE AND
BULKING ' /
AGENT
PERFORATED —
/
PIPE EXHAU$T FAN
OFIAUN. FDR
CONDENSATES
FIGURE 12- 8
CONFIGURATION OF INDIVIDUAL AERATED PILES
12- 22
The forced air method provides for more flexible o p e r a t i o n and
more precise control of oxygen and temperature conditions in
the pile than would b e obtained with a windrow s y s t e m , Since
c o m p o s t i n g t i m e s tend t o be s l i g h t l y s h o r t e r a n d anaerobic
conditions can be more readily p r e v e n t e d , the risk o f odors is
reduced .
T w o distinct aerated static p i l e methods have b e e n d e v e l o p e d ,

the individual aerated pile and the extended aerated pile.
1 2 . 3.2.1 Individual Aerated Piles

A n individual aerated p i l e m a y b e constructed in a m a n n e r similar
t o t h e Beltsville method , in which l o o p o f p e r f o r a t e d plastic
pipe , 4 t o 6 inches ( 1 0 t o 1 5 cm ) in diameter is p l a c e d o n t h e
composting pad , oriented longitudinally , and centered under t h e
ridge o f t h e pile under construction. In o r d e r t o avoid short
circuiting of air , the perforated pipe terminated a t least 8 t o
1 0 f e e t ( 2 t o 3 m ) inside the e n d s of t h e p i l e. A non - p e r f o r a t e d
pipe that e x t e n d s beyond the pile base is used t o c o n n e c t t h e
l o o p o f p e r f o r a t e d pipe t o the blower. ( S e e Figure 1 2 - 9 ).
SCREENED OR
IJWSCREFNED
COVER
BULKINS AGENT —'
AND SLUDGE
BULKING
AGENT BASE
NON PERFORATED PiPE ^
FILTER PILE
SCREENED
COMPOST
FIGURE 12- 9
AERATION PIPE SET-UP FOR INDIVIDUAL AERATED PILE
A 6 - t o 8- inch ( 1 5 t o 20 c m ) l a y e r o f bulking a g e n t is placed

o v e r b o t h t h e p i p e s a n d t h e a r e a t o be c o v e r e d b y t h e p i l e.
This b a s e facilitates the m o v e m e n t and even the distribution o f
air during composting and absorbs excessive moisture that m a y
otherwise c o n d e n s e and drain f r o m the pile ( 19 ).
1 2- 2 3
At Beltsville a mixer or front - end loader is used t o mix one
v o l u m e o f s l u d g e c a k e containing 22 p e r c e n t solids and t w o
volumes of bulking a g e n t . The resulting mixture contains
40 p e r c e n t solids and is placed loosely upon the prepared base by
the front - end loader to form a pile with a triangular cross
section 15 feet ( 4.6 m ) wide by 7.5 feet ( 2.3 m ) high .
T h e p i l e is then c o m p l e t e l y covered with a 1 2- inch ( 0 . 3 m )
layer of cured , screened c o m p o s t or an 18 - inch ( 0.4 m ) layer of
unscreened c o m p o s t . This o u t e r blanket of c o m p o s t provides
insulation and p r e v e n t s e s c a p e of o d o r s during composting .
Unstabilized sludge can g e n e r a t e odors during dumping and initial
pile construction . Conditioning with lime during dewatering will
minimize this , however. The non- perforated pipe is connected to
a 1/3 horsepower ( 0.25 kW ) , 335 cubic feet per minute ( 158 1/ s )
blower that is controlled by a timer ( 28 ). Aerobic composting
conditions are maintained if air is intermittently drawn through
the pile. The timing sequence for the blower is 5 minutes on and
15 minutes off for a 56- foot ( 17 m ) long pile containing up to
8 0 wet t o n s ( 73 t ) of sludge. If the aeration rate is t o o high
or the blower remains on too long , the pile will cool , and the
thermophilic process will be inhibited ( 12 ).
The effluent air from the compost pile is conducted into a small ,
cone-shaped filter pile of cured , screened compost approximately
4 feet ( 1 . 2 m ) high and 8 feet ( 2 . 5 m ) in diameter where
malodorous gases are absorbed . The odor retention capacity of
these piles is inhibited if their moisture content is greater
than 50 percent. The odor filter pile should contain one cubic
yard ( 0.76 m 3 ) of screened c o m p o s t for each four dry tons ( 3.6 t )
of s l u d g e in t h e c o m p o s t p i l e . Filter piles are sometimes
constructed with a 4- inch ( 1 0 cm ) base l a y e r of wood chips t o
prevent high back pressures o n the blower.
Land area requirements are estimated at one acre per 3 to 5 dry

tons ( 1.0 ha/6.7 t o 11.2 t ) of sludge treated . The lower figure
includes space for runoff collection , administration , parking ,
and general storage , The actual composting area ( mixing area ,
aerated piles , s c r e e n i n g area , drying area , and storage area )
is estimated t o be one acre per 5 dry t o n s ( 1.0 ha/ 11.2 t ) of
sludge ( 19 ).
12.3.2.2 Extended Aerated Piles
To make more effective use of available space , another static

p i l e configuration called the extended aerated pile has been
d e v e l o p e d . An initial pile is c o n s t r u c t e d with a t r i a n g u l a r
cross section utilizing one d a y' s s l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n . Only
one side and the ends of this p i l e are b l a n k e t e d with c u r e d ,
screened compost. The remaining side is dusted with o n l y about
an inch ( 0.5 cm ) of compost for overnight odor control. The
next d a y , additional aeration pipe is placed on the pad parallel
to the dusted side of the initial pile. The pile bed is extended
1 2-24
by covering the additional pipe with more bulking agent and
sludge-bulking agent mixture so as to form a continuous or
e x t e n d e d p i l e. T h i s p r o c e s s is r e p e a t e d d a i l y f o r 28 d a y s.
T h e first section is removed a f t e r 2 1 d a y s. A f t e r seven sections
are removed in s e q u e n c e , t h e r e is sufficient s p a c e f o r operating
the equipment so that a new extended pile can be started .
,
F i g u r e 1 2-1 0 s h o w s s u c h a s y s t e m. The area requirement of an

extended pile system is about 50 percent less than that for
individual p i l e s. T h e a m o u n t o f r e c y c l e d b u l k i n g a g e n t r e q u i r e d
f o r c o v e r i n g t h e p i l e and b u l k i n g a g e n t u s e d in t h e construction
o f t h e b a s e i s a l s o reduced b y about 5 0 p e r c e n t. At Beltsville ,
r e s e a r c h into e x t e n d i n g a e r a t e d p i l e s in both t h e vertical and
horizontal directions i s o n g o i n g .
T " KiXTUHl 7U
/ CUMFOST
ntwnvfa Bfc CLHltrUj^t D
HERE \ AUtieD
/ JJ
JO
) r
// - \
\
FIGURE 12 - 10
CONFIGURATION OF EXTENDED AERATED PILE
1 2 . 3.2 . 3 Current Status
T h e a e r a t e d p i l e s y s t e m h a s p r o v e n e f f e c t i v e o n a f u l l -s c a l e
basis at Beltsville , Maryland ; Bangor , Maine ; Durham ,
N e w H a m p s h i r e ; Detroit , M i c h i g a n ; and Windsor , Ontario. After
s t a r t- u p, m e a n t e m p e r a t u r e s in aerated p i l e s are 1 7 6 °F ( 7 0 ° C ) ;
a n d a f t e r s t a b l e conditions a r e achieved , minimum t e m p e r a t u r e s
are usually 1 3 0 ° F ( 5 5 ° C ). When the piles are constructed
p r o p e r l y , n e i t h e r excessive r a i n f a l l n o r l o w a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e
a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t t h e c o m p o s t i n g p r o c e s s ( 2 8 ).
C u r r e n t l y m o s t o f t h e i n t e r e s t in c o m p o s t i n g o f w a s t e w a t e r
s l u d g e s i s c e n t e r e d o n this t e c h n i q u e. T h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f this
s y s t e m f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f u n d i g e s t e d s l u d g e s p r o v i d e s it with a
s i g n i f i c a n t a d v a n t a g e o v e r t h e w i n d r o w m e t h o d. O t h e r a d v a n t a g e s
a r e s u p e r i o r o d o r c o n t r o l , g r e a t e r inactivation o f p a t h o g e n i c
o r g a n i s m s, a n d u s e o f l e s s s i t e a r e a. T h e aerated p i l e t e c h n i q u e
e x p o s e s a l l s l u d g e t o m o r e uniform t e m p e r a t u r e. Capital costs
are a l s o lower for the aerated pile system, but operating costs
t e n d t o be h i g h e r b e c a u s e o f t h e c o s t o f t h e b u l k i n g a g e n t.
Comparisons of capital and operating costs using wood chips as
b u l k i n g a g e n t in a e r a t e d p i l e s, a s w e l l a s in windrows , are m a d e
b y C o l a c i c c o ( 1 8 ). I n e x p e r i m e n t s a t L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y , i t
has been found necessary to follow this technique by windrow
1 2- 2 5
composting f o r 2 t o 3 d a y s t o dry o f f the moisture , At other
locations, t h e air flow is r e v e r s e d without d i s r u p t i o n o f t h e
pile a s a n o t h e r m e a n s t o reducing moisture c o n t e n t.
1 2 . 3 .2 . 4 Oxygen Supply
C e n t r i f u g a l fans efficiently p r o v i d e t h e necessary p r e s s u r e t o

move air t h r o u g h t h e c o m p o s t and o d o r filter p i l e s. Variation in
t h e b l o w e r p r e s s u r e is a necessity for o p t i m u m conditions and a
site-specific operating p a r a m e t e r. T h e oxygen concentration in
t h e pile should b e maintained b e t w e e n 5 and 1 5 p e r c e n t ; this c a n
be achieved with a n aeration r a t e o f a b o u t 5 0 0 cubic feet p e r
^
h o u r p e r t o n ( 1 5 . 6 m / h r/ t ) d r y s l u d g e .
this air r a t e, the air flow m u s t b e reduced.
If t h e p i l e c o o l s a t
Aeration c y c l e s
o f 2 0 t o 3 0 minutes with the f a n operating 1/1 0 t o 1/ 2 o f t h e
c y c l e h a v e p r o v e n s a t i s f a c t o r y ( 1 9 ). W h i l e t h e f a n is n o t
operating , the natural convective chimney effect , typical of
windrows , t a k e s p l a c e. I n the a b s e n c e o f forced aeration , this
e f f e c t c a u s e s warming o f t h e o u t e r e d g e s , destroying p a t h o g e n s
more effectively .
M o i s t a i r d r a w n t h r o u g h t h e p i l e c o n d e n s e s in t h e slightly
c o o l e r s e c t i o n s. W h e n e n o u g h c o n d e n s a t e a c c u m u l a t e s , it
w i l l d r a i n f r o m t h e p i l e a n d l e a c h m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e s l u d g e.
C o n d e n s e d m o i s t u r e w h i c h c o l l e c t s in t h e a e r a t i o n p i p e s is
removed by a w a t e r t r a p. This material m u s t b e collected and
treated along with the contaminated rainfall runoff from the
s i t e , b e c a u s e it c a n b e c o m e a s o u r c e o f o d o r s if a l l o w e d t o
accumulate in p u d d l e s around t h e piles. D a t a is n o t available o n
combined leachate and condensate water characteristics; the
quantity m a y , h o w e v e r , v a r y from 6 t o 2 0 g a l l o n s p e r d a y ( 2 2 t o
7 5 1/d a y ) p e r pile containing 5 0 cubic y a r d s ( 3 8 m 3 ) o f s l u d g e
d u r i n g d r y w e a t h e r ( 2 9 ). ( Refer to Chapter 16 for further
information. )
1 2 . 3 .2 . 5 Bulking A g e n t
While bulking a g e n t s a r e in t h e aerated p i l e c o m p o s t i n g s y s t e m ,
t h e y s e r v e primarily t o maintain the structural integrity and
porosity o f the p i l e. T h e quantity o f external bulking a g e n t
required is determined by the need f o r s t r u c t u r a l s u p p o r t and
porosity. The requirements for moisture control are not as
critical a s a d e q u a t e porosity ; t h u s , s l u d g e moisture c a n v a r y
considerably as long as sufficient bulking agent is added to
assure adequate porosity. The design factors discussed for
windrows d o n o t apply h e r e ( 1 7 ).
W o o d c h i p s a n d o t h e r bulking a g e n t s a l s o increase t h e volatile
s o l i d s c o n t e n t o f t h e c o m p o s t i n g mixture; volatility o f new a n d
recycled wood chips has been reported as 90 and 86 percent,
respectively ( 1 8 ). T h e actual contribution of t h e w o o d chips t o
t h e c o m p o s t mixture is limited because their composting rate is
s i o w e r.
1 2- 2 6
ivhoel na t iwood
lity
chips a r e mixed with unstabilized s l u d g e a n a v e r a g e
o f a b o u t 7 5 p e r c e n t r e s u l t s ; t h i s is w e l l in excess o f
t h e 4 0 t o 5 0 p e r c e n t v o l a t i l i t y achieved i n t h e m i x t u r e o f
d i g e s t e d s l u d g e a n d r e c y c l e d c o m p o s t . V o l a t i l i t y c o n t e n t is
therefore not a limiting factor in aerated pile composting o f
unstabilized s l u d g e , a s it can be in t h e digested s l u d g e windrow
s y s t e m.
1 2 . 3.2.6 E n e r g y Requirements
E n e r g y c o s t s for aerated p i l e composting are a small p o r t i o n o f

t h e o v e r a l l o p e r a t i n g c o s t s. T h e b u l k o f t h e o v e r a l l e n e r g y
requirement o f the p r o c e s s is provided b y the volatile solids in
the composting mixture . A r a n g e o f resources f o r labor , e x t e r n a l
bulking a g e n t , g a s o l i n e for s m a l l vehicles , diesel fuel f o r t h e
front-end loaders , and electricity usage for leachate treatment
is listed below ( 1 8 ).
Operating Requirements
p e r d r y t o n p e r d a y ( 0.9 t/d a y ) f o r a
10 t o 50 d r y t o n p e r d a y ( 9 t o 4 5 t/d a y )
operation ( 20 percent sludge )
Labor 1 . 5 t o 2 . 8 hours
Wood Chips 2 t o 8 cubic y a r d s ( 2 . 1 )
Gasoline 1.1 gallon ( 4.11 )
Diesel Fuel 2.7 t o 3.5 gallon ( 1 0 . 2 t o 1 3 . 2 1 )
Electricity 7 . 5 t o 1 7 . 5 kWhr ( 2 9 . 7 t o 69.3 MJ )
1 2 . 3.2 . 7 Public Health and Environmental I m p a c t s

Extensive studies have been made o n the destruction o f p a t h o g e n s
in aerated piles ( 30 ). A l t h o u g h Salmonella , fecal coliforms ,
and total coliforms initially increased in numbers , they were
reduced t o essentially undetectable levels by the t e n t h d a y o f
c o m p o s t i n g . Studies using " F " b a c t e r i o p h a g e and virus a s an
i n d i c a t o r s h o w e d t h a t t h e v i r u s was e s s e n t i a l l y d e s t r o y e d b y
the thirteenth day. However , survival of the virus did occur
f o r s o m e t i m e in t h e b l a n k e t - c o m p o s t i n t e r f a c e w h e r e l o w e r
t e m p e r a t u r e s prevailed , S t o r a g e in a curing pile for 3 0 d a y s
will c o m p l e t e t h e destruction of viruses o r r e d u c e the n u m b e r s
t o a n e x t r e m e l y l o w l e v e l ( 1 9 ). S t u d i e s h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h e
composting process in an aerated pile is essentially unaffected
b y l o w ambient t e m p e r a t u r e s o r rainfall , which m a k e s this s y s t e m
particularly well suited t o operation under difficult climatic
c o n d i t i o n s ( 3 1 ). F i g u r e 1 2- 1 1 s h o w s t h e t i m e - t e m p e r a t u r e-
destruction relationship o f p a t h o g e n s for a e r a t e d piles ( 2 0 ).
Odor control is the primary environmental consideration in t h e
operation of an aerated pile composting system , Good odor
c o n t r o l r e s u l t s f r o m p r o m p t mixing of s l u d g e a n d bulking a g e n t
1 2- 2 7
a n d f o r m a t i o n o f t h e a e r a t e d p i l e. I n addition , l u m p s o f
material or p u d d l e s o f liquid m u s t n o t b e allowed t o remain in
the mixing area. N o thin s p o t s or holes s h o u l d be p r e s e n t in
t h e c o m p o s t b l a n k e t. T h e r e s h o u l d b e l e a k p r o o f t r a n s p o r t o f
a e r a t i o n air b e t w e e n blower a n d o d o r filter p i l e . Moisture
content within o d o r filter p i l e s ( F i g u r e 1 2-1 2 ) should be k e p t
below 5 0 p e r c e n t. Condensate , leachates, and runoff from the
piles m u s t b e collected and t r e a t e d a s quickly a s possible. T h e
c o m p o s t should be a d e q u a t e l y cured before it is removed from the
area , and a n y unstabilized material s h o u l d be r e c y c l e d back into
t h e composting p r o c e s s for further treatment .
TOTAL COLi FORMS

80
7K /
E
D>
6 J \
S3I ! s 60
u
-LU - TEMPERATURE
Q
UJ
U CE
o
o 4
V <—
I
cc
FECAL LU
COLi FORMS
.
Q
< 40
> LU
H
>
CC
D 2
20
0
0 5 10 15 20
DAYS
1°C = 5 /9 ( °F - 32 )
FIGURE 12- 11
DESTRUCTION OF PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS AS A

FUNCTION OF TIME AND TEMPERATURE DURING
COMPOSTING OF UNDIGESTED SLUDGE BY THE AERATED
PILE METHOD ( 20 )
1 2- 28
FIGURE 12- 12
ODOR FILTER PILES AT BELTSVILLE
1 2 . 3.2 . 8 Design E x a m p l e
This d e s i g n e x a m p l e is b a s e d o n a B e l t s v i l i e - t y p e s l u d g e
composting s y s t e m utilizing existing t e c h n o l o g y and available
d e s i g n c r i t e r i a. The example provided is specific to a
1 0 million g a l l o n p e r d a y ( 0 . 4 5 m 3 / s ) m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r
s e c o n d a r y treatment plant.
T h e w e i g h t a n d v o l u m e o f s l u d g e a n d - b u l k i n g a g e n t a t various
points in the process must be k n o w n s o t h a t t h e volumetric flow
capacity o f a composting facility can be determined , The basic
d e s i g n decisions include t h e bulking a g e n t t o s l u d g e ratio and
the ratio o f new t o recycled bulking a g e n t.
The materials balance in this e x a m p l e is based o n t h e f o l l o w i n g

assumptions:
S l u d g e t o be c o m p o s t e d is 50 wet t o n s p e r d a y ( 45 t /d )
o f u n d i g e s t e d s l u d g e , seven d a y s p e r w e e k , w i t h n o
digestion.
Wood c h i p s a r e added t o the wet s l u d g e a t t h e r a t e o f

2 cubic y a r d s of c h i p s per cubic yard ( 2.0/m 3 ) of w e t
s l u d g e.
T h r e e- fourths o f t h e c h i p s are recovered by screening and

reuse.
1 2- 29
• The water content and total weight of the compost
mixture is reduced by approximately 30 to 40 percent
and volatile solids content is reduced by about 10 to
1 5 percent, The density decreases 15 to 20 percent
b e c a u s e o f e v a p o r a t i o n.
• T h e e x t e n d e d a e r a t e d p i l e s y s t e m will b e used .
Information o n t h e b u l k d e n s i t y o f s l u d g e i s s u r p r i s i n g l y scarce .
Tests conducted at Beltsville for an engineering study of a
l a r g e- s c a l e c o m p o s t i n g f a c i l i t y p r o v i d e s o m e b a s i c d a t a o n
t h e b u l k d e n s i t y o f s l u d g e a n d w o o d c h i p b u l k i n g a g e n t s, The
f o l l o w i n g b u l k densities are u s e d in t h i s d e s i g n e x a m p l e ( 2 0 ):
Bulk Density
Pounds per
Constituent cubic y a r d k g/m ^
Dewatered Sludge 1 ,6 0 0 960
( 20 % solids )
New Wood Chips 500 300

Recycled Wood Chips 600 360
Screened Compost 865 519
Unscreened Compost 1,000 600
I t is a l s o a s s u m e d t h a t t h e p r o c e s s v a r i a b l e s h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g
v a l u e s:
SC = 0.20 Sg = 0.70 SR = 0.70

VC = 0.75 VB = 0.90 VR = 0.80
kc = 0.45 kB = 0.10 kR = 0.10
S l u d g e c o m p o s t i n g will o p e r a t e 5 d a y s p e r w e e k , 8 h o u r s p e r d a y
u s i n g t h e extended a e r a t e d static p i l e m e t h o d , T h e v o l u m e t o b e
c o m p o s t e d p e r w o r k d a y i s a s f o l l o w s:
50 wet tons 7 week-days 70 wet tons per work day ( 63.5 t/work day)
week day 5 work-days
I t is a s s u m e d t h a t t h e d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e a r r i v e s o n-s i t e 5 d a y s
per week from the dewatering operation which runs only 5 days per
week . Equalization storage to cover weekend operation of the
plant is provided for sludge in the liquid state upstream from
the dewatering process .
1 2- 3 0
The amount of recycled and new wood chips can be calculated using
E q u a t i o n s 1 2- 7 a n d 1 2- 8 a n d a s s u m i n g f ]_ = 0 . 7 5 a n d f 2 = 0 . 2 5 ;
XR = ( 1- 0 . 2 5 )( 0 . 7 5 ) 7 0 = 3 9 . 4 t o n s p e r d a y ( 3 5 . 7 t/d a y ) .
XB = ( 0.75 )70 3 9 . 4 = 1 3 . 1 t o n s p e r d a y ( 1 1 . 9 t/d a y ).
T h e r a t i o W c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g E q u a t i o n 1 2- 2:
W 70( 1-0.2) + 39.4( 1-0.7 ) + 13.1( 1-0.7 )

70( 0.2 ( 0.75 )( 0.45 ) + 39.4( 0.7 )( 0.9 )( 0.1 ) + 13.1( 0.7 )( 0.8 )( 0.1 )
)
9.0
S i n c e W i s l e s s t h a n 1 0, n o a m e n d m e n t a d d i t i o n i s r e q u i r e d.
The daily volume of the compost material is calculated using the
a s s u m e d v a l u e s p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d:
Mass Volume
Constituent t o n s/d a y cubic yards/day
Dewatered sludge 70 87.5
New wood chips 13.1 52.4
Recycled wood chips 39.4 131.3
Total 122.5 271.2

( 1 1 1 . 1 t/d a y ) ( 2 0 6 . 8 m 3/d a y )
T h e p i l e will be 8 feet ( 2.4 m ) high and 5 0 f e e t ( 1 5 m ) long.

E a c h d a y , t h e p i l e w i l l b e e x t e n d e d 1 8 . 5 f e e t ( 5 . 6 m ). T h e
a m o u n t o f n e w w o o d c h i p s r e q u i r e d t o c o n s t r u c t a o n e- f o o t ( 0 . 3 m )
t h i c k p a d f o r t h e c o m p o s t i s a s f o l l o w s:
( 5 0 f t )( 1 8 . 5 )( 1 f t ) =
3 4 . 3 c u b i c y a r d s ( 2 6 . 2 m 3 )/d a y
2 1 c u f t/c u y d
U n s c r e e n e d c o m p o s t i s r e q u i r e d e a c h d a y t o c o v e r t h e p i l e.
T h i s l a y e r w i l l b e 1 8 i n c h e s ( 0 . 4 6 m ) t h i c k:
( 5 0 f t ) ( 1 8 . 5 f t )( 1 . 5 f t ) =
5 1 . 4 c u b i c y a r d s ( 3 9 m 3 )/d a y
2 7 c u f t/c u y d
1 2-3 1
Figure 12-13 is the process flow diagram for the extended aerated
pile compost facility and summarizes the design materials
balance. -
UNSCREENED
NEW WOOD
7 COMPOTT
WOOD CHIP
CHIPS PAD
e 5
DRYING COMPOST
EXTENDED AERATED CURING
OF REQUIRED)
MIXING
0^
“
PILE COMPOSTING
Jt DAYS RETENTION 6 DAYS
SCREENING
—0*" AND STORAGE
GO DAYS
RETENTION CAPACITY
I
3 OFF-GAS
o RECYCLED
WOOD CHIPS
4 -
UNDIGEST ED
DEWATERED
SLUDGE
naBxvftaa
5 DAY PER WEEK OPERATION

PERCENT
WcT PERCENT DRY DENSITY VOLUME VOLATILE
LOCATION TONS SOLIDS TONS { lb/cu yd) ( CVJ yd) SOLIDS
1 70 20 14 1,600 87.5 75
2 13.1 70 9.2 500 52.4 90
3 39.4 70 27.6 600 131.3 80
4 122.5 41 50.8 900 271.2 80
5 8.6 70 6 500 34.3 90
6 59.7 10.3
7
8
18.6
90
65
65
12
58.5
725
726
51.4
248.3
65
65
- -
1 too 0.907 toon
*
1 lb/cu yd 0.6 K»/m 3
9 32 60 18.9 975 64.6 45 -
1 cu yd 0.76 m 3
FIGURE 12- 13
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE EXTENDED PILE

COMPOST SLUDGE FACILITY - 10 MGD ( 0.44m 3 / s )
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANT
Approximately 250 feet ( 76 m ) of 4 - inch ( 10 - cm ) diameter

perforated aeration pipe , 50 feet ( 15 m ) of non- perforated pipe ,
three 4 - inch ( 10-cm ) tee connectors , and one blower/timer unit
with weather protection and condensate collection system are
required for each daily pile. Only one blower rated at 335 cubic
12-32
feet per minute ( 158 1/s ) will be used to draw air into the pile .
In general , the blower should be rated at a minimum of 150 cubic
feet per hour per wet ton ( 1.3 1/ s/t ) of sludge in the daily
pile. Non-perforated pipe should be used to connect the aeration
pipe loop to the blower. The exhausted air will be filtered in a
pile of screened compost. The filter pile will contain at least
one cubic yard of material per 30 wet tons ( 1 m 3/ 35.5 t ) of
sludge in the daily pile or 4 cubic yards ( 3 m 3 ) for this
design . Figure 12-14 illustrates this design example. The
minimal area requirements for various composting site components
is as follows:
MINIMAL COMPOSTING AREA REQUIREMENTS

50 wet tons per day ( 45 t/day )
10 dry tons per day ( 9 t/day )
Area Required
Square Square
Function feet meters
Truck unloading and mixing 5 , 000 465

Composting
( 28 days )( 50 )( 18.5 )( 1.15 excess ) 30 , 000 2, 792
Unscreened compost 10, 000 931
Drying and screening 20,000 1 ,862
Compost curing and storage
( 60 day )( 200 cu yd /day )( 27 wet tons )
( 10 ft deep ) + excess 33 ,000 3 ,071
New wood chip storage
( 60 day )( 87 cu yd /day )( 27 wet tons )
( 12 ft deep ) + excess 15 , 000 1 , 396
Subtotal 113 ,000 10 , 517
Maintenance building , operations

building and laboratory , Lunch
room and locker room 4 ,000 372
Employee and visitor parking 5 ,000 465
Miscellaneous storage 1 , 000 93
Subtotal 10 , 000 930
Total 123 ,000 11 , 447
NOTE: 123 , 000 square feet ( 11, 447 m ) ^

3 acres ( 1.14 ha ) .
Land Utilization = 6.6 dry tons per acre ( 14.8 t/ha ).
12- 33
PAD AND PIPE BEFORE ADDlTlbM
\ OF WOOD CHIPS AMD COMPOS? CfliiNED COMPOST
yiV$
COVER
PERFORATED * W& ,
AERATION
PIPE
w
\\
/
/
TEE
CONfWECTGR — I.
WI> NFER F O RATED ~”

V DIA. PIPE
PILES
1 in = 2.54 cm
FIGURE 12- 14
DESIGN EXAMPLE EXTENDED AERATED

PILE CONSTRUCTION
T h e overall s p a c e required is about 3 acres ( 1 . 2 h a ) which i s

0 . 1 5 a c r e s p e r t o n p e r d a y ( 0 . 0 7 h a/ t/d a y ) o f d r y s l u d g e s o l i d s
composted. Reducing the bulking agent would decrease the area
required.
A l t h o u g h p o r o s i t y i s t h e k e y f a c t o r f o r t h e a e r a t e d p i l e , control
of moisture is important for a successful sludge composting
s y s t e m . T h e s l u d g e s h o u l d b e d e w a t e r e d o r mixed with sufficient
b u l k i n g a g e n t t o obtain e n o u g h p o r o s i t y in t h e c o m p o s t i n g p i l e s
f o r o p t i m u m c o m p o s t i n g conditions. For optimum composting the
c o m p o s t e d mixture s h o u l d h a v e a s o l i d s c o n t e n t o f n o t l e s s t h a n
4 0 p e r c e n t o r m o r e t h a n 5 0 p e r c e n t. F i g u r e 1 2-1 5 s h o w s a c o m p o s t
p i l e a s it i s b e i n g t a k e n d o w n.
A p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 . 5 c u b i c feet p e r minute ( 4 1/ s/t ) o f a i r p e r t o n

of dry sludge solids in the pile is required , A t Beltsville ,
this w a s delivered b y a c e n t r i f u g a l f a n o p e r a t i n g a t 5 inches
d i f f e r e n t i a l w a t e r p r e s s u r e ( 1 . 2 5 k N/ m 2 ) ( 1 8 ). T h e B a n g o r ,
M a i n e s y s t e m u s e s a 1/ 3 h o r s e p o w e r ( 0 . 2 5 K w ) b l o w e r r a t e d a t
3 3 5 cubic f e e t p e r minute ( 1 5 8 1/s ) a t 5 inches w a t e r p r e s s u r e
( 1 . 2 5 k N/ m 2 ) f o r e a c h p i l e c o n s i s t i n g o f 5 0 c u b i c y a r d s
( 3 8 m 3 ) s l u d g e a n d 1 5 0 cubic y a r d s ( 1 1 4 m 3 ) b u l k i n g a g e n t ( 7 ).
T h e b l o w e r s a r e o p e r a t e d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y t o maintain t h e o x y g e n
level i n t h e 5 t o 1 5 p e r c e n t r a n g e and t o obtain a s uniform a
t e m p e r a t u r e a s p o s s i b l e.
1 2- 3 4
FIGURE 12- 15
COMPOST PILES BEING TAKEN DOWN
For large composting s y s t e m s, a permanent central blower system

may be considered . A header pipe could be utilized to provide
the n e c e s s a r y suction for each pile , O n l y one or t w o l a r g e
blowers located in a covered area would be required , Although
capital c o s t w o u l d be high because of t h e needed piping and
c o n t r o l devices , the o p e r a t i o n and maintenance c o s t s o f m a n y
individual blowers would be eliminated , On the other hand , a
central blower system is not especially flexible , Since it is
important to maintain the proper aeration rates in each pile , an
air f l o w metering device will be r e q u i r e d for each p i l e , A
decision for or against a p e r m a n e n t s y s t e m would be based on
economic analysis and the need for system flexibility to handle
changing composting conditions.
The composting area should be paved . Probably t h e most efficient

design in a permanent facility involves the use of fixed aeration
and drainage systems , The aeration piping and drainage s y s t e m
could be placed in trenches in the composting pad and the blowers
placed in permanent protected structures and equipped with water
t r a p s and controls , The disadvantages of this type of combined
system are the high initial cost and the reduced flexibility of
operation. Possible elimination of the one-foot ( 0.3 m ) wood
chip pad and the disposable plastic pipe processed through the
screens is a p o t e n t i a l a d v a n t a g e o f fixed t r e n c h e s for t h e
1 2- 3 5
aeration pipes. Special precautions would be necessary t o k e e p
the centralized aeration piping and p i l e drainage t r e n c h e s from
clogging and t o provide for condensate water drainage.
Odor filter piles should be replaced periodically , The filter

piles are replaced every other month at Bangor ; during cool
w e a t h e r the s y s t e m h a s o p e r a t e d without significant o d o r p r o b l e m s
and with n o filter p i l e s. At Beltsville , t h e o d o r filter pile is
r e p l a c e d each time the c o m p o s t p i l e is dismantled .
After the piles are formed , t h e y should be covered with a l a y e r

of c o m p o s t or wood chips for insulation and t o p r e v e n t the dust
which is caused b y excessive drying of t h e o u t e r p i l e e d g e s f r o m
blowing .
M o s t composting facilities use a b a s e l a y e r o f bulking a g e n t or

unscreened c o m p o s t t o cover the aeration piping , However , the
piles are now constructed at B a n g o r with no s p e c i a l base l a y e r ;
t h e s i u d g e - bu 1 king a g e n t mixture is p l a c e d d i r e c t l y o n t h e
aeration piping .
R o t a r y o r vibrating screens are c o m m o n l y used t o s e p a r a t e wood
c h i p s for reuse. C o m p o s t containing wood chips with a moisture
c o n t e n t o f g r e a t e r t h a n 4 0 t o 5 0 p e r c e n t c a n be difficult t o
screen ; t h e o p e r a t i o n is therefore not conducted on rainy d a y s.
A l l o w a n c e should be m a d e for d r y i n g t h e c o m p o s t if t h e s o l i d s
c o n t e n t i s l e s s t h a n 5 0 p e r c e n t , a n d t h e s c r e e n s s h o u l d be
sized t o handle a l a r g e volume o f c o m p o s t during fair weather.
Figure 1 2-16 is a photograph of the finished screened c o m p o s t .
1 2 . 3. 3 C a s e Studies ( Unconfined S y s t e m s )
The four case studies chosen involve Los Angeles County

Sanitation District , California ; Beltsville , Maryland ; Bangor ,
Maine ; and Durham , N e w Hampshire. The L o s A n g e l e s s y s t e m handles
8 0 t o 1 2 0 d r y t o n s p e r d a y ( 7 3 t o 1 0 9 t / d a y ). Beltsville
c o m p o s t s approximately 1 4 d r y t o n s p e r d a y ( 12.6 t/d a y ) , B a n g o r
about 2 d r y t o n s p e r d a y ( 1.8 t/d a y ), and Durham a r o u n d 3 d r y
t o n s p e r d a y ( 2.7 t/d a y ).
12.3.3 . 1 Joint Water Pollution Control Plant ,

Carson , California
A l a r g e-scale windrow composting s y s t e m was established in 1974

at t h e J o i n t W a t e r Pollution Control P l a n t . This o p e r a t i o n
is currently composting 400 to 600 wet tons per day ( 364 to
5 4 5 t / d a y ) o f a n a e r o b i c a l l y - d i g e s t e d , p o l y m e r - conditioned ,
centrifugally dewatered , primary s l u d g e with a 2 5 p e r c e n t solids
c o n t e n t ( 19 ). The s l u d g e is t r a n s p o r t e d t o the n e a r b y c o m p o s t
site in fifteen t o n ( 13.5 t ) s l u d g e hauling t r u c k s equipped with
end d i s c h a r g e a n d c o n v e y o r b o t t o m trailers , p r o v i d e d t o m a k e
windrow construction relatively e a s y. Approximately 1 5 cubic
1 2-36
yards ( 11 m 3 ) of finished compost are added to the truck along
with the dewatered sludge , The wet and the dry materials are
initially mixed in the truck. Complete mixing is subsequently
provided by a compost turning machine in the windrow , Given the
current consistency of the sludge and the type of equipment used ,
the windrows that can be constructed are about 3 feet ( 0.9 m )
high and 10 feet ( 3.0 m ) wide. Typically , each windrow is about
500 feet ( 451 m ) long and is constructed with eight to ten
truckloads of material . The windrows are placed on sixteen to
eighteen foot ( 14.6 to 16.5 m ) centers , leaving a clear aisle for
the wheels of the turning machine.
irr
I
"
FIGURE 12- 16
FINISHED SCREENED COMPOST
When a windrow is first placed , it is turned twice to mix the

wet cake with the dry compost , Thereafter , each windrow is
turned once per day to maintain sufficient voids for the natural
passage of air and to promote drying , The process can produce
objectionable odors , particularly in the early part of the cycle
and is likely to generate dust under moderately windy conditions.
In addition to being equipped with conveyor bottom trailors , the

composting trucks have also been modified with extended sidewalls
-
12 37
t o increase their capacity , a n d sealed bottoms , so that they m a y
be used t o haul w e t c a k e o n p u b l i c r o a d s. A t a p r o d u c t i o n r a t e
of 5 0 0 t o n s per d a y ( 450 t /d a y ) of w e t cake, about 2 5 hours o f
truck time are r e q u i r e d each d a y t o construct windrows , Four
turning machines, each with a rated capacity o f 3 , 4 0 0 tons per
hour ( 3 , 0 8 4 t/ hour ), are available for the o p e r a t i o n. T h e y are
relatively high maintenance items, and generally , o n l y t w o o r
three are o p e r a t e d , With t h e c u r r e n t s l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n and a
composting time o f three weeks, about ten hours o f machine time
are required t o t u r n a l l the windrows each d a y ( 3 2 ).
In addition , t w o loaders are used for loading d r y s l u d g e into t h e
t r u c k s ; one crawler tractor i s used for pushing windrows into
s t o c k p i l e s ; o n e g r a d e r is used f o r r o a d maintenance and cleaning
between the windrows ; and a w a t e r truck is used t o control d u s t
o n t h e p l a n t r o a d s.
T h e composting operation t a k e s p l a c e over a 1 0- hour d a y, 7 d a y s

per week and employs approximately twenty operators and
mechanics , e x c l u d i n g t h e s l u d g e haulers.
Kellogg S u p p l y C o m p a n y c u r r e n t l y uses earth movers t o t r a n s f e r
c o m p o s t e d , dried s l u d g e t o a neighboring site . Kellogg h a s been
highly successful in distributing and selling the c o m p o s t a s a n
organic soil conditioner.
The composting operation of the County Sanitation Districts
of Los Angeles County provides a good demonstration of the
f e a s i b i l i t y of s e w a g e s l u d g e c o m p o s t i n g o n a l a r g e s c a l e .
Figure 1 2-1 7 illustrates the p r o c e s s flow for this o p e r a t i o n.
12.3.3 . 2 Beltsville , Maryland

M a n y m e t h o d s and c o n c e p t s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d a t B e l t s v i l l e
t h r o u g h the integration of experimental research and practical
o p e r a t i o n. T h e first m e t h o d a t t e m p t e d a t B e l t s v i l l e w a s t h e
w i n d r o w p r o c e s s. The windrows performed well when digested
sludge was used , but odors developed when unstabi 1 ized ,
d e w a t e r e d / combined primary and s e c o n d a r y s l u d g e w a s composted b y
this method . The individual aerated pile method w a s developed
by the Beltsville researchers to eliminate the odor problems
associated with t h e windrow p r o c e s s.
The research programs demonstrated that either digested or
u n d i g e s t e d s l u d g e c a n b e c o m p o s t e d i n t h e a e r a t e d p i l e.
Destruction of p a t h o g e n s w a s m u c h g r e a t e r w i t h a e r a t e d p i l e
composting than with windrow composting ( 3 3, 3 4 ). T h e extended
aerated pile method w a s also d e v e l o p e d at Beltsville t o minimize
composting area requirements.
T h e extended aerated static pile process is c u r r e n t l y used in

continuous, 5 day p e r week operation t o c o m p o s t 6 0 t o 120 w e t
t o n s p e r d a y ( 5 4 t o 1 0 9 t/ d a y ) o f d e w a t e r e d , u n s t a b i l i z e d
1 2- 38
s l u d g e ( approximately 2 0 t o 2 2 p e r c e n t solids ). The sludge is
conditioned with lime and ferric chloride, dewatered a n d loaded
into tractor- trailer d u m p t r u c k s at the treatment p l a n t during
t h e n i g h t. Each t r u c k h o l d s 2 0 w e t t o n s ( 1 8 t ) a n d h a s a
watertight rear door. Depending on the quantity o f s l u d g e t o be
c o m p o s t e d , t h r e e t o six t r u c k s t r a n s p o r t t h e s l u d g e t o t h e
c o m p o s t site in the morning . All o f the s l u d g e is delivered a t
once , which facilitates pile construction.
DRY
6 COMPOST
RECYCLE -
SLUDGE
P# LOADING
I STATION
LANDFILL
I
I
I
I
SOLID'S DRY COMPOSTING
I KELLOGG
SLUDGE STORAGE
PROCESSING 1 n LOADING 2 AND DRYING 4 G
AREA
SUPPLY
FACILITIES OPERATION COMPANY
STATION
3 OFF-GASES
PERCENT
WET TONS PERCENT DRY TONS DENSITY VOLUME VOLATILE
LOCATION PER DAY SOLIDS PER DAY (Ib / cu yd) ( cu yd ) SOLIDS
1 1,600 23 368 1,890 1,690 55

2 2,960 40 1,184 1,510 3,930 50
3 1,140 92
4 1,820 60 1,092 1,215 3,000 40 1 ton = 0.907 tonne
3
5 1,360 60 816 1,215 2,240 40 1 Ib/ cu yd = 0.6 Kg/m
6 460 60 276 1,215 757 40 1 cu yd = 0.76 m 3
FIGURE 12- 17
COMPOSTING / DRYING SYSTEM - COUNTY SANITARY

DISTRICTS - LOS ANGELES ( 18 )
T h e extended pile is constructed o n a c o n c r e t e pad approximately

1 0 0 feet ( 30 m ) wide and a b o u t 400 feet ( 1 2 2 m ) l o n g . T h e s l u d g e
is d u m p e d o n t o the wood chips and mixed b y a front - end loader , in
a 2.5 :1 chip t o s l u d g e volumetric ratio.
1 2- 39
The composting area for each daily mixture is prepared by laying
out aeration piping on the concrete composting pad and covering
- -
it with a 12 inch ( 0.3 m ) layer of wood chips using a front end
loader. The compost mixture is then placed on the wood chip base
-
using a front end loader. The mixture is piled to a height of
8 feet ( 2.5 m ) , and the top and ends are then capped with an
- -
18 inch ( 0.5 m ) layer of unscreened finished compost or a 12 inch
( 0.3 m ) layer of screened , finished compost. At the end of each
day ' s operation , the side of the pile ( which will have new
material added to it the next day ) is covered with a thin layer
of compost. A pile containing 60 wet tons ( 54 t ) of sludge and
wood chips is approximately 8 feet ( 2.5 m ) high , 12 feet ( 3.6 m )
wide and 75 feet ( 23 m ) long .
To insure proper aeration , a 1/3 horsepower ( 0.25 kW) blower ,
rated at 335 cubic feet per minute ( 158 1/s ) at 5 inches
piping . ^
differential water pressure ( 1.2 kN/ m ) is connected to the
The exhausted air is filtered through a 5 cubic yard
^
( 3.8 m ) filter pile of screened compost for deodorization.
The blower' s is operation is controlled by a timer. Currently ,
blowers are operated for 8 minutes out of every 20 minutes.
At Beltsville , one blower is used to aerate 120 wet tons

( 109 wet t ) of primary undigested sludge mixed with wood chips.
One blower has proven sufficient for two piles when the sludge is
brought to the site at a rate of 60 wet tons per day ( 54 t/day ).
Thus , only approximately 10 blowers and odor filter piles are
-
required ( excluding spare equipment) to operate a 21 day extended
aerated pile facility.
Composted material is removed from the piles after 21 days.
-
The compost pile is dismantled by a front end loader and moved to
the curing stockpile. The compost stays in the curing pile for
at least 30 days and is not mixed before screening and off site
use. A mobile rotary drum screen separates the cured material ,
-
which must be at least 60 percent solids to screen properly .
Finished , cured compost that is too wet to screen is placed in
windrows and turned as frequently as possible for 2 to 3 days
until it is sufficiently dry .
Leachate , condensate , and stormwater runoff are collected in a
holding pond at the far end of the compost facility. When the
level of the pond rises to a maximum allowable height , the water
is pumped to a forested site and sprayed on the forest floor.
Test wells at the compost site and at the land application site
have indicated no groundwater contamination with the use of this
system.
Additional research is being conducted at Beltsville on a
modification of the aerated , extended pile process , called the
extended high pile method . Since land area requirements can be
reduced by increasing pile height , one pile in the shape of a
pyramid has been constructed to a height of 18 feet ( 5.5 m ).
Aeration pipes are installed at three elevations in the pile at --
the base , at 6 feet ( 2 m ), and at 12 feet ( 4 m ) above the base.
-
12 40
Those at the b a s e and at 12 feet ( 4 m ) levels o p e r a t e at negative
p r e s s u r e while t h e pipe a t t h e 6 - foot ( 2 m ) level o p e r a t e s a t
positive pressure . T e s t s are p r e s e n t l y u n d e r w a y t o determine the
m a x i m u m h e i g h t a t w h i c h p i l e s c a n b e built a n d e f f e c t i v e l y
aerated with pipes placed o n l y at the base ( 35 ) .
T h e B e l t s v i l l e s t a f f c o n s i s t s o f e i g h t f u l l- t i m e p e o p l e , t w o
administrative p e r s o n n e l and six o p e r a t o r s, e x c l u d i n g the s l u d g e
transfer truck drivers. This number is more than a c t u a l l y needed
for normal operations , The additional p e r s o n n e l are used f o r
s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s a n d t o s u p p o r t t h e r e s e a r c h demonstration
p r o g r a m. E a c h m e m b e r o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s t a f f i s q u a l i f i e d o n
e a c h p i e c e o f e q u i p m e n t a n d t h e s t a f f is a b l e t o p e r f o r m a l l
p r e v e n t i v e maintenance and much o f t h e r e p a i r w o r k , A list o f
equipment is s h o w n on Table 1 2-3. All equipment h a s enclosed
o p e r a t o r cabs so t h a t d u s t and moisture d o not interfere with t h e
equipment o p e r a t o r s.
TABLE 12-3
BELTSVILLE EQUIPMENT ( 15 )
3 Terex rubber- tired front loaders , 4.5 cubic yards

5 Dumo trucks , 20 ton
1 Rotary drum screen with power unit
1 Sweco screen
1 Fixed Toledo truck scale
1 Mobile office
1 Storage building
1 Covered building
aeration pipe in floor
-
compost test , concrete floor with
1 Portable oxygen analyzer and temperature indicator and

probe
-— -
IH wv ~
—
3
1 cu yd = 0.76 m
1 ton = 0.907 t
Some of the finished compost is used by the USDA at its

agricultural research center for o t h e r t e s t programs , M o s t of
the compost is provided free of charge to local public works
d e p a r t m e n t s who pick up the material a t t h e Beltsville site.
T h e a p p r o x i m a t e m a t e r i a l q u a n t i t i e s u s e d in t h e B e l t s v i l l e
operation are based o n t h e following : annual undigested sludge
c a k e ( with a solids concentration of approximately 2 3 p e r c e n t )
input of 1 5,0 0 0 w e t t o n s ( 1 3,6 0 5 ' t ); ratio o f 2 . 5 :1 wood c h i p
bulking a g e n t t o s l u d g e cake b y volume ; and 5/8 - inch ( 1.5 cm )
screening of a l l c o m p o s t for wood c h i p recovery and r e c y c l e of
75 t o 8 0 p e r c e n t ; the wood c h i p loss/ attrition r a t e at Beltsville
i s c u r r e n t l y a b o u t 4 1 p e r c e n t ( 3 6 ). In this example , the
materials l o s s t h r o u g h composting and curing is estimated .
1 2- 4 1
The building used for test purposes at Beltsville has a concrete
floor with aeration piping built in . Channels 6 inches by
6 inches ( 15 cm x 15 cm ) are recessed in the floor and the
aeration piping is placed into them. The channels run the width
of the building and are spaced 6 feet ( 2 m ) apart along the
length of the building . One end of the piping is connected
to a header system and the other is closed off . One large
blower draws air through the header system , Limited tests have
suggested this arrangement will be proven successful , and a
refined version of this system is being constructed at Durham ,
New Hampshire. The Beltsville structure is approximately 80 feet
( 24 m ) wide and 240 feet ( 73 m ) long . Composting is conducted in
an 80 by 200 foot ( 24 by 61 m ) area and the remainder is an
enclosed and heated equipment storage and maintenance area.
The estimated and projected costs for this extended aerated

-
pile operation are listed in Table 12 4. The cost for early
composting operations included extensive testing , monitoring , and
optimization. The cost per ton for this operation would be
reduced if a facility were designed to operate continuously and
to use the process as it has been optimized at Beltsville.
12.3.3.3 Bangor , Maine
In August 1975 , composting operations began in Bangor to dispose

of the sludge generated by the wastewater treatment plant , An
average wastewater flow of 7 MGD ( 307 1/s) receives only primary
treatment. The plant produces 2 ,500 wet tons per year ( 2 ,268
-
t/year ) of lime conditioned vacuum filtered sludge cake with an
average solids content of 20 percent ( 5 ). The composting site
selected by the City of Bangor is located about 3 miles ( 4.8 km )
from the wastewater treatment plant.
Initially , the sludge was dumped onto a bed of bulking agent
-
( wood bark ) in the mixing area , mixed with a front end loader ,
and formed into a compost pile. Currently , no base material is
used ; the sludge bulking agent mixture is placed directly on the
pad and aeration pipes. Generally , one composting pile is
constructed per week and typically consists of 40 to 60 cubic
yards ( 30 to 46 m 3 ) of undigested primary and secondary sludge
cake which is mixed in 1:2.5 ratio with about 120 to 180 cubic
yards (91 to 137 m ) of bulking agent.
^ Bark with a less than
50 percent moisture content is used as the bulking agent.
The total area required for composting 3 ,000 cubic yards per year
( 2 , 28 0 mVyear ) of dewatered sludge at 20 percent solids is
about 1.7 acres ( 0.7 ha), Precipitation , runoff , and condensate
from the composting operation are channeled into a drainage ditch
leading to the sanitary sewer line ( Figure 12 18 ).
-
-
The base for the compost pile is prepared using 7 foot ( 2 m )
lengths of perforated schedule 40 steel pipe , joined together by
short pieces of plastic pipe . The city found that the short
-
12 42
lengths of s t e e l pipe can be r e m o v e d from the p i l e without
significant damage and reused m a n y times . L o n g e r pipes were used
previously but were easily bent when pulled from the pile.
TABLE 12- 4
BELTSVILLE ACTUAL AND PROJECTED

OPERATING COSTS - 1977 DOLLARS ( 15 )
Estimated October 1977 to September 1978

costs , dollars
Actual 15 ,000 wet 18 , 200 we,t 45 ,500 wet

1976 tons/yr tons/yra ,b tons/yra'b
On- site operations
Telephone and travel 3 ,971 1, 300 1,300 1, 300
Utilities 426 2,211 2 , 211 3 ,000
Fuel and oil 13 ,036 10,500 10 ,500 25 ,000
Sludge hauling 120 ,000 132 ,000
Labor including fringes 152,919 125,750 80,000 125,750
Miscellaneous contract
services
Wood chipsa
112 ,942
73 , 145
° 27 ,540
144 ,000
27 ,540
144 ,000
37 ,000
350 ,000
Supplies and materials 32 , 176 22 ,250 22,250 35 ,000
Equipment insurance 3 ,955 4 , 000 4 ,000 4 , 000
-
Total , excluding off site 512,570 469 ,551 291,801 581,050
Dry tons sludge/yr ( 23

percent solids) 3 ,450 3 ,450 4 , 200 10 ,500
Annual cost , dollars/dry

ton sludge solids 149 136 69 55
aExcluding requirements of research work.

Âssume 50 percent of compost marketed unscreened and
percent recovery of bulking agent after screening finished
70
compost.
CIncludes screening performed by outside contract , screening
now performed on site.
dWhen this analysis was conducted a wood chip attrition rate of
20 percent was used . 1979 analysis indicates that an actual value
of 41 percent should be used for wood chip attrition. ( 36 )
1 ton = 0.907 t
The city has used unscreened c o m p o s t as the bulking agent in a

number of piles. This has dramatically reduced requirements for
new bulking material , and the city plans further tests.
T h e c o m p o s t p i l e s are constructed a s high a s the front - end

loader can reach and capped with 1 to 2 feet ( 0.3 t o 0.6 m ) of
unscreened compost. The finished pile is 10 t o 1 2 feet ( 3 t o
4 m ) high , Each pair of c o m p o s t p i l e s is provided with one
mechanical blower. Blowers are operated by timers.
1 2- 43
t — DRAINAGE DITCH FENCE
Q COMPOST PILES
\
.f- fjr~
UNSCREENED COMPOST STORAGE
y.
A
1
C i 0! E F wV
£ /
/
MIXING ^
9 SC R E EN E D COMPOST STO Ft AG E SC R EEN ^
\
O UTILITY POLE MANHOLE TO SANITARY SEWER
— BLOWER HOUSING
*
BARK STORAGE *- WATER TRAP
FIGURE 12- 18
COMPOSTING SITE LAYOUT - BANGOR , MAINE ( 5 )
During cold weather , all available heat must be c o n s e r v e d t o

bring the piles up to temperature. Recycled unscreened compost
p r o v i d e s a warm bulking a g e n t . The interiors of the w o o d
b a r k s t o r a g e piles a r e a l s o sources o f w a r m materials f o r
mixing . Generally , if the compost pile mixture can initially be
maintained at 39 ° F ( 4 °C ), the interior of the pile will warm up
to normal composting temperatures much more readily than if the
mixture falls below 39 °F ( 4 ° C ). Warm exhaust air recycled from
an older composting pile into the new pile also helps for the
first few d a y s , but recycling should be discontinued after this
period because it causes high moisture levels in the new pile .
Increasing the u n s c r e e n e d c o m p o s t blanket from 1 t o 2 f e e t
( 0.3 to 0.6 m ) during the winter also helped to retain more heat
within the composting pile. The city purchased an air heater t o
provide initial heat t o the piles.
The piles are composted for at least 21 days , Temperature and
oxygen levels are monitored every two t o five days during the
compost cycle. Blower operating cycle is adjusted according to
the performance of the pile. The aeration pipes, blowers, and
moisture traps are checked for freezing during cold weather .
At the end of the composting cycle , the pile is dismantled , and
another pile is usually constructed . The material removed from
the pile is either used as the bulking agent for the new pile or
transferred t o curing .
Unstabilized s l u d g e i s n o t s t o r e d a t t h e c o m p o s t s i t e .
Generally , operations are scheduled so that sludge is dewatered
and a c o m p o s t pile is constructed once a week. The exact d a y of
pile construction is varied depending on weather conditions. The
1 2-44
city has been able to compost nearly all of the sludge produced,
b e c a u s e it i s p r e p a r e d t o c o n s t r u c t t h e c o m p o s t p i l e d u r i n g g o o d
w e a t h e r.
A Lindig r o t a r y d r u m screen i s used t o s e p a r a t e c o m p o s t p r i o r t o
d i s t r i b u t i o n. T h e d r u m i s p r e s e n t l y f i t t e d w i t h a o n e- i n c h
( 2 . 5 c m ) mesh screen , C i t y p e r s o n n e l a r e planning t o construct
a 5/8 - inch ( 1 . 6 c m ) s c r e e n a s s e m b l y s o t h a t either size material
c a n b e p r o d u c e d. T e s t s p e r f o r m e d a t B a n g o r indicate t h a t t h e
s c r e e n is c a p a b l e o f handling a b o u t 2 0 t o 2 5 cubic y a r d s p e r h o u r
^
( 1 5 t o 1 9 m /h r ) o f feed u n d e r t h e b e s t conditions , Compost is
p u t in t h e s c r e e n with a f r o n t l o a d e r. O n e l o a d e r o p e r a t o r a n d a
l a b o r e r a r e r e q u i r e d during s c r e e n i n g o p e r a t i o n s.
Currently, operations at Bangor are performed by treatment
plant personnel under the direction of the treatment plant
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t. T h e r e a r e n o f u l l - t i m e c o m p o s t i n g p e r s o n n e l
because of t h e cyclical n a t u r e of t h e o p e r a t i o n s. A p p r o x i m a t e l y
1 1 m a n-h o u r s p e r w e e k are r e q u i r e d f o r a t r u c k d r i v e r t o deliver
a n d u n l o a d s l u d g e a t t h e s i t e. S a m p l i n g a n d m o n i t o r i n g f o r
t e m p e r a t u r e and o x y g e n c o n t e n t r e q u i r e 1 0 m a n- h o u r s p e r w e e k .
P a t h o g e n and h e a v y m e t a l s m o n i t o r i n g i s p e r f o r m e d u n d e r c o n t r a c t
with the University of Maine. Supervision and administration
r e q u i r e a b o u t 1 5 m a n-h o u r s p e r w e e k. A n n u a l e q u i p m e n t and l a b o r
r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e s h o w n in T a b l e 1 2- 5. The equipment used for
composting operations i s s h o w n in Table 1 2- 6. This e q u i p m e n t is
p r o v i d e d b y t h e c i t y m o t o r p o o l and i s available f o r c o m p o s t i n g
w h e n needed .
TABLE 12- 5
ESTIMATED ANNUAL LABOR AND EQUIPMENT

REQUIREMENTS , BANGOR , MAINE ( 5 )
Labor , Equipment ,
Operation hours hours
Composting
labor 572
front loader 468
Sludge hauling
labor 468
truck 468
Monitoring
labor 520
pickup 520
Administration
labor 780
Screening (8 ,000 cubic yards)
labor 1 , 040
screen 520
front loader 520
Maintenance
labor 100
* .i
3
1 cu yd = 0.76 m
1 2- 4 5
TABLE 12- 6
BANGOR EQUIPMENT ( 5 )
1 Case W24 B rubber-tired front loader, 4 cubic yard

1 Rubber-tired front loader , 1.5 cubic yard
1 Truck , sludge hauling
1 Mobile screen , Lindig
Small tools , as required
Miscellaneous vehicles as needed from motor oool
3
1 cu yd = 0.76 ni
A p p r o x i m a t e m a t e r i a l s q u a n t i t i e s f o r 1 9 7 6 a r e s h o w n in
T a b l e 1 2- 7. T h i s i s b a s e d o n a n a n n u a l s l u d g e i n p u t o f
3 , 0 0 0 cubic y a r d s ( 2, 2 8 0 m 3 ) and a mixture o f three p a r t s bulking
a g e n t t o one part s l u d g e.
TABLE 12- 7
BANGOR MATERIALS REQUIREMENTS FOR

2 , 170 WET TON ( 1 , 968 t ) ANNUAL SLUDGE INPUT ( 5 )
Limed raw primary sludge , wet

tons 2 , 170
Solids , percent 23
Cubic yards , cu yd 3 ,000
Density , lb/cu yd 1 ,450
Dry tons 500
Static pile construction
Sludge , cu yd 3 ,000
Bulking agent , cu yd 9 ,000
Pile cover , cu yd 1 ,560
1 ton = 0.907 t ,
1 cu yd = 0.76 in
1 lb/cu yd = 0.6 kg/m ^
12.3.3.4 Durham , N e w Hampshire
D u r h a m , N e w H a m p s h i r e, p r o v i d e s p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t t o
approximately 1 M G D ( 4 4 1/s ) o f wastewater. About 1 5 wet t o n s
( 13.6 t ) of unstabilzed , dewatered , primary s l u d g e ( 2 0 p e r c e n t
s o l i d s ) is p r o d u c e d each w e e k . T h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t is b e i n g
upgraded t o s e c o n d a r y treatment capability, and this is expected
t o double the quantity o f s l u d g e generated.
1 2- 46
"‘»1
In an effort t o c o p e with c u r r e n t sludge p r o d u c t i o n and t o solve

the problem of future sludge disposal , Durham investigated
s e v e r a l s l u d g e utilization a n d d i s p o s a l alternatives. Land -
filling had t o be terminated because the landfill w a s reaching
its maximum capacity and no other suitable land was available
w i t h i n t h e t o w n limits . It w a s considered t o o c o s t l y a n d
time consuming t o obtain additional land in an adjacent town.
Incineration was considered but rejected because previous
experience with burning solid waste had been unsatisfactory.
A p e r m a n e n t composting facility was chosen ( after an extensive

pilot- scale investigation ) as the s l u d g e disposal alternative .
It was determined t h a t this facility would best meet t h e n e e d s o f
the c o m m u n i t y for t h e following reasons ( 31 ):
Estimated c o s t o f t h e c o m p o s t f a c i l i t y w a s 6 5 8 , 0 0 0
dollars, o f which Durham , by virtue o f state and Federal
funding , would pay approximately 3 3 , 000 d o l l a r s.
T h e c o m p o s t facility would be an integral p a r t of t h e

wastewater treatment p l a n t , and plant p e r s o n n e l could
o p e r a t e t h e facility.
Sale o f finished c o m p o s t would h e l p d e f r a y t h e operating

c o s t s.
Composting r e t u r n s a viable p r o d u c t t o t h e land at a cost

competitive with landfilling and incineration.
T h e n e w c o m p o s t i n g f a c i l i t y i n c o r p o r a t e s m a n y innovations
t h a t reduce operation and maintenance p r o b l e m s. It should be
recognized that since there a r e m a n y innovations in this design
t h a t t h e y a r e n o t a p r o v e n t e c h n o l o g y. T h e c o m p o s t i n g a n d
all o t h e r o u t d o o r operations will t a k e place o n a concrete pad
which is easier t o c l e a n than a g r a v e l b a s e , p r e v e n t s r o c k s from
m i x i n g with t h e c o m p o s t , and is a b e t t e r y e a r - r o u n d w o r k i n g
surface. The pad is sloped t o allow runoff collection from the
c o m p o s t piles. T h e runoff is recycled t o the t r e a t m e n t plant t o
provide protection for t h e surrounding land and s t r e a m s. The pad
is 250 x 1 5 2 feet ( 76 x 46 m ) , and is spacious enough for t h e
screening operation.
T h e a e r a t i o n p i p e s a r e p l a c e d in t r i a n g u l a r t r o u g h s 6 inches
( 1 5 cm ) d e e p which are recessed below the pad surface and covered
with an aluminum grating , flush with t h e pad . O n c e the aeration
pipe is in p l a c e , wood chips a r e used t o fill u p t h e remaining
s p a c e in t h e t r o u g h under the g r a t e s , It is anticipated that
c h i p s d i r e c t l y under the grating will b e changed o c c a s i o n a l l y ,
but the pipe will be used for an extended period o f time , T h e
s l u d g e - w o o d c h i p mixture will t h e n b e p l a c e d d i r e c t l y o n t h e
c o n c r e t e pad o v e r t h e g r a t e s w i t h o u t a n y w o o d c h i p base .
Figure 1 2-1 9 s h o w s a cross section of an aeration t r o u g h with t h e
aeration pipe.
1 2- 47
A 4 - f o o t r e t a i n i n g w a l l w i l l b e built a l o n g t h e e d g e o f t h e
c o m p o s t i n g area o f t h e p a d . This wall will be constructed t o
p r o t e c t t h e blowers which will b e located o n t h e side a w a y from
t h e c o m p o s t i n g o p e r a t i o n a n d t o p r o v i d e a p o s i t i v e b a c k s t o p for
f r o n t loader o p e r a t i o n s.
ALUMINUM
GRATE t CONCRETE PAD
o
i
w
0
&
A « . & m
Q • -
* m
WOOD CHIPS AERATION PIPE
FIGURE 12- 19
CROSS SECTION OF AERATION PIPE TRENCH

DURHAM COMPOST PAD DESIGN
T h e s l u d g e processing b u i l d i n g o f t h e n e w s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t
p l a n t will b e p l a c e d a d j a c e n t t o t h e c o m p o s t i n g p a d . Primary
a n d w a s t e - a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e s w i l l b e mixed t o g e t h e r p r i o r t o
coil vacuum filter dewatering to provide for more consistent
o p e r a t i o n. T h e m i x i n g t a n k s f o r b o t h p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y
s l u d g e will b e l o c a t e d in t h i s b u i l d i n g a l o n g w i t h t h e c o n d i-
tioning chemicals, chemical feed e q u i p m e n t a n d coil filters. T o
provide flexibility in operation, the new plant will have a
o n e - w e e k l i q u i d s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y f o r b o t h activated s l u d g e
and p r i m a r y s l u d g e.
A f t e r t h e s l u d g e i s d e w a t e r e d , a p u g mill will mix it w i t h w o o d
c h i p s f e d f r o m a h o p p e r. A c o n v e y o r b e l t w i l l t r a n s p o r t t h e
c o m p o s t m i x t u r e f r o m t h e b u i l d i n g f o r p i c k-u p b y t h e l o a d e r
and placement on the pad . T h e m i x i n g o p e r a t i o n is c o n d u c t e d
inside t h e building t o p r o t e c t t h e o p e r a t i o n f r o m t h e w e a t h e r.
Coil filter personnel will operate the mixing process, thus
m i n i m i z i n g p e r s o n n e l r e q u i r e m e n t s.
Screening will be executed using a Lindig Rotary Screener
with a material t h r o u g h p u t capacity o f 2 8 0 t o 4 0 0 c u b i c y a r d s
p e r d a y ( 2 1 3 t o 3 0 4 m / d a y ).^ Screening capacity exceeds
p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s, s o t h a t t h e s c r e e n n e e d s t o b e run o n l y
p a r t o f t h e time . This frees the screen and loader operators
t o u n d e r t a k e o t h e r t a s k s.
Storage bins for the composted material and chips will be
p l a c e d d i r e c t l y a g a i n s t t h e c o m p o s t i n g p a d s u c h t h a t the t o p o f
t h e bins a r e e v e n with t h e p a d . T h e r e will b e f o u r bins with a
1 2- 4 8
capacity o f 1 , 2 0 0 y a r d s ( 9 1 2 m 3 ) each , T h r e e of t h e bins will
be u s e d for s t o r i n g c o m p o s t a n d o n e bin for t h e s t o r a g e o f w o o d
chips. A s the c o m p o s t e d material is screened o n t h e composting
pad , t h e c o m p o s t will d r o p into the bins for storage and curing .
A conveyor will collect the wood c h i p s and return them to the
fourth bin for s t o r a g e. The screen can be shifted t o link the
c o m p o s t pile being dismantled with a s t o r a g e bin ( 3 1 ).
T h e s t o r a g e bins will be used for curing the c o m p o s t and will

have sufficient capacity for s t o r a g e o f all p r o d u c t i o n during
winter months when no distribution is planned , The bins will
be unloaded after t h e s l u d g e i s cured f o r about four w e e k s, This
t w o-y a r d ( 1 . 4 m 3 ) front - end l o a d e r will a l s o build and dismantle
the p i l e s , feed the screen , l o a d the c h i p h o p p e r and trucks with
t h e finished p r o d u c t , k e e p t h e pad f r e e o f ice a n d snow , a n d
p r o v i d e a b a c k u p for the mixing operation. A wood chipper and
a seven-yard ( 5 m 3 ) d u m p truck for hauling purposes are other
equipment t o be used .
12.3.3 . 5 Cost Analysis

C o m p a r i n g t h e c o s t o f c o m p o s t i n g at different facilities is
extremely difficult because local factors s u c h a s the weather,
labor , and equipment are highly variable . Operations in warm ,
d r y c l i m a t e s w i l l r e q u i r e l e s s bulking a g e n t a n d p r o b a b l y
be more successful with the screening p r o c e s s than operations in
cold winter areas. Labor and bulking a g e n t costs are a l a r g e
portion of composting expenditures and vary widely according t o
g e o g r a p h i c area.
A generalized annual o p e r a t i n g cost a n a l y s i s h a s been p e r f o r m e d

for a n extended aerated pile s y s t e m for an o p e r a t i o n processing
ten d r y t o n s per d a y ( 9 t/d a y ) of s l u d g e based on t h e operations
at the Beltsville facility ( 18 , 34 ). This analysis is presented
in T a b l e 1 2- 8. A 1 0 d r y t o n p e r d a y ( 9 t / d a y ) c o m p o s t site
should handle the s l u d g e g e n e r a t e d by a s e c o n d a r y treatment p l a n t
from a community o f 100 ,0 0 0 p e o p l e. The site is assumed t o be
operating eight h o u r s p e r d a y, seven d a y s per w e e k.
In 1976 , w h e n the original analysis was done , the operating c o s t

was calculated t o be 4 0 dollars p e r d r y t o n ( $ 4 4 . 4 4/t ). A l t h o u g h
a l l p r i c e s h a v e increased s i n c e t h e n , t h e o n e item w h i c h i s
significantly more expensive is wood c h i p s. I n the analysis in
Table 1 2- 8 , wood chip attrition had b e e n estimated a t 20 p e r c e n t.
Analysis done in 1979 indicates t h a t 4 1 p e r c e n t is the actual
value. Wood chip c o s t s have increased f r o m the $ 3 . 5 0 p e r cubic
y a r d ( $ 4.61/m 3 ), the value indicated in Table 1 2- 8 , t o a 1 9 7 9
value o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y $ 7 . 0 0 p e r c u b i c y a r d ( $ 9 . 2 1 / m 3 ). I n
addition c o s t for transporting s l u d g e t o t h e c o m p o s t side m u s t be
included .
An analysis o f the capital c o s t is n o t p r e s e n t e d , because c a p i t a l
c o s t s are site s p e c i f i c. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t c o s t o f t h e site c a n n o t
1 2- 4 9
be generalized , and the type of composting systems used , aerated
pile or windrow , will largely influence the capital cost. The
replacement cost of the equipment can be a large portion of the
capital cost. The largest capital cost is usually the compost
pad . The capital cost for all equipment and structures at Durham
is estimated to be about $ 600 , 000. Durham' s annualized cost is
anticipated to be $ 80 per dry ton ( $ 88/t ) for capital and $ 60 per
dry ton ( $ 66/1 ) for operating . This makes the total annual cost
for sludge composting at Durham $ 140.00 per dry ton ( $ 154/t ).
This facility is highly mechanized and may represent one of the
most capital- intensive composting operations. The operation at
Bangor , however , utilizes a portion of an abondoned taxi way and
uses the individual pile composting method . The capital costs
for this facility are estimated at about $ 10 to $ 15 per dry ton
( $ 11 to $ 16/ t ).
Except for wood chips and labor , the best approach for estimating
annual operating costs for design purposes is to determine
the costs from a similar compost facility operating in the
same geographic area , Wood chip and labor costs must be
determined for the specific site , Capital costs are best
developed and annualized for the specific site chosen for the
facility .
TABLE 12- 8
FACILITY PROCESSING 10 DRY TONS ( 9 t ) OF

3
SLUDGE PER DAY ( 1 976 DOLLARS ) ( 19 , 34 )
Percent of
Dollars/yr Dollars/dry ton operating cost
Operations b
Wood chips at $3.5 Q/cu yd 35 ,000 9.60 23
Plastic pipe 12 , 200 3.34 8
Gasoline 2.300 0.63 1
Diesel 5.300 1.45 4
Electricity 1,500 0.41 1
Equipment maintenance 8.400 2.30 6
Equipment insurance 1.400 2.30 6
Pad , road maintenance 1, 200 0.33 0.5
Water/sewer 500 0.14 0.5
Labor 77 ,500 21.23 52
Miscellaneous supplies 4 , 400 1.20 3
Total 149 ,700 41.01 10 0
aBasedon the Beltsville operation and assumed to operate

eight hours per day , seven days per week.
^
In 1979 wood chips cost $6.50/cu yd at Detroit and $7.92/cu yd
at Blue Plains , In addition the wood chip attrition rate went
from an assumed 20 percent to a confirmed 41 percent. (36)
1 ton 0.907 t .
1 cu yd = 0.76 m
12- 50
12.4 Confined Composting S y s t e m
Meehanical c o m p o s t i n g is a c c o m p l i s h e d inside a n e n c l o s e d
container or basin. Mechanical s y s t e m s are designed t o minimize
odors and process time by controlling environmental conditions
s u c h a s air flow, t e m p e r a t u r e , and o x y g e n concentration .
1 2 . 4.1 Description o f P r o c e s s
The primary differences a m o n g mechanical composting s y s t e m s a r e
in t h e m e t h o d s o f p r o c e s s c o n t r o l . S o m e p r o v i d e a e r a t i o n b y
tumbling or dropping the material from one floor t o the next.
Others use devices which stir the composting mass. Tumbling the
c o m p o s t in a rotating c y l i n d e r is another a p p r o a c h . I n addition ,
an endless belt is used t o combine forced bottom aeration and
s t i r r i n g . W a t e r is a d d e d t o t h e c o m p o s t i n g m a s s a t critical
times t o increase biological activity in some mechanical s y s t e m s.
A l s o, s o m e m e c h a n i c a l c o m p o s t e r s c a n i n t r o d u c e h e a t t o t h e
composting mass t o k e e p the composting reaction continuing a t t h e
optimum r a t e during c o o l weather.
T h e brief detention times which equipment manufacturers s p e c i f y
for mechanical c o m p o s t e r s d o not a l l o w adequate stabilization o f
t h e s l u d g e. If s h o r t e r detention times are provided , a t w o- t o
three- month maturation period will be necessary t o reduce the
remaining volatile m a t t e r . T h u s, the a m o u n t of time and total
area required for mechanical processes approaches that for
unconfined processes. Mechanical p r o c e s s e s a r e more capital -
intensive t h a n unconfined p r o c e s s e s , Currently only a few
m e c h a n i c a l c o m p o s t i n g p r o c e s s e s a r e o p e r a t i n g in t h e United
S t a t e s a n d t h e s e a r e g e n e r a l l y u s e d t o c o m p o s t a mixture o f
r e f u s e a n d wastewater s l u d g e. A schematic o f a t y p i c a l confined
composting process is s h o w n o n Figure 1 2- 2 0.
1 2 . 4.2 M e t r o- Waste Aerobic Thermophilic

Bio- R e a c t o r
The M e t r o- W a s t e process utilizes a c o m p o s t chamber and a n e n d l e s s
belt t o achieve a d e q u a t e aeration , T h e e n d l e s s belt lifts t h e
composting material to a height of three feet ( 0 . 9 m ) , and d r o p s
it behind as it moves from one end o f the bin t o t h e other. A
large fan introduces air into the mixture through a perforated
floor in t h e c o m p o s t chamber. A partial diagram o f this s y s t e m
is s h o w n o n Figure 1 2- 2 1.
This process , including environmentally controlled buildings , i s
available in module units o f 1 0 d r y t o n s p e r d a y ( 9 t/d a y ) with
retention capacities of 7 t o 2 1 d a y s ( 3 7 ).
1 2 . 4. 3 D a n o Bio- Stabilizer Plant
F i g u r e 1 2- 2 2 s h o w s a t y p i c a l l a y o u t o f a D a n o Bio- Stabi 1 i z e r
p l a n t. The process makes use of a large, slowly rotating
1 2- 51
d r u m,
Material
the interior of which i s equipped with vanes or baffles
i s injected into one end of the machine, rotated
.
s l o w l y f o r one t o t h r e e days, and e j e c t e d from t h e o p p o s i t e end
A e r a t i o n i s a c c c o m p l i s h e d b y t u m b l i n g a c t i o n,
.
Air is injected
into the interior of the drum to insure a constant supply of
oxygen .
WASTEWATER
SLUDGE
MIXING
i
BULKING
AGENT
MECHANICAL
COMPOSTER
( REACTOR !
HEAT
( IF REQUIRED )
AIR
f
SCREENING
I
CURING
FINISHED
PRODUCT
FIGURE 12- 20
TYPICAL PROCESS FLOW

SCHEMATIC CONFINED COMPOSTING SYSTEM
1 2- 5 2
The " maturation " or " curing " period for a D a n o Bio Stabilizer
c a n b e r e d u c e d t o o n e m o n t h if t h e m a t e r i a l i s t u r n e d
occasionally ( 9 ). The Dano process is g e n e r a l l y designed for
refuse composting with sludge addition .
TRIPPER AG I LOADER
V\
M
\
//
55 \N
1
\\S
PERFORATED
ZONING FLOOR
PLENUM / T'I JC\ sw .

%
d
P
\V \
®) AERATION
FIGURE 12 - 21
PARTIAL DIAGRAM
METRO - WASTE SYSTEM -
RESOURCE CONVERSION SYSTEMS , INC .
1 2 . 4 .4 BAV Bio- Reactor

T h e BAV s y s t e m c o m p o s t s municipal w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e in a n upright
cylindrical r e a c t o r. S l u d g e i s mixed with finished c o m p o s t , or
o t h e r b u l k i n g a g e n t s u c h as s a w d u s t , and t h e m i x t u r e is fed
t h r o u g h t h e t o p o f t h e c y l i n d r i c a l r e a c t o r. The composted
mixture is d r a w n off the b o t t o m of t h e reactor as new material
e n t e r s f r o m t h e t o p. The detention time in the reactor is
between ten and fourteen d a y s. Air is fed e v e n l y throughout the
r e a c t o r and the o x y g e n concentration is monitored b y an electric
measuring and regulating s y s t e m. Municipal solid waste can also
be c o m p o s t e d with the s l u d g e , but then the c o m p o s t would require
further processing t o remove nonmagnetic metals and pieces o f
wood , g l a s s , p l a s t i c , and o t h e r non-o r g a n i c materials before it
is r e a d y for landscaping use. Figure 1 2- 23 illustrates the BAV
p r o c e s s.
12.5 E u r o p e a n Composting Experience
Of the seven E u r o p e a n countries r e c e n t l y s u r v e y e d for wastewater

sludge composting practice , West Germany is the center of
a c t i v i t y , with m o r e t h a n 3 0 o p e r a t i n g p l a n t s ( 38 ). Sweden
follows with 20 , which are either in operation o r in planning and
1 2- 53
design s t a g e s ; Switzerland has nine ; France has five ; t h e United
K i n g d o m h a s o n e ; I t a l y a n d t h e N e t h e r l a n d s h a v e n o n e. T h e s e
s y s t e m s are located where wastewater sludge is the p r e d o m i n a n t
waste c o m p o n e n t u s u a l l y mixed with municipal solid w a s t e , The
number o f sludge-o n l y composting s y s t e m s are few.
CONVEYOR FOR
PULVERIZED
CONVEYOR FOR MATERIALS
REJECTS \ \
N AIR SUPPLY
EXHAUST AIR TO
SOIL FILTER
HAUL AWAY
MATURING IN
WINDROWS
ADDITION OF SEWAGE
SLUOGE OR WATER
* HAUL AWAY
SCREEN RESIDUE
HAUL AWAY
INDUSTRIAL AND CINDERS
BULKY WASTES AND ASHES
INCINERATOR
FIGURE 12- 22
TYPICAL LAYOUT OF A DANO BIO- STABILIZER PLANT
T h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f c o m p o s t i n g w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e mixed with
a b u l k i n g a g e n t is established in E u r o p e , but t h e f u t u r e o f
general composting technology in E u r o p e a p p e a r s t o d e p e n d o n the
market economics and continued public a c c e p t a n c e , rather t h a n o n
technological i m p r o v e m e n t s.
The p r e d o m i n a n t e x p e r i e n c e in E u r o p e h a s b e e n with e n c l o s e d
m e c h a n i c a l s y s t e m s. T h i s is p r i m a r i l y a r e s u l t o f a t t e m p t s
to minimize c o m p o s t facility area requirements, Table 1 2-9 lists
t h e various o p e r a t i n g E u r o p e a n w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e c o m p o s t i n g
p r o c e s s e s.
Although numerous a t t e m p t s were m a d e from 1 9 3 0 until the p r e s e n t ,

w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e i s n o l o n g e r c o m p o s t e d in w i n d r o w s without
additives ( sawdust , s t r a w , bark ) in G e r m a n y. Dewatered s l u d g e ,
1 2- 54
*
—
" "essHsasix
'
'
without additives , h a s a l o w p o r o s i t y w h i c h i m p e d e s n a t u r a l
aeration. S t r o n g , o b j e c t i o n a b l e o d o r s d e v e l o p e d , a n d c a u s e d a l l
attempts to be abandoned , T h e f o l l o w i n g illustrates r e c e n t
composting experiences, in G e r m a n y , the United Kingdom , Sweden ,
and Switzerland ( 38 ).
West Germany
In the last three t o five y e a r s in t h e Federal R e p u b l i c of

G e r m a n y , about 3 0 p l a n t s for the composting of wastewater
s l u d g e o n l y have been built or are under construction , When
a l l of these p l a n t s a r e in service , t h e y t o g e t h e r will be
c a p a b l e of managing the sludge from an equivalent p o p u l a t i o n
o f 8 0 0 , 0 0 0. The fact that these 30 confined facilities
can o n l y t o g e t h e r service the sludge from a p o p u l a t i o n o f
8 0 0 , 0 0 0 , c o n t r a s t s s h a r p l y with t h e f a c t t h a t unconfined
processes, such as the windrow operation in Los Angeles, o r
aerated static pile p r o c e s s in Washington , singularly each
process equal to or greater than 8 0 0,000 population , In
most cases, composting of wastewater sludge occurs with
the help of bulking materials such as sawdust or straw.
Currently, a research program is being conducted by the
German Umweltbundesamt t o determine whether these p r o c e s s e s
d o indeed p r o d u c e a pasteurized and p a t h o g e n- parasite-f r e e
p r o d u c t. Preliminary results of this research program , as
y e t u n p u b l i s h e d , s h o w t h a t in some o f t h e s e p r o c e s s e s ,
pasteurization is incomplete and indeed some final c o m p o s t e d
p r o d u c t s d o contain both human and p l a n t pathogens.
United Kingdom
A s o f 1 9 7 8 , o n l y one operating p l a n t located at W a n l i p, near
L e i c e s t e r , i s c o m p o s t i n g w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e in t h e United
Kingdom. Although 10 t o 1 5 years a g o, municipal solid waste
( M S W ) composting in D a n o rotating d r u m s was common , m o s t o f
t h e p l a n t s using these have shut d o w n. In 1974 , t h e W a n l i p
p l a n t reopened , and it now processes 1 , 100 t o n s ( 1 ,0 0 0 t ) o f
MSW mixed with 551 t o n s ( 5 0 0 t o n n e s ) of digested w a s t e w a t e r
s l u d g e ( five p e r c e n t s o l i d s ) each w e e k , The product,
packaged under the brand - name , " L e s c o s t ," is marketed with
some success throughout Great Britain.
Sweden
In 1 9 7 5 , t h e Swedish parliament passed a resolution which
emphasizes recycling through better soTid waste management.
With this resolution , 2 0 Swedish communities or regions are
planning , o r are in t h e p r o c e s s of constructing , composting
p l a n t s. At p r e s e n t , l e s s t h a n o n e p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l
MSW and wastewater sludge produced is recycled by a
composting technique. According t o r e c e n t estimates b y t h e
Swedish National Protection Board , in the next t w o y e a r s
approximately seven percent of the total MSW and wastewater
sludge produced will be recycled by composting methods .
1 2- 55
Switzerland
C u r r e n t l y , there are nine composting p l a n t s in Switzerland ,
t h e n e w e s t o f which w e n t into o p e r a t i o n in 1 9 7 5 in Biel .
All but one , in Uzwel , mix sewage sludge with MSW. In most
cases, incineration and composting equipment are located side
by side , T h e c o m p o s t i n g o p e r a t i o n is u s e d t o d i s p o s e o f
s e w a g e s l u d g e. T h e incinerator b u r n s m o s t o f t h e municipal
w a s t e a n d t h e r e j e c t s f r o m t h e c o m p o s t i n g installation .
N e a r l y a l l the p l a n t s use the D a n o s y s t e m for composting .
T h e a u x i l i a r y mechanical m a c h i n e r y , such a s hammermills ,
c o n v e y o r s and screens, is u s u a l l y produced b y Buehler.
T h e construction o f composting p l a n t s h a s almost ceased in

E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s o t h e r t h a n S w e d e n. Apparently most
operating p l a n t s have difficulties in marketing the c o m p o s t
a t a s a t i s f a c t o r y p r i c e. It m a y w e l l be , however , t h a t
careful operation of t h e p l a n t and better marketing could
improve sales of t h e c o m p o s t. It a p p e a r s v e r y unlikely that
a number o f combined MSW/w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e composting p l a n t s
will be built in t h e near f u t u r e. O n e o f t h e reasons is that
the rejects of composting must be burnt ( landfilling is , for
r e a s o n s of s p a c e , n o t feasible in m o s t r e l a t i v e l y small
E u r o p e a n countries ) ; therefore , an incinerator is n e c e s s a r y
in a n y c a s e . B u i l d i n g a l a r g e r i n c i n e r a t o r instead o f a
combined s y s t e m seems, in m a n y cases, t h e s i m p l e r solution .
MIXTURE TO BE OOMPCSTEO
w*
SCREW- TYPE
CONVEYER
‘
7
A A j
AIR
\ /
I
COMPOST DISCHARGE
FIGURE 12- 23
BAV BIOREACTOR
1 2- 56
1
"N«6U«r/ A
TABLE 12- 9
EUROPEAN WASTEWATER SLUDGE COMPOSTING PROCESSES ( 38 )
Number of
Category Process operating plants
Within vessel BAV 19
Carel Fouche Languenin 1
Roediger/Fermenttechnik 1
Schnorr Valve Cell 2
Societe General
D * assainissement et de
Distribution ( SGDA) 1
Triga 2
We i ss 3
Windrow -
BIO Manure
Hazemag
1
PLM
Rotating drum Buehler 9
Dano 9
HKS 2
Pressed brick Brikollare 2
Fermentation cells Prat 1
-- .
V 'WU «M < »
'
12.6 References
1. Satriana , M .J . Large Scale Composting . Noyes Data
Corporation, Park Ridge , NJ. 1974.
2. ..
Willson, G.B. and J M Walker .
"Composting Sewage Sludge,
How?" Compost Science Journal of Waste Recycling.
-
September October (1973 ) .
P 30.
-
3. Epstein , E. and G.B. Willson. " Composting Raw Sludge. "
Proc. 1975 National Conference on Municipal Sludge
Management and Disposal. Information Transfer Inc. P 245.
August 1974. -
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Wastewater Sludge." Journal Water Pollution Control
5. USEPA.
-
Federation. P 6 88 , Vol. 48, No. V. April 1976.
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Aeration Techniques." Office of Solid Waste. Washington,
DC 10460. -
Interim report SW 614d. 1977.
6 . Wolf , R. " Mechanized Sludge Composting at Durham , New
Hampshire." Compost Science Journal of Waste Recycling,
P
-25. November December 1977.
-
7. Heaman, J. "Windrow Composting -
A Commercial Possibility
for Sewage Sludge Disposal." Water and Pollution Control.
-
P 14. January 1975 .
-
12 57
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" ”
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/
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M a n a g e m e n t. I n f o r m a t i o n T r a n s f e r , I n c., Rockville , M D.
N o v e m b e r 1 9 7 9.
3 7. R e s o u r c e Conversion S y s t e m s, I n c • / C o m p a n y P r o c e s s B r o c h u r e ,
H o u s t o n , T e x a s. D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 7.
38. US EPA. Evaluation of " Within Ve ssel" Sewage Sludge

C o m p o s t i n g S y s t e m s i n E u r o p e. D r a f t R e p o r t . M u n i c i p a l
E n v i r o n m e n t a l Research L a b o r a t o r y. Cincinnati , Ohio 4 5 2 6 8.
C o n t r a c t 6 8 - 0 3- 2 6 6 2. 1 9 7 8.
1 2- 6 0
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 13. Miscellaneous Processes


Technology Transfer
September 1979
structure of the solids ; a monolithic solid is much less subject
to leaching than is a g r a n u l a r solid . However , monolithic solids
may deteriorate if exposed t o wet -dry or freeze-thaw cycles ( 11 ).
Leaching t e s t s t o estimate long - t e r m weathering resistance
of the fixed solids are still being formulated ( 12 ). It should
be emphasized that the information p r e s e n t e d in this paragraph
was derived from experience with sludges of an industrial origin.
Experience with municipal sludges may be similar t o that with
some industrial ones.
TABLE 13- 1
PARTIAL LIST OF FIXATION PROCESSES
Additive
quantity ,
Vendor Process Additives percent References
Dravo Corporation Syneartha Calciloxa

Thiosorbic lime £ 3, 4
IU Conversion Systems , Inc. - -Teca

Poz 0 Lime 4b 3, 4 , 5
- -Soila
Poz 0
Chemfix , Inc. Chemfixa Portland cement 7b 3, 4

Sodium silicate 2
TRW, Systems GroupC 1, 2 - polybutadiene 3 - 4d 6
(nonproprietary) -
Flyash limestone Fly ash
Limestone
4
Registered -
trademarks. Process is in full scale use on hazardous
industrial sludge or flue gas desulfurization sludge or both.
bAdditive as percent by weight of dry sludge solids for flue gas
-
desulfurization sludge and fly ash at coal burning power plants.
CBench scale tests.
dAdditive as a percent of dry sludge solids.
The cost of utilizing the chemical fixation process is affected

by t h e d e g r e e of d e w a t e r i n g required , the t y p e o f fixation
chemical ( s ) employed , and the method of mixing the chemical ( s )
and s l u d g e . In addition chemical fixation p r o c e s s e s are
generally proprietary and require royalty payments. Therefore ,
schemes including chemical fixation are generally more expensive
t h a n conventional s y s t e m s for processing m u n i c i p a l s l u d g e s.
Consequently , applications of the chemical fixation process to
municipal sludges will probably remain uncommon except when such
sludges contain significant concentrations of heavy metals or
o t h e r toxicants , Variables affecting the cost of fixation
include:
• A v a i l a b i l i t y o f f l y ash . S o m e p r o c e s s e s u s e f l y ash
t o reduce the need for other chemicals.
• Sludge dewaterability. Fixation costs increase with the

amount of water present.
13- 2
Volume and mass of sludge t o be treated .
Physical p r o p e r t i e s required for the fixed sludge , A
g r a n u l a r p r o d u c t t e n d s t o cost less than a monolithic
product , for e x a m p l e.
The degree to which the fixed product must resist

leaching .
Reactivity o f t h e s l u d g e with the fixation chemicals.
Unit prices of treatment chemicals , In some cases, this

factor is complicated by the fact that the chemicals are
proprietary.
13.3 Encapsulation P r o c e s s
Encapsulation is the encasing o f sludge in a n impervious , d u r a b l e
material. Encapsulation p r o c e s s e s a r e expensive t o employ b u t
are a u s e f u l t r e a t m e n t alternative w h e n t h e s l u d g e contains
significant concentrations of leachable toxic materials , A s with
fixation p r o c e s s e s , there is little r e p o r t e d experience for t h e
s y s t e m with municipal s l u d g e s , The information p r e s e n t e d h e r e
h a s b e e n obtained f r o m e x p e r i e n c e w i t h i n d u s t r i a l l y derived
sludges. T w o e x a m p l e s of encapsulation p r o c e s s e s are discussed
below.
1 3 . 3.1 Polyethylene P r o c e s s
Encapsulation of a s l u d g e with polyethylene has been investigated

in t h e l a b o r a t o r y ( 6 , 1 3, 1 4 ). This process involves putting a
block, a 55-gallon ( 208 1 ) drum , o r o t h e r container of s l u d g e
that has been treated by the chemical fixation process into a
bed o f polyethylene powder. The polyethylene is then heated t o
350 0 F ( 180°C ) so that it melts and fuses into a 1/ 4 inch ( 6 mm )
thick seamless l a y e r, The approximate amount of p o l y e t h y l e n e
required is 4 p e r c e n t b y weight of the s l u d g e t o be e n c a p s u l a t e d .
P o l y e t h y l e n e is t o u g h a n d m a y b e s e v e r e l y d e f o r m e d w i t h o u t
r u p t u r e. L e a c h i n g t e s t s o f s e v e r a l m a t e r i a l s t r e a t e d b y t h e
polyethylene process showed v i r t u a l l y no release of the chemical
constituent.
The e x t r e m e l y high system t e m p e r a t u r e s cause w a t e r t o e v a p o r a t e
at p r e s s u r e s u p t o a b o u t 1 3 0 p s i g ( 9 0 0 k N / m ). ^ Therefore ,
o n e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e s t r i n g e n t conditions m u s t be m e t :
• T h e process m u s t be carried o u t under p r e s s u r e.
• The sludge m u s t be sealed in vessels that are able t o

w i t h s t a n d a n internal w o r k i n g p r e s s u r e o f 1 3 0 p s i g
^
( 9 0 0 k N/ m ) b e f o r e t h e s l u d g e i s d e l i v e r e d t o t h e
encapsulation process.
1 3- 3
• T h e s l u d g e m u s t b e in a t h o r o u g h l y d r y f o r m s u c h a s
e i t h e r s l u d g e i n c i n e r a t o r a s h o r h e a t - d r i e d s l u d g e.
1 3 . 3.2 Asphalt Process
A s p h a l t m a y b e u s e d t o e n c a p s u l a t e w a s t e s, I n t h i s p r o c e s s ,
t h e w a s t e i s mixed with a s p h a l t a t 3 0 0 ° F ( 1 5 0°C ) in s u c h a w a y
t h a t e a c h individual p a r t i c l e i s c o a t e d w i t h a s p h a l t , Moisture
is r e m o v e d a s s t e a m. T h e c o a t e d p a r t i c l e s a r e t h e n p l a c e d in
5 5- g a l l o n ( 2 0 8 1 ) d r u m s o r o t h e r c o n t a i n e r s w h e r e t h e y c o o l
and f o r m a solid , n o n p o r o u s m a s s , T h e e n c a p s u l a t e d p r o d u c t is
h i g h l y resistant t o leaching , mechanical d a m a g e , a n d bacterial
a t t a c k. A b o u t o n e p o u n d o f a s p h a l t is r e q u i r e d f o r e a c h p o u n d o f
d r y solids ( 1 5 ).
A s p h a l t e n c a p s u l a t i o n h a s b e e n u s e d in E u r o p e o n medium -level
radioactive w a s t e s since 1 9 6 5. T h e r e i s little United S t a t e s
o p e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e , b u t E u r o p e a n e x p e r i e n c e m a k e s it p o s s i b l e
to estimate costs for wastewater sludge a p p l i c a t i o n s. An
installation with a c a p a c i t y of five h u n d r e d 5 5-g a l l o n ( 2 0 8 1 )
d r u m s p e r y e a r could h a n d l e a b o u t 8 4 t o n s ( 7 6 t ) o f d r y s l u d g e
solids p e r y e a r . Capital and operating c o s t s are estimated at
$ 1 . 4 5 million and $ 6 2 , 0 0 0 p e r y e a r , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a t 1 9 7 7 U.S.
p r i c e l e v e l s. A m o r t i z i n g c a p i t a l o v e r t w e n t y y e a r s a t 7 p e r c e n t ,
the total cost is about $ 2,400 per ton dry solids processed
( $ 2 ,6 0 0/ t ). This cost includes encapsulation machinery and
associated b u i l d i n g s p a c e , d r u m s , d r u m s t o r a g e , a s p h a l t , s t e a m ,
c o o l i n g w a t e r , a n d o p e r a t i n g l a b o r. It does not include
e n g i n e e r i n g ( e x c e p t f o r e n g i n e e r i n g p e r f o r m e d b y the e q u i p m e n t
s u p p l i e r ) , s l u d g e dewatering which p r e c e d e s t h e encapsulation
p r o c e s s, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d d i s p o s a l o f t h e f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t ,
treatment of contaminated steam that might be produced , or
m a i n t e n a n c e. Possibly, cost savings can be obtained from
economies of scale and l e s s rigorous conditions t h a n t h o s e at
n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s.
13.4 E a r t h w o r m Conversion P r o c e s s
A novel municipal wastewater sludge treatment process uses

e a r t h w o r m s ( 0 1 i g o c h a e t e annelids ). T h i s s y s t e m is o f t e n called
" e a r t h w o r m conversion , " vermicomposting , o r annelidic c o n s u m p t i o n
( 1 6 ). Vermicomposting is different from the conventional
composting of wastewater treatment plant sludge , In the
e a r t h w o r m conversion p r o c e s s, t h e w o r m s a r e provided a n o ptimum
environment t o consume or metabolize t h e s l u d g e and p r o d u c e feces
o r c a s t i n g s. T h e s e c a s t i n g s m a y b e used a s a soil conditioner.
1 3 . 4 .1 Process Arrangement
Earthworm conversion is basically a simple process , and a

s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m o f it is s h o w n o n F i g u r e 1 3-1. The process
r e q u i r e s w o r m b e d s and a s u p p l y of worms. G e n e r a l l y , d i g e s t e d
1 3- 4
and dewatered sludge is put into the beds , although experiments
a r e u n d e r w a y , where raw l i q u i d s l u d g e is p l a c e d in beds. If
anaerobic digestion is used p r i o r t o earthworm conversion ,
additional p r e t r e a t m e n t may be needed , A bulking a g e n t such as
wood chips may be useful in some cases for keeping the bed porous
and aerobic , especially if moisture is high . Sludge is, however ,
g e n e r a l l y a p p l i e d without a n y bulking a g e n t . A worm bed m a y
take the form of a simple t r a y. Windrows similar t o those for
composting may also be used . After the worms have consumed the
sludge , they must be separated from the castings. This may be
done with an earthworm harvester , a drum screen that rotates on
a n e a r l y horizontal axis. Castings fall through the screen
openings while w o r m s tumble t h r o u g h the l e n g t h of t h e drum.
Table 13- 2 contains some critical operational p a r a m e t e r s for the
earthworm conversion process.
MAKE -UP
EARTHWORMS
BULKING AGEJfT
IIP REQUIRED
Af ft061-CALL V
-
DIGESTED SLUDGE
DEWATERING MIXFH
CASTIHQZ
FOP LAND
WO HM (EARTHWORM
BULKING AGENT HARVESTER UTILISATION
BIDS
ANAEROBICALLY
DIGESTED
SLUOGE PHE - TREATMENT
1
I IF REQUIRED * AS SC'ifL
AMENDMENT
* DEWATERING
^ .
\ AE RATION,,ETC ,)
MfXEfl
RECYCLED EARTHWORMS,
ifl
cc
o
UNEATEN SLUDGE PARTICLES,
AND |IF USED) BULKING AGENT
1
«*
< f
ui ^
— --
vi
P
;
,
—
T
£T
! SEPARATION Of I
BULKING AGENT EARTHWORMS FROM
FOR RECYCLE BULKING AGENT
| ( IF REQUIRED I 1
J
SURPLUS EARTHWORMS
FDR SALE
FIGURE 13 - 1
DIAGRAM OF AN EARTHWORM CONVERSION PROCESS
The main p r o d u c t of the earthworm conversion process is t h e

worm' s castings. In some process arrangements there may be a net
earthworm production. The excess earthworms may then be sold for
1 3- 5
fish bait or animal protein supplement. Earthworm marketing is a
complex problem . For municipal sludge applications , surplus
-
earthworms may be considered a by product ; the principal product
is the castings , which can be a resource.
TABLE 13 - 2
PARAMETERS FOR EARTHWORM CONVERSION
Parameter Values
.
mM. A
Detention time of sludge in worm beds 2 days ( 19)

32 days ( 18)
Worm reproductive cycle 1 to 2 months

Rate of worm feeding ( 15°C ) 0.17 to 1.7 grams dry sludge per gram dry
worm weight per day (17)
Optimum temperature 15°C to 20 C ( 17)
°
Dry matter content of worms 20 to 25 percent (Eisenia foetida ) (20)
Minimum solids content of the worm bed
mixture
20 percent solids ^
aSpecies of worm being tested : Eisenia foetida (redworm , hybrid redworm ,
tiger worm, dung worm) (17), Lumbricus rubellus (red manure worm, red
wiggler worm ) (18), and Lumbricus terrestris (nightcrawler) (17).
.
Âctual minimum solids content depends on such factors as porosity , type of

sludge , ability to keep aerobic. Experiments are being conducted to better
define these parameters.
° =
1 F °
32 + 1.8 C
13.4.2 Advantages of the Earthworm Conversion Process

When dry , earthworm castings are essentially odorless; when damp,
they have a mild odor like a good quality topsoil. Also , the
castings have a favorable appearance. When sifted and dry , they
are granular , about 0.02 to 0.1 inches ( 0.5 to 3 mm) in maximum
dimension ( with some fines ); color is brownish gray. In study
a
where municipal sludge was applied to a wheat crop , it was found
that when earthworms were added to the sludge , the germination
rate of the wheat was improved ( 21 ). The odor , appearance , and
soil supplementation advantages of the earthworm conversion
process may help in the acceptance of sludge by farmers and
householders.
Earthworm conversion affects several other sludge char -
acteristics. The oxygen uptake rate increases ( 17 ) ; the
acid extractable fraction of various nutrients increases ( 21 ).
-
The volatile content of the solids drops slightly and humic acid
concentrations fluctuate ( 17 ). While these effects may be
beneficial , there are no data to show how the results affect
design or operation of earthworm conversion installations.
13 - 6
The earthworm conversion process would appear to be low in cost ,
although this cannot be said with certainty , since no cost data
-
are available for full scale operations on sludge , The process
does not require chemicals , high temperatures , or large amounts
of electricity . Only a small amount of low speed mechanical
-
equipment is needed. Significant expenditures may be required to
offset the potential operating difficulties discussed below.
13.4.3 Possible Operating Difficulties
A number of potential operating difficulties and their solutions

are listed in Table 13 3.
insurmountable.
- None of these difficulties are
Probably it is most difficult to economically
pretreat anaerobically digested sludge so that it is nontoxic to
the worms.
13.4.4 Limitations
Limitations are:
• Earthworm conversion decreases the total nitrogen

values in the sludge because ammonia nitrogen will be
lost to the atmosphere.
• Published information to date ( 1979 ) is almost

-
nonexistent on full scale municipal wastewater treatment
plant sludge operations. Consequently , costs are
unpredictable.
• Two common ions in municipal wastewater sludge , ammonium

and copper , may be toxic to worms. Studies have found
that these ions were lethal at additions equivalent
-
to 180 mg NH 4 N and 2 ,500 mg Cu per kilogram of wet
substrate ( 26 ,27). Safe limits for these elements are
not known.
• Cadmium accumulates in the worm Eisenia foetida. Zinc

apparently does not accumulate in Eisenia foetida but
does accumulate in other species ( 27 ,28 ). If the worms
are to be used as animal feed , the system must be
operated such that cadmium and zinc concentrations in
the worms do not exceed recommended levels for animal
consumption.
• Space requirements may rule out earthworm conversion

at some treatment plants.
• The earthworm business has been afflicted with unsound

investments and excessive claims , For example , it has
been claimed that earthworm processing is able to
reduce concentrations of heavy metals ( 29 ). Any such
-
13 7
r e d u c t i o n c o u l d o n l y be c a u s e d b y s i m p l e dilution
with uncontaminated waste or by concentration of the
contaminants in the earthworms.
TABLE 13- 3
POSSIBLE OPERATING DIFFICULTIES IN EARTHWORM CONVERSION
Possible difficulty Comments

Worm drowning Worms must be protected from flooding.
Predation by birds and animals Not a problem at San Jose -

Santa Clara ,
California experiments ( 22).
Worm loss due to migration from the
process
Caused by flooding , toxic sludge , unpalat
able sludge , adjoining areas attractive
-
to worms , lack of artificial lighting on
rainy nights.
Toxicity of sludge to worms Significant for anaerobically digested
sludge. However , toxicity is eliminated
by exposing the sludge to air for two
-
months (17) or wetting sun dried sludge
daily for 14 days (21). Stabilization by
lime or chlorine is not recommended for
sludge that will be fed to earthworms.
Toxicants such as copper salts might also
cause problems. Aerobic digestion is best
suited for sludge to be converted by
earthworms.
Toxicity or unpalatable nature of
dewatering chemicals
Avoided at Hagerstown, Md ., by use of food
grade polymer ( 19). Drying beds may be
-
used ; drying beds do not usually require
chemicals.
Worm shortage in the process , so that Worms reproduce via egg capsules. These
worm additions are required capsules may be lost from the process in
the castings. Also , toxic conditions,
drowning , and other problems will cause
worm populations to drop. At Hagerstown,
Md . , a worm raising operation has been
-
proposed to supply the necessary make up
worms to the sludge conversion process ( 19).
Shortage of worms for initial inventory To begin operation , a large worm inventory
or restart may be needed , so large that local worm
suppliers may be unable to fill it.
-
Gradual start up is therefore desirable ,
especially for large plants. Also, earth
worm exchanges may become available
-
nati&«iwide so that sludge operations can
draw on larger numbers of earthworm
suppliers.
Temperature extremes Worm feed most rapidly at 15 to 20 degrees C ;

about 5 degrees C , feedirtg is quite slow
( 17). Freezing will kill worms. High
temperatures can also cause problems. It
may be necessary to stockpile sludge dur
ing the winter or provide a heated
-
building for the conversion process.
Shortage of enzymes Not a problem , despite claims by marketers
of enzyme preparations that these prepara
tions are valuable to the process ( 23).
-
13- 8
TABLE 13- 3
POSSIBLE OPERATING DIFFICULTIES IN EARTHWORM CONVERSION ( CONTINUED )
Possible difficulty Comments

Exposure to light Worms avoid bright light. Some sort of
cover or shade should be provided so that
worms will convert the top layer of the
sludge.
Dehydration There is a minimum moisture content for the
worm bed (23).
Salinity in castings Under some conditions, castings may have
sufficient dissolved salts to inhibit
plant growth. This problem may be elim
inated by leaching or by mixing the
-
castings with other materials with lower
dissolved salts ( 24 , 25).
Contamination of castings by heavy metals , Source control may be used , where feasible ,
motor oil , rags, and similar materials as for other processes aimed at reuse of
sludge as a soil conditioner. See
Chapter 2 for regulations on sludge pro
ducts.
-
Odors The most likely source is raw or
aerobically digested sludge , which has
been stockpiled to await earthworm con-
version.
°C = ° -32).
0.555 ( F
If a particular sludge is suitable for earthworm

conve rsion, that sludge should also be suitable for
r e u s e a s a soil conditioner without being p r o c e s s e d b y
e a r t h w o r m s. H o w e v e r , e a r t h w o r m conversion r e d u c e s o d o r ,
i m p r o v e s t e x t u r e , and m a y increase germination r a t e.
T h e s e limitations m a y be s i g n i f i c a n t b u t not o v e r w h e l m i n g , T h e r e
i s c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t u n d e r w a y, It appears
t h a t e a r t h w o r m conversion m a y have a role in m u n i c i p a l wastewater
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s l u d g e p r o c e s s i n g.
13.5 References
1. R . K . S a l a s. " D i s p o s a l o f L i q u i d W a s t e s b y C h e m i c a l
F i x a t i o n/ S t a b i l i z a t i o n T h e C h e m f i x ( R ) P r o c e s s. "
T o x i c a n d H a z a r d o u s W a s t e D i s p o s a l , Volume 1. R.B. P o j a s e k ,
e d . A n n A r b o r Science , 1 9 7 9.
2. J .T. S c h o f i e l d . " S e a l o s a f e ( S M ). " Toxic and Hazardous
W a s t e D i s p o s a l , V o l u m e 1. R.B . Pojasek , ed. Ann Arbor
S c i e n c e , 1 9 7 9.
3. F r a n c i s O ' D o n n e l l. "Scrubber Sludge: Nightmare for
Utilities." S l u d g e M a g a z i n e . V o l. 1 n o. 2 , P 26. M a r c h -
-
April, 1978 .
1 3- 9
4 . J W . .
Barrier , H L Fawcett , and L J . . Henson "E conomic . . .
Assessment of FGD Sludge D i s p o s a l A l t e r n a t i v e s " Journal .
Environmental E n g i n e e r i n g D i v i s i o n ASCE
Oct , 1978 . .
Vol 104 p 951, . . .
5 . Hugh Mullen, Louis Ruggiano, and S I Taub "C o n v e r t i n g . . .
Scrubber Sludge and Flyash into Landfill Material " .
Pollution Engineering V o l 1 0 , n o 5 , p. 7 1 M a y , 1 9 7 8 . . . . .
6 . USEPA .
D e v e l o p m e n t o f a P o l y m e r i c C e m e n t i n g a n d E n c a p s u l-
ating Process for Managing Hazardous Wastes Office of .
Research and Development , Cincinnati , Ohio 45268 E P A- .
- -
6 0 0/ 2 7 7 0 4 5 August 1977 . .
7 . Raymond Swan . "Indianapolis Project: From Lagoons to
..
Landspreading i n T h r e e N o t - s o- E a s y L e s s o n s " Sludg
.- — e
Magazine Vol . . 1, n o 3 , P 1 6 . -
May June , 1978 . - iWi > #» . (ft
*
8. USEPA .
Field Evaluation of Chemically Stabilized Sludges .
Land Disposal of Hazardous Wastes Proceedings of the .
Fourth Annual Research Symposium San Antonio, Texas . .
March 6 8 , 1978 - .
Office of Research and Development ,
Cincinnati , Ohio 45268 E P A- 6 0 0 / 9 - 7 8 0 1 6 1978 . - . .
9 . USEPA .
Laboratory Assessment of Fixation and Encapsulation
.
Processes f o r A r s e n i c- L a d e n W a s t e s Land Disposal of
Hazardous Wastes, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual
Research Symposium San Antonio, Texas .
March 6 8 , 1978 . - .
-
EPA 6 0 0/9 7 8 0 1 6 - - .
10. USEPA .
P o l l u t a n t P o t e n t i a l of Raw and Chemically Fixed
Hazardous Industrial Wastes and Flue Gas Desulfurization
Sludges .
Interim report .
O f f i c e o f R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p-
ment, Cincinnati , Ohio 45268 E P A- 6 0 0 / 2 7 6 -1 8 2 July 1976 . - . .
11 . R E. .Landreth and J L Mahloch . .
"Chemical F i x a t i o n of .
Wastes " . I n d u s t r i a l W a t e r E n g i n- e e r i n g— Vol 14 , no 4, . . .
P 1
-
6 . J u l y - A u g u s t 1 9 7 7 . —— '
I !
12. Robert Pojasek .

"S t a b i l i z a t i o n , S o l i d i f i c a t i o n o f H a z a r d o u s
Wastes " E n v i r.o nmental Science and Technology Vol 12 , . .
P - 382 . April 1978 .
13 . USEPA . Encapsulation Techniques for Control of Hazardous
Materials . Land Disposal of Hazardous Wastes, Proceedings
of Fourth Annual Research Symposium San Antonio, Texas, .
M a r c h 6 -8 , 1978 .
E P A- 6 0 0 / 9 - 7 8 0 1 6 1 9 7 8 - . .
14. H R . .
Lubowitz and C C
Toxic and Hazardous
. .
W i l e s , "E n c a p s u l a t i o n T e c h n i q u e
.
for Control of Hazardous Wastes "
,
Waste Disposal Volume 1 R B P o j a s e k , ed Ann Arbor . . . .
,
Science, Ann Arbor Michigan 48106 1979 . .
1 3-1 0
1 5. R .D. D o y l e , " U s e o f a n E x t r u d e r/ E v a p o r a t o r t o S t a b i l i z e
a n d S o l i d i f y H a z a r d o u s W a s t e s." Toxic and Hazardous Waste
D i s p o s a l , V o l u m e 1. A n n A r b o r S c i e n c e , 1 9 7 9. R.B. P o j a s e k ,
e d. P 6 5.
-
1 6. Frank Carraody , "P r a c t i c a l P r o b l e m s i n A p p l i c a t i o n o f
E a r t h w o r m s t o W a s t e C o n v e r s i o n P r o c e s s e s." Utilization o f
Soil Organisms in Sludge Management , proceedings of
c o n f e r e n c e , S y r a c u s e , N e w Y o r k : 6 / 2 5 -1 7/7 8 . National
Technical Information S e r v i c e P B -2 8 6 9 3 2. e d. R . H a r t e n s t e i n.
1 7. M .J . M i t c h e l l , R . M . M u l l i g a n , R o y H a r t e n s t e i n , a n d
E.F. N e u h a u s e r. " Conversion o f S l u d g e s i n t o 'T o p s o i l s' b y
E a r t h w o r m s ." C o m p o s t S c i e n c e. V o l. 1 8 , p. 2 8 . J u l y- A u g u s t ,
1977 .
1 8. David N e w m a n. " E a r t h w o r m a n d E l e c t r o n s: T e c h n o l o g y' s O u t e r

L i m i t s." S l u d g e M a g a z i n e , V o l. 1 , n o. 1 , P. 3 0 • J a n u a r y-
February 1978 .
1 9. C a t h y D o m b r o w s k i , " P o s t s c r i p t: E a r t h w o r m s ." Sludge

M a g a z i n e. V o l. 1 , n o. 5 , p. 1 0 S e p t e m b e r-O c t o b e r, 1 9 7 8 .
20. J .R. S a b i n e . " T h e N u t r i t i v e V a l v e o f E a r t h w o r m M e a l ."

Utilization of Soil Organisms in Sludge Managem e n t ,
p r o c e e d i n g s o f c o n f e r e n c e, S y r a c u s e , N e w Y o r k: 6/ 1 5-1 7/7 8.
N a t i o n a l T e c h n i c a l I n f o r m a t i o n S e r v i c e P B - 2 8 6 9 3 2. e d.
R. H a r t e n s t e i n.
21 . M .3. K i r k h a m . " Availability to Wheat of Elements in

S l u d g e-T r e a t e d S o i l w i t h E a r t h w o r m s." Utilization o f S o i l
O r g a n i s m s in S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t , p r o c e e d i n g s o f c o n f e r e n c e,
S y r a c u s e , N e w Y o r k: 6 / 1 5- 1 7 - 7 8. National Technical
Information S e r v i c e P B - 2 8 6 9 3 2. e d. R. Hartenstein.
2 2. J . E . C o l l i e r. " U s e o f E a r t h w o r m s in S l u d g e L a g o o n s."
Utilization o f Soil Organisms in Sludge Management ,
p r o c e e d i n g s o f c o n f e r e n c e. S y r a c u s e , N e w Y o r k : 6 / 1 5-1 7-7 8.
R. H a r t e n s t e i n.
23. L i n d a T h e o r e t , R o y H a r t e n s t e i n, a n d M .J . M i t c h e l l. " A S t u d y
o n t h e Interactions o f E n z y m e s w i t h M a n u r e s a n d S l u d g e s."
C o m p o s t S c i e n c e. V o l. 1 9 , p. 2 9. J a n u a r y-F e b r u a r y , 1 9 7 8 .
2 4. S o i l a n d P l a n t L a b o r a t o r y , I n c. S o i l F e r t i l i t y A n a l y s i s -
E a r t h w o r m C a s t i n g s. R e p o r t o n s l u d g e-derived c a s t i n g s f r o m
S a n J o s e - S a n t a C l a r a , C a l i f , , e x p e r i m e n t s . M a y 1 7 , 1 9 7 7.
25. N. Stark , P . Pawlowski , and S . B o d m e r. "Quality of

E a r t h w o r m C a s t i n g s a n d t h e U s e o f C o m p o s t o n Arid S o i l s " .
Utilization of Soil Organisms in Sludge Management,
p r o c e e d i n g s o f c o n f e r e n c e. S y r a c u s e , N e w Y o r k: 6/1 5/7 8 .
R. Hartenstein. P 8 7. -
1 3-1 1
2 6. E .F . N e u h a u s e r , " T h e U t i l i z a t i o n o f E a r t h w o r m s i n S o l i d
W a s t e M a n a g e m e n t " , Utilization o f S o i l O r g a n i s m s in S l u d g e
M a n a g e m e n t , p r o c e e d i n g s o f c o n f e r e n c e. S y r a c u s e , N e w Y o r k:
6 / 1 5 - 1 7 / 7 8. National Technical Information Service
.
P B- 2 8 6 9 3 2 e d . R . Hartenstein. P. 1 3 8. (Value converted
from ammonium a c e t a t e b a s i s t o a m m o n i a n i t r o g e n basis. )
2 7. R . H a r t e n s t e i n e t a 1., " H e a v y M e t a l s , S l u d g e s , a n d
t h e E a r t h w o r m Eisenia foetida." J o u r n a l o f Environmental
Q u a l i t y. I n review , 1 9 7 8.
2 8. R . I. V a n H o o k , " C a d m i u m , L e a d , a n d Z i n c D i s t r i b u t i o n s
B e t w e e n E a r t h w o r m s a n d S o i l s: Potentials f o r B i o l o g i c a l
Accumulation." Bulletin o f Environmental Contamination a n d
. .
T o x i c o l o g y. V o l 1 2, P 5 0 9 1 9 7 4 .
-
29 . A n P r o S , A n Ecologically , E n v i r o n m e n t a l l y , & Economically
S o u n d ApTproach t o S e w a g e S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t . G T A , I n c • /
W i l m i n g t o n D e l a w a r e, 1 9 7 8 , pamphlet.
^
1 3-1 2
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 14 . Transportation


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 14
TRANSPORTATION
T h e fundamental objective of a l l w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t operations

is t o r e m o v e u n d e s i r a b l e c o n s t i t u e n t s p r e s e n t in w a s t e w a t e r
and consolidate these materials for further processing and
d i s p o s a l. Solids removed by wastewater treatment processes
include screenings and grit , n a t u r a l l y floating materials called
scum , and the remainder o f t h e removed solids called s l u d g e .
This chapter discusses the transportation of solids , or
t h e m o v e m e n t of s l u d g e , s c u m , o r o t h e r miscellaneous s o l i d s
f r o m p o i n t t o p o i n t f o r t r e a t m e n t , s t o r a g e , o r d i s p o s a l.
Transportation includes m o v e m e n t of solids b y pumping , conveyors,
or hauling equipment.
14.1 Pumping and Pipelines
U n l e s s a s l u d g e h a s b e e n d e w a t e r e d , it c a n b e t r a n s p o r t e d
most efficiently and economically by pumping through pipelines.
S l u d g e i s s u b j e c t t o t h e s a m e p h y s i c a l l a w s a s o t h e r fluids.
Simply stated , w o r k p u t into a fluid b y a pump a l t e r s velocity,
elevation , and pressure, and overcomes friction loss. T h e unique
flow characteristics of sludge create special problems and
constraints. Nevertheless , s l u d g e h a s been s u c c e s s f u l l y pumped
t h r o u g h s h o r t pipelines a t u p t o 20 p e r c e n t solids by weight , a s
w e l l a s in p i p e l i n e s o f o v e r 1 0 m i l e s ( 1 6 km ) l o n g at u p t o
8 p e r c e n t solids concentrations.
Most o f t h e following information is related t o s l u d g e , a l t h o u g h

screenings , grit , and scum m a y a l s o be t r a n s p o r t e d b y pipeline.
M e n t i o n is m a d e o f t h e s e miscellaneous s o l i d s w h e n s p e c i a l
considerations are involved .
1 4 . 1 .1 Simplified Head L o s s Calculations
Head l o s s e s must b e estimated for s l u d g e pumping ; t h e y are n o t

available in standard tables. Head requirements for elevation
c h a n g e a n d v e l o c i t y a r e t h e s a m e a s f o r w a t e r. H o w e v e r,
friction l o s s e s m a y be much higher than friction losses in w a t e r
pipelines. Relatively s i m p l e p r o c e d u r e s a r e o f t e n used in design
work ; s u c h a p r o c e d u r e is described below. The a c c u r a c y o f these
p r o c e d u r e s is o f t e n a d e q u a t e , e s p e c i a l l y a t s o l i d s c o n t e n t s
below 3 p e r c e n t b y weight. H o w e v e r, a s t h e pipe l e n g t h , p e r c e n t
t o t a l solids, and p e r c e n t volatile solids increase, these simple
1 4-1
procedures may give imprecise or misleading results, A more
e l a b o r a t e m e t h o d f o r situations demanding g r e a t e r accuracy i s
given in Section 14.1. 2.
I n w a t e r piping , f l o w is a l m o s t a l w a y s turbulent , F o r m u l a s
f o r friction l o s s with w a t e r, s u c h a s H a z e n- W i 1 1 iams a n d
Darcy-Weisbach, are based o n turbulent flow . S l u d g e also m a y
flow turbulently , in which c a s e t h e friction loss m a y be r o u g h l y
t h a t o f w a t e r. S l u d g e, h o w e v e r, is unlike w a t e r in that laminar
f l o w a l s o is common. W h e n laminar flow occurs, t h e friction l o s s
may be m u c h g r e a t e r than for water, Furthermore, laminar flow
laws f o r ordinary "Newtonian " fluids , s u c h a s w a t e r, c a n n o t b e
used f o r laminar f l o w o f s l u d g e because s l u d g e is n o t a Newtonian
fluid ; it f o l l o w s different f l o w l a w s.
Figure 1 4-1 m a y be used t o provide r o u g h estimates o f friction
loss under laminar flow conditions, This figure should be used
w h e n:
Velocities a r e a t l e a s t 2 . 5 feet p e r s e c o n d ( 0.8 m/s ).

At lower velocities, t h e difference between s l u d g e and
w a t e r may greatly increase.
Velocities d o not exceed 8 feet p e r s e c o n d ( 2.4 m/s ).

Higher velocities are n o t c o m m o n l y used because of high
friction l o s s and abrasion p r o b l e m s.
Thixotropic behavior is n o t considered , Friction losses

may be much higher in suction piping , A l s o, w h e n
s t a r t i n g a pipeline t h a t has b e e n s h u t d o w n f o r over a
d a y , u n u s u a l l y high pressures m a y b e n e e d e d.
T h e pipe is not seriously obstructed by g r e a s e o r o t h e r

materials.
A s a n e x a m p l e , c o n s i d e r a p i p e c a r r y i n g unstabilized p r i m a r y
s l u d g e. T h e pipe is 5 0 0 feet ( 1 5 2 m ) l o n g a n d 6 inches ( 1 5 0 mm )
in d i a m e t e r ; f l o w r a t e is 3 0 0 g a l l o n s p e r minute ( 1 9 1 /s ) ,
A s s u m e t h a t t h e s l u d g e s o l i d s concentration m a y b e u p t o
7 p e r c e n t solids o n occasion , Using t h e H a z e n-Williams formula
with a "C " o f 1 0 0 , a friction loss of 6.5 feet ( 2.0 m ) would
a p p l y. If l a m i n a r s l u d g e f l o w o c c u r s, F i g u r e 1 4 - 1 g i v e s a
multiplication factor o f 5 . 8 , so a friction loss of 38 feet
( 1 2 m ) might occur. T h e friction loss could easily v a r y from
6 . 5 t o 3 8 feet ( 2.0 t o 1 2 m ) in actual operation d u e t o c h a n g e s
in s l u d g e properties and factors n o t considered o n Figure 1 4-1.
G r i t slurries a r e u s u a l l y dilute ; a l s o, grit particles d o n o t

stick t o e a c h o t h e r , T h e r e f o r e, ordinary friction formulas f o r
water are usually adequate, A velocity of about 5 feet per
second ( 1 . 5 m/s ) is typically used , Low velocities m a y cause
deposition of grit within t h e pipe; high velocities may cause
erosion.
1 4- 2
v f
14
12
y:
o 10
i-
o
<
LL
2
8
o UNTREATED PR ( MARY AND
CONCENTRATED SLUDGES
< 6
u
CL
DIGESTED
h-
4 SLUDGE
D
5
0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SLUDGE CONCENTRATION, % solids by weight
NOTE: MULTIPLY LOSS WITH CLEAN WATER BY K TO

ESTIMATE FRICTION LOSS UNDER LAMINAR
CONDITIONS ( SEE TEXT ) .
FIGURE 14- 1
APPROXIMATE FRICTION HEAD- LOSS FOR LAMINAR

FLOW OF SLUDGE
14.1.2 Application of Rheology to

Sludge Pumping Problems
Water , oil , and most other common fluids are " Newtonian." This
means t h a t the p r e s s u r e d r o p is directly proportional t o the
velocity and viscosity under laminar flow conditions. As the
velocity increases p a s t a critical value , t h e f l o w becomes
turbulent . The transition from laminar t o turbulent flow depends
on the R e y n o l d s n u m b e r , which is i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
the fluid ' s viscosity. The viscosity is a constant for the fluid
a t any g i v e n t e m p e r a t u r e . F o r m u l a s f o r Newtonian fluids a r e
available in fluid mechanics textbooks.
W a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e , however , is a n o n - Newtonian fluid , The
pressure d r o p under laminar conditions is not simply proportional
14- 3
t o flow , s o the viscosity is n o t a c o n s t a n t , S p e c i a l p r o c e d u r e s
m a y b e u s e d , however , t o d e t e r m i n e h e a d l o s s u n d e r laminar f l o w
c o n d i t i o n s , a n d t h e v e l o c i t y a t w h i c h t u r b u l e n t f l o w b e g i n s.
T h e s e p r o c e d u r e s u s e a t l e a s t t w o c o n s t a n t s t o d e s c r i b e t h e fluid
instead o f a single constant ( the viscosity ) which i s used for
Newtonian fluids.
T h e behavior o f wastewater s l u d g e i s c o m p a r e d with t h e behavior

o f w a t e r o n F i g u r e 1 4-2 . T h i s figure is b a s e d o n s t e a d y s t a t e
behavior , a f t e r t h i x o t r o p i c b r e a k d o w n, ( T h i x o t r o p i c breakdown
.
will b e d i s c u s s e d in a s u b s e q u e n t p a r a g r a p h ) T h e f o l l o w i n g
features are notable concerning the behavior of wastewater
s l u d g e:
• E s s e n t i a l l y no flow occurs unless t h e p r e s s u r e is high

e n o u g h t o exceed a yield stress r0.
• T u r b u l e n t f l o w m a y o c c u r, b u t a m u c h h i g h e r v e l o c i t y i s
n e e d e d for s l u d g e t h a n f o r w a t e r.
• In f u l l y d e v e l o p e d turbulent flow , the p r e s s u r e d r o p is

roughly that of water .
• F o r the laminar plastic f l o w r e g i o n , s l u d g e a p p r o x i m a t e l y
o b e y s t h e l a w s o f a " B i n g h a m p l a s t i c." A B i n g h a m plastic
is described b y t w o c o n s t a n t s, w h i c h a r e t h e yield s t r e s s
TQ and t h e coefficient o f rigidity, 17 .
It is also possible consider sludge to be a

to
" p s e u d o p l a s t i c " m a t e r i a l.
In that case , t w o other
c o n s t a n t s a r e used , and t h e f o r m u l a s a r e different , The
following discussion uses the Bingham plastic a p p r o a c h.
1 4 . 1.2 . 1 Solution of Pressure D r o p Equation
I f t h e t w o c o n s t a n t s T- Q a n d TJ c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d , i t is q u i t e
easy to determine pressure drop over the entire range of
velocities with t h e aid o f F i g u r e 1 4- 3 and o r d i n a r y equations f o r
w a t e r. T o use this figure , c a l c u l a t e the t w o dimensionless
numbers ( R e y n o l d s and Hedstrom ) by reading the graph , The
o n l y r e a l d i f f i c u l t y is in obtaining the t w o constants ; see
Section 14.1.2.4.
The t w o dimensionless numbers are a Reynolds number , g i v e n b y:
Re = ( 1 4-1 )
V
1 4-4
where:
Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless
P = density of sludge, lb ( mass )/ft 3, ( g /cm 3 )
V = average velocity , ft ( cm/s )
D = diameter of pipe, ft ( cm )
n = coefficient of rigidity , lb ( mass )/ft-sec, poise ( same
as ayne-s/cm 2 and g /cm-s ) ;
and the Hedstrom number, given by:
D 2 To 9 c P
He ,
7 2
( 14- 2 )
where :
He = Hedstrom number, dimensionless
ro = yield stress, lb( force )/ft 2
9 c = units conversion factor:

32.2 lb( mass )- ft/lb( force )-sec 2 for English units
1.0 for metric units
. 2 fPLV 2 ( 14- 3 )
Apgc =
Q
where:
Ap pressure drop due to friction , lb ( force ) / ft 2 ,

( dyne/cm 2 )
f Fanning friction factor from Figure 14-3 , dimension-

less
L = length of pipeline, ft ( cm )
There are a few subtleties in the correct use of these equations.

First, the Reynolds number in Equation 14-1 is not the same as
a Reynolds number based on viscosity , In plastic flow , an
effective viscosity may be defined , but it is variable and it can
be much greater than the coefficient of rigidity. Consequently ,
the two Reynolds numbers can differ by factors of more than ten
under some conditions. Second , many textbooks use a somewhat
14- 5
different definition of f , which is four times the value as
with units.
-
used in Equation 14 3 and Figure 14-3. Third , care is required
For English units , it is not possible to use
pounds ( mass ) in density at the same time as pounds ( force ) in
stress without introducing the conversion factor ( gc ) into
- -
Equations 14 2 and 14 3. Alternatively , the "slug ," English mass
unit could be used.
BINGHAM PLASTIC, t.%. SLUDGE AFTlft

THIXOTROPIC BREAKDOWN
..
NEWTONIAN FLUID, e g WATER
$//
//
$
4J
z
LU
a_
.
0
z
ff
. 7
.
C
< 7/
Z
o
H
U
7
cc
U-
o
-
(
141
Q z CURVATURE IN
THIS REGION
K DCN
CC ^
- OUE TO PLUG
f LOW IN THE
MIDDLE OP SLOPE «COEFFICIENT
//
H£ £ I N'
THE PIPE
v
OF RIGIDITY
*7
s:°;< /
EC O“ YIELD STRESS T0
te b £
OJ O
•
.- i
/
SLDPE = VISCOSITY
I i 1
APPARENT RATE OF SHEAR
PROPORTIONAL TO VELOCITY IN PIPELINE
UNITS : SECONDS f
'
FIGURE 14- 2
COMPARISON OF BEHAVIORS OF WASTEWATER SLUDGE

AND WATER FLOWING IN CIRCULAR PIPELINES
These equations apply to the entire range from virtually zero

velocity to the fully turbulent range , except that Figure 14 3
does not allow for pipe roughness, To allow for pipe roughness,
-
ordinary water formulas may be used . If , for example , the
-
Hazen Williams formula gives a higher pressure drop than
-
Equation 14 3 , then pipe roughness is dominant , the flow is
14 6-
fully turbulent , and the pressure drop will be given by the
o r d i n a r y w a t e r f o r m u l a t o a s u f f i c i e n t l y good a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r
engineering purposes ( 3) .
1.0
He, HEDSTROM NUMBER
cc 0.1
O
u
<
u.
IX 0.01
u.
- CURVE
LLLL 1 I I I I LLL ill

103 104 103 106
Re, REYNOLDS NUMBER ( DVpA ) ,
FIGURE 14- 3
FRICTION FACTOR FOR SLUDGE , ANALYZED AS A

BINGHAM PLASTIC
-
Figure 14 3 also shows whether flow i s laminar or tubulent .
The friction factor f i s located by the intersection of the
Reynolds and Hedstrom numbers ( Re and He ) .
If this point is
above t h e d a s h e d l i n e o n F i g u r e 1 4 - 3 , o r i f t h e R e y n o l d s n u m b e r
Re i s less than 2 ,000 , the flow i s laminar; otherwise i t i s
turbulent . For example, a t Re = 104 , a Hedstrom number of
104 g i v e s t u r b u l e n t f l o w, w h i l e a Hedstrom number o f 1 0 g i v e s ^
laminar flow .
I n t e r p o l a t i o n o n l o g a r i t h m i c g r a p h s s u c h a s F i g u r e 1 4-3 i s
somewhat d i f f i c u l t , This i s particularly true for the Hedstrom
number c u r v e s o n F i g u re 14 3 - . I f the logarithm (base 10 ) of He
is calculated , interpolation between lines w i l l be linear.
Alternatively , i f f l o w i s l a m i n a r, t h e Buckingham e q u a t i o n ( 3,4 )
may be used . F i g u r e 1 4- 3 i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e B u c k i n g h a m e q u a t i o n i n
the laminar region . T h e B i n g h a m p r e s s u r e loss e q u a t i o n i s a n
approximate s o l u t i o n of t h e Buckingham equation ( 5,3) .
1 4- 7
1 4 . 1.2 . 2 Design Example
T h e d e s i g n e r wishes t o t r a n s p o r t anaerobically digested s l u d g e
6 miles from one plant to another plant where there are
dewatering facilities. If t r a n s p o r t e d a t 5 p e r c e n t solids , t h e
s l u d g e q u a n t i t y is 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 g a l l o n s p e r d a y ( 3 7 8 m 3/d a y ) . The
s l u d g e m a y b e d i l u t e d o r t h i c k e n e d , if d e s i r e d , t o i m p r o v e
economics. A l l of t h e s l u d g e m u s t be p u m p e d in a 4 -h o u r p e r i o d
e a c h d a y t o a c c o m m o d a t e d e w a t e r i n g s c h e d u l e s a t t h e receiving
p l a n t.
It is assumed that the sludge can be considered as a Bingham

p l a s t i c u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a f r o m C a n t o n , O h i o ( 2 ):
Solids C o e f ficient
concentration, Yield s t r e s s r G, of rigidity
Case percent d y n e/c m ^ v , g /c m-s
1 7.12 100 0.40
2 5.34 30.5 0.24
3 3.56 5.8 0.13
F o r a c o m p a r i s o n, w a t e r h a s a y i e l d s t r e s s o f z e r o a n d a
c o e f f i c i e n t o f r i g i d i t y o f a b o u t 0 . 0 1 g /c m -s. T h e p i p e i s
a s s u m e d t o b e unlined s t e e l p i p e, schedule 4 0 ; nominal p i p e s i z e s
o f 4 t o 1 0 inches ( 1 0 0 t o 2 5 0 m m ) in diameter will be considered.
T h e calculation is illustrated in detail f o r t h e 8-inch ( 2 0 0-mm )

pipe and 7.12 percent sludge .
First , t h e flow r a t e i s needed.
I f t h e s l u d g e were a t 5 p e r c e n t solids , 1 0 0 ,000 g a l l o n s ( 3 7 8 m 3 )
o f s l u d g e would be t r a n s p o r t e d daily. S i n c e t h e s l u d g e is a t
7 . 1 2 p e r c e n t, t h e v o l u m e is:
100 ,000 x -
^ 12
a n d t h e flow r a t e i s:
= 7 0,2 2 4 g a l l o n s ( 2 6 6 m 3 )
7 0, 2 2 4 g a l l o n s/d a y = 2 9 2 . 6 g p m ( 18.46 1 /s )
4 h o u r s flow /d a y x 6 0 min /h r
Calculations o f R e y n o l d s and H e d s t r o m n u m b e r s will b e carried o u t

i n t h e centimeter -g r a m -s e c o n d ( c g s ) s y s t e m b e c a u s e T Q a n d y a r e
g i v e n i n c g s units. T h e f l o w r a t e in c g s units i s:
2 9 2 . 6 g p m x 3 . 7 8 5 1 /g a l x 1 ,0 0 0 c m 3/l = 1 8 ,4 6 0 c m 3/s e c
6 0 sec/min
1 4- 8
-
The internal diameter of an 8 inch ( 200 mm ) Schedule 40 pipe is
7.981 inches ( 20.27 cm ) and the cross sectional area is
322.7 cm 2. The velocity V is the flow rate divided by the
area:
18 ,460 cm 2/sec
V
322.7 cm2
=. 57.2 cm/sec
The Reynolds number is obtained from Equation 14 1: -

VD 1.0 x 57.2 x 20.27
Re = p
V 0.40 = 2898 (dimensionless )
The Hedstrom number is obtained from Equation 14 2: -

nc — ^
D ropqr _ (20.27)2 x 100 x 1.0 x 1.0
“ n 256,800 (dimensionless)
»2 ( 0.40)2
not turbulent.
-
Refering to Figure 14 3 , f is about 0.08. The flow is laminar ,
The length L is needed in cgs units:
L = 6 miles x 5 ,280 ft/mile x 30.48 cm/ft = 965 ,600 cm
-
Now Equation 14 3 is used to calculate pressure drop due to
friction:
Ap = 2f P LV
2 _ 2 x 0.08 x 1.0 x 965,600 x (57.2)2 = 24,940,000 dyne/cm2
Dgc 20.27 x 1.0
Convert this value to pounds per square inch:
24.94 x 106 dyne x 2.248 x 10“6

24,940,000 dyne/cm2
cm2 x 0.1550 in.2/cm2
= 362 psi (2.49 MN/m2)
14 9-
This value may be c o m p a r e d t o t h e v a l u e f o r w a t e r f o r t h e s a m e
c o n d i t i o n s, c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e H a z e n-W i l l i a m s e q u a t i o n:
RO.63
V = 1.318 C S
°- 54 ( 1 4- 4 )
w h e r e:
V = a v e r a g e v e l o c i t y, ft/s e c,
C = friction coefficient,
R = hydraulic radius = -j o f diameter, f t ,
S = h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t , f t/f t.
T h i s e q u a t i o n m a y b e r e a r r a n g e d a n d s o l v e d o n a c a l c u l a t o r,
o r t a b l e s o r n o m o g r a p h s m a y b e u s e d. I n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e,
V 5 7 . 2 c m /s e c = 1 . 8 8 f t /s e c a n d R = 0 . 1 6 6 f t. W i t h a C o f
1 0 0, S i s 0 . 0 0 3 1 0, i n d i c a t i n g a p r e s s u r e d r o p o f 9 8 . 2 f t o r
4 2 p s i. T h e d r o p w i t h this s l u d g e is 3 6 2 p s i o r a b o u t 9 t i m e s
h i g h e r t h a n t h e d r o p f o r w a t e r.
F o r the various cases calculations a r e summarized in T a b l e 1 4- 1 .

Friction f a c t o r p l o t s f r o m F i g u r e 1 4-3 a r e s h o w n o n F i g u r e 1 4- 4.
A p r e c a u t i o n t h a t is useful f o r detection o f c o m p u t a t i o n a l e r r o r
is to check to see whether the pressure drop across the pipe
calculated b y t h e a b o v e p r o c e d u r e p r o d u c e s a sufficient s h e a r
s t r e s s a t t h e pipe w a l l t o e x c e e d the y i e l d s t r e s s o f t h e s l u d g e.
If t h e y i e l d s t r e s s is n o t e x c e e d e d , t h e s l u d g e will n o t f l o w.
T h e p r e s s u r e d r o p n e e d e d is calculated b y s e t t i n g t h e c a l c u l a t e d
s h e a r s t r e s s a t t h e w a l l e q u a l t o y i e l d s t r e s s:
A p0g c D
To9 c ( 1 4- 5 )
4L
where:
ApQ = p r e s s u r e d r o p needed t o exceed y i e l d s t r e s s .
R e s u l t s o f t h e calculation a r e s h o w n f o r C a s e 1 a n d C a s e 2 in
T a b l e 1 4- 2. E q u a t i o n 1 4- 5 i s a l s o u s e f u l a s a s c r e e n i n g
test . I f To' D , a n d L a r e k n o w n , it i s p o s s i b l e t o q u i c k l y
c a l c u l a t e t h e minimum p r e s s u r e d r o p t h a t could o c c u r, r e g a r d l e s s
o f v e l o c i t y o r f l o w r a t e. I f A p0 is e x c e s s i v e , t h e d i a m e t e r
D should be increased. Impractical pipe sizes could be
quickly eliminated as requiring too high a pressure drop for
consideration.
1 4-1 0
V a l u e s f r o m T a b l e 1 4 - 1 a n d 1 4 - 2 a r e p l o t t e d o n F i g u r e 1 4 - 5.
Selection of the optimum pipe diameter and solids content
requires an economic analysis, H o w e v e r , it i s evident t h a t a t
t h e more r e a s o n a b l e p r e s s u r e d r o p s ( below 2 0 0 p s i or 1 4 0 0 k N/ m 2 ) ,
the 7.12 percent solids has a much higher pressure drop at a
g i v e n p i p e diameter e v e n t h o u g h t h e volumetric flow r a t e is m u c h
l o w e r t h a n f o r t h e o t h e r t w o cases. A t 8 inches ( 2 0 0 m m ), t h e
p r e s s u r e d r o p s a r e a b o u t t h e same f o r t h e 5 . 3 4 p e r c e n t a n d t h e
3 . 5 6 p e r c e n t s l u d g e s. H o w e v e r , a s n o t e d in Table 1 4- 1 , t h e flow
is n o t in t h e t u r b u l e n t r e g i m e f o r t h e 5 . 3 4 p e r c e n t s l u d g e , T h i s
i s a d i s a d v a n t a g e b e c a u s e s m a l l c h a n g e s in t h e r h e o l o g i c a l
constants ro a n d v could c a u s e c h a n g e s in f. T h e 3 . 5 6 p e r c e n t
solids content is probably a better selection based on the
l i k e l i h o o d o f more s t a b l e o p e r a t i o n. A t 1 0 inches ( 2 5 0 m m ), t h e
v a l u e o f f is considerably h i g h e r f o r t h e 5 . 3 4 p e r c e n t s l u d g e
t h a n f o r t h e 3 . 5 6 p e r c e n t s l u d g e, T h e choices between 8- inch
a n d 1 0 - inch ( 2 0 0 a n d 2 5 0 m m ) d i a m e t e r a n d 3 . 5 6 p e r c e n t a n d
5.34 p e r c e n t s l u d g e w o u l d h a v e t o be made o n t h e basis o f minimum
o v e r a l l c o s t. T h e 5 . 3 4 p e r c e n t s l u d g e will be more e x p e n s i v e
to transport, but this cost increase may be offset by more
economical d e w a t e r i n g a t t h e p l a n t r e c e i v i n g t h e s l u d g e.
TABLE 14- 1
SUMMARIZED CALCULATIONS FOR NON- NEWTONIAN

FLOW EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Pressure drop,
Diameter Fanning psi
Average Reynolds Hedstrom friction
velocity , number , number , factor ,
Case in. cm cm/sec Re He f sludge water 3
1 4.03 10.2 225 5 , 750 65 , 000 • 0 1 0h 1, 380 1, 190

5.05 12.8 143 4 , 580 103 , 000 • 019 ? 775 394
6.06 15.4 99.1 3 , 820 148 , 000 .03 b 534 162
7.98 20. 3 57.2 2 ,900 257 , 000 ?
.08 b 362 42
10.02 26.4 36.3 2 , 310 405 , 000 .20 290 14
2 4.03 10.2 300 12 , 780 55 , 300 .0083 2 , 038 2 ,020

5.05 12.8 190 10 , 150 87 , 000 .0085 673 667
6.06 15.4 132 8 , 480 126 , 000 .0090, 285 275
7.98 20. 3 76.3 6 , 440 218 , 000
.035
?
.019 b 152 72
10.02 25.4 48.4 5 , 130 343 , 000 90° 24
3 4.03 10.2 450 35 , 400 36 , 000 .0066 °

3 , 6 50 4 , 280
5.05 12.8 286 28 , 200 56 , 000 .0070 1 , 250° 1, 423
6.06 15.4 198 23 , 500 82 , 000 .0072 513 582
C
7.98 20. 3 114 17 ,800 141 , 000 .0075 13 5 C 152
10.2 25.4 72.6 14 , 200 222 ,000 .0080 46 50
Calculated from Hazen- Williams equation with a friction coefficient ( C ) of 100.

Clow is- not in the turbulent region.
'
CNote that p r e s s u r e drop for sludge , by equation 14 - 3 ,, is less than the pressure
drop for water if C = 100 . The pressure drops would be about the same if C = 110.
2 2
1 psi = 6.9 kN/m = 69 , 000 dyne/cm
1 4-11
Note that the pressure drop for Cases 1 and 2 is greater in all
cases than the minimum drop Ap0 ( see Figure 14- 5 ).
FIGURE 14- 4
FRICTION FACTORS FOR EXAMPLE PROBLEM
1.0
ioA ios\ ioe \ ioA ioa\ ic$ He, HfDSTHOM DUMBER

+
0J
K
o -I
"
u
<
-
u f 4
0
4
lyFWULfcNT
LAMINAR
O
+
_
u
rr
u
. NEWTONIAN
0.01 .
- CUBVt ft
O.OOl 1 111 , 1 i i i ill n i,u mu i i i

?
'10
1 C>3 10 ^ 10& 1 C® 107
Re, REYNOLDS NUMBER ( OV yl
^
TABLE 14- 2
PRESSURE REQUIRED TO EXCEED YIELD
STRESS - EXAMPLE PROBLEM
.a
Pressure drop Ap0, psi
Diameter , Case 1 Case 2

in. T0 = 100 dyne/cm 2 To = 30.5 dyne/cm
4.03 548 167
5.05 437 133
6.06 363 111
7.98 276 84
10.02 220 67
aPressure drop to cause the shear stress at pipe wall to ,
exceed the yield stress Tg

-
Higher pressures may be
needed to start the pipeline due to thixotropic effects
not considered in Figure 14 -3.
1 in. = 2.54 cm
1 psi = 6.9 kN/m = 69 ,000 dyne/cm
14.1.2.3 Thixotropy and Other Time-Dependent

Effects
Besides possibly being dependent on the shearing rate , the

flow resistance of liquids can depend on the length of time of
shearing or on some function of both the time and intensity of
shearing . The most commonly encountered time- dependent change in
viscosity is a drop which occurs with time of shearing , followed
by a gradual recovery when shearing is stopped. This behavior is
called thixotropy. A familiar example is an ice cream milkshake,
14- 12
which "sets up" in its container and will only flow out when the
container is rapped or jarred several times. The structure
rebuilds when the rapping is stopped. Paints typically not only
are Bingham plastics but are thixotropic as well. They will flow
for a short time after being "worked " by the paint brush so brush
lines tend to disappear. Their "plastic" characteristics rebuild
quickly after shearing stops so the paint does not flow downwards
on vertical surfaces.
2,000
1,000
CL
600
CL
o
IX
a
yj 400
CL
CASE 1
m
UJ
m
APg FOR CASE 1

200
CASE 2
100
APo FOR CASE 2
eq 1 Inch = 2.54 cm
1 psi ^ 6,9 kN /rrr CASE 3
40
4 5 6 7 8 9
PIPE DIAMETER , mhm

’
FIGURE 14- 5
PRESSURE DROPS FOR EXAMPLE PROBLEM
14 - 13
W a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e is a l s o t h i x o t r o p i c , T h e e f f e c t is
increasingly important as t h e p e r c e n t solids and p e r c e n t
volatile solids increase. Thixotropy has three major effects:
9 It complicates the m e a s u r e m e n t of constants such as the
yield stress TQ.
I t makes pump suction conditions very important. In one
case , a centrifugal pump produced ample pressure to move
the sludge through a hose. The pump was suspended in a
l a g o o n but the s l u d g e would n o t flow into t h e p u m p
suction . I t w a s found t h a t mixers n e x t t o t h e p u m p
caused thixotropic breakdown sufficient for satisfactory
pumping ( 5 , 6 ).
I t raises the pressure needed t o start a pipeline that
has been shut down , At one installation, this effect was
found t o be significant for shutdowns exceeding o n e day .
An operating procedure is used t o p r e v e n t this problem ;
that is, if shutdowns over 8 hours are expected , the line
is purged of sludge ( 5 ,6 ) .
P e r m a n e n t degradation o f yield s t r e s s c a n occur with time of
shearing . I n t e n s e shearing p r o d u c e s t h i s result in high
polymers. This phenomena can be e x p e c t e d in w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s ,
when shear levels are sufficiently high t o physically disrupt a
portion of the particles making u p the s l u d g e. If this occurs,
it may b e difficult to later thicken or d e w a t e r t h e sludge.
Sometimes t h e reduction in viscosity t h a t occurs with time
of s h e a r i n g is a c t u a l l y t h e e f f e c t o f a t e m p e r a t u r e increase
p r o d u c e d by t h e e n e r g y delivered t o t h e l i q u i d. T h e g e n e r a l
effect o f a n increase in t e m p e r a t u r e with both Newtonian and
non-Newtonian liquids is a reduction in viscosity. However, for
s l u d g e, t h e main effect of t e m p e r a t u r e is that low t e m p e r a t u r e s
may cause the grease fraction of the sludge t o harden. Other
t e m p e r a t u r e e f f e c t s a p p e a r t o be u n i m p o r t a n t , a t least u p t o
160 ° F ( 7 0° C ) ( 5 , 7 ).
T h e r e is a n o t h e r unusual e f f e c t t h a t occurs in w a s t e w a t e r
sludge pipelines: slippage and seepage ( 6 ). Essentially , the
sludge is riding on a thin film of water next to the wall of the
p i p e. This effect is noticeable at v e r y l o w velocities w h e n
starting a sludge pipeline ; it partially offsets the thixotropic
e f f e c t. S e e p a g e and s l i p p a g e a r e h a r d t o calculate b u t a r e
useful w h e n starting pipelines flows ( 6 ).
14.1. 2.4 Obtaining the Coefficients
Figure 1 4-3 cannot be used unless the yield stress 0 and the
coefficient of rigidity can be obtained. There is a reasonable
amount o f data on anaerobically digested sludges ( 3 , 5 ,7,8 ) but
very little data on s l u d g e that has not been digested.
1 4- 14
Several t y p e s of instruments are available f o r viscosity
m e a s u r e m e n t s . H o w e v e r , o n l y t w o o f t h e s e t y p e s a r e suitable
for s l u d g e: t e s t pipes a n d rotational viscometers , Some
instruments, such as capillary viscometers, are unable t o handle
t h e relatively large p a r t i c l e s in s l u d g e ; o t h e r instruments ,
s u c h a s ball - d r o p viscometers , are not suited t o strongly
non-Newtonian fluids such as sludge.
Flow curves from test pipes are directly scalable to full-scale
pipes provided flow is laminar. However, the onset of turbulence
in a l a r g e pipe c a n n o t be predicted directly from small pipe
tests. It is necessary to use the yield stress and coefficient
of rigidity , c o m p u t e R e y n o l d s a n d Hedstrom n u m b e r s , a n d use
Figure 14- 3 t o predict the o n s e t o f turbulence , T h e flow curves
obtained with test pipes d o n o t provide fundamental rheological
d a t a, b e c a u s e a t a g i v e n f l o w r a t e , s h e a r s t r e s s a n d r a t e o f
s h e a r v a r y across t h e r a d i u s of t h e p i p e . By using the
Rabinowitsch equation, the flow curve can be transformed into
a rheologically c o r r e c t s h e a r s t r e s s versus r a t e of s h e a r
curve ( 9 ). A n offsetting disadvantage o f test pipes is that a
high degree of experimental skill is required t o get reliable
d a t a. Also t h e s e installations a r e relatively expensive a n d
cumbersome and require large sample volumes.
F o r s l u d g e , t h e best instrument a p p e a r s t o be a rotational
viscometer. I n this type o f machine , t h e t e s t liquid is placed
b e t w e e n t w o c o n c e n t r i c cylinders , o n e o f which r o t a t e s , T h e
t o r q u e o n a cylinder is m e a s u r e d a s a function of rotational
speed. Such machines can produce approximately uniform shear
rates at given shear stresses, provided the space between the bob
( inner cylinder ) and cup ( outer cylinder ) is small compared t o
the bob radius. Viscometers in which the bob r o t a t e s and the
t w i s t i n g f o r c e o n t h e c u p is m e a s u r e d are relatively e a s y t o
design mechanically but turbulence occurs at low shear rates for
low viscosity materials. Turbulence onset does not occur until
much higher shear rates for viscometers in which the cup rotates
and the twisting force on the bob is measured . In both t y p e s of
viscometers, end effects become substantial if the bob and c u p
are not long relative to the clearance.
There are a number of viscometers which feature rotational
movement , but either do not have constant clearances between an
inner a n d a n o u t e r cylinder , or d o n o t c o n t r o l o r measure
shearing r a t e or s h e a r s t r e s s. These devices a r e of little value
f o r o b t a i n i n g consistency c u r v e s f o r non- Newtonian l i q u i d s.
The n e a r l y u n i f o r m s h e a r r a t e a c h i e v a b l e in r o t a t i o n a l
viscometers allows direct measurement of the fundamental s h e a r
s t r e s s-r a t e of shear curve , which is a major advantage when it
comes t o application t o complex flow relationships , Rotational
viscometers are simple to operate. Their primary disadvantage is
t h a t c l o s e c l e a r a n c e s b e t w e e n o u t e r a n d inner cylinders a r e
n e e d e d t o give uniform s h e a r r a t e s across t h e gap b e t w e e n
cylinders. Obviously t o o small a clearance will give erroneous
results for sewage sludges. G a p size should n o t be reduced below
1 4-1 5
1.0 mm ( 0.025 inch ). Sludge must be screened to remove large
particles. This creates no substantial error because a few
large particles do not strongly affect the coefficients.
A representative test curve adapted from Rimkus and Heil (5) is

shown on Figure 14 6. -
In this test , the viscometer speed was
gradually increased from zero to 100 rpm and then decreased.
Torque was measured and converted to shear stress , providing
" consistency curves. " The upper curve ( increasing speed )
shows thixotropy ; the lower curve ( decreasing speed ) shows
behavior of the fluidized sample. The lower curve is appropriate
for pipeline design because the sludge is fluidized by passing
through a pump. In this case , the shear stress projected to zero
^
rpm ( 232 dynes/cm ) is the yield stress ro; the coefficient of
rigidity 77 is the slope of the straight part of the lower curve.
Even when fluidized , sludge is not exactly a Bingham plastic , as
shown by curvature in the lower curve at low rpm. This departure
from Bingham plastic conditions can be used to refine the
pressure drop calculations. The viscometer for this test was a
-
Haake Model RV 3 Rotoviso with sensor head MV 1. -
RPM OF VISCOMETER HEAD
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 ICK)
700
600 -/
t
CN
E
500 l
u \
CJ \
THIXOTROPIC_BR EAKDOW
^
c
> \
Q 400
aLU T0 = 232 dyne / cm ^ 235
SEC - 1
C£
H) 300 100 RPM
tS
CE
<
fill
X
to 200
re -
SAMPLE : LAGOONED ANAEROBICALLY
100
DIGESTED SLUDGE
13% SOLIDS, 40% VOLATILE
1 1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 100 200 220
SHEAR RATE, sec -1
FIGURE 14- 6
VISCOMETER TEST OF SEWAGE SLUDGE ( 5 )
-
14 16
14.1.2.5 Additional Information
Sludge has been successfully and reliably pumped in the
l a m i n a r f l o w r a n g e. S o m e o f the installations describedin
Section 14.1.6 , L o n g Distance Pumping , o p e r a t e in this r a n g e.
That section also contains several design recommendations.
Several researchers have investigated s l u d g e pumping , rheology ,

and related subjects ( 1 0 through 24 ).
14.1.3 T y p e s of S l u d g e P u m p s
Sewage s l u d g e s can r a n g e in consistency from a w a t e r y scum t o

a t h i c k p a s t e - like s l u r r y. A different t y p e o f p u m p m a y be
r e q u i r e d f o r e a c h t y p e o f s l u d g e. P u m p s which a r e c u r r e n t l y
utilized for s l u d g e transport include centrifugal, t o r q u e flow ,
p l u n g e r, piston, piston/h y d r a u l i c diaphragm , progressive cavity ,
r o t a r y , d i a p h r a g m , e j e c t o r a n d air lift p u m p s. W a t e r e d u c t o r
pumps are sometimes used t o p u m p grit f r o m aerated grit r e m o v a l
t a n k s.
14.1.3.1 Centrifugal P u m p s
A centrifugal p u m p ( Figure 1 4- 7 ) consists o f a set of rotating

vanes in a housing o r casing. The vanes may be either o p e n o r
enclosed . T h e vanes impart energy to a fluid through centrifugal
force . T h e non -c l o g centrifugal pump for sewage or s l u d g e s, in
comparison t o a centrifugal p u m p designed t o handle clean w a t e r ,
h a s f e w e r but l a r g e r and l e s s obstructed v a n e p a s s a g e w a y s in t h e
impeller ; has g r e a t e r clearances between impeller and casing ;
and h a s s t u r d i e r b e a r i n g s , s h a f t s, a n d s e a l s. S u c h n o n - c l o g
centrifugal p u m p s may be used t o circulate digester contents and
transfer sludges with lower solids concentrations , such as waste
activated sludge . T h e larger passageways and g r e a t e r clearances
result in increased r e l i a b i l i t y a t a c o s t of lower efficiency.
T h e b a s i c p r o b l e m with u s i n g a n y f o r m o f c e n t r i f u g a l p u m p
o n sludges is choosing the correct size . At any given speed ,
centrifugal p u m p s o p e r a t e well only if pumping head is within a
relatively narrow r a n g e ; the variable n a t u r e o f s l u d g e , however ,
causes pumping h e a d s t o v a r y. T h e selected p u m p s must be l a r g e
e n o u g h t o pass solids without clogging o f the impellers and y e t
s m a l l e n o u g h t o a v o i d t h e p r o b l e m o f d i l u t i n g t h e s l u d g e by
.
d r a w i n g in l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f o v e r l y i n g s e w a g e Throttling
the discharge t o reduce the capacity o f a centrifugal p u m p is
impractical both because of energy inefficiency and because
f r e q u e n t c l o g g i n g o f t h e t h r o t t l i n g v a l v e w i l l o c c u r. I t i s
recommended that centrifugal p u m p s requiring capacity adjustment
b e e q u i p p e d w i t h v a r i a b l e -s p e e d d r i v e s. Fixed capacity in
multiple pump applications is achieved by equipping each pump
with a d i s c h a r g e f l o w m e t e r a n d u s i n g t h e f l o w m e t e r s i g n a l
in conjunction with t h e variable s p e e d drive t o c o n t r o l t h e s p e e d
1 4- 17
'
X
of the pump. Seals last longer if back suction umps are used.
Utilizing the back of the impeller for suction removes areas of
high pressure inside the pump casing from the location of the
seal and prolongs seal life.
DISCHARGE
BEARINGS
X
VuJl
SHAFT SUCTION
/pn.J
SEAL
NON CLOG IMPELLER CASING
FIGURE 14- 7
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Propeller or mixed flow centrifugal pumps are sometimes used

for low head applications because of higher efficiencies , a
typical application is return activated sludge pumping , When
being considered for this type of application, such pumps must be
of sufficient size ( usually at least 12 inch [300 mm] in suction
diameter ) to provide internal clearances capable of passing the
type of debris normally found within the activated sludge system.
Such pumps should not be used in activated sludge systems which
are not preceded with primary sedimentation facilities.
14.1.3.2 Torque Flow Pumps
-
A torque flow pump ( Figure 14 8 ), also known as a recessed
impeller or vortex pump , is a centrifugal pump in which the
impeller is open faced and recessed well back into the pump
casing. The size of particles that can be handled by this
type of pump is limited only by the diameter of the suction or
discharge openings. The rotating impeller imparts a spiralling
motion to the fluid passing through the pump , Most of the
fluid does not actually pass through the vanes of the impeller ,
thereby minimizing abrasive contact with it and reducing the
chance of clogging . Because there are no close tolerances
-
14 18
between the impeller and casing, the chances for abrasive
wear within the pump are f u r t h e r reduced . The price paid for
increased pump longevity and r e l i a b i l i t y i s that the pumps are
r e l a t i v e l y i n e f f i c i e n t c o m p a r e d w i t h o t h e r n o n -c l o g c e n t r i f u g a l s ;
45 versus 65 percent efficiency i s typical . Torque flow pumps
for sludge service should always have nickel or chrome abrasion
resistant volute and impellers. The pumps must be sized
accurately so that excessive recirculation does not occur a t any
condition a t operating head. Capacity adjustment and control i s
achieved in the same manner as for other centrifugal pumps .
DISCHARGE
OPEN
IMPELLER
SUCTION
FIGURE 14- 8
TORQUE FLOW PUMP
.
14.1 3.3 Plunger Pumps
P l u n g e r p u m p s ( F i g u r e 1 4-9 ) c o n s i s t o f p i s t o n s d r i v e n b y a n
exposed drive crank .The eccentricity of the drive crank i s
adjustable, offering a variable stroke length and hence a
variable positive displacement pumping action .
The check v a l v e s,
ball or flap, are usually paired in tandem before and after
the pump . Plunger pumps have constant capacity regardless
of large variations in pumping head , and can handle sludges
up to 15 percent solids if designed specifically for such
service . -
Plunger pumps are cost effective where the installation
r e q u i r e m e n t s d o not e x c e e d 500 g p m ( 32 1 /s ) , a 200 f e e t ( 6 1 m )
1 4 -1 9
discharge head , or 15 percent sludge solids , Plunger pumps
require daily routine servicing by the operator, but overhaul
maintenance effort and cost are low .
DESURGING
CHAMBER
PACKING
r t BALL
DESURGING
C HAMBER
DISCHARGE CHECK
PISTON
\
/
/
/
CYLINDER
1 SUCTION
FIGURE 14- 9
PLUNGER PUMP
The plunger pump 's i n t e r n a l mechanism i s v i s i b l e, The pump 's

connecting rod attaches to the piston inside i t s hollow interior
and t h i s "bowl " i s f i l l e d with o i l f o r l u b r i c a t i o n of t h e journal
bearing . Either the piston exterior or the cylinder interior
h o u s e s t h e p a c k i n g , w h i c h m u s t b e k e p t m o i s t a t a l l t i m e s , Water
for this purpose is usually supplied from an annular pool located
above the packing ; the pool receives a constant trickle of clean
water . I f the packing f a i l s , sludge may be sprayed over the
surrounding area .
Plunger pumps may operate with up t o 10 f e e t ( 3 m ) of suction
l i f t ; however , suction l i f t s may reduce the s o l i d s concentration
t h a t can be pumped .
The use of the pump with the suction
pressure higher than the discharge is not practical because flow
will be forced past the check valves .
The use of special
intake discharge air chambers will reduce noise and
and
vibration .
These chambers also smooth out pulsations of
intermittent flow .
Pulsation dampening a i r chambers, if used,
should be glass lined t o avoid destruction by hydrogen s u l f i d e
corrosion .
I f the pump i s operated when the discharge pipeline
1 4- 2 0
is obstructed , serious damage may occur to the pump , motor , or
pipeline ; this problem can be avoided by a simple shear pin
arrangement.
14.1.3.4 Piston Pumps

Piston pumps are similar in action to the plunger pumps , but
consist of a guide piston and a fluid power piston. ( See
-
Figure 14 10 ). Piston pumps are capable of generating high
pressures at low flows. These pumps are more expensive than
other types of positive displacement sludge pumps and are
usually used in special applications such as feed pumps for heat
treatment systems. As for other types of positive displacement
pumps , shear pins or other devices must be used to prevent damage
due to obstructed pipelines.
DISCHARGE
In
M HYDRAULIC
SYSTEM
led
DIAPHRAGM
(TYP)
SUCTION
o POWER
/y PISTON
GUIDE
PISTON
FIGURE 14- 10
PISTON PUMP
-
14 21
A v a r i a t i o n of the p i s t o n pump has been developed f o r use where
r e l i a b i l i t y and close control are needed
f l u i d power piston driving an intermediate hydraulic f l u i d
. The pump u t i l i z e s a
( clean water ) , which i n turn pumps the sludge i n a diaphragm

.
c h a m b e r ( F i g u r e 1 4-1 1 ) The speed of the hydraulic f l u i d drive
p i s t o n c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d t o p r o v i d e pump d i s c h a r g e c o n d i t i o n s
ranging from constant flow rate to constant pressure T h i s pump .
i s u s e d p r i m a r i l y a s a f e e d pump f o r f i l t e r p r e s s e s This .
s p e c i a l pump h a s t h e g r e a t e s t i n i t i a l c o s t o f a n y p i s t o n pump ,
but the cost i s usually offset by low maintenance and high
reliability .
rMO î
/ t A ri r ir» r> i i A r~
uia
^n ^ n y c u n U cz
t 4
I
I
I
*1
L
*
i
FLUID
*
I
I
I
SUCTION SUCTION
FIGURE 14- 11
COMBINATION PISTON / HYDRAULIC DIAPHRAGM PUMP
.
14.1 3.5 P r o g r e s s i v e C a v i t y Pumps
T h e p r o g r e s s i v e c a v i t y pump ( F i g u r e 1 4 - 1 2 ) h a s b e e n u s e d
successfully on almost a l l types of sludge .
T h i s pump c o m p r i s e s
a s i n g l e -threaded r o t o r t h a t operates w i t h an i n t e r f e r e n c e
clearance i n a double -threaded h e l i x s t a t o r made o f rubber .
A v o l u m e o r " c a v i t y " moves "p r o g r e s s i v e l y " f r o m s u c t i o n t o
d i s c h a r g e when t h e r o t o r i s r o t a t i n g, h e n c e t h e name " p r o g r e s s i v e
cavity " . T h e p r o g r e s s i v e c a v i t y pump m a y b e o p e r a t e d a t
d i s c h a r g e heads o f 4 5 0 f e e t ( 1 3 7 m ) o n s l u d g e , Capacities are
a v a i l a b l e t o 1, 2 0 0 g p m ( 7 5 1 / s ) . Some progressive c a v i t y
pumps w i l l p a s s s o l i d s u p t o 1 . 1 2 5 inches ( 2 . 9 c m ) i n d i a m e t e r .
1 4- 2 2
Rags or stringy material should be ground up before entering this
pump .The rotor i s inherently self locking in the stator -
housing when not in operation , and will act as a check valve
for the sludge pumping line , An a u x i l i a r y motor brake may be
specified to enhance this operational feature .
( TVP )
ROTOR
STATOR
.
DISCHARGE *+
, bn-rf'l
‘
cc
- CAVITIES
FIGURE 14- 12
PROGRESSIVE CAVITY PUMP
The t o t a l head produced by the progressive cavity pump i s divided

equally between the number of cavities created by the threaded
rotor and helix stator .
The differential pressure between
cavities directly relates to the wear of the rotor and stator
because of the s l i g h t " blow by " caused by t h i s pressure
difference .
Because wear on the rotor and stator i s high , the
maintenance c o s t f o r t h i s type of pump i s the h i g h e s t of any
sludge pump. Maintenance costs are reduced by specifying the
pump f o r one c l a s s higher pressure s e r v i c e ( one e x t r a stage )
than would be used for clean fluids .
This c r e a t e s many e x t r a
,
cavities reduces the differential p r e s s u re between cavities , and
consequently reduces rotor and stator wear .
A l s o, s p e e d s s h o u l d
not exceed 325 rpm in s l u d g e service , and g rit concentrations
should be minimized .
Since the rotor shaft has an eccentric motion, universal joints
are required between the motor shaft and the rotor , The
design of the universal j o i n t varies greatly among d i f f e r e n t
manufacturers . C o n t i n u o u s d u t y , t r o u b l e -f r e e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s e
universal j o i n t s i s best achieved by using the best quality ( and
usually most expensive ) universal gear joint design , Discharge
p r e s s u r e s a f e t y shutdown devices a r e required on t h e pump
1 4- 2 3
discharge t o p r e v e n t r u p t u r e of blocked discharge lines , N o-flow
safety s h u t d o w n devices are o f t e n used t o p r e v e n t t h e r o t o r a n d
stator f r o m becoming fused d u e t o d r y operation , A s previously
mentioned , these p u m p s are expensive t o maintain, However , flow
rates are easily controlled , pulsation is minimal, and operation
is clean. Therefore , progressive cavity pumps are widely used
for pumping s l u d g e.
14.1.3.6 Diaphragm P u m p s
Diaphragm pumps ( Figure 1 4- 13 ) utilize a flexible membrane that
is pushed or pulled t o contract or enlarge an enclosed cavity.
Flow is directed through this cavity by check valves , which may
be either ball or flap type. T h e capacity of a diaphragm pump is
altered by changing either the length of the diaphragm stroke
or the number of strokes per minute , P u m p capacity can be
increased and f l o w p u l s a t i o n s smoothed o u t by providing t w o
pump chambers and utilizing both strokes of the diaphragm for
pumping. D i a p h r a g m p u m p s a r e r e l a t i v e l y low head and l o w
capacity units; the l a r g e s t available air -o p e r a t e d diaphragm pump
delivers 220 g p m ( 14 1 /s ) against 50 feet ( 15 m ) o f head , The
distinct advantage of the diaphragm p u m p s is their simplicity .
Their n e e d s f o r o p e r a t o r attention and maintenance are minimal.
T h e r e a r e n o s e a l s , s h a f t s , r o t o r s , s t a t o r s , o r p a c k i n g in
contact with t h e fluid ; a l s o, d i a p h r a g m p u m p s c a n r u n in a d r y
condition indefinitely.
Flexure of the diaphragm may be accomplished mechanically ( push
rod or spring ) or hydraulically ( air or water ). Diaphragm life
is more a function of the discharge head and the total number of
flexures than the abrasiveness or viscosity of the p u m p e d fluid .
Power t o drive air driven diaphragm pumps is typically double
that required t o operate a mechanically driven pump of similar
capacity . However, hydraulically operated (air or water )
diaphragms generally outwear mechanically driven diaphragms by a
considerable a m o u n t . Hydraulically driven diaphragm pumps
are suitable f o r o p e r a t i o n in hazardous explosion -p r o n e areas ;
also a p r e s s u r e release means in the hydraulic s y s t e m provides
protection against obstructed pipelines , Typical repairs t o a
diaphragm pump usually cost less than $ 75 ( 1978 basis ) for p a r t s
and require approximately two hours of labor. I n some locations ,
high humidity intake air will cause icing p r o b l e m s t o d e v e l o p at
t h e a i r r e l e a s e v a l v e and m u f f l e r o n a n a i r d r i v e n d i a p h r a g m
pump. A c o m p r e s s e d air d r y e r should be used in -the air s u p p l y
s y s t e m w h e n such a condition exists.
T h e o v e r a l l construction of s o m e d i a p h r a g m p u m p s , t h e c o m m o n
" trash pump , " is such that abrasion may cause the lightweight
casings t o fail before the diaphragms , since the pumps are not
d e s i g n e d for continuous s e r v i c e. For wastewater treatment
a p p l i c a t i o n s t h e mechanical diaphragm " walking beam " p u m p s
are more appropriate. These pumps are dependable , have quick
1 4- 24
cleanout ball or flap check valves and are presently used to
,
handle scum and sludge at numerous small plants throughout the

country.
DIAPHRAGM
M
L "
'
CHECK
VALVE
I
FIGURE 14- 13
DIAPHRAGM PUMP
-
One air driven diaphragm pump is sold in a package expressly
intended for pumping sludge from primary sedimentation tanks
and gravity thickeners. The basic pump package consists of a
-
single chambered , spring return diaphragm pump , an air pressure
regulator , a solenoid valve, a gage , a muffler , and an electronic
transistorized timer. This unit pumps a single 3.8 gallon
( 14.4 1 ) stroke after an interval of time. The interval is
readily adjusted to match the pumping rate to the rate of
formation of the sludge blanket in the sedimentation tank or
thickener. The large single stroke capacity of this pump has
several maintenance advantages. Not only is total flexure count
reduced , but ball valve flushing is improved , so large particles
cause less difficulty. The maximum recommended solids size is
7/8 inch ( 2.2 cm ). Pump stroke speed is constant regardless of
the selected pump flow so that minimum scouring velocities are
always maintained in the discharge piping during the pumping
surge.
-
14 25
T h e traditional s e q u e n c e o f intermittent p u m p i n g f o r p r i m a r y
sedimentation t a n k s h a s been t o thicken for an interval without
p u m p i n g and t h e n d r a w t h e s l u d g e b l a n k e t d o w n. A r e l a t i v e l y
long interval is required by pump motors, since f r e q u e n t m o t o r
s t a r t s can cause o v e r h e a t i n g . T h e o r e t i c a l l y if t h e s l u d g e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n is 1 0 p e r c e n t o n the b o t t o m a n d d e c r e a s e s t o
8 p e r c e n t at t h e t o p o f the p u m p e d s l u d g e zone , then the p u m p e d
a v e r a g e is 9 p e r c e n t. H o w e v e r , by using air drive, a diaphragm
pump can o p e r a t e with s t a r t s e v e r y few seconds instead o f e v e r y
several minutes or l o n g e r. T h e manufacturer claims its s y s t e m
will draw single intermittent p u l s e s from the 1 0 p e r c e n t bottom
l a y e r since t h e s l u d g e blanket d e p t h is maintained a t a virtually
constant height . D o w n s t r e a m s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s can h a v e
g r e a t e r s o l i d s c a p a c i t y b e c a u s e more concentrated s l u d g e s can b e
obtained.
The City of San Francisco ran independent pump evaluation tests
in 1 9 7 5 ( 2 5 ). T h e y c o n c l u d e d t h a t p r o p e r u s e o f a i r - d r i v e n
diaphragm p u m p s will increase the sedimentation t a n k s' ability
t o c o n c e n t r a t e s l u d g e s. T h e s l u d g e c o l l e c t i o n s y s t e m in t h e
sedimentation t a n k s and t h e s l u d g e pumping equipment had t o be
c o n t r o l l e d t o g e t h e r t o g i v e o p t i m u m t h i c k e n i n g. S a v i n g s in
operations and maintenance as well as improved thickening were
accomplished by lowering the overall average rate of sludge
withdrawal and making t h e s l u d g e collectors w o r k continuously at
a reduced r a t e instead o f i n t e r m i t t e n t l y . W h e n c o n s i d e r i n g s u c h
a pump installation , t h e capacity requirement is based o n the
maximum r a t e a t which t h e s l u d g e blanket forms in t h e tank and
not the capacity required t o maintain minimum pipe velocities.
14.1.3.7 Rotary Pumps
R o t a r y pumps ( Figure 1 4- 1 4 ) a r e positive displacement pumps in

which t w o rotating s y n c h r o n o u s lobes essentially push the fluid
t h r o u g h t h e pump. B e c a u s e r o t a r y pump l o b e configurations c a n be
designed for a specific application , r o t a r y pumps are suitable
for jobs ranging from air compressor duty to sewage sludge
pumping. Rotational speed and shearing s t r e s s e s are low . S e w a g e
pumping lobes are n o n c o n t a c t and clearances are f a c t o r y c h a n g e d
a c c o r d i n g t o the abrasive c o n t e n t of t h e s l u r r y . I t is not
r e c o m m e n d e d that t h e p u m p s be considered s e l f -priming o r suction
lift p u m p s a l t h o u g h t h e y are advertised a s such. Experience at
one p l a n t indicates that t h e pump o p e r a t e s best with a bottom
suction and t o p discharge. O n l y very limited operational d a t a
are available for r o t a r y pumps used on s l u d g e. T w o manufacturers
now advertise hard m e t a l t w o- l o b e d p u m p s for s l u d g e u s a g e. Lobe
r e p l a c e m e n t f o r t h e s e p u m p s a p p e a r s t o be l e s s c o s t l y t h a n
r o t o r a n d s t a t o r r e p l a c e m e n t o n progressive cavity p u m p s. One
manufacturer is o f f e r i n g hard rubber t h r e e - lobed r o t a r y pumps ,
which a r e used s u c c e s s f u l l y for s l u d g e pumping in E u r o p e. Test
units o f this p u m p are p r e s e n t l y being evaluated in t h e United
S t a t e s. To date these tests have been unsuccessful due to
1 4- 26
the failure of the lobe liners .
Rotary pumps , l i k e other
p o s i t i v e displacement pumps, must be p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t p i p e l i n e
obstructions .
DISCHARGE
SUCTION
FIGURE 14- 14
ROTARY PUMP
14.1 3.8 . Ejector Pumps
Sewage ejectors use a charging pot which i s intermittently

discharged by a compressed a i r supply ( See Figure 14 15 ) - .
Ejectors are most applicable for incoming average flow rates
l e s s t h a n 1 5 0 g p m ( 9 1/ s ) . These pumps require a positive
suction and usually discharge to a vented holding tank or basin .
Scum and sludge can i n c a p a c i t a t e the standard mechanical o r
e l e c t r o n i c p r o b e- t y p e l e v e l s e n s o r s o f f e r e d b y m o s t m a n u f a c t u r e r s
t o sequence pot discharge; custom instrumentation may be
necessary
provided .
. Large flushing and cleanout connections should be
If ejectors are to be used t o discharge sludge to an
anaerobic digester where the a i r could produce an explosive
mixture, special precautions should be taken to see that the
units cannot bleed excessive quantities of air into the digester .
E j e c t o r pumps have been used i n some i n s t a l l a t i o n s t o pump
t h i c k e n e d w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o d u c e d b y t h e d i s s o l v e d a i r
flotation process .
14.1 3.9 . Gas L i f t Pumps
Gas l i f t pumps use low pressure gas released within a confined

riser pipe with an open top and bottom .
The released gas bubbles
rise, dragging the liquid up and out of the riser pipe Air is .
commonly used , i n which case t h e pump i s c a l l e d a n a i r l i f t pump .
1 4- 2 7
Air lift p u m p s a r e u s e d f o r r e t u r n activated s l u d g e a n d similar
applications ; gas lift pumps using digester gas are used to
c i r c u l a t e t h e c o n t e n t s o f a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r s. The main
a d v a n t a g e o f t h e s e relatively inefficient p u m p s is t h e c o m p l e t e
absence of moving parts . G a s lift s l u d g e p u m p s a r e u s u a l l y
limited t o lifts o f l e s s t h a n 1 0 f e e t . T h e capacity o f a lift
p u m p can b e varied b y c h a n g i n g its b o u y a n t g a s s u p p l y. Reliable
gas lift pumping requires the gas supply to be completely
i n d e p e n d e n t o f o u t s i d e f l o w o r p r e s s u r e v a r i a b l e s. G a s l i f t
p u m p s w i t h a n e x t e r n a l g a s s u p p l y a n d circumferential diffuser
c a n p a s s solids o f a size e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e internal diameter o f
t h e c o n f i n i n g r i s e r p i p e w i t h o u t c l o g g i n g. W h e n t h e g a s is
s u p p l i e d by a s e p a r a t e inserted p i p e, t h e obstruction c r e a t e d
n e g a t e s t h i s n o n- c l o g f e a t u r e . G a s l i f t p u m p s, b e c a u s e o f
their l o w l i f t i n g capability, a r e very sensitive t o suction a n d
d i s c h a r g e h e a d v a r i a t i o n s, a n d t o v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e d e p t h o f
b o u y a n t g a s r e l e a s e. Special discharge heads are usually
r e q u i r e d t o e n h a n c e t h e c o m p l e t e s e p a r a t i o n o f diffused a i r o n c e
t h e d i s c h a r g e elevation h a s b e e n r e a c h e d.
2 DISCHARGE
AIR C H A R G E
CONNECTION
SUCTION ISOLATION
VALVE
(TYR)
CHECK CHECK
VALVE Hi r .'
VALVE
* ll
-'.'
• ‘*
*
> < V
FIGURE 14- 15
EJECTOR PUMP
1 4 . 1.3 . 1 0 Water Eductors
W a t e r e d u c t o r s u s e t h e suction f o r c e ( v a c u u m ) c r e a t e d w h e n a h i g h
p r e s s u r e w a t e r s t r e a m i s p a s s e d t h r o u g h a streamlined c o n f i n i n g
t u b e ( venturi ). Like t h e a i r l i f t p u m p , w a t e r e d u c t o r s h a v e n o
1 4- 2 8
moving parts . W h e n w a t e r is r e q u i r e d t o t r a n s p o r t a solid
m a t e r i a l , t h e w a t e r e d u c t o r b e c o m e s a v e r y c o n v e n i e n t p u m p.
Most water eductors with reasonable w a t e r demands cannot pump
solids of g o l f ball size. T h e y have , however , been s u c c e s s f u l l y
used t o remove grit from aerated grit removal tanks and discharge
the grit into dewatering classifiers.
14.1.4 Application of S l u d g e P u m p s
The previous section describes the t y p e s of pumps available for

s l u d g e pumping. This section describes appropriate applications
for these pumps and identifies some limitations and constraints.
This section c o v e r s screenings , grit , a n d scum a s w e l l a s s l u d g e.
Suction conditions require s p e c i a l attention w h e n pumping s l u d g e.
When pumping water or other Newtonian fluids , calculations of net
positive suction head ( NPSH ) c a n be used t o determine permissible
suction piping a r r a n g e m e n t s. H o w e v e r , s l u d g e is a n o n-Newtonian
fluid , especially at high solids concentrations. This behavior
m a y drastically reduce the available NPSH. Consequently , long
suction pipelines should be avoided and the sludge pump should b e
several feet below the liquid level in the tank from which the
s l u d g e is t o be pumped. If these conditions are not met , a pump
will not be able t o handle s l u d g e a t high concentrations.
Special precautions are usually required to reliably pump
screenings and grit. Screenings should be g r o u n d u p and p u m p e d
by p u m p s with the ability t o pass l a r g e material. T o r q u e flow
p u m p s are ideal f o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n. G r i t p u m p i n g r e q u i r e s
s p e c i a l a b r a s i o n a n d n o n - c l o g g i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s. Both
screenings and grit pumps should be easy to disassemble with
quick access t o t h e volute and impeller.
Table 1 4- 3 p r e s e n t s a n application matrix that identifies the

various types of sludges or solids normally encountered in
wastewater applications , and provides a guide for t h e suitability
o f each t y p e o f pump in that service.
14.1.5 Pipe , Fittings , and Valves
Materials for wastewater solids pipelines include s t e e l ; c a s t and

ductile iron ; p r e t e n s i o n e d c o n c r e t e cylinder pipe; thermoplastic;
fiberglass reinforced plastic ; and other materials. Steel and
iron a r e most common. With s t e e l o r iron , external corrosion m a y
occur in u n p r o t e c t e d buried lines ; corrosion m a y be adequately
controlled under m o s t conditions by coatings and , where needed ,
c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n. Inside t h e p i p e , a l i n i n g o f c e m e n t ,
'
plastic , or g l a s s m a y be used t o p r o t e c t the p i p e from internal

c o r r o s i o n a n d a b r a s i o n. W i t h r a w s l u d g e s a n d s c u m , l i n i n g s
h a v e a n additional function: they provide a smooth surface
that g r e a t l y retards accumulations of g r e a s e o n the pipe wall
( 26 , 2 7 ). With anaerobically digested sludge , linings m a y be
1 4- 29
useful to prevent crystals of struvite from growing on the pipe
wall. ( Refer to the anaerobic digestion portion of Chapter 6 for
control of struvite ), Smooth linings are especially valuable in
pump suction piping and in key portions of piping ( header pipes
and the like ) where maintenance shutdowns would cause process
difficulties.
TABLE 14- 3
APPLICATIONS FOR SLUDGE PUMPS

Lagooned
Digested sludge, sludge ,
Misrellaneous solids Primary sludge Secondary sludge percent percent
Thickened
sludge
Ground Settled Thickened Trickling Activated Mixed Thickened Wet Dry
Pump type Screenings Grit Scum Septage sludge 3ludge filter sludge Float Gravity <6 >6 < 10 >15 Comments
Centrifugal 0 0 0 0 3 2 4 4 oa 3 4 3 4 1
b
Torque flow 5 4 J S 4 3 4 4 oa
C
4 4 3
d
3 0
-
b
; low efficiency
Plunger 0 0 4 4 4 4 1 1 4 4 4 4 0 Daily attention
required
e ,f
Piston 0 0 0 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 High cost
Progressive h
cavity 49 1 5 49 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5
e ,f
Piston/hydraulic 0 0 0 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 High cost
diaphragm
Diaphragm 4 0 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 3 0
Rotary 0 0 0 0 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 High maintenance

cost
i 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 0
Pneumatic ejector 4' 4 3
j 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 Low lift
Air lift 0 2 0 0 4 0
j 0 0 0 0 :i 0 Low lift
Water eductor 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0
dFloat may cause air binding. Key:

^cVarying quality and head conditions requires positive flow control 0 - Use
Unsuitable
,
1 - Use with
only under special circumstances
Restricted to low flows. 2
3
- Suitable with limitations
caution
^
£
Maximum 15 percent solids.
4
-- Suitable
High discharge pressure only. 5 Best type to use
^ Should be preceded by grinding.

with - line grinding.
^Large bore pumps may be usedconditioning in
^Requires special mechanical on dry sludge feed.
^jBatch Pneumatic Ejector type recommended.

Short distance only.
Fittings and appurtenances must be compatible with sludge and

pipe. Long sweep elbows are preferred over short radius elbows.
Grit piping may be provided with elbows and tees made of special
erosion resistant materials.
Valves of the nonlubricated eccentric plug type have proven
reliable in sludge pipeline service. Care must be taken if a
cleaning tool is to pass through the valves. Grit pipelines are
usually equipped with tapered lubricated plug valves.
Wastewater solids piping should be designed for reasonably
convenient maintenance , Even under good conditions , pipe may
occasionally have e r o s i v e wear , grease deposits , or other
difficulties. Pipe in tunnels or galleries is more accessible
than buried pipe , An adequate number of flanged joints ,
mechanical couplings , and take-down fittings should be provided .
It is recommended that 4 to 6 inches ( 10 to 15 cm ) be considered
the minimum diameter for wastewater solids pipelines to minimize
14- 30
grease clogging or particle blockage and facilitate maintenance
Blind flanges and cleanouts should be provided for ease of line
.
maintenance .
Gas formation by wastewater solids l e f t for long
periods in confined pipe or equipment can create explosive
pressures ; therefore , provision should be made for flushing and
draining a l l pipes, pumps , and equipment , The pressure rating of
wastewater solids pipelines should be adequate for unusual as
well as routine operating pressures , Unusual pressures
will occasionally occur due to high solids concentrations ,
pipe obstructions , gas formation , water hammer , and cleaning
operations .
Temperature changes may cause s t r e s s i n t h e pipe, Temperatures
a r e changed by h e a t e d m a t e r i a l a s i t e n t e r s cold p i p e; f l u s h i n g ;
and the use of hot fluids during cleaning t o remove grease, Pipe
should be designed t o accommodate such stresses .
14.1 6. Long Distance Pumping
Sludge may be pumped f o r miles , A pipeline is frequently
less expensive than the alternatives of trucks, rail cars , or
.
barging ( see Section 14.1 3 and reference 28 ) , especially if , by
pipelining, mechanical dewatering can be avoided , P i p e l i n e s may
have less environmental impact along their routes than trucks .
14.1 6.1 . Experience
Tables 1 4- 4 a n d 1 4- 5 d e s c r i b e s o m e t y p i c a l p i p e l i n e s f o r
unstabilized and digested sludges, There is considerable
additional U S . . -
e x p e r i e n c e ; s e e T a b l e s 1 4 6 a n d 1 4- 7 An .
examination of t h e s e t a b l e s shows t h a t:
Centrifugal pumps are widely used, even on unstabilized
sludge .
O p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e s a r e u s u a l l y below 1 2 5 p s i g ( 860 kN /m
gage ) . ^
e V e l o c i t i e s a r e u s u a l l y b e l o w 3 . 5 f t /s e c ( 1 . 1 m /s ) .
« If the v o l a t i l e solids content of the sludge i s low ,
the sludge can be pumped a t a high t o t a l s o l i d s
concentration .
This i s well illustrated by the lagoon
sludge pipelines , which have operated a t up to 18 percent
solids ; lagooned sludge has a very low volatile content .
In some cases , sludge thickening a t the receiving location was
adversely affected by the shearing or the septicity that occurred
in the pipelines .
Special flushing practices after pipeline use
or use of a pipe cleaning device were not used in several cases .
Need for these techniques seem t o depend on the nature of the
sludge being pumped , although experience i s not conclusive on
this point .
1 4- 3 1
TABLE 14- 4
TYPICAL LONG PIPELINES CARRYING

UNSTABILIZED SLUDGE
Jacksonville , FL Kansas City , MO

Cleveland , OH Indianapolis , IN District II to West Side to Big Philadelphia, PA
Characteristics Easterly to Southerly Southport to Belmont Buckman Blue River Southeast to Southwest
Length , mi 13.2 7.5 7 6.6 5
Diameter , in.
a
12 Twin 14 8 12 8
3
Tipe material Cast iron , unlined Ductile iron Ductile iron Ductile iron
Sludge type Primary, waste-
activated13
Primary, waste
activated
- Primary , waste
activated
- Primary Primary , excluding
scum
Percent solids
Percent volatile
3
- 3.5
65
C
° 0.75 -
68
1.75
BO
3 0.4
50
-
-
1.0
70
2.5
50
-5
Flow rate, gptn 35QC 1,000 minimum 500 normal 1,000 500
Velocity , ft/sec 1.0 ° 2 minimum 3 2.8 3
Total pressure, psig 150 - 175 ° 90 normal 90 normal 65 90 normal
Pump type Centrifugal, three in Centrifugal Centrifugal, two in Centrifugal Centrifugal
series series
Operating schedule Continuous Continuous 30 - 60 minutes every
two hours
Continuous Continuous
Use of cleaning tool Every 4-6 weeks None Possible , not needed Weekly Every 1 to 2 weeks' ^
Septicity of sludge Yes Yes Some; chlorine used Not much odor
Comments Difficulty with
solids accumulation
Thickeners do not
work as well on
Heat treatment de
watering less >
- Good thickening at
receiving plant
Good thickening at
receiving plant
at receiving plant sludge that has
been pumped from
Southport
3
Two ductile iron lines will replace a single line , The old lines is subject to external corrosion and
will be abandoned over most of its length. The new lines have polyethylene wrap and cathodic protection.
^Pickle liquor is added to primary treatment for phosphorus removal. Skimmings are handled separately.
-
Data from Reference 10. Later , sludge thickness was decreased to 1 2 percent solids to reduce operating
pressures and line hreaks.
^There is a heavy grease buildup in the pipe , especially in winter.
1 mi = 1.6 km
1 in. = 25.4 mm
1 gpm = 0.063 1/s
1 ft/sec = 0.30 m/s
1 ^
psig = 6 . 9 kN/m gage
14.1 . 6.2 D e s i g n Guidance
Proper p r e -p l a n n i n g o f a p i p e l i n e i n s t a l l a t i o n is o f g r e a t
importance .
For e x a m p l e , a pump breakdown or a p l u g g e d pipeline
h a s a g r e a t impact on p l a n t operation, and its likelihood can be
g r e a t l y minimized by g o o d initial design and equipment selection.
I f d i g e s t i o n is t o be p a r t o f t h e s y s t e m , the d i g e s t e r s m a y
be located either b e f o r e o r a f t e r t h e l o n g s l u d g e p i p e l i n e.
H o w e v e r , s l u d g e i s m u c h e a s i e r t o p u m p a f t e r it h a s b e e n
digested. I n addition , raw s l u d g e s may cause problems related t o
thickening , o d o r s , and corrosion at t h e receiving point , since
septic conditions m a y d e v e l o p in the pipeline. If raw sludge is
t o be p u m p e d long distances, the least environmental impact will
result if the p i p e l i n e c o n t e n t s a r e d i s c h a r g e d d i r e c t l y into
anaerobic digesters.
14- 32
TABLE 14- 5
TYPICAL LONG PIPELINES CARRYING

DIGESTED SLUDGE
Chicago , IL Denver , CO Fort Wayne, Rahway Valley Sanitary San Diego , CA

Characteristies lagoon no. 28 Northside to Metro IN Authority , NJ Point Lcma
Length, mi 1.7 2 3 3 •
7.5
Diameter , in . 16 Twin 8 12, some 10 8 8
Material Steel Cast iron Unlined cast iron Fiber reinforced plastic
Sludge type Lagooned Anaerobically digested
primary
- Digested ^ Anaerobically di-
gested primary and
primary
waste-activated
Percent solids 13 average 4 - 7 5 maximum 3 - 4 Up to 7.56
15 maximum
Percent volatile 40 49 35
- '40 57
Flow rate, gpm 1 , 300 700 600 500 550 - 60C
Velocity , ft/sec 2.1 2 1.6 3 3. 5
Total pressure , psig 87 40 - 60 20 - 30 80 155
Pumps Centrifugal with Centrifugal Centrifugal ^ -
Two stage centrifugal , Torque flow
q
3
mixers formerly recipro

cating
-
Operating schedule Intermittent 1 - 2 hr/day , not
flushed
3 hr/day , can flush
but not needed
4 hr/day , not flushed 5 times/week , flushed
before and after use
h
Use of cleaning tool None None None Not needed None
temporary pipeline to clean Lawndale lagoon no. 28 (5 ,6). No longer in service.

b
c
-
Also, a 25 mi pipeline has been designed but not yet constructed , as of early 1979.
Fiber reinforced plastic replaced a lined and coated steel pipe that corroded.
Ânaerobically digested primary - -
and waste activated sludges with phosphorus precipitating chemicals.
Dilution water is needed sometimes to get the sludge started , Once it is moving, the dilution water
may be shut off , depending on pressure,
f
Non- clog centrifugal pumps are suitable for ordinary digested sludge ,
is being added for digester cleaning and septic tank waste.
-
A nickel alloy torque flow pump
^Three pumps in series , two of which have variable speed drives.

hIn the past a novel ice bag tool was used (26).
1 mi = 1.6 km
1 i.n. =
25.4 mm
1 gpm = 0.063 1/s
1 ft/sec = 0. 30 m/s
1 psig = 6.9 kN/rrr gage
Sludge that has been piped for a long distance may experience
floe breakdown , If this occurs, thickening and dewatering may be
impaired. Chemical conditioning may require a higher chemical
dose ; thermal conditioning may produce a sludge with poorer
dewatering properties.
The following special design features should be considered for
long distance pipelines:
1. Provide two pipes unless a single pipe can be shut down
for several days without causing problems in wastewater
treatment system .
2. Consider external corrosion and pipe loads just as
for any other utility pipeline , for example , water
or natural gas. External corrosion has been a problem on
some long sludge pipelines. Electrical return currents,
-
14 33
TABLE 14- 6
LONG PIPELINES FOR UNSTABILIZED SLUDGE
ADDITIONAL LOCATIONS
Length , Diameter of Percent
City Treatment plants mi pipe , in. Sludge type solids Pump type
Austin , TX Walnut Creek 12 -

Primary, waste activated
-1
1 1.2 Positive displacement
Chicago , IL --
Northside to West r
Southwest .
18 14 -
Primary, waste activated Torque flow
3
Houston , TX Simms Bayou to Northside 6.8 8 Waste-activated 0.5 1- Centrifugal , 2 in series
Jersey City , NJ Eastside to Westside 2.5 Primary 4 Plunger , 3 speed
1
(maximum)
Knoxville , TN Loves Creek to Third
Creek system
3.2 6 Primary, trickling
filter
-
1 3 Centrifugal
-
Linden Roselle , NJ
-
Linden Roselle Sewerage
Authority
1 24 Primary 2-4 Centrifugal
Miami , FL Interama to Virginia Key 14 16

b
-
Primary, waste activated -
1 3 Progressive cavity
San Francisco , CA North Point to Southeast 6 10 Primary with ferric
chloride
1
-
Centrifugal , 2 speed
C
Seattle, WA Renton to West Point
system
3.7 12 -
Primary , waste activated 0.5 1- Progressive cavity ,
variable speed
aThere are additional pipelines in Houston (26).

bTwo 16-in. pipes over most of the route.
c
Two pipes.
1 mi
1 in.
-= 1.6
'
km
25.4 mm
>
TABLE 14- 7
LONG PIPELINES FOR DIGESTED SLUDGE

ADDITIONAL LOCATIONS
Length , Diameter of
Location mi pipe, in.. Type of digestion Percent solids Pump type
Austin , TX - Govalle plant 7 10 Aerobic 0.8 Positive displacement

Boston , MA Nut Island 4.5 12 Anaerobic 3 Centrifugal, reciprocating
plant
Chicago , IL -
West Southwest
plant to Lawndale lagoons
- 5.5 16 Anaerobic
. 3.5
- 4.5 Centrifugal
Chicago , IL
loading3
- 1970 rail 3.5 12 Anaerobic, lagoon 4- 15
9.2 average
Chicago , IL - barge loading 1.0 16 Anaerobic , lagoon 8 - 18 Centrifugal with mixers
Chicago, IL - Calumet 1 18 Anaerobic , lagoon 12 Centrifugal
lagoons
East Kockaway , NY
Park plant
- Bay 1.5 16 .1 Anaerobic
. 3.7 Variable speed
Evansville, IN 3.5 8 Anaerobic 1 -9 Torque flow , plunger

Fulton County , IL 10.8 20 Anaerobic, lagoon 4 - 8 Centrifugal
Los Angeles, CA - Hyperion 7 20 Anaerobic , aerobic , diluted 0.9
a Reciprocating
Morgantown , WV " 4.5 2' Anaerobic
Philadelphia , PA - Southwest 1 Anaerobic, lagoon -
10 12 normal
15 average
Wantagh , NY - Cedar Creek :
: 10 2.5 Centrifugal , 3 stage
temporary , pipeline, now out of service.
1 mi = 1.6 km
1 in. = 25.4 mm
14- 34
acid s o i l s, saline g r o u n d w a t e r , a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s m a y
cause serious difficulty unless special corrosion control
measures a r e u s e d. A d v i c e o f s p e c i a l i s t s o n t h e n e e d f o r
cathodic p r o t e c t i o n i s advised.
3. Provide f o r a d d i n g c o n t r o l l e d a m o u n t s o f w a t e r t o dilute
t h e s l u d g e o r f l u s h t h e line. Primary effluent may be
u s e d in r a w s l u d g e p i p e l i n e s ; disinfected f i n a l e f f l u e n t
m a y b e p r e f e r r e d f o r d i g e s t e d s l u d g e p i p e l i n e s, T h e
w a t e r connection s h o u l d have a f l o w r a t e indicator , T h e
f l u s h i n g w a t e r s h o u l d f l o w at a b o u t 3 f p s ( 0.9 m /s ).
4. Provide for inserting and removing a cleaning tool

( " p i g , " " g o-d e v i l " ) w h i c h c a n b e s e n t t h r o u g h t h e l i n e i f
needed ( 1 0 , 2 8 a , 2 8 b ). S u c h c l e a n i n g m a y be f r e q u e n t l y
r e q u i r e d if unstabilized s l u d g e i s p u m p e d , e v e n if s c u m
is handled s e p a r a t e l y. I f t o o l c l e a n i n g is t o be used ,
some additional recommendations a p p l y:
a . Valves must provide an unobstructed waterway to pass
t h e t o o l.
b. F l u s h i n g w a t e r p r e s s u r e s h o u l d be sufficient t o p u s h
t h e t o o l t h r o u g h t h e f u l l l e n g t h o f p i p e l i n e.
c. Pipe bend fittings should be 45-degree or, if
p o s s i b l e , 2 2- 1/ 2-d e g r e e , S o m e c l e a n i n g t o o l s will
p a s s 9 0- d e g r e e b e n d s , but s u c h bends are l i k e l y t o b e
t r o u b l e s p o t s. L e n g t h /r a d i u s of b e n d s s h o u l d b e
c h e c k e d w i t h t h e t o o l supplier.
d. A recording or totalizing flowmeter should be
provided. '( See C h a p t e r 1 7, Instrumentation. ) If t h e
t o o l g e t s s t u c k in t h e l i n e , t h e f l o w r e c o r d c a n be
u s e d t o c o m p u t e t h e n u m b e r o f g a l l o n s p u m p e d since
t h e t o o l w a s inserted. T h u s , t h e t o o l c a n be l o c a t e d
a n d retrieved .
5. The pipeline route should be selected for ease of
maintenance.
6. A t h i g h p o i n t s, a i r o r g a s r e l i e f v a l v e s s h o u l d b e
p r o v i d e d. W i t h c a r e , a u t o m a t i c r e l i e f v a l v e s c a n b e
made reliable on digested sludge lines ; however, in
unstabilized s l u d g e l i n e s , g r e a s e a n d debris g e n e r a l l y
c a u s e automatic v a l v e s t o be unreliable. S i m p l e manual
blowoff valves are generally better for unstabilized
sludge , Air and gases _ from sludge pipelines may be
o d o r o u s. I n confined s p a c e s, t h e air o r g a s m a y a l s o b e
t o x i c, flammable, e x p l o s i v e, a n d corrosive.
7. I f s l u d g e i s t o be p u m p e d a t more t h a n a b o u t 3 p e r c e n t
solids , t h e p u m p s and pipeline should be d e s i g n e d f o r
h i g h a n d variable f r i c t i o n h e a d l o s s e s. S l u d g e m a y f l o w
1 4- 35
more like a Bingham plastic than an ordinary Newtonian
f l u i d . A multiplication factor , such as those on
Figure 14-1, should not be used , A more accurate design
method , such as the one in Section 14.1. 2 , should be
used .
8. If centrifugal pumps are used , flow rates will be
somewhat unpredictable because of the varying flow
resistance properties of the sludge. Storage provisions
should be made for these variations. Pumps should be
capable of operating at shutoff head with very low flow
during pipeline startup.
9. Positive displacement pumps may experience difficulty

when starting a long sludge pipeline. The thixotropic
nature of sludge may cause very high resistance to flow
during start-up. Consequently excessive pressures may be
generated by positive displacement pumps. To avoid this
problem , variable speed drives should be provided and the
pumps should be started at low speeds. An air chamber
( see Section 14.1.3.3 ) may be installed on the discharge
side of the pumps ; the chamber will assist in start -up,
as well as dampen pulsations. With digested sludge, a
relief valve piped back to the digesters may be used near
the pumps.
10. For very long lines, a booster pumping station may be

required . If positive displacement booster pumps
are used , a holding tank should be provided . It is
practically impossible to match booster pumping rates to
the sludge flow reaching the booster station unless
centrifugal pumps are used.
11. Waterhammer is best controlled by limiting velocity .

Unless a special evaluation is made, velocities should
not exceed about 3 fps ( 0.9 m/s ), Even lower velocities
may be required in some cases.
14.1.7 In- Line Grinding
In- line grinders are used to reduce the size of sludge solids to
prevent problems with the operation of downstream processes.
Grinders require high maintenance ; therefore they should not be
installed unless shown to be absolutely necessary. For locations
where a grinder may be installed in the future , removable spool
pieces should be inserted into the pipeline to facilitate the
later installation of a grinder . Grinders may be applicable
to streams carrying debris , rags or stringy materials , but
are usually not needed for streams carrying only secondary
( biological ) sludge , Grinders have often been installed
preceding equipment with ball or flapper check valves, However,
utilizing dual check valving , proper stroke seating can be
14-36
obtained a n d t h e g r i n d e r s can o f t e n be eliminated , Grinders
remain a necessity u p s t r e a m from small diameter , high p r e s s u r e
positive displacement p u m p s.
Sophisticated , s l o w speed , hydraulic o r electric grinders that
can sense blockages and clear themselves by reverse operation are
now available. Special combination centrifugal pump -grinders
a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r u s e as d i g e s t e r c i r c u l a t i o n p u m p s , a n d a r e
effective in preventing r a g balls , .E x p e r i e n c e indicates such
p u m p s require as much maintenance as grinders.
14.2 Dewatered W a s t e w a t e r Solids C o n v e y a n c e

D e w a t e r e d o r dried s l u d g e s, s c r e e n i n g s, ash , a n d g r i t c a n
b e c o n v e y e d by m o s t f o r m s of i n d u s t r i a l materials h a n d l i n g
equipment , including belt , tubular, and screw conveyors; slides
and inclines; elevators ; and pneumatic s y s t e m s. Each may be u s e d
t o a d v a n t a g e in certain applications , Because the consistency
of wastewater solids is highly variable , and because t h e solids
are often dif f i c u l t t o m o v e a n d m a y t e n d to flow , the design
of this e q u i p m e n t m u s t c o n s i d e r t h e m o s t severe c o n d i t i o n s
that m a y be expected .
14.2.1 Manual T r a n s p o r t of S c r e e n i n g s and Grit

A common method of handling screenings o r grit is simply t o p l a c e
a m o b i l e container ( 2 9 ) b e n e a t h t h e d i s c h a r g e p o i n t and t o
periodically e m p t y the mobile container into a l a r g e r container
t o b e hauled a w a y t o a landfill , T h e mobile c o n t a i n e r m a y
h a v e wheels for ease of movement o r it m a y be maneuvered b y an
overhead crane. T h e principal d i s a d v a n t a g e of this a p p r o a c h is
t h e a m o u n t of m a n u a l l a b o r r e q u i r e d . However , f o r s m a l l o r
isolated operations this may be t h e m o s t appropriate method .
1 4 . 2.2 Belt C o n v e y o r s
T r o u g h e d belt c o n v e y o r s are simple and reliable ( Figure 1 4- 1 6 ) .
T h e y m a y be equipped with load -cell weigh - bridge sections for
totalization o f c o n v e y e d solids w e i g h t . ( See Chapter 17,
Instrumentation ). Totalization is useful w h e n an a c c u r a t e solids
balance must be calculated for a dewatering facility o r treatment
plant . S l u d g e concentrated e n o u g h t o maintain a semi - s o l i d
s h a p e ( 1 5 p e r c e n t ) c a n be conveyed at a b o u t 18 d e g r e e s maximum
inclination on t r o u g h e d belt c o n v e y o r s. S l u d g e s with a higher
solids content can be moved u p s t e e p e r slopes. W h e r e wash sprays
a r e utilized , s p l a s h p a n s should be p r o v i d e d on t h e underside of
belts t o direct t h e used washwater t o a proper disposal point .
S u c h s p l a s h p r o t e c t i o n w i l l a s s i s t in k e e p i n g t h e a r e a d r y
and preventing head and tail pulley s l i p p a g e . H e a d a n d t a i l
p u l l e y lagging ( grooving ), crowning and other , a u x i l i a r y w a y s o f
maintaining belt guidance should be t h o r o u g h l y r e v i e w e d w i t h
conveyor manufacturers before specifying a troughed belt
1 4- 37
installation. M o s t t r o u g h e d belt installations for s l u d g e
currently utilize s t e e l idlers and p u l l e y s with lubricated
anti -friction bearings. The fisheries industry , which also uses
conveyors in constantly wet applications , is successfully using
lubricated thermoplastic ( T F E , Delrin ) idler bearings with
Schedule 80 PVC pipe rollers ; these provide longer service life
than is achieved with all steel construction.
HEAD DRIVE
PULLEY UNIT
TROUGHED BELT
CARRYING IDLERS
/DISCHARGE
CHUTE
FEED CHUTE /
LOADING SKIRTS
CROSS SECTION
PULLEY
TROUGHED
IDLERS
SUPPORT
TAIL TAKEUP CROSS SECTION

FRAME FLAT BELT IDLERS
FIGURE 14- 16
BELT CONVEYOR
In s l u d g e applications , belt failures usually occur first at the

zipper - like mechanical belt seams. Endless belts with field
vulcanized seams m a y be s p e c i f i e d t o eliminate t h i s mode of
failure. Belt material m u s t be resistant t o dilute sulfuric
acid , formed by the reaction of hydrogen sulfide and moisture.
Material selection must also consider oil, grease and a multitude
of other elements found in sludge.
Belt conveyors have been successfully used t o transport coarse
solids removed from mechanically cleaned bar racks, and can be
used t o transport grit. Special consideration should be given to
t h e t y p e of belt d e s i g n , construction materials , bearings ,
type of drive and controls. Since screenings are heavily laden
with w a t e r , t h e belt must be designed t o contain and direct
draining water t o a point of disposal. A means of changing belt
s p e e d s should be provided s o that a r a n g e of loads can be
accommodated.
The handbook on belt conveyors for bulk materials by the Conveyor
Equipment Manufacturers Association ( 30 ) is a good reference for
g e n e r a l design of belt c o n v e y o r s. H o w e v e r , there i s little
14- 38
specific information available relating to the special problems
associated with the cohesive , nonuniform properties of dewatered
sludge. Experience at existing facilities using this type of
conveying equipment and transporting sludge with similar
characteristics provides the most useful design information.
The experience of the County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles
County in the first three years of operation of a two- stage
digested sludge dewatering station provides useful guidance
for conveying centrifuge- dewatered digested sludge ( 31 ), The
facility includes solid bowl centrifuges as a first stage, after
which the centrate is screened and then dewatered using basket
centrifuges. The system uses belt conveyors to transport
dewatered sludge between production, storage, and truck loading.
The system has 44 belt conveyors totaling approximately one- half
mile in length. Troughed conveyor belts carry both first stage
centrifuge cake at 32 percent solids and second stage centrifuge
cake at 17 percent solids. Dewatered sludge is usually stored in
the twelve storage bins at 22 to 24 percent solids and then
transported to trucks by additional belt conveyors.
Helpful guidelines resulting from start - up of this facility
include the following:
1. Reduction of splashing at transfer points: The dump
point should be enclosed and the drop distance minimized.
Skirtboards ( stationary sidewalls at edges of belts )
should be used at critical areas and covered if
necessary. Rubber gaskets from hoppers to skirtboards and
on the bottom of skirtboards may be required to reduce
splashing or spillage , Where long drops cannot be
avoided transfer chutes should have interior impact
baffles to dissipate the momentum of falling sludge.
2. Removal of sludge from returning belts: Counter-weighted
rubber-bladed scrapers at head pulleys are not effective
in scraping sludge off return belts and are a maintenance
problem . The use of adjustable tension finger -type
scrapers is recommended , To avoid problems with idler
roller vibration and irregularities , and to ensure
continuous contact , scrapers should be installed beyond
the idler on the flattened portion of the belt.
3. Assuring minimum pulley slippage: Appurtenances that
contact the dirty side of the belt should be avoided.
Figure 14-17 illustrates both the undesirable and the
recommended design features of inclined belt conveyors.
Snubber pulleys and trippers ( devices that remove the
moving material from the belt ) cannot be successfully
used for sludges, Gravity counterweight take- ups should
be avoided , and screw take- ups should be used instead.
Where long lifts are required , multiple short belts
should be used instead of one long belt to avoid the need
for gravity take- ups.
14-39
4. I m p o r t a n c e o f h o u s e k e e p i n g facilities: Notwithstanding
the care taken to avoid spillage or splashing, sludge
h a n d l i n g facilities a r e d i r t y , and m u s t be d e s i g n e d t o
facilitate c l e a n u p , N o n -skid c o v e r p l a t e s, r a t h e r t h a n
g r a t i n g , should b e u s e d f o r all access areas e x c e p t t h o s e
immediately over storage hoppers, Convenient hose
stations s h o u l d be located t o s e r v e a l l a r e a s , Floors
and slabs s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d w i t h e x a g g e r a t e d d r a i n a g e
s l o p e s ( u p t o o n e i n c h p e r f o o t [ 8 c m /m ] ) a n d s h o u l d
drain t o l i b e r a l l y distributed d r a i n s u m p s , S p e c i a l c a r e
s h o u l d be u s e d at a l l t r a n s f e r p o i n t s , t a k e -u p p u l l e y s,
a n d d u m p p o i n t s t o minimize s l u d g e s p i l l a g e o r s p l a s h i n g ,
o r t o p r o v i d e s u r r o u n d i n g s t h a t a r e e a s i l y c l e a n e d.
Flexible conveyors are now available in styles with integral

p o c k e t s , sidewalls a n d c l e a t s that allow s t e e p, h i g h c a p a c i t y
o p e r a t i o n s o n a l m o s t a l l materials ( F i g u r e 1 4- 1 8 ). T h e belts m a y
c h a n g e inclination a t s e v e r a l p o i n t s in t h e i r r u n. T h e y are best
c l e a n e d by a combination b r u s h a n d s p r a y c l e a n e r , Except for
belt p o c k e t s , sidewalls , a n d c l e a t s, their mechanical c o m p o n e n t s
a r e similar t o t h o s e o n t r o u g h e d belts ; maintenance c o s t s f o r
mechanical drives and rollers a r e a l s o similar.
T h e r e a r e p a t e n t e d flexible c o n v e y o r s that c a n n o t o n l y c h a n g e
inclination b u t a l s o c h a n g e direction o r even s p i r a l -v e r t i c a l l y
u p w a r d s . O n e u n i t m a y r e p l a c e s e v e r a l s t r a i g h t l i n e b e l t s.
These units are not actually belts but segmental chain and
s p r o c k e t -d r i v e n m e c h a n i s m s w i t h i n t e r l o c k e d , p l e a t e d r u b b e r
t r o u g h sections. D r i v e mechanism w e a r a n d corrosion is h i g h in
c o m p a r i s o n w i t h f l a t b e l t c o n v e y o r s, These conveyors are not
recommended where there is sufficient room to allow installation
o f m u l t i p l e c o n v e n t i o n a l t r o u g h e d o r p o c k e t e d c o n v e y o r s.
1 4 . 2.3 Screw Conveyors
Screw c o n v e y o r s ( F i g u r e 1 4- 1 9 ) a r e s i l e n t , r e l i a b l e, a n d
economical ( 3 2 ). T h e y a r e u s e d f o r horizontal m o v e m e n t o f g r i t
o r s l u d g e , or m a y be used t o c o n v e y dewatered s l u d g e u p inclines.
( The degree of incline depends upon sludge moisture content
a n d c o n s i s t e n c y ), Conservative sizing, abrasion resistant
construction m a t e r i a l s , a n d i n t e g r a l w a s h d o w n s y s t e m s w i t h i n
e n c l o s e d h o u s i n g s a r e r e c o m m e n d e d f o r solids h a n d l i n g facilities.
All e n c l o s e d h o u s i n g s s h o u l d h a v e numerous q u i c k o p e n i n g access
plates for maintenance and observation , Screw conveyors for
d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e s h o u l d n o t h a v e internal intermediate b e a r i n g s
b e c a u s e s l u d g e c a n p i l e u p o n t h e b e a r i n g a n d restrict o r p r e v e n t
f l o w. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , s c r e w c o n v e y o r l e n g t h s s h o u l d b e limited
t o 20 feet. S c r e w c o n v e y o r s w i t h reversible direction , o r w i t h
s e v e r a l slide g a t e controlled d i s c h a r g e o p e n i n g s in t h e b o t t o m o f
t h e c o n v e y o r h o u s i n g , a l l o w t h e p o i n t o f c o n v e y o r d i s c h a r g e t o be
c h a n g e d a s a p p r o p r i a t e, p r o v i d i n g f l e x i b i l i t y o f o p e r a t i o n.
1 4- 4 0
" TRIPPER WITH
SHUTTLE BELT FOR
TRANSFER TO MULTIPLE
BINS
SNUBBER
O - PULLEY
WALKWAY
“
TAIL
PULLEY
•GRAVITY COUNTERWEIGHT TAKEUP

FOR CONVEYOR BELT TENSION
UNDESIRABLE LAYOUT
* NOT RECOMMENDED FOR USE WITH SLUDGE
TRANSFER OF CONVEYOR MATERIALS

HEAD MOVEABLE RUBBER
PULLEY BEADED PLOWS HEAD
PULLEY
X t Y,
TAIL
PULLEY
DUMP INTO
TANK AT HEAD
- OF CONVEYOR
TAIL
PULLEY
QQ
SCREW TAKEUP
FOR CONVEYOR
BELT TENSION
RECOMMENDED LAYOUT
FIGURE 14- 17
INCLINED BELT CONVEYOR FEATURES ( 31 )
1 4- 4 1
FLEXIBLY CLEATED AND
SIDE WALLED
FLAT BELT CONVEYOR
FIGURE 14- 18
FLEXIBLE FLAT BELT CONVEYOR
INLET
DISCHARGE
FIGURE 14- 19
SCREW CONVEYOR
Screw conveyors have been successfully used for transporting grit

but their application to screenings is questionable because rags
may become entangled on the conveyor shaft , Oversized objects,
such as sticks, can jam the screw or fall out of the conveyor,
creating housekeeping problems , To reduce wear , open or ribbon
type screw conveyors are sometimes used for grit.
14- 42
14.2 .4 Positive Displacement T y p e Conveyors
Positive displacement type conveyors include tubular conveyors
a n d bucket e l e v a t o r s. T u b u l a r c o n v e y o r s ( F i g u r e 1 4- 2 0 ) a r e
tubular conduits through which circular flights are pulled by
chains. They may be used f o r the horizontal t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f
d r y solids such a s incinerator ash o r semi -d r y grit , T h e y are
several times as expensive a s flat belts p e r linear foot , but
require much less room, are f u l l y enclosed and air tight , and can
be r o u t e d a n y w h e r e a conduit will fit. Maintenance is h i g h.
Most plants utilizing these conveyors routinely r e p l a c e the chain
elements at least once per month.
% MATERIAL
OUT
MATERIAL
FIGURE 14- 20
TUBULAR CONVEYOR
Bucket elevators ( Figure 14- 21 ) incorporate chain and sprocket

d r i v e n b u c k e t s in a m a n n e r s i m i l a r t o t h e t u b u l a r c o n v e y o r s
e x c e p t t h a t t h e chain f l i g h t s a r e not in c o n t i n u a l c o n t a c t
with t h e product , As a result , mechanical longevity is greatly
increased , They are u s u a l l y restricted t o vertical lifts with
limited horizontal displacement.
1 4 . 2.5 Pneumatic C o n v e y o r s
Pneumatic conveyors are usually not appropriate for dewatered
sludge, but can effectively handle screenings, grit , and dry
finely divided materials such as incinerator ash. Screenings and
1 4- 43
grit can be easily transported , even over long distances, through
the use of a batch pneumatic ejector system ( Figure 14 22 ). -
Such pneumatic ejector systems have provided good s ervice for
-
distances up to one half mile and up to 100 feet of lift , The
transport system between the points of loading and discharge is a
easily routed along available passages ,
-
totally enclosed pipe, which is clean and odor free and can be
The entire system
utilizes a minimum of moving parts , Consideration must be given
to the use of abrasion resistant materials , especially at pipe
bends , and an air pressure system consistent with the distance
and lift to be traversed.
MATERIAL
OUT
t
>
MATERIAL
>
)
t
>
W
FIGURE 14- 21
BUCKET ELEVATOR
-
Continuous pneumatic conveying systems (Figure 14 23 ) , either
pressure or vacuum type , are widely used where dry , particulate
materials are to be transported , Their use in sludge transport
is limited to materials such as incinerator ash. Where long
distances or complex routings are involved pneumatic conveyor
systems are especially well suited to ash transport.
Ash is an extremely abrasive material and rotary valves and elbow
segments in particular must be carefully specified to provide
maximum abrasion resistance , The blowers may require noise
shielding.
14.2.6 Chutes and Inclined Planes

Chutes and inclined planes for sludge , screenings , ash , and
grit should be tested for minimum inclination on the specific
14- 44
transported product whenever possible , In general , inclinations
for dewatered sludge should be greater than 60 degrees from
the horizontal. For dry bulk materials , such as ash , the
inclinations should at least be greater than the material's
natural angle of repose.
DISCHARGE
HOPPER
V
SCREENINGS
OR GRIT
INLET CONTROLS
GATE GATE
\
I oo
L
n
DISCHARGE
‘1
EJECTOR
l A;
COMPRESSOR
uu \ CLEANOUT
RECEIVER
FIGURE 14-22
PNEUMATIC EJECTOR
MATERIAL
AND AIR
MATERIAL
OUT
FIGURE 14- 23
PNEUMATIC CONVEYOR
-
14 45
14.2.7 Odors
O p e n s l u d g e c o n v e y a n c e c a n b e a s o u r c e of o d o r s , A l l solids
t r a n s p o r t i n g facilities s h o u l d be w e l l ventilated a n d , if
necessary , provided with o d o r c o n t r o l for the vented air. E v e n
with stabilized s l u d g e s, if large holding o r equalization tanks
a r e required f o r t h e pumping s y s t e m , floating covers o r s p e c i a l
o d o r c o n t r o l facilities for venting t a n k air should be p r o v i d e d
w h e n t h e d e t e n t i o n t i m e is g r e a t e r t h a n s e v e r a l h o u r s. S e e
C h a p t e r 1 5 for more detailed information o n s l u d g e s t o r a g e.
14.3 L o n g Distance Wastewater Solids Hauling
I t is o f t e n necessary t o t r a n s p o r t the wastewater solids f o r l o n g

distances , t h a t is , b e y o n d t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s i t e, T h i s m a y be d o n e by pumping if t h e
material i s s l u d g e o r s c u m ( c o v e r e d in S e c t i o n 1 4 . 1 . 6 ) o r by
o t h e r m e t h o d s , which shall be t e r m e d long distance hauling , F o r
this c h a p t e r, long distance hauling is limited t o trucking, rail
t r a n s p o r t , and barging.
Ettlich ( 2 8 ), in d e v e l o p i n g c o s t f o r m u l a s f o r t r a n s p o r t o f
wastewater s l u d g e, makes t h e following general observations about
t h e comparative economics of t h e long distance s l u d g e hauling
methods:
1. Transportation of dewatered sludge
T o t a l a n n u a l cost f o r railroad is l e s s t h a n truck for

a l l a n n u a l s l u d g e v o l u m e s ( 7 , 5 0 0 t o 7 5 0, 0 0 0 c u y d
[ 5 7 3 0 t o 5 7 3 , 4 5 0 m 3 ] and distances ( 2 0 t o 3 2 0 miles
[ 3 2 t o 5 1 5 k m ] ) s t u d i e d w i t h a n d w i t h o u t terminal
facilities for loading and unloading sludge t o t h e
t r a n s p o r t vehicle.
Railroad facilities a r e m o r e capital intensive t h a n

truck facilities.
• T r a n s p o r t equipment c a n be leased for both truck and

railroad t r a n s p o r t.
2. Transportation o f liquid s l u d g e
• Truck is the least expensive mode for one way

distances of 20 miles ( 30 km ) or less and sludge
volumes l e s s than 1 0 t o 15 million gallons ( 3 8 , 0 0 0 t o
5 7, 0 0 0 m ) p e r y e a r .
^
• Pipeline is the least expensive m o d e f o r a l l cases
w h e n t h e a n n u a l s l u d g e v o l u m e is g r e a t e r t h a n
approximately 3 0 t o 7 0 million g a l l o n s ( 1 1 0 ,0 0 0 t o
2 6 0,0 0 0 m 3 ) *
1 4- 46
Pipeline is not economically attractive for annual
s l u d g e v o l u m e s o f 1 0 million g a l l o n s ( 3 8 , 000 m 3 ) o r
less because o f t h e high c a p i t a l investment.
P i p e l i n e is capital intensive and t h e terminal p o i n t s

a r e n o t easily c h a n g e d . Pipeline is ideal f o r l a r g e
volumes of sludge transported between two fixed
p o i n t s.
Rail and barge are comparable over the 7 to

7 0 0 million g a l l o n s ( 3 0 ,0 0 0 t o 2 ,6 0 0, 000 m 3 ) volume
r a n g e f o r long h a u l distances.
Barge is more economical than rail for short to

medium distances f o r annual sludge v o l u m e s g r e a t e r
t h a n 3 0 million gallons ( 110,0 0 0 m 3 ).
While much information is available on costs of transporting

s l u d g e in s p e c i f i c situations ( 3 3 , 3 4 , 3 5 3 6 ) t h e r e is a wide
disparity in r e p o r t e d c o s t s s i n c e t h e r e a r e s o many variables in
e a c h situation. Consequently it is m u c h more a c c u r a t e t o utilize
a n a p p r o a c h s u c h as Ettlich ' s , than t o rely u p o n c o s t estimates
from other treatment plants where conditions may be quite
different ( 2 8 ).
14.3 .1 Truck Transportation
F o r m o s t small p l a n t s and s o m e l a r g e p l a n t s , t h e use of t r u c k s

is the best approach. Trucking provides a viable option for
t r a n s p o r t o f both liquid and d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e . T r u c k i n g provides
flexibility n o t found in o t h e r m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t since terminal
p o i n t s and r o u t e c a n be c h a n g e d r e a d i l y a t l o w c o s t ( 3 5 ) .
Provided t r u c k s a r e leased r a t h e r than p u r c h a s e d , a t r u c k hauling
o p t i o n is n o t c a p i t a l intensive and allows more flexibility t h a n
pumping o r o t h e r t r a n s p o r t m o d e s. This flexibility is valuable
since locations o f r e u s e o r d i s p o s a l m a y c h a n g e.
1 4 . 3.1 . 1 T y p e s of T r u c k s
S l u d g e h a u l i n g t r u c k s a r e similar t o s t a n d a r d h i g h w a y t r u c k s
b e c a u s e both t y p e s o f trucks m u s t u s e public roads and c o m p l y
w i t h their o v e r a l l v e h i c l e w i d t h , h e i g h t a n d g r o s s w e i g h t
r e s t r i c t i o n s. M o s t o f t h e v a r i a b i l i t y c a n b e s e e n in s l u d g e
containment b o d y configuration. For t h e majority o f c a s e s, which
involve comparatively s h o r t distances with o n e-w a y t r a v e l times
l e s s t h a n o n e h o u r, e a s e a n d s p e e d o f l o a d i n g a n d u n l o a d i n g
a r e o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e. T h e l a r g e r t r u c k s a r e t h e m o s t
economical e x c e p t f o r one-w a y haul distances l e s s t h a n t e n miles
a n d a n n u a l s l u d g e v o l u m e s l e s s t h a n 3 , 0 0 0 cubic y a r d s f o r
dewatered sludge and for less than one million gallons per
1 4- 4 7
year for liquid sludge , Generally , diesel engines are used in
the larger trucks and are the economical choice for small trucks
that are operated at high annual mileage ( 35).
Where it is determined that economic , environmental , and
institutional considerations allow direct land application
of liquid digested sludge , special tank trucks are available
equipped with specially designed spreaders , auger beaters , and/or
special application apparatus. Some manufacturers equip their
-
trucks with subsoil injectors for sub surface treatment. Use of
such dual purpose trucks allows transport and ultimate disposal
without an intermediate storage/pumping step. Specialized
tanks or trucking equipment can be custom built for specific
applications. One company produces flexible tanks designed to
fit on a flatbed truck ( 37 ).
Spillage or leakage from sludge hauling operations are
unacceptable because of aesthetic and health considerations.
-
This has meant a shift away from belly dump vehicles, even for a
very well dewatered sludge cake. There is increased concern for
covering the top of the sludge to minimize both odor release
during transit and the chance of spillage due to sudden stops or
accidents. Consequently , tank type bodies are gradually becoming
-
the most common, even for mechanically dewatered sludges. These
vehicles require unusually large hatch openings for loading
for unloading .
-
purposes , and well designed water tight hatches or tailgates
Tanks for liquid sludge transport are of more
standard design , but the provision of internal baffles to
minimize load shifting is recommended for highway transport.
14.3.1.2 Owned Equipment vs. Contract Hauling

The foregoing concerns apply equally whether or not the
wastewater treatment management agency contracts out its sludge
hauling or uses its own vehicles. The choice between utilizing
agency personnel or contracting for private companies to drive
sludge trucks is often decided not on the basis of cost , but on
the size of the plant. Smaller plants favor the use of both
their own vehicles and staff.
The choice of contract hauling can be limited to the provision of
tractor units and driver services , with the trailers owned by the
agency . This has two major benefits. First , treatment plant
staff , assigned to sludge handling and/or dewatering operations
are working in the immediate vicinity of the trailers, and can
-
therefore re spot the trailers under a conveyor belt at the best
t imes. Second , with most contracts awarded for only one to three
year terms , the contractor would otherwise need to figure in his
bid price a very rapid amortization of custom trailers , which may
-
be of no further use to him if he is not re awarded the contract
at a later date , even though they may have a useful life far in
excess of the contract period . Since it is economically sensible
to operate with more trailers than tractor units, trailer cost
depreciation can be a significant overall cost factor.
-
14 48
14.3 . 1.3 H a u l Scheduling
A common p r o b l e m , usually n o t recognized , is the n e e d t o p r o p e r l y

s c h e d u l e t r u c k i n g o p e r a t i o n s. In general, the total cost
o f t r u c k t r a n s p o r t will b e d e c r e a s e d ( p e r u n i t o f m a t e r i a l
h a u l e d ) if t h e d a i l y period o f t r u c k o p e r a t i o n i s increased ,
because capital intensive equipment is b e t t e r utilized , H o w e v e r,
restrictions m a y b e p l a c e d o n a n y s i g n i f i c a n t t r u c k o p e r a t i o n s,
such as requiring specific routes or limiting operations to
d a y l i g h t h o u r s ( 3 5 ). Such haul scheduling may require the
provision of some form of temporary sludge storage at the
plant. S e e C h a p t e r 1 5 for sludge s t o r a g e information , W h e n e v e r
i n t e r m i t t e n t o p e r a t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e, h o w e v e r , m e c h a n i c a l l y
d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e is u s u a l l y l o a d e d d i r e c t l y f r o m a c o n v e y o r
belt . Using t r u c k s o r trailer bodies a s t e m p o r a r y s t o r a g e m a y
not be the most economical method when drivers work hours,
overtime pay , and t h e c o s t o f r e- spotting trailers u n d e r a belt
are considered .
I n d e s i g n i n g s l u d g e h a n d l i n g f a c i l i t i e s , i t is d e s i r a b l e t o
provide several d u m p points with the capability t o quickly shift
from one t o a n o t h e r , If trailers are used , the ability t o fill
s e v e r a l units before t h e t r a c t o r unit r e t u r n s a d d s flexibility t o
scheduling and r e d u c e s s t o r a g e requirements , If t h e receiving
v e s s e l f o r d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e is n o t s e 1 f - p o w e r e d ( s u c h a s a
trailer ), consideration should be g i v e n t o movable d u m p c o n v e y o r s
t o allow t h e load t o b e distributed uniformly within the vessel.
D e w a t e r e d s l u d g e w i l l m o u n d w h e n l o a d e d f r o m a s i n g l e p o i n t.
This m a y p r e v e n t effective utilization o f t h e t r a n s p o r t vessel.
1 4 . 3 .1 . 4 Trucking C o s t s
W h e n considering s l u d g e trucking , it is worthwhile t o r e m e m b e r

that pumping equipment c a n h a n d l e digested sludge a t least u p t o
20 percent solids concentration, and to note that the layout
a n d d e s i g n o f loading and unloading facilities c a n contribute
m a r k e d l y t o c o s t s a v i n g s . A m o r e detailed breakdown o f relative
c o s t s associated with truck transportation is available ( 2 8 ).
1 4 . 3.2 Rail T r a n s p o r t
Rail transport is suitable for transporting sludges of any
solids concentration. I t is , however, n o t a common m e t h o d o f
transporting s l u d g e in the United S t a t e s.
14.3 . 2.1 A d v a n t a g e s and D i s a d v a n t a g e s o f

Rail T r a n s p o r t
Rail t r a n s p o r t h a s a lower e n e r g y c o s t p e r unit volume o f s l u d g e

t h a n pipelining and truck hauling , and once found t o be feasible
h a s a right-o f-w a y a l r e a d y established , which is n o t usually t h e
1 4- 4 9
case with a pipeline. Rail t r a n s p o r t c a n suffer from many o f the
same p r o b l e m s as pipelines , such as l a r g e unrecoverable c a p i t a l
e x p e n d i t u r e s and fixed terminal p o i n t s. I n addition , it has some
of the same p r o b l e m s associated with trucking, such a s a n ongoing
administrative b u r d e n , v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o l a b o r d i s p u t e s a n d
strikes, risk of spills, a n d because of t h e labor requirements,
a n operational c o s t that will rise continually , However, s p e c i a l
circumstances may favor rail hauling , F o r e x a m p l e, if s l u d g e is
t o be used t o rehabilitate s t r i p- mined lands , a rail line may
have b e e n built for hauling o u t the coal , That line would still
be available f o r the t r a n s p o r t o f sludge.
14.3.2 . 2 Routes
T h e construction o f a new railroad line m a y n o t be c o s t- effective

o r even p o s s i b l e for the sole p u r p o s e o f transporting w a s t e w a t e r
s l u d g e. N e w construction is normally limited t o a s h o r t s p u r
f r o m a mainline r a i l r o a d o r t h e p r o v i s i o n a n d /o r e x p a n s i o n
o f s m a l l s w i t c h i n g y a r d s o n a l a r g e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s i t e in
conjunction with chemical delivery facilities , Any a t t e m p t a t
l o n g e r new lines is impractical , This limits the overall r o u t e
selection , g e n e r a l l y b e t w e e n t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s i t e a n d
t h e final s l u d g e disposal p o i n t, t o railroad lines a l r e a d y in
e x i s t e n c e. I n t u r n, t h i s w i l l limit either t h e selection o f
rail f o r s l u d g e t r a n s p o r t o r s e v e r e l y limit t h e choice o f o r
s u b s e q u e n t c h a n g e in disposal site location.
14.3.2.3 Haul Contracts
R a i l r o a d c a r s m u s t b e h a u l e d by a r a i l r o a d c o m p a n y , e x c e p t
possibly for switching , Therefore a contract m u s t b e obtained
with the railroad , Since this contract h a u l i n g is a major c o s t
element , and since t h e railroad o f t e n c a n n o t provide rapid and
realistic cost estimates , some time and consideration will be
required.
Railroads a r e a r e g u l a t e d u t i l i t y ; t h i s c o m p l i c a t e s t h e r a t e
quotation process , R a t e s are o f t w o g e n e r a l t y p e s: a " class
.
r a t e" a n d a "s p e c i a l c o m m o d i t y r a t e " T h e c l a s s r a tes are
readily obtained , but are u s u a l l y prohibitively expensive for
s l u d g e. To obtain a special commodity rate , the f o l l o w i ng
p r o c e d u r e is n e c e s s a r y:
1. A n application is submitted t o t h e railroad , including a

complete description of what is t o be shipped ; how it is
t o b e s h i p p e d ( t y p e o f material , l i q u i d o r solid ) ;
precisely where it is t o be s h i p p e d ; t h e f r e q u e n c y of
s h i p p i n g ( h o w much p e r d a y , p e r w e e k ); t h e approximate
loading and unloading time; w h a t o t h e r t y p e s o f materials
a r e s i m i l a r i n f o r m , c o n c e n t r a t i o n, a n d m a k e u p t o
t h e material b e i n g s h i p p e d ( f o r e x a m p l e , Code 5 6 3 0,
North Coast Freight B u r e a u , " t a n k a g e "--a commodity used
1 4- 50
1n production of fertilizers ) ; and a statement of the
price the shipper would be willing to pay in cents per
100 pounds net weight ( 45.4 kg ) .
2. The
distance,
local
terrain ,
railroad
the carrier
—
reviews the load ,
switching requirements , and
competition and calculates a rate .
—
3 . The r a t e i s published by the local freight bureau ( f o r
example, f o r S e a t t l e, Washington, t h e North C o a s t F r e i g h t
Bureau ) for a notice period of 30 days for review by
other, possibly competing , carriers , and by one of the
five regional freight bureaus: Western, Southwest,
Central , Southern, or Northeastern , The regional freight
bureaus are conglomerations of the local ones and they
regulate and control prices between bureau jurisdictions .
4 . Comments and appeals of r a t e s can be made t o the
I n t e r s t a t e Commerce Commission ( ICC ) , An a p p e a l of a
proposed rate will cause that rate t o be suspended for a
-
seven month period f o r the case to be heard by the
suspension board of ICC and for the c a r r i e r t o justify
. that rate .
Historically , appeals have caused proposed
rates to be eliminated from the carriers ' tariffs This .
effectively eliminates the option of rail transport of
sludge for this locality .
Generally speaking , railroads are interested in providing sludge
transportation .
However , many r a i l r o a d s are unfamiliar with
sludge hauling; s i m i l a r l y , many environmental engineers are
unfamiliar with railroad procedures ( 38 ) .
14.3 2.4 . Railcar Supply
T h e r e a r e t h r e e methods of e n s u r i n g r a i l c a r equipment adequacy:

by leasing , by outright purchase, o r through placement of the
required number of c a r s i n " assigned s e r v i c e" by t h e c a r r i e r
under the terms of the haul contract, Generally, an assigned
service option is only available for a solid ( dry ) or semi solid -
( mechanically dewatered ) sludge which can be transported in
hopper cars .
A liquid sludge must be carried in tank cars which
are not normally available " f r e e" from the railroad , As a
generalization , the amortization of the purchase of either
t y p e o f c a r ( a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y $ 9 0 , 0 0 0 t o $1 2 0 , 0 0 0 n e w ) w i l l b e
at considerably higher cost than the rental or lease fee .
Consequently , i t i s expected that the assigned service option
would be selected for hopper cars, and a lease arrangement
negotiated with a p r i v a t e tank c a r r e n t a l company f o r tank c a r s.
Railroad hopper c a r use i s subject t o minimum shipment fees per

car and certain demurrage criteria .
For example , a single hopper
car minimum shipment i s 180 , 000 pounds ( 82, 000 kg ) and demurrage
c r i t e r i a are that the car must be loaded within 48 hours and
-
14 51
unloaded within 24 hours, Reference time is 7 a.m . If a car is
delivered between midnight and 8 a . m., the time begins at 7 a.m.
the same day . If a car is delivered between 8 a .m. and midnight ,
the time begins at 7 a.m. the following day. Typical hopper car
capacities are 2,600 , 3 , 215 , and 4 ,000 cubic feet ( 75, 91, and
113 m 3 ), with the smallest size being typically the most readily
available .
Tank cars are normally rented by the month from private tank car
rental companies with a minimum five-year commitment , A large
non- insulated coiled car ( coiled to prevent freezing during the
winter months ) will rent for approximately $ 450 per month
( 1978 prices ) . Tank car capacities are typically 10, 000 to
20 , 000 gallons ( 37 , 850 to 75 , 700 1 ) . The selection of rail
transport , with its high transit times , for more putrescible
sludges without special gas venting and control equipment , should
be avoided , Typical minimum tank and hopper car requirements are
shown in Table 14- 8.
TABLE 14- 8
TYPICAL MINIMUM TANK CAR REQUIREMENTS ( 28 )
Car loadsa
Approximate secondary
treatment plant size , Annual sludge One -way Per Per Cars
MGD volume , MG distance , mi year day required ^
5 7.5 20 375 1 5
40 375 1 5
80 375 1 7
160 375 1 8
320 375 1 9
10 15 20 750 2 9
40 750 2 9
80 750 2 13
160 750 2 15
320 750 2 17
50 75 20 3 ,750 10 47
40 3 ,750 10 47
80 3 ,750 10 68
160 3 ,7 50 10 78
320 3 ,750 10 89
100 150 20 7 , 500 21 97

40 7 , 500 21 97
80 7 , 500 21 139
160 7 , 500 21 160
320 7 , 500 21 181
3
aCar size 20 ,000 gal (76 m ).
Êstimate assumes that ample storage is available so
that extra cars are not required for peak sludge
production or scheduling problems.
1 MGD = 0.044 m 3/s
1 MG = 3 ,785 m 3
1 mi 1.6 km
1 gal = 3.8 1
14- 52
T h e e x a c t c a l c u l a t i o n o f c a r r e q u i r e m e n t s i s v e r y s i t e- a n d
-
area specific and should be checked directly for any given
situation . I t should be recognized that the speed of railroad
transport will depend in part on the track conditions and on the
r a i l r o a d ' s normal t r a f f i c schedule; the track conditions may a l s o
limit the loads carried per car , and hence the size and number of
cars required .
As a guide only , typical t r a n s i t times are shown
i n T a b l e 1 4- 9 .
TABLE 14- 9
TYPICAL TRANSIT TIMES FOR

RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION
O n e-w a y d i s t a n c e , R o u n d- t r i p t r a n s i t t i m e , a
miles .
* iWW‘iib « !i :
days
20 4
40 4
80 6
160 7
320 8
aFor estimating r a i l car demand , an allowance of 25

t o 50 percent should be added t o accommodate
scheduling and car holdup problems A l s o, t h e .
transit time does n o t include t i m e f o r loading
and unloading which must be estimated separately.
,
14.3 2.5. Ancillary Facilities

Railroad transport of sludge requires loading storage and
equipment ( tanks , pumps , and piping for liquid sludge and hoppers
and conveyors for dewatered sludge ) , railroad sidings , and
unloading equipment, Unloading i s ordinarily accomplished by
.
gravity
the owner of the cars
authority
required .—
—
Car maintenance and storage w i l l be undertaken by
not normally the wastewater treatment
but c a r cleaning and washdown f a c i l i t i e s may be
14.3 2.6. Manpower and Energy Requirements
The wastewater authority will have labor requirements for loading

and unloading railroad cars and for associated maintenance ;
1 4-5 3
estimates a r e g i v e n in T a b l e 1 4 - 1 0 . D a t a o n e n e r g y d e m a n d s
associated with railroad t r a n s p o r t a r e n o t readily available ,
but e n e r g y d e m a n d s a r e r e l a t i v e l y l o w c o m p a r e d w i t h o t h e r
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n m o d e s . T h e f u e l c o n s u m e d in t r a n s p o r t i n g t h e
s l u d g e s h o u l d n e v e r t h e l e s s b e estimated f o r inclusion i n t h e
s l u d g e m a n a g e m e n t program' s energy effectiveness analysis.
TABLE 14- 10
MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS FOR RAILROAD TRANSPORT ( 28 )

Liquid sludge Dewatered sludge
Labor , manhours/yr Labor , manhours/yr
Annual volume , Annual volume ,
mil gal Operation Maintenance thousand cu yd Operation Maintenance
7.5 4 , 124 130 7.5 1 ,650 130
15 4 ,124 260 15 3 , 300 260
150 10.500 500 150 4 , 125 500
750 28.500 1,200 750 10,000 1 ,200
1 cu yd = 0.76 m 3
1 mil gal = 3 ,785 mJ
1 4 . 3.3 B a r g e Transportation
Barge transport for the ocean dumping of sludge has been

practiced f o r many d e c a d e s around t h e world , R e c e n t decisions t o
limit o c e a n dumping , combined with rapidly escalating c o s t s for
d e w a t e r i n g o r d r y i n g s l u d g e s, h a v e l e d t o m o r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n
of barge transport of liquid sludges between the wastewater
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t o r p l a n t s a n d land d i s p o s a l s i t e s m a n y m i l e s
distant . B a r g e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f s l u d g e s is g e n e r a l l y o n l y
feasible f o r liquid s l u d g e s ( t o t h e solids concentration limit a t
which i t m a y be pumped ) and o v e r l o n g e r distances , generally o v e r
3 0 m i l e s. A d d i t i o n a l information i s available ( 2 8 , 3 6 , 3 9 ).
1 4 . 3.3.1 Routes and Transit Times
I t is e v i d e n t t h a t t h e k e y f e a t u r e in consideration o f b a r g e
transportation is t h e proximity t o a suitable w a t e r w a y , H o w e v e r ,
in planning a b a r g e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m , t h e transit time a l s o p l a y s
a critical r o l e , T h e traffic o n t h e w a t e r w a y ; physical f e a t u r e s
s u c h a s drawbridges , locks , a n d height limitations , a n d natural
characteristics s u c h a s c u r r e n t s , tides, and e v e n w a v e heights
will all affect the transit time , Local operators familiar
with the waterway should be contacted for information and a
c o n s e r v a t i v e s a f e t y f a c t o r s h o u l d be a p p l i e d , Loading and
unloading times then must be added to estimate the overall
t u r n a r o u n d time -- t h e k e y f e a t u r e w h e n c o n t r a c t i n g f o r t o w i n g
s e r v i c e. Towing speeds and cost estimates are g i v e n i n
T a b l e 1 4-1 1.
1 4- 5 4
TABLE 14- 11
TUG COSTS FOR VARIOUS BARGE CAPACITIES3
Barge Capacity ,
Average velocity , knotsb _ c
Tug costs ,
barrels Loaded Unloaded dollars/hour
25 ,000 6 7 120
50,000 7 8 150
100 ,000 8 10 195
aSource: Foss Tug , Seattle , Washington , a division

of Dillingham Corporation , various personal inter -
views with Metropolitan Engineers/Brown and
Caldwell staff members , 1975 through 1976.
b
Velocities in open water , Waterway restrictions
reduce average speeds.
c
Costs are for late 1975 and early 1976. Inflation
has been at about 15 percent per annum compounded
since 1976.
1 barrel = 159 1
1 knot = 0.51 m/s = 1.85 km/hr
14.3.3.2 Haul or System Contracting

Only for very large plants should ownership of the motive power
unit( s ) ( tug or powered barge ) be considered . Self propelled -
-
barges are no longer generally considered cost effective when
initiating a new system , although the specifics of any particular
case could modify this conclusion. This means the choice for
most wastewater treatment authorities narrows down to contracting
for either complete barge transport services or for tug service
alone. Full service contracts may prove the best for small
operations with intermittent transport requirements. Moderate to
large plants will generally favor contract towing only , with the
barge( s ) owned by the authority ( although Chicago ’ s barging
system is a full service contract ). Contractual agreements
should clearly define in detail all services to be provided and
include a barging schedule. In certain cases it may be possible
for two or more wastewater treatment authorities to join in a
common contractual agreement whereby sludge from two or more
plants is picked up in tandem by the one haul contractor.
-
14 55
14.3.3.3 Barge Selection and Acquisition
Both the useful life and salvage value of barges tend to be high.
This will often lead to a decision to purchase rather than
lease equipment. Size and number of barges will depend on
plant size and the specific sludge processing system.
Some data on typical barge sizes and costs are g i v e n i n
Table 14- 12. Physical dimensions of barges are not standardized ,
since they are usually custom built within certain dimensions set
by some waterway constriction , such as lockage limitations. Lead
times on construction are about two years .
Barge proportions are
commonly length to breadth 4 or 5 to 1 , and breadth to depth
3 or 4 to 1. For inland waterways, about two feet ( 0.6 m ) of
freeboard under the maximum loaded condition is usually adequate.
Barges are very common in the 20, 000 to 25,000 barrel ( 3 , 200 to
4, 000 m 3 ) capacity range. Construction costs in 1976 were about
$ 6 per cubic foot ( $ 212/m 3 ) for a 25 , 000 barrel ( 4,000 m 3 ) barge,
with only a slight reduction in unit costs as size increases, to
about $ 5.50 per cubic foot ( $ 194/ m 3 ) at the 100 , 000 barrel
( 16 , 000 m 3 ) size. Greater flexibility in operations will usually
dictate the choice of smaller barges, unless distances are about
200 miles ( 330 km ) or more and number of waterway restrictions
low . Then the increased speed offered by a larger tug / barge
combination will substantially cut transit time and thus reduce
towing fees.
TABLE 14- 12
8
TYPICAL BARGE SIZES AND COSTS
C
Cost,
Dimensions , ft thousand dollars
. b
Capacity ,
barrels Length Breadth Depth Draft Newd'G Used ^
14 ,000 225
20 ,000 240 52 15 13.5 1 , 100
23 , 000 240 60 13.5
27 , 000 650
33 , 000 625
35 ,000 286 62 18 16 1 , 750
50 , 000 320 70 20 13 2 , 300
aExamples are for barges custom built for liquid sludges but do not include
pumps necessary for unloading.
^ One barrel equals 42 gallons ( 159 1).
CCosts are for 1976. Inflation in new and used barges has been about 15
percent per annum compounded 1976 through 1979.
d
Source: L. R. Gloston and Associates , Naval Architects , Seattle , Washington.
Construction costs were approximately 50 cents/lb of steel in the barge ($1.10/kg) in
1976 and are about 80 cents/lb ($1.80/kg) in 1979.
f
Source: William Drury Company , Seattle , Washington , communication to
Metropolitan Engineers/Brown and Caldwell , September 30 , 1976.
3
1 barrel = 0.16 m
1 ft 0.30 m
1 cent/lb = $0.022/kg
14-56
1 4 . 3.3 . 4 Ancillary Facilities
A critical factor in determining the feasibility of barging
s l u d g e l i e s in t h e c o s t o f facilities f o r loading a n d o f f l o a d i n g ,
a n d r e c e i v i n g t h e s l u d g e. If t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t is n o t c l o s e t o
t h e w a t e r w a y, i t m a y b e d e s i r a b l e t o l o c a t e a s l u d g e s t o r a g e
t a n k o r l a g o o o n n e a r t h e b a r g e loading d o c k , F o r a t a n k , d e s i g n
would need to be similar to an unheated digester because of
continued a n a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n , L a g o o n s s h o u l d b e o p e r a t e d a s
facultative s l u d g e l a g o o n s , I n either c a s e , c o s t s o f t h e t a n k o r
l a g o o n should be included in t h e b a r g e s y s t e m c o s t s.
I n m o s t c a s e s, it is desirable t o load a n d m e t e r t h e f l o w from a
fixed p u m p i n g s t a t i o n l o c a t e d o n a f i x e d w h a r f. O f f l o a d i n g i s
often accomplished by a pump mounted on the barge itself .
The disposal site should be located near a dock capable of
mooring a suitably sized barge. Floating d o c k s a r e u s u a l l y m o r e
e x p e n s i v e in b o t h m a r i n e a n d f r e s h w a t e r environments t h a n fixed
w h a r f s, d u e t o t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f a n c h o r i n g d e v i c e s c a p a b l e o f
s u s t a i n i n g t h e l o a d s i m p o s e d b y a l a r g e b a r g e. In certain
i n s t a n c e s, h o w e v e r , a floating d o c k m a y b e m o r e a c c e p t a b l e f r o m
a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t a n d p o i n t.
U n l o a d i n g t o a land p i p e l i n e typically t a k e s a b o u t 6 h o u r s, If a
t u g m u s t remain with t h e b a r g e d u r i n g t h e u n l o a d i n g p e r i o d , r a p i d
u n l o a d i n g b e c o m e s e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t.
1 4 . 3.3 . 5 S p i l l Prevention and C l e a n u p
One important element of a barge transportation system is a

well developed spill prevention and cleanup program. Spills
r e s u l t i n g f r o m a c c i d e n t s d u r i n g t r a n s p o r t c a n r e s u l t in s e r i o u s
w a t e r pollution a n d associated h e a l t h p r o b l e m s. Sludge spills
should b e contained immediately and transferred t o storage tanks
or another barge as quickly as p o s s i b l e t o r e d u c e r i s k s, The
risk of spills during l o a d i n g and u n l o a d i n g c a n b e minimized by
careful attention to design and o p e r a t o r t r a i n i n g .
14.4 References
1. Metcalf & Eddy, I n c. W a s t e w a t e r E n g i n e e r i n g ; T r e a t m e n t ,
D i s p o s a l , R e u s e. M c G r a w-H i l l. 1 9 7 9 ( s e c o n d edition ).
2. H a n k s, R.W. a n d B.H. Dadia. " Theoretical A n a l y s i s o f t h e

T u r b u l e n t F l o w o f N o n - N e w t o n i a n S l u r r i e s i n P i p e s. "
American Institute o f Chemical E n g i n e e r s J o u r n a l. V o l. 1 7 ,
M a y 1 9 7 1.
“
-
P 554
3. C a l d w e l l , D. H. a n d H . E. B a b b i t t . " The Flow of Muds,
S l u d g e s, a n d S u s p e n s i o n s i n Circular P i p e . " Transactions o f
American Institute of Chemical Engineers. V o l. 3 7, p . 237 .
A p r i l 2 5 , 1 9 4 1.
1 4- 5 7
4. Buckingham , E. " O n P l a s t i c F l o w T h r o u g h Capillary T u b e s."
Proceedings of the Ame ric a n Socie ty of Testing and
Materials. V o l. 2 1 , P 1 1 5 4. 1 9 2 1.
-
5. Rimkus , R.R. a n d R.W. Heil. "T h e R h e o l o g y o f Plastic S e w a g e
S l u d g e." Proceedings of the Second National Conference on
C o m p l e t e W a t e r R e u s e. C h i c a g o, I l l i n o i s: 5 / 4 - 8/ 7 5.
A m e r i c a n I n s t i t u t e o f C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r s. L.K . C e c i l, e d.
P 7 2 2.
-
6. R i m k u s , R.R. a n d R.W. H e i l. " Breaking the Viscosity
Barrier." Proceedings of the Second National Conference on
C o m p l e t e W a t e r R e u s e. C h i c a g o , Ill i n o i s : 5 / 4 - 8/ 7 5.
American Institute o f C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r s. L.K. C e c i l, e d.
P 7 1 6.
-
7. K e n n y , J .P. Bulk Transport of Waste Slurries to Inland and
O c e a n D i s p o s a l S i t e s. V o l u m e I I I. B e c h t e l C o r p o r a t i o n.
1 9 6 9. Published b y N a t i o n a l T e c h n i c a l Information Service
a s P B 1 8 9 7 5 9/B E.
8. B a b b i t t, H.E. a n d D.H . C a l d w e l l. "L a m i n a r F l o w o f S l u d g e s
in P i p e s w i t h P a r t i c u l a r R e f e r e n c e t o S e w a g e S l u d g e. "
U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s E n g i n e e r i n g E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n,
Bulletin S e r i e s, N o. 3 1 9. 1 9 3 9.
9. Rabinowitsch, B. Z. P h y s i c a l C h e m i s t r y . V o l. 1 4 5 A , P 1.
1 9 2 9.
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1 0. Wolfs, J.R. " F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g S l u d g e F o r c e Mains. " S e w a g e
a n d Industrial W a s t e s. V o l. 2 2, p. 1. J a n u a r y 1 9 5 0.
1 1. H o l l a n d , F.A. F l u i d F l o w f o r C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r s. Chemical
P u b l i s h i n g C o m p a n y. 1 9 7 3.
12 . B o u r k e , J .D . "Sludge Handling Characteristics in Piped
S y s t e m s." Proceedings of the Northern Regional Conference
o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l A s s o c i a t i o n. i' a
M o n t e r e y , California: 1 0/1 9 - 2 0/7 3.

1 3. B a b b i t t , H.E. a n d D.H. C a l d w e l l. "T u r b u l e n t F l o w o f S l u d g e s
in P i p e s." U n i v e r s i t y o f Illinois E n g i n e e r i n g E x p e r i m e n t
S t a t i o n , Bulletin S e r i e s, N o. 3 2 3. 1 9 4 0.
1 4. H e d s t r o m , B.O . A. " F l o w o f P l a s t i c M a t e r i a l s i n P i p e s. "
I n d u s t r i a l E n g i n e e r i n g C h e m i s t r y. V o l. 4 4, P 6 5 1. 1 9 5 2.
-
1 5. B e h n , V.C . a n d R.M . S h a n e . " C a p i l l a r y v s. P i p e l i n e in
D e t e r m i n i n g S l u d g e F l o w Behavior." W a t e r & S e w a g e W o r k s.
V o l. 1 1 0 P * 2 7 2.
, J u l y 1 9 6 3 .
1 6. A l v e s , G . E ., D. F . B o u c h e r , a n d R .L. P i g f o r d . " P i p e l i n e
D e s i g n f o r N o n - N e w t o n i o n S o l u t i o n s a n d S u s p e n s i o n s. "
C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g P r o g r e s s. V o l. 4 8, P 3 8 5. 1 9 5 2.
-
1 4-5 8
17. Hanks, R.W. "The Laminar-Turbulent Transition for Fluids
With a Yield Stress." American Institute of Chemical
Engineers Journal. Vol. 9, No. 3, P 306. 1964.
.
18. Hanks, R.W. and D.R. Pratt. "On the Flow of Bingham Plastic
Slurries on Pipes and Between Parallel Plates." Society o.f
Petroleum Engineers Journal .P * 342. December 1967.
19. Kenny , J.P • r E .J. Wasp , and T.L. Thompson. " A Design Model
for Pipeline Flow of Solid Wastes." Water-1970. Chemical
Engineering Progress Symposium Series, American Institute
of Chemical Engineers. Vol. 67, no. 107, P 364. 1971.
-
20. Dick , R. I . and B.B. Ewing . " The Rheology of Activated
S l u d g e." Journal Water Pollution Control Federation.
Vol. 39 , p. 543. 1967.
21. Bingham, E.C. Fluidity and Plasticity. McGraw-Hill. 1922.
22. Brisbin, S.G. "Flow of Concentrated Raw Sewage Sludges in
Pipes." Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division ASCE.
.
Vol. 83, no. SA 3 , p 1274. June 1957.
23. Chou , T. L . " Flow of Concentrated Raw Sewage Sludges in
Pipes." Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division ASCE.
Vol. 84 , no. SAl , p. 1557. February 1958.
24. Vesilind , P.A. " Treatment and Disposal of Wastewater
Sludges." Ann Arbor Science. Chapter 4. 1979 ( Second
Edition ).
25. City of San Francisco. "Primary Sludge Pump Evaluation."
Prepared by the City's Division of Sanitary Engineering.
October 1975.
26. Sparr , A.E. " Pumping Sludge Long Distances." Journal Water
Po 11 ution Control Federation . Vol. 43 , P - 1702. August
1971.
27. Williams, M.L. " A Guide to the Specification of Glass Lined
P i p e ." Water & Sewage Works. Vol 124 , no. 10 , p. 76.
October 1977.
28. USEPA. Transport of Sewage Sludge. U . S . Environmental
Protection Agency report EPA-600/2- 77-216 . December 1977.
.
28 a Weller , L . W . " Pipeline Transport and Incineration." Water _
Works and Wastes Engineering . Kansas City , Missouri ,

installation .September 1965.
.
28 b Wirts , J .J ."Tips and Quips — Contribution from Cleveland."
Sewage Works Journal. Vol. 20, No. 3 , P 571. May 1948.
-
29. Tchobanoglous , G • / H Theisen , and R. Eliassen.
. Solid
Wastes. McGraw-Hill. Chapter 5. 1977.
30. Conveyor Equipment Manufacturers Association . Belt
Conveyors for Bulk Materials. Cahners Publishing Company.
1966.
14- 59
3 1. H a n s e n , B . E ., D.L. S m i t h , a n d W.E . G a r r i s o n. " S t a r t - u p
P r o b l e m s o f S l u d g e D e w a t e r i n g F a c i l i t y." P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e
5 1 s t A n n u a l W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n C o n f e r e n c e.
O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8. Anaheim , California.
3 2. Conveyor Equipment Manufacturers A s s o c i a t i o n. Screw
C o n v e y e r s. B o o k N o. 3 5 0. 1 9 7 1.
3 3. D a l l o n , F.E. a n d R . R. M u r p h y . " Land Disposal IV:
Reclamation a n d R e c y c l e." Journal Water Pollution Control
F e d e r a t i o n. V o l. 4 5 , n o. 7, p. 1 4 8 9 ( J u l y 1 9 7 3 ).
3 4. U S E P A. Cost of Landspreading and Hauling Sludge from
M u n i c i p a l W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t P l a n t s. U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l
P r o t e c t i o n Agency , O f f i c e of Solid Wastes, Cincinnati,
O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. .
E P A/ 5 3 0/S W-6 1 9 , O c t 1 9 7 7.
3 5. E t t l i c h , W i l l i a m F. " E c o n o m i c s o f T r a n s p o r t M e t h o d s o f
S l u d g e." Proceedings o f t h e Third National C o n f e r e n c e o n
S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t: D i s p o s a l a n d Utilization. M i a m i B e a c h ,
F l o r i d a. D e c e m b e r 1 4-1 6 , 1 9 7 6. Information T r a n s f e r I n c.,
P 7.
-
3 6. G u a r i n o, C.F., M. D. N e l s o n, S.A. T o w n s e n d , T.E. Wilson , a n d
E.F. Ballotti. " L a n d a n d S e a Solids M a n a g e m e n t Alternatives
in Philadelphia." Journal Water Pollution Control
F e d e r a t i o n. V o l. 4 7, n o. 1 1 , P 2 5 5 1. N o v e m b e r 1 9 7 5.
-
3 7. B i l l i n g s, C.H., S.H. C o n n e r , J .R. Kircher , a n d G.M . S c a l e s.
1 9 7 9 Public W o r k s M a n u a l. Public W o r k s J o u r n a l C o r p. 1 9 7 9.
P * D- 4 9.
3 8. H e l l e r, N. " W o r k i n g With t h e Railroad ." P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e
'
T h i r d N a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t: D i s p o s a l
a n d Utilization. Miami B e a c h, Florida. December 1 4-1 6 ,
1 9 7 6. I n f o r m a t i o n T r a n s f e r I n c. P 5 0. -
39 . U S E P A. " Evaluation of S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t S y s t e m s: E v a l u a-
t i o n C h e c k l i s t a n d S u p p o r t i n g C o m m e n t a r y." Technical
bulletin p r e p a r e d by C u l p/W e s n e r/C u l p. A p r i l 1 9 7 9 d r a f t.
T o be p u b l i s h e d.
1 4- 6 0
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 15. Storage


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 15
STORAGE
15.1 Introduction
Storage is an integral part of every wastewater solids treatment
and disposal system , since it is necessary to the assurance
that the system will be used to full capacity , Recent emphasis
on the control of wastewater solids treatment and disposal
mandates that effective storage be provided , Storage that is
compatible with the objectives of a system must be incorporated
into its design to enhance both the system 's reliability and its
efficiency.
15.1.1 Need for Storage

Storage allows different processes to operate on schedules which
best fit overall system objectives and precludes the need to
force all processes to operate on the same schedule , For
example , solids are generated from the wastewater treatment
system 24 hours per day , but it may be most convenient to operate
the solids processing system only on the day shift , Solids must
-
therefore be stored during off hours. Storage must also be
provided between adjacent treatment or disposal processes which
--
operate at different rates for example , between centrifuges
( which discharge solids at 100 tons per hour [91 t/hr ] ) and
incinerators ( which must be fed at 50 tons per hour [ 45 t/hr] ).
In addition , it must be provided upstream from virtually any land
disposal system , since sludge can usually be applied to land only
part of the year , whereas the waste treatment plant generates
solids all year around.
15.1.2 Risks and Benefits of Solids Storage

Within Wastewater Treatment System
Stored solids can be washed from the wastewater treatment
system , thereby degrading effluent quality. They may also
become septic , with the same effect. As a general rule , solids
should not be stored in wastewater treatment systems unless
storage provides benefits that clearly outweigh the risks
involved . For many small plants , if sludge processing units
are operated only on the day shift , the benefits do outweigh
the risks. These plants frequently store solids within the
wastewater treatment process for periods as long as 24 hours.
- -
Large plants , which typically process sludge around the clock ,
-
15 1
"“mtea&t
make l e s s frequent use of storage within the wastewater treatment

system .
The main exception to this rule i s the storage of solids
within wastewater stabilization ponds , where solids and dead
algae s e t t l e to the bottom of the ponds and anaerobically
decompose .
These solids are seldom removed and often accumulate
f o r many years with no deleterious e f f e c t .
15.1 3 . Storage Within Wastewater Sludge
Treatment Processes
Solids can be stored within sludge treatment processes with

f e w e r a d v e r s e e f f e c t s t h a n i f t h e y w e r e s t o r e d w i t h i n t h e w a s t e-
water treatment system , Whereas the processes of disinfection,
c o n d i t i o n i n g , m e c h a n i c a l d e w a t e r i n g , h i g h- t e m p e r a t u r e c o n v e r s i o n ,
a n d h e a t- d r y i n g d o n o t p r o v i d e s t o r a g e , t h o s e o f g r a v i t y
thickening , anaerobic and aerobic digestion , a i r drying , and
composting do. Used judiciously , these processes can store
enough solids to enable necessary adjustments t o be made in rates
of flow between processes, One or two of these processes can
-
provide cost effective storage for periods exceeding one month.
However , because of process limitations , some cannot provide
storage f o r minimum periods of three t o four days even though
they can store for periods of three to four weeks and longer .
1 5 . 1. 4 Effects of Storage on Wastewater Solids
If wastewater solids are to be stored for any extended period

of time , they must be stable , Stable liquid sludge with less
than ten percent solids can be stored in facultative sludge
lagoons, anaerobic sludge lagoons , or aerated basins , When
i t is air dried t o g r e a t e r t h a n 3 0 t o 4 0 p e r c e n t s o l i d s , s t able
sludge can be stored safely a n d w i t h o u t o d o r s i n r e l a t i v ely
small , confined structures or in unconfined s t o c k p i l e s , I t is
impractical to store unstabilized d e w a t e r e d o r p a r t i a l l y d r i e d
sludge ( sludge containing more than 10 percent a n d l e s s t h a n
30 percent s o l i d s ) f o r much longer than t h r e e t o f o u r d a y s
because septic conditions and problems associated w i t h s e p t i c i t y
( odors, poor solids transport properties ) can develop .
Wastewater solids are usually stored in concentrated form .
If these solids are biodegradable, indigenous oxygen supplies
can rapidly be depleted and anaerobic decomposition begins .
Anaerobic decomposition i s often , but not always ,accompanied
by the production of undesirable odors , However , anaerobic
decomposition will not occur if :
• Biodegradable materials present are insufficient to

support biological activity , For example, screenings
and g r i t are r e l a t i v e l y n o n - o d o r ous, provided they have
been processed and t r a n s p o r t e d hydraulically prior to
final d e w a t e r i n g s . T h e w a s h i n g action which occurs
1 5- 2
during these operations reduces the concentration of
putrescible o r g a n i c material. Conversely , if p r o c e s s e d
a n d t r a n s p o r t e d mechanically ( that is, without washing ) ,
they may b e the source o f strong o d o r s w h e n subsequently
s t o r e d.
• Oxidizing conditions c a n b e maintained , Agents such as

o x y g e n , c h l o r i n e, a n d h y d r o g e n p e r o x i d e c a n b e u s e d
t o this e n d if t h e s l u d g e is in l i q u i d f o r m . F o r c e d
aeration o r physical manipulation c a n be used t o maintain
t h e a e r o b i c c o n d i t i o n if s o l i d s a r e d e w a t e r e d a n d
m a n a g e d , a s is done in composting.
Moisture is r e d u c e d t o discourage biological activity.

F o r e x a m p l e, air dried stabilized sludge with a solids
c o n t e n t g r e a t e r than 4 0 t o 5 0 p e r c e n t and unstabilized
h e a t- dried s l u d g e s c a n be s t o r e d indefinitely without
nuisance, provided rewetting d o e s n o t occur.
• p H is a d j u s t e d t o v a l u e s a b o v e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 2 a n d
below approximately 4 by adding chemicals like lime o r
c h l o r i n e. N o t e t h a t pH e x t r e m e s m u s t b e maintained.
T h e s e t r e a t m e n t s d o n o t d e s t r o y p u t r e s c i b l e materials,
and t h e biocidal e f f e c t s caused by e x t r e m e p H are l o s t a s
the pH drifts toward neutral values as the result of
interaction with a t m o s p h e r i c c a r b o n dioxide.
The fact that anaerobic digesters and facultative sludge

l a g o o n s h a v e o p e r a t e d without nuisance o d o r s clearly indicates
that storage can be accomplished under anaerobic conditions
without a d v e r s e e f f e c t s. W o r k o n facultative s l u d g e lagoons in
S a c r a m e n t o d o c u m e n t s these conclusions ( 1 ).
Nuisance o d o r s w i l l n o t d e v e l o p in anaerobic s t o r a g e w h e n
sufficient methane bacteria are p r e s e n t. If t h e m e t h a n e bacteria
a r e d e s t r o y e d , h o w e v e r, serious o d o r p r o b l e m s m a y result. A s a n
e x a m p l e , consider anaerobically digested s l u d g e which is p l a c e d
o n a drying bed o r in a drying l a g o o n. T h e t o p l a y e r of s l u d g e
is dewatered , and methane bacteria die as the s l u d g e a e r a t e s and
dries. O d o r l e v e l s a r e e x t r e m e l y low , since t h e s l u d g e is t o o
dry t o s u p p o r t anaerobic biological activity. S h o u l d t h e surface
o f t h e s l u d g e b e r e-w e t t e d ( f o r e x a m p l e, by rainfall o r surface
flooding ), h o w e v e r, anaerobic activity would resume, t h e organic
acid concentration w o u l d r a p i d l y i n c r e a s e , a n d o d o r s w o u l d
increase t o nuisance l e v e l s . O d o r p r o b l e m s e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h
approximately 5 8 0 acres ( 2 3 5 h a ) o f drying l a g o o n s a t S a n J o s e,
California, i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g a rainstorm , is a n e x a m p l e o f
this t y p e o f p r o b l e m ( 2 ).
Not all the effects of solids storage are negative, Storage

o f a n a e r o b i c a l l y d i g e s t e d s l u d g e in t h e l i q u i d s t a t e c a n b e
beneficial f o r its ultimate d i s p o s a l. If such s l u d g e is stored
1 5- 3
f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s without being contaminated by freshly digested
s l u d g e , its o r g a n i c s content ( 4 0 t o 5 0 p e r c e n t ) a n d its c o n t e n t
o f pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and p a r a s i t e s will be greatly
r e d u c e d ( 1 , 3 ).
1 5 . 1.5 Types of Storage
W a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s m a y b e s t o r e d in f a c i l i t i e s within t h e
treatment system, within the sludge treatment and disposal
s y s t e m , a n d within t a n k s, l a g o o n s, bins , o r stockpiles provided
primarily for s t o r a g e , This latter g r o u p is divided into t w o
divisions, t h o s e provided for either liquid o r dewatered sludge.
T h e use o f w a s t e w a t e r and sludge t r e a t m e n t facilities for solids
s t o r a g e m u s t n o t adversely a f f e c t their treatment capability . If
this potential exists , t h e n facilities dedicated primarily t o
s t o r a g e m u s t b e provided .
T h r e e methods o f s t o r a g e are described a s follows:
• S i n g l e - P h a s e C o n c e n t r a t i o n. S o l i d s a c c u m u l a t e in a
completely-mixed vessel as a result of increasing
concentration. T h e solids concentration i s uniform
t h r o u g h o u t a n d vessel volume is c o n s t a n t. F o r e x a m p l e,
solids b u i l d u p w i t h i n t h e a e r a t i o n r e a c t o r o f a n
activated s l u d g e s y s t e m if solids a r e not w a s t e d .
• T w o-P h a s e Concentration. Storage is within t h e solids

layer of a liquid /solids separation device , Volume o f
t h e solids l a y e r i n c r e a s e s ; h o w e v e r , total s y s t e m volume
remains c o n s t a n t , F o r e x a m p l e , solids a r e accumulated
in a g r a v i t y thickener by t e r m i n a t i n g s l u d g e w i t h d r a w a l
from t h e thickener a n d allowing t h e s l u d g e blanket t o
build u p.
• Displacement. Solids a r e stored a s a result o f changing

total s y s t e m v o l u m e , F o r e x a m p l e , solids c a n accumulate
within d i g e s t e r s with floating covers by d i s p l a c e m e n t
s t o r a g e , s i n c e t h e covers c a n rise t o a c c o m m o d a t e g r e a t e r
volumes of sludge.
Storage may b e accomplished by t w o o r t h r e e methods operating

in c o n c e r t , F o r e x a m p l e, solids c a n accumulate in a floating
c o v e r e q u i p p e d s e c o n d a r y d i g e s t e r by s i m u l t a n e o u s t w o - p h a s e
concentration and d i s p l a c e m e n t.
S t o r a g e m a y be f u r t h e r c a t e g o r i z e d a s f o l l o w s b y detention time:
• Equalization Storage Solids detention time should not

exceed t h r e e t o f o u r d a y s.
• S h o r t-T e r m S t o r a g e Solids detention time should not

exceed t h r e e t o f o u r w e e k s.
1 5- 4
Long -T e r m Storage Solids detention time is greater
t h a n one m o n t h.
Table 1 5-1 lists wastewater solids storage by type, facility ,
m e t h o d , a n d detention time category.
TABLE 15- 1
WASTEWATER SOLIDS STORAGE APPLICABILITY
Detention time
Equalizing Long term

(3 to 4 Short term (Greater
Type Method days) -
(3 4 weeks) than 1 month) Comments
Storage within waste - Use of wastewater treatment processes for

water treatment
processes
storage must not adversely affect treat
ment efficiency.
-
Grit removal Two-
tion
-
phase concentra X X Storage time depends on sewer system grit
loading to plant.
Primary sedi
mentation
- Two-phase concentra-
tion
X Temperature sensitive. Storage for over
24 hours.
Aeration reactors Single-phase concen
tration
- X X Storage within extended aeration systems ,
for example, oxidation ditches , can
exceed 3 weeks if accomplished in con
junction with secondary sedimentation
-
concentration.
Secondary sedi
mentation
- -
Two phase concentra
tion
- X Highly temperature sensitive. Storage for
over 8 hours requires chemicals.
Imhoff tanks -
Two phase concentra
tion
- X X Lightly loaded systems can store for over
6 months. Most systems will require
solids removal every 4 to 6 weeks.
Community septic
tanks
-
Two phase concentra
tion
- X Sludge from many septic tanks is removed
only once in several years.
Wastewater sta -
bilization ponds concentration
-
Single and two phase X Aerated ponds operate like aeration
-
reactors. Other ponds use two phase
concentration and can store solids for
many years.
Storage within sludge Use of sludge treatment processes for

treatment processes storage must not adversely affect sludge
treatment efficiency.
Gravity thickeners -
Two phase concentra - X Temperature sensitive. Usually not used
tion with WAS. Storage for over 24 hours re
quires chemicals.
-
Anaerobic digesters Single and two phase - X X Floating covers allow for displacement
concentration and
displacement
-
storage. Two phase concentration stor
age impracticable if WAS present.
-
-
Single phase concentration storage pos-
sible if digesters operated in conjunc
tion with primary sedimentation
-
concentration changes.
15.2 Wastewater Treatment S t o r a g e
I n f l u e n t v a r i a b i l i t y a n d fixed e f f l u e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s m a k e
operational flexibility a necessity for every wastewater
treatment plant, O n e o f t h e m o s t c o s t- effective m e a n s o f
p r o v i d i n g f l e x i b i l i t y f o r s m a l l p l a n t s is t o a s s u r e t h a t
treatment p r o c e s s e s contain s t o r a g e within themselves.
1 5 . 2.1 Storage Within Wastewater Treatment Processes
Listed in Table 1 5-1 a r e several w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s

t h a t c a n provide solids s t o r a g e , T h e following sections describe
w a y s in which this s t o r a g e c a n b e used effectively .
1 5- 5
TABLE 15- 1
WASTEWATER SOLIDS STORAGE APPLICABILITY (Continued )
Detention time

(3 to 4 Short term {Greater
Type Method days) -
(3 4 weeks) than 1 month) Comments
Storage within sludge
treatment processes
(continued )
Aerobic digesters -
Single and two phase
concentration and
X X
-
Decanting can be limiting. Short term
storage possible if digesters operated
displacement in conjunction with sedimentation con
centration. Displacement storage
-
requires aeration systems which will
operate with variable level.
Composting -
Two phase concentra- X X Evaporation with process accomplishes two -
tion and displace
ment
- phase concentration , Processed solids
not removable for 3 to 4 weeks.
Two-phase concentra-
Drying beds
tion and displace-
X X -
Initial settling accomplishes two phase
concentration. Processed solids not
ment normally removable for 3 to 4 weeks.
Facilities provided
primarily for stor-
age of liquid sludge
Holding tanks -
concentration and
X Storage limited to equalizing by high
costs of detention and continuous
displacement mixing.
Facultative sludge
lagoons
Two-phase concentra
tion
- X X Time required for initial settling limits
storage to short or long term.
Mechanics of sludge removal makes short
term storage very expensive. Odor free
-
operation requires anaerobically di
-
gested solids. Organic loadings must be
restricted and surface agitation pro-
vided. Odor mitigation required when
surface area exceeds 30 to 40 acres.
Anaerobic liquid
sludge lagoons
-
Two phase concentra
tion
- X X Time required for initial settling limits
storage to short or long term.
Mechanics of sludge removal makes short
term storage very expensive. Odor
-
minimization requires anaerobic digested
solids. Usually operated without organic
loading restriction. No surface agita
tion provided. Potential odor risk
-
high , although no quantifying data
available.
15.2.1.1 Grit Removal

Grit removal basins and channels may be used to store unusually
heavy grit loadings which , when combined sewer systems are
involved , generally arrive at the treatment plant after a dry
spell and during the first flush of a storm Storage must be
provided to contain all of the grit which could accumulate during
the storm. The required storage volume is a function of grit
loading and the rate at which the grit can be transferred out of
the basin or channel. Where grit is transferred manually ( for
example , in small plants with duplicate channels ), the designer
may wish to provide storage sufficient to hold grit during
periods when the plant may be unattended ( long weekends ), Grit
production figures are shown in Chapter 4.
15 6-
TABLE 15- 1
WASTEWATER SOLIDS STORAGE APPLICABILITY (Continued )
Detention time

(3 to 4 Short term (Greater
Type Method days) (3-4 weeks) than 1 month) Comments
Facilities provided
primarily for stor
age of liquid sludge
-
(continued)
Aerated storage -
concentration and
X X High energy demand usually restricts
detention time , Same limits as
displacement aerobic digesters.
Facilities provided
primarily for stor-
age of dewatered
sludge
Sludge drying -
Two phase concentra- X -
Initial settling accomplishes two phase
lagoons tion and displace
ment
- concentration. Process solids not
normally removable for one to two
months. Odor minimization requires
anaerobically digested solids. Can be
odorous if aerobically stabilized sur
face layers begin to decompose
-
anaerobically when rewetted.
Confined hoppers Displacement X X Moist (15 to 30 percent solids) dewatered
or bins sludge can present major material manage
ment and odor production problems if
-
storage time exceeds 3 to 4 days.
Structures usually too expensive for
long- term storage. Short-term storage
can be successful with dry (greater than
30 to 40 percent solids) stabilized
sludges.
Unconfined stock - Displacement X X X Requires stabilized dry (greater than 30
piles to 40 percent solids) sludge. Stock
piles are usually covered in very wet
-
climates. Natural freeze drying is
possible.
Special techniques or equipment may be needed t o transfer heavy

grit accumulations. If grit is transferred m e c h a n i c a l l y ( by
flight , bucket, and screw conveyors ), the equipment must be able
t o start while t h e entire basin or channel is filled with grit.
If grit is transferred hydraulically , air agitation should be
used t o l o o s e n u p t h e a c c u m u l a t e d s o l i d s during t h e r e m o v a l
operation. Hydraulic removal can be accomplished by eductors,
air- lift p u m p s , o r special c e n t r i f u g a l p u m p s , W h e n special
centrifugal ( t o r q u e - flow o r vortex ) p u m p s are used , the grit
s h o u l d be l o o s e n e d u p in t h e immediate vicinity o f t h e p u m p
suction by a high- velocity w a t e r jet. More design information on
grit removal facilities is available ( 4 , 5 ).
15.2.1.2 Primary Sedimentation
I f s t o r a g e is p r o v i d e d in p r i m a r y s e d i m e n t a t i o n , solids
processing systems can operate at rates independent of
t h e r a t e at which solids are removed f r o m t h e w a s t e w a t e r.
This is especially useful f o r small p l a n t s which are not
manned continuously and for a n y size p l a n t t h a t e x p e r i e n c e s
l a r g e diurnal o r s e a s o n a l fluctuations in settleable solids.
1 5- 7
Concentration of s l u d g e r e m o v e d from t h e primary sedimentation
t a n k m a y b e c o n t r o l l e d t o s o m e d e g r e e if t h e d e p t h o f t h e s l u d g e
l a y e r in t h e s l u d g e r e m o v a l h o p p e r s is controlled , H o p p e r sides
s h o u l d b e s l o p e d a t l e a s t 6 0 d e g r e e s o f f t h e horizontal s o
that solids c a n flow by gravity t o the pump suction. Primary
sedimentation t a n k s t o r a g e capacity should be sufficient t o allow
suitably sized primary sludge pumps t o remove the p e a k sludge
loadings. Otherwise t h e solids m a y interfere with t h e gathering
function of the longitudinal sludge collectors in r e c t a n g u l a r
t a n k s o r t h e main collector in circular clarifiers.
Efficient use of primary sedimentation storage requires the u s e

of a control timer, density , a n d blanket l e v e l instrumentation ,
Ideally , a l l t h r e e devices c a n c o n t r o l p r i m a r y s l u d g e p u m p
operations. Blanket level s e t s t h e time w h e n the p u m p s t a r t s;
control timers set t h e c y c l i c a l p e r i o d w h e n t h e p u m p s c a n
s h a r e the discharge piping ( if necessary ) and t h e minimum p u m p
operating period if t h e density of t h e p u m p e d s l u d g e is below
t h e required concentration; a n d density s e t s t h e time w h e n t h e
pump s h u t s d o w n , C h a p t e r 1 7 p r o v i d e s m o r e information o n this
instrumentation.
More design information on primary sedimentation tank design
is available ( 4 , 5 ).
Design Example
T h e d e s i g n e r o f a 7 . 5- M G D ( 0 . 3 3 - m 3 /s ) a v e r a g e d e s i g n f l o w
wastewater treatment plant wishes to determine the available
s l u d g e s t o r a g e v o l u m e in t h r e e r e c t a n g u l a r primary sedimentation
t a n k s, t h e t a n k s a r e d e s i g n e d t o t r e a t a p e a k w e t w e a t h e r
flow o f 2 0 M G D ( 0 . 8 8 m /s ). ^ Available s t o r a g e will determine
t h e maximum time allowed between s l u d g e pumping c y c l e s and t h e
maximum capacity o f t h e s l u d g e p u m p s.
T a n k d e s i g n is b a s e d o n c o n s e r v a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e i n v o l v i n g
o v e r f l o w r a t e s a n d mean velocities a t a v e r a g e d e s i g n f l o w s. Each
t a n k is 1 1 0 feet ( 33.5 m ) l o n g and 1 9 feet ( 5 . 8 m ) wide, with a n
a v e r a g e s i d e w a t e r d e p t h o f t e n f e e t ( 3 . 0 5 m ). Longitudinal
c o l l e c t o r s operating continuously bring t h e settled sludge t o the
head e n d o f the t a n k , where it is conveyed t o t h e s l u d g e removal
h o p p e r by cross- collectors , T h e sludge is t h e n p u m p e d from t h e
removal h o p p e r o n a timed c y c l e with d e n s i t y a n d blanket l e v e l
instrumentation. C r o s s collection channels a n d s l u d g e r e m o v a l
h o p p e r s have b e e n laid o u t t o aid in t h e concentration, s t o r a g e,
a n d r e m o v a l o f t h e c o l l e c t e d s l u d g e by p r o v i d i n g s t e e p s i d e
s l o p e s , a m p l e d e p t h s , a n d s h o r t suction p i p e l i n e s. Combined
s t o r a g e volume o f t h e cross c o l l e c t o r c h a n n e l a n d r e m o v a l h o p p e r
o f t h e s e l e c t e d t a n k d e s i g n is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 0 c u b i c f e e t
( 9 . 9 m 3 ) f o r each t a n k.
I t is a s s u m e d t h a t p e a k a n d w e t w e a t h e r f l o w s will b e o f a t
least eight hours duration and will h a v e a n a v e r a g e s u s p e n d e d
solids content of 2 0 0 mg/1. Primary sedimentation t a n k removal
1 5-8
efficiency is a s s u m e d t o b e o n l y 5 0 p e r c e n t a t p e a k w e t w e a t h e r
f l o w , d o w n f r o m 6 0 p e r c e n t a t a v e r a g e d e s i g n f l o w , because o f
h i g h e r o v e r f l o w r a t e a n d h i g h e r m e a n v e l o c i t y. U s i n g t h e s e
a s s u m p t i o n s, t h e s o l i d s collected in e a c h primary sedimentation
t a n k d u r i n g t h e s t o r m c a n be calculated a s follows:
( 2 0 MGD ) ( 200 mg/1 ) ( 0.50 ) ( 8.33 lb/gal )

= 231 lb/hr( 105 kg/hr )
( 3 tanks ) ( 24 hr/day )
Primary sludge solids concentration and wet bulk specific

g r a v i t y a r e a s s u m e d t o b e s i x p e r c e n t a n d 1.07 , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
U s i n g t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s , t h e v o l u m e p r o d u c e d in e a c h t a n k c a n
b e c a l c u l a t e d a s f o l l o w s:
2 3 1 l b s/h r
= 5 8 f t 3/h r ( 1 . 6 m 3/h r )
( 0 . 0 6 ) ( 1 . 0 7 ) ( 6 2 . 4 l b s/f t 3 )
B y d i v i d i n g t h i s p r o d u c t i o n i n t o t h e s t o r a g e v o l u m e available,
the designer finds the maximum period of time between pump
c y c l e s t o b e slightly g r e a t e r t h a n six h o u r s.
T h e p r i m a r y s l u d g e piping t o t h e d i g e s t e r is a r r a n g e d s o t h a t
o n l y o n e p r i m a r y s l u d g e p u m p c a n o p e r a t e a t a t i m e, To assure
sufficient pumping capacity to handle the peak wet weather
s l u d g e, it is n e c e s s a r y t h a t e a c h p u m p o p e r a t e o n l y o n e-third o f
t h e t i m e. E a c h pump , t h e r e f o r e, m u s t h a v e t h e c a p a c i t y t o r e m o v e
,
a l l o f t h e s l u d g e s t o r e d d u r i n g t h e s i x - h o u r c y c l e in t w o h o u r s.
T h i s capacity is c a l c u l a t e d a s f o l l o w s:
( 2 3 1 l b s/h r ) ( 6 h r/2 h r ) = 21.6 g p m ( 1 . 3 6 1 /s )

( 0 . 0 6 ) ( 8 . 9 2 l b/g a l ) ( 6 0 m i n/h r )
As a n additional s a f e t y f a c t o r , t o a s s u r e maximum r e l i a b i l i t y
a n d o p e r a t i o n a l f l e x i b i l i t y, t h i s p u m p i n g r a t e i s d o u b l e d a n d
r o u n d e d o f f t o 5 0 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e ( 3 . 2 1 /s ) , The pump
s e l e c t e d ( a d i a p h r a g m p u m p, s e e C h a p t e r 1 4 ) c a n b e a d j u s t e d d o w n
t o 2 5 g p m ( 1 . 6 1/s ) if h i g h e r f l o w r a t e s a r e f o u n d t o p u l l l i q u i d
instead o f c o n c e n t r a t i n g s o l i d s.
1 5 . 2.1 . 3 Aeration Reactors and Secondary

Sedimentation
Solids a r e s t o r e d in a e r a t i o n r e a c t o r s a n d s e c o n d a r y sedimen-
tation tanks whenever there is an increase in the solids
concentration o f t h e mixed l i q u o r. T h i s solids i n c r e a s e r e q u i r e s
t h e t w o p r o c e s s e s t o b e o p e r a t e d a s o n e, w i t h t h e sedimentation
t a n k p r o v i d i n g t h e t w o-p h a s e concentration n e c e s s a r y t o f u l l y
15-9
utilize the single- phase concentration storage capabilities of
the reactors . Reactors should be designed with the flexibility
t o o p e r a t e either in the p l u g flow , s t e p feed , reaeration o r
contact stabilization modes or any combination o f these , Given a
fixed reactor size , maximum solids storage capability is provided
when the process o p e r a t e s in a combination of the reaeration and
contact stabilization modes. O f t e n the ability t o switch between
c o m p l e t e plug flow a n d partial reaeration m o d e s allows the solids
t o be removed from the hydraulic flow stream and p r e v e n t s their
loss when t h a t stream receives a shock loading . Operation in the
s t e p feed mode also minimizes the solid loading rates t o the
secondary sedimentation tanks. This solids storage flexibility
should be provided regardless of whether the source o f aeration
c o m e s from dissolved air o r pure oxygen. Plug flow nitrifying
a e r a t i o n s y s t e m s , w h i c h are o f t e n r e q u i r e d t o retain s o l i d s
f o r t w o t o t h r e e w e e k s , o p e r a t e a t maximum efficiency w h e n
t h e hydraulic and organic l o a d i n g s h a v e t h e least diurnal
fluctuation. This uniformity i s often achieved in smaller plants
t h r o u g h u p s t r e a m flow e q u a l i z a t i o n. Oxidation ditches a r e a
simple t y p e of aeration r e a c t o r found in many small treatment
plants . More design information o n aeration reactors and flow
equalization is available ( 4- 8 ).
Secondary sedimentation tank two-phase concentration s t o r a g e is

vital t o t h e successful operation of an aeration system . Design
o f s e c o n d a r y s e d i m e n t a t i o n facilities u s u a l l y involves t h e
use of t h e s o l i d s f l u x t h e o r y , which is discussed briefly in
C h a p t e r 5 and in detail in references 9 and 1 0. T o take maximum
advantage of the concentration capabilities , secondary sedimenta-
tion t a n k s a r e u s u a l l y from 1 5 0 t o 2 0 0 p e r c e n t d e e p e r t h a n
primary sedimentation t a n k s ( 1 4 t o 2 0 f e e t [ 4 . 3 t o 6.1 m ]- ).
B l a n k e t level instrumentation is c o m m o n l y used t o k e e p t r a c k
of s l u d g e s t o r a g e levels within t h e s e c o n d a r y sedimentation
tanks. Instrumentation for this determination is discussed i n
C h a p t e r 17. More design information o n s e c o n d a r y sedimentation
tanks is available ( 4 , 5 , 7 ).
15.2.1.4 Imhoff and Community Septic Tanks
Both the Imhoff and t h e community septic tank were in use long
before m o s t of the sludge treatment processes discussed in this
manual . For this reason , it is not surprising that their design
includes significant sludge s t o r a g e capabilities. Imhoff tanks
a r e still in use in m a n y o f t h e o l d e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s , a n d
t h e r e f o r e , still p r o v i d e t h o s e p l a n t s with e x t e n s i v e solids
s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y in w h a t are essentially unheated low r a t e
anaerobic digesters ( see C h a p t e r 6 ). T h e s t o r a g e capacity of
Imhoff and septic tanks is part of the empirical design criteria
f o r t h e s e facilities . While their f u t u r e use m a y b e limited
because of today ’ s secondary treatment mandate , both processes
offer low c o s t primary treatment f o r upgrading small community
wastewater stabilization pond facilities . In Newman , California ,
existing community septic t a n k s are being upgraded t o provide
1 5-1 0
primary treatment for a 0 . 7 6-M G D ( 33.3-1/s ) c o m p l e t e treatment
plant with p o n d stabilization f o r s e c o n d a r y treatment a n d
overland flow for tertiary treatment ( 1 1 ). M o r e information o n
Imhoff and community s e p t i c t a n k design is available ( 4,1 2,1 3 ).
15.2.1.5 Wastewater Stabilization P o n d s
W a s t e w a t e r stabilization p o n d s a r e c o s t - e f f e c t i v e b e c a u s e
o f t h e i r a b i l i t y t o s t o r e s o l i d s. Pure aerobic wastewater
stabilization p o n d s provide only single- p h a s e concentration t y p e
s t o r a g e, w h e r e a s t h e m o r e c o m m o n l y used anaerobic a n d facultative
p o n d s, can p r o v i d e f o r long -t e r m, t w o-p h a s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n t y p e
s t o r a g e o f r e m o v e d s e t t l e a b l e a n d c r e a t e d b i o l o g i c a l s o l i d s.
W h e n debris is t h o r o u g h l y r e m o v e d f r o m their influent , s e c o n d a r y
facultative p o n d s can s t o r e m o s t o f t h e wastewater solids from a
large s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t p l a n t for many y e a r s. I n S u n n y v a l e,
California , secondary t r e a t m e n t facultative stabilization p o n d s
c o v e r i n g 4 2 5 acres ( 1 7 2 h a ) h a v e b e e n r e c e i v i n g t h e majority o f
s e w a g e s o l i d s f r o m a 1 5 - M G D ( 6 5 7 - 1/ s ) p l a n t f o r t h e p a s t t e n
y e a r s with n o ill e f f e c t s. S u n n y v a l e' s t e r t i a r y t r e a t m e n t
f a c i l i t i e s f o r a l g a e a n d n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l r e t u r n a l l solids
removed by dissolved air flotation and gravity filtration t o t h e
p o n d s ( 1 3 ). Primary s l u d g e is r e m o v e d f r o m t h e p l a n t before t h e
primary e f f l u e n t is d i s c h a r g e d into t h e p o n d a n d anaerobically
stabilized in c o m p l e t e- mix digesters. S u p e r n a t a n t from t h e s e
digesters is discharged daily into the p l a n t's influent. M o s t o f
the solids eventually find their way t o the facultative pond.
B o t t o m s l u d g e is w i t h d r a w n e v e r y w e e k o r t e n d a y s f r o m t h e
c o m p l e t e - mix d i g e s t e r s a n d d i s c h a r g e d t o a n a e r o b i c s l u d g e
l a g o o n s. T h e primary sedimentation e f f l u e n t , a n d t h e u n c a p t u r e d
and unrecycled contents of the supernatant merge with the
anaerobic b o t t o m l a y e r s in t h e s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t facultative
stabilization p o n d s.
Primary w a s t e w a t e r ( u s u a l l y anaerobic stabilization ) p o n d s t h a t

receive raw sewage must be drained and cleaned approximately
e v e r y f i v e t o t e n y e a r s, d e p e n d i n g o n l o a d i n g s, Secondary
w a s t e w a t e r ( usually facultative stabilization ) p o n d s t h a t a r e
sufficiently d e e p ( 6 t o 8 feet [ 1.8 2.4 m j ) and t h a t receive
only t h o s e s o l i d s g e n e r a t e d by b i o l o g ical activity probably
n e v e r require cleaning , More design information o n w a s t e w a t e r
stabilization p o n d s is available ( 1 4 ).
1 5 . 2.2 S t o r a g e Within W a s t e w a t e r S l u d g e
Treatment Processes
T a b l e 1 5 -1 l i s t s w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s t h a t
p r o v i d e some d e g r e e of solids s t o r a g e. T h e following p a r a g r a p h s
discuss how much of this s t o r a g e capability can be used and how
its u s e c a n b e m a d e a s effective a s p o s s i b l e.
1 5-1 1
1 5 . 2. 2 . 1 Gravity Thickeners
Gravity thickeners s e p a r a t e liquid f r o m primary a n d fixed - g r o w t h
b i o l o g i c a l s e c o n d a r y s o l i d s. I n t h i s s e n s e, t h e y f u n c t i o n
like p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y sedimentation facilities , Cool
temperatures and chemicals which retard septicity enable
gravity thickeners t o s t o r e sludge f o r s e v e r a l d a y s. Equipment
precautions recommended for primary sedimentation facilities
a p p l y t o gravity thickeners , Using t h e same t y p e o f calculation
indicated in t h e primary sedimentation d e s i g n e x a m p l e s , s t o r a g e
capacity can be increased by providing e x t r a d e p t h , For more
design information o n gravity thickeners s e e C h a p t e r 5.
1 5 . 2.2 . 2 Anaerobic Digesters

Anaerobic digesters provide all three t y p e s of s t o r a g e , Those
with floating covers h a v e t h e flexibility t o s t o r e a b o u t 2 0 t o
2 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e d i g e s t e r's volume , T h e cover m o v e m e n t is used
t o p r o v i d e d i s p l a c e m e n t s t o r a g e, Fixed c o v e r digesters m u s t b e
p r o t e c t e d f r o m excessive vacuum o r p r e s s u r e conditions w h e n e v e r
a n a t t e m p t is m a d e t o achieve d i s p l a c e m e n t s t o r a g e.
S e c o n d a r y d i g e s t e r s c a n b e u s e d f o r t w o- p h a s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
s t o r a g e b y m e a n s o f l i q u i d -s o l i d s s e p a r a t i o n a s l o n g a s t h e y
are not treating stabilized biological suspended growth
( w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d ) s e c o n d a r y s l u d g e. Biological fixed growth
s e c o n d a r y s l u d g e n o r m a l l y d o e s n o t u s e s e c o n d a r y d i g e s t e r,
t w o- p h a s e concentration s t o r a g e. More and m o r e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s
a r e finding t h a t t h e stabilization o f w a s t e- activated s l u d g e h a s
a major impact o n digester operation. Without w a s t e- activated
s l u d g e , t h e 1 i q u i d - s o l i d s s e p a r a t i o n p r o c e s s in s e c o n d a r y
digesters can concentrate and store solids for considerable
p e r i o d s o f t i m e. These time periods usually equal the time
r e q u i r e d t o fill t h e s e c o n d a r y digester a t design flow r a t e s a n d ,
depending o n the quality o f a c c e p t a b l e s u p e r n a t a n t , c a n often be
extended.
A l l d i g e s t e r s c a n b e u s e d t o p r o v i d e e q u a l i z a t i o n s t o r a g e.
Digesters m a y be used t o equalize peak loadings and thereby m a k e
d o w n s t r e a m d e w a t e r i n g m o r e c o s t- e f f e c t i v e a s t h e f o l l o w i n g
e x a m p l e illustrates.
Design E x a m p l e
This e x a m p l e illustrates how t h e digester s t o r a g e can be used

t o " d a m p- o u t " s o l i d s s u r g e s a n d t h u s p r e v e n t o v e r l o a d i n g o f
d o w n s t r e a m dewatering units.
Consider a primary wastewater treatment plant with the flow

s c h e m e a n d a v e r a g e l o a d s d e p i c t e d o n F i g u r e 1 5 - 1. Average
l o a d i n g t o t h e d e w a t e r i n g u n i t s is 1 0 3 , 3 1 3 p o u n d s p e r d a y
( 4 6 , 9 0 4 k g / d ). D e w a t e r i n g u n i t c a p a c i t y i s 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 p o u n d s
1 5-1 2
FEED
270,100 = RAW INFLUENT SOLIDS , Ibc / dey
31,500
GRIT CHAMBER GRIT
RECIRCULATED
259,262
SOLIDS
I
PRIMARY 90,742 PRIMARY
SEDIMENTATION
EFFLUENT
65% CAPTURE
168,520
DIGESTERS SOLIDS
SUPERNATANT 65,723 CONVERTED
{ 39% SOLIDS
( ZERO ) DESTRUCTION ) TO GAS AND
A WATER
102,797
516
POLYMER
20,663
103,313
f
FILTER CENTRIFUGES
(80% CAPTURE ) (80% CAPTURE )
FILTRATE
CENTRATE
i 82,650 SOLIDS TO
WASTE
Ibs/ day * 0.454 kg/day
FIGURE 15- 1
SOLIDS BALANCE AND FLOW DIAGRAM- DESIGN EXAMPLE

SINGLE- PHASE CONCENTRATION AND DISPLACEMENT STORAGE
-
15 13
p e r d a y ( 9 0 , 8 0 0 k g /d ) ; u n d e r a v e r a g e l o a d i n g conditions , t h e
dewatering units are clearly n o t s t r e s s e d. T h e treatment p l a n t ,
however , r e c e i v e s f l o w f r o m a c o m b i n e d s a n1 t a r y / s f o r m s e w e r
n e t w o r k. During s t o r m s, h y d r a u l i c loadings increase dramatically
a s a r e s u l t o f infiltration a n d inflow t o t h e s e w e r s y s t e m.
P l a n t solids l o a d i n g s a l s o increase s h a r p l y a s t h e r e s u l t o f
solids being carried into t h e s e w e r by r u n- off and t h e s c o u r i n g
of previously accumulated materials from the sewer s y s t e m.
From historical records , the peak 5-day solids loading ( average

l o a d f o r. t h e m o s t heavily l o a d e d f i v e c o n s e c u t i v e d a y s ) is
4 3 3 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 1 9 6 , 5 8 2 k g / d ). T h i s is 2 . 5 7 times
g r e a t e r t h a n the a v e r a g e d i g e s t e r load . I f t h e s t o r a g e available
u p s t r e a m o f t h e d e w a t e r i n g u n i t s is n o t utilized , d e w a t e r i n g
unit l o a d i n g w o u l d a l s o be 2 . 5 7 t i m e s t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e o r
2 6 5 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 1 2 0 , 3 1 0 k g /d ) , T h e d e w a t e r i n g u n i t s
would therefore be overloaded , Overload can be prevented ,
h o w e v e r, if digester s t o r a g e is properly utilized. Solids can b e
stored within t h e digester s o t h a t , during p e a k loading p e r i o d s ,
dewatering capacity is n o t exceeded. T h e accumulated solids c a n
be released after t h e s t o r m h a s p a s s e d and t h e dewatering units
are no longer stressed.
Solids may be stored in the digesters by either of two

mechanisms, acting either singly or in c o n c e r t.
T h e digester working volume is increased by allowing t h e

.
f l o a t i n g covers t o rise ( d i s p l a c e m e n t s t o r a g e )
T h e digester feed is thickened t o a g r e a t e r d e g r e e t h a n

previously. A s a result , t h e solids concentration of t h e
digested material increases ( single-p h a s e concentration ).
The following analysis examines how one of several possible

o p e r a t i n g s t r a t e g i e s c a n b e i m p l e m e n t e d . I t is a s s u m e d t h a t
t h e s y s t e m is a t a v e r a g e c o n d i t i o n s ( s e e F i g u r e 1 5 - 1 ) w h e n a
large s t o r m occurs and for the next five days average digester
loadings increase t o 433 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 196 , 5 8 2 k g /d ). At
the onset of the storm , the plant operator decides to ease a
potentially serious d e w a t e r i n g overload situation by ( 1 ) allowing
t h e f l o a t i n g c o v e r s t o rise a t t h e r a t e o f o n e f o o t p e r d a y
( 0.305 m/d ) and ( 2 ) by thickening t h e r a w s l u d g e withdrawn from
t h e p r i m a r y sedimentation b a s i n f r o m t h e n o r m a l f i v e p e r c e n t
concentration t o seven p e r c e n t concentration , T h e additional
t h i c k e n i n g is a c c o m p l i s h e d b y a l l o w i n g s l u d g e t o a c c u m u l a t e
t o g r e a t e r d e p t h s in t h e p r i m a r y s e d i m e n t a t i o n t a n k s c r o s s -
collection t r o u g h and s l u d g e h o p p e r s. T h e intent of t h e s e t w o
operations is t o maintain digested solids m a s s flow r a t e s below
200 , 000 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 9 0 ,8 0 0 k d /d ) t o p r e v e n t dewatering unit
overload .
1 5- 1 4
The effects of these operations can be estimated from an
unsteady state analysis of digester operations , The basic
predictive equation is derived by an unsteady state mass balance:
1. Solids in solids out solids destroyed solids

accumulated.
a. Solids in = QCj _
b. Solids out ( Q k )C -
c. Solids destroyed = QCj_ X
d. Solids accumulated
_ d( VC )
dt
Where:
Q = digester feed rate , volume per time ;
Ci = digester feed solids concentration , mass per volume ;
C = digester sludge solids concentration , mass per

volume ;
k = rate of liquid accumulation in the digesters due to

rise of floating covers , volume per time ;
x = fraction of digester feed destroyed by digestion ,
dimens ionless ;
V = digester liquid volume ;
t time.
2. Summing the terms:
QCi - ( Q-k )C - _
QC i X = d(VC )
dt
3. -
The right hand side of the above equation can be further
developed :
d( VC )
dt
dc dV
V dt + C dt =
^
V dt + Ck
4. Simplifying:
dc
QCi (1 X )- - QC = V dt
15 15-
5. M a k e t h e s i m p l i f y i n g a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t d i g e s t e r feed f l o w ,
f e e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n, a n d l i q u i d v o l u m e a r e c o n s t a n t f o r t h e
p e r i o d t. The above equation is integrated and solved
f o r C.
c = Ci( l-X ) t Ci ( 1- X )— CQ ] exp 1 5-1
E q u a t i o n 1 5-1 p r e d i c t s d i g e s t e d s l u d g e s o l i d s c o n c e n-
t r a t i o n a t a n y t i m e b e y o n d initiation o f t h e o p e r a t i n g
s t r a t e g y. CQ i s d e f i n e d a s d i g e s t e d s l u d g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
a t t h e t i m e t h e o p e r a t i n g s t r a t e g y i s p u t i n t o o p e r a t i o n.
Note that the product of digested sludge concentration
( C ) a n d d i g e s t e r e f f l u e n t l i q u i d f l o w ( Q-k ) i s t h e l o a d
w h i c h t h e d e w a t e r i n g u n i t s m u s t p r o c e s s.
TABLE 15- 2
CALCULATIONS FOR DIGESTER EFFLUENT MASS

FLOW RATE FROM EQUATION 15- 1
Digester
volume
Time after Digester feed Digester increase/day Digester Digested Dewatering
start of Digester solids feed due to rise Digester Fractional effluent sludge solids unit
storm , loading , concentration, rata , of floating volume , solids flow , concentration , feed rate ,
Operating strategy days lb/day percent gpd covers , qrd gal destruction gpd percent lb/day
A. Floating cover rise = '
0
f
168 ,520 5 396 , 051 0 5.97 x 10 * 0.39 396 ,051 3.05 102 ,797
1 ft/day ; digester feed 0 433 ,000 7 726,875 o 5.97 x 1CT 0.20 550,632 3.05 142,919
thickened to 7 percent 1 433,000 7 726,875 176 ,24 .- 6.05 x 10 * 0.20 550,632 3.38 156,429
2
3
4 3 3 ,000
433,000
7
7
726,875
726,875
176,24 i
176 , 243- 6.23 x 10.
6.41 x 10 *
0.20
0.20
550.632
590.632
3.58
3.78
167 ,772
177 ,373
4 432,000 7 726,875 176 ,243 6.58 x 10* 0.20 590.632 3.96 185,561
5 433,000 7 726,875 176,24 i. 6.76 X 106 0.20 550.632 4.11 192 ,594
B. Floating cover rise = 0

+
168,520 5 396 ,051 0 5.97 x 10* .
0 39 396,051 3.05 102 ,797
1 ft/day ; digester feed 0 433,000 5 1,017,626 0 5.97 x 10* 0.20 841, 383 3.05 218 ,385
remains at 5 percent
2
1 433,000
4 33,000
5
5
1,017,626
1 ,017,626
176,241
176,24: - 6.05 x 10*
6.23 x 10*
*
0. 20
0. 20
841,383
841,383
3.20
3.31
228 ,903
237,330
3 433,000 5 1,017,626 176 , 243 6.41 x 10 0.20 841,383 3.41 244,156
4
5
433,000
433,
5
5
1,017,626
1,017,626
176,24:
176,243
- 6.53 x 10
6.76 x 10*
? 0.20
0.20
841, 383
841,383
3.49
3.56
249,740
254 ,989
C. Floating covers are not 0

’
168 ,520 5 396,051 C 5.97 x 10 * 0.39 396,051 3.05 102 ,797
allowed to rise; di - 0* 433 ,000 7 726 ,875 i: 5.97 x 10* 0.20 726,875 3.05 188 ,664
gester feed thickened
to 7 percent
1
2
433 ,000
433,000
7
7
726,875
726,875
C - 5.97 x 10*
5.97 x .
, „„ „6
10
0.20
0.20
726,875
726.375
3.34
3.60
206,745
222 ,755
3 433 ,000 7 726,875 U 5.97 x 10* 0.20 726.375 3.33 236.928
4 433 ,000 7 726 ,375 0 5.97 x 10* 0.20 726,875 4.03 249 , 478
5 433 ,000 7 726 ,875 O 5.97 x 106 0.20 726,875 4.21 260,588
1 lb/day = 0.454 kg/d

1 gpd = 0.00378 m 3/d
1 gal = 0.00378 m 3
Calculations related to the operating strategy just described are

s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 1 5- 2 p a r t A . T h e d i g e s t e d s o l i d s m a s s f l o w
r a t e s a r e c a l c u l a t e d j u s t b e f o r e t h e s t o r m ( t = 0“ ) , i m m e d i a t e l y
after the storm begins ( t 0+ ) a n d f o r e a c h o f t h e n e x t
f i v e c o n s e c u t i v e d a y s, I t i s a s s u m e d d i g e s t e r l o a d i n g i n c r e a s e s
i n o n e s t e p f r o m 1 6 8, 5 2 0 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 7 6 , 5 0 8 k g /d ) t o
4 3 3,0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 1 9 6 , 5 8 2 k g /d ) a t t = 0. D i g e s t e d s l u d g e
liquid volume at the beginning of the storm is 5.97 x 10® gallons
( 2 2,6 0 0 m ). E a c h 1 f o o t ( 0 . 3 0 5 m ) o f c o v e r r i s e i n c r e a s e s t a n k
^
v o l u m e b y 1 7 6 , 2 4 3 g a l l o n s ( 6 6 7 m 3 ). Solids destruction within
the digesters is assumed to be 39 percent ( X = 0.39 ) during
1 5-1 6
average conditions , dropping t o 20 percent ( X = 0.20 ) during
the storm due to decreased digester retention time , T h e c a l c u l a-
tion shows that dewatering capacity ( 200 , 000 pounds per day
t e , 8 0 0 kg /d ] ) i s n o t exceeded d u r i n g t h e storm , t h u s t h e
operating strategy has been successful , Calculations for two
other strategies which were not successful are also included .
The results are shown graphically on Figure 15 2 - .
300,000
T - STRATEGY 8.
FEED SOLIDS CONCENTRATION
m \ 5%; ALLOW COVERS TO RISE 1 ft/ day
~ u
a
o — STRATEGY d
FEED SOLIDS CONCENTRATION
7% ; COVERS ARE STATIONARY
-8>
. 2G0fG0Q
- Q
CAPACITY OF
m
T3
DEWATERING UNITS
n
LU STRATEGY A.
< FEED MUDS CONCENTRATION
CC 7%; ALLOW COVERS TO RISE 1 ft / day
n
LU
LU
LL
t 100,000
3
ID
cc
LU
<
5
LU
o
1 ft/ day = 0.305 m /day
0 1 2 3 4 5
TIME AFTER START OF STORM, days
FIGURE 15- 2
EFFECT OF VARIOUS OPERATING STRATEGIES

ON DEWATERING UNIT FEED RATES
15- 17
1 5 . 2. 2 . 3 Aerobic D i g e s t e r s
T o u s e a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r f o r t w o- p h a s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n t y p e
s t o r a g e, t h e n o r m a l l y h i g h l y a g i t a t e d c o n t e n t s m u s t b e m a d e
quiescent and t h e solids m a d e t o s e t t l e from t h e l i q u o r before
the whole mass becomes anaerobic and starts to decompose and
c r e a t e nuisance o d o r s . Chemical t r e a t m e n t can facilitate solids
settling. W i t h o u t s u c c e s s f u l d e c a n t i n g , o n l y s i n g l e- p h a s e
concentration t y p e s t o r a g e and displacement t y p e s t o r a g e can b e
u s e d by aerobic d i g e s t e r s. W h e n displacement t y p e s t o r a g e is
used with a fixed surface a r e a, t h e liquid s u r f a c e m u s t rise o r
fall. U n d e r s u c h conditions, t h e aeration and mixing source m u s t
automatically a d j u s t t o s u c h c h a n g e s. Floating mechanical units
and fixed - b o t t o m m o u n t e d diffusers a r e both a d a p t a b l e t o t h e s e
r e q u i r e m e n t s ; fixed m e c h a n i c a l a e r a t o r s a r e n o t . Long- term
s t o r a g e in aerobic digesters will h a v e a relatively low capital
c o s t and a very high operating ( energy ) c o s t. O f t e n, evaporation
can a c c o u n t f o r significant concentration o f t h e stored solids.
A s long a s t h e solids remain aerobic t h r o u g h o u t the digester ,
the odor impact of such storage is very minimal. For more
information o n aerobic digesters , s e e C h a p t e r 6.
15.2.2.4 Composting
Composting is o n e o f t h e t w o w a s t e w a t e r solids p r o c e s s e s with

s t o r a g e capabilities t h a t a r e effective f o r long - t e r m s t o r a g e .
O n c e t h e w a s t e w a t e r solids h a v e been stabilized by composting ,
t h e curing s t e p c a n b e extended a s long a s s t o r a g e is required .
This curing s t e p usually involves nothing more t h a n t h e placing
o f the c o m p o s t e d material in unconfined s t o c k p i l e s e x p o s e d t o t h e
a t m o s p h e r e. A s l o n g a s t h e r e a r e n o s i t e r e s t r i c t i o n s , t h i s
method o f s t o r a g e c a n be very economical, f o r it is a c t u a l l y j u s t
a n o t h e r use o f time needed f o r curing and removing t h e material
t o its point of f i n a l disposal. F o r m o r e design information o n
composting , see C h a p t e r 1 2.
1 5 . 2. 2 . 5 Drying B e d s
D r y i n g b e d s a r e used e x t e n s i v e l y b y m a n y s m a l l e r p l a n t s in
c o n j u n c t i o n with a n a e r o b i c a n d a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n. T h e y a r e
o p e r a t e d o n a fill and d r a w basis and a r e o f t e n used t o provide
t w o-p h a s e concentration and displacement t y p e s t o r a g e between
production a n d disposal. T o a s s u r e a d e q u a t e s t o r a g e capability ,
t h e designer should allow for u p t o 50 p e r c e n t excess drying bed
area. M o r e design information o n s l u d g e drying beds c a n b e found
in C h a p t e r 9.
15.3 Dedicated S t o r a g e Facilities
W h e n s o l i d s s t o r a g e within w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s and
sludge solids t r e a t m e n t processes cannot provide the operational
flexibility n e c e s s a r y t o maintain c o s t- effective solids t r e a t m e n t
1 5-1 8
" MMWSASS*
a n d d i s p o s a l , t h e s e w i t h i n -p r o c e s s s t o r a g e c a p a b i l i t i e s m u s t
be a u g m e n t e d with s p e c i a l dedicated s t o r a g e facilities. These
dedicated s t o r a g e facilities can provide s t o r a g e f o r s l u d g e in
e i t h e r t h e l i q u i d o r d e w a t e r e d s t a t e, a n d may , d e p e n d i n g o n
design considerations and u p s t r e a m treatment , be utilized for any
of the three detention times listed in T a b l e 1 5-1.
15.3.1 Facilities Provided Primarily for

S t o r a g e of Liquid S l u d g e
U s u a l l y , d e d i c a t e d l i q u i d s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s consist o f o n e
o f t h e t h r e e t y p e s listed in T a b l e 1 5 -1 . A l t h o u g h listed a s
primarily for s t o r a g e of liquid s l u d g e , any of t h e s e facilities
that are used f o r anything o t h e r t h a n equalizing s t o r a g e ( 3 t o
4 d a y s ) will a l s o p r o v i d e s o m e d e g r e e o f s o l i d s t r e a t m e n t.
H o l d i n g t a n k s , without air a g i t a t i o n , a n d facultative s l u d g e
l a g o o n s u s u a l l y c o n t i n u e a n a e r o b i c s t a b i l i z a t i o n, Holding
t a n k s, with air agitation, a n d aeration basins continue aerobic
stabi 1 ization. As t h e s e are side benefits t o t h e main design
functions of t h e s e facilities, they h a v e been ignored for t h e
p u r p o s e of t h e s e classifications. H o w e v e r , if t h e s t o r a g e is for
a l o n g t e r m, then t h e additional t r e a t m e n t afforded certainly
must b e t a k e n into a c c o u n t in setting final disposal criteria.
15.3.1.1 Holding T a n k s
Holding t a n k s a r e c o m m o n l y provided a s a n integral p a r t of m o s t

conditioning p r o c e s s e s a n d many stabilization processes. Holding
t a n k s m a y b e used f o r blending different materials a s w e l l a s f o r
equalizing s t o r a g e , thereby assuring t h a t t h e d o w n s t r e a m s l u d g e
t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s is u n i f o r m l y l o a d e d , b o t h in q u a l i t y a n d
quantity . Holding tanks also often provide the decanting
f a c i l i t i e s f o r s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s, s u c h a s t h e r m a l
c o n d i t i o n i n g , w h i c h c r e a t e p r o d u c t s t h a t s u p p o r t t w o- p h a s e
concentration.
H o l d i n g t a n k s t h a t are t o be used for blending m u s t be maintained

in a h o m o g e n e o u s condition. Such t a n k s can t h u s provide only
s i n g l e - p h a s e concentration t y p e s t o r a g e o r d i s p l a c e m e n t t y p e
s t o r a g e. U s u a l l y s u c h tanks are relatively small , with detention
times measured in h o u r s instead o f d a y s. M o s t of t h e s t o r a g e ,
therefore , is provided by volume adjustments. Holding t a n k s t h a t
involve b l e n d i n g a n d p r o v i d e e q u a l i z i n g s t o r a g e a r e u s u a l l y
l i m i t e d t o a b a t c h , o r a n e a r- b a t c h , t y p e o f o p e r a t i o n o r
c o n t i n u o u s l e v e l a d j u s t m e n t s. T a n k c o n t e n t s c a n b e m i x e d by
mechanical impellers , hydraulic recirculation , o r g a s agitation.
E a c h m e t h o d 's a p p l i c a b i l i t y m a y b e r e s t r i c t e d b y t h e t y p e o f
material requiring the blending. F o r e x a m p l e, m e c h a n i c a l
impellers are not applicable when unground sludge is being
stored. T h e use o f g a s agitation and recirculation mixing is
normally o n l y limited by t h e volume which m u s t b e b l e n d e d.
1 5-1 9
If the holding tank is located downstream from a sludge treatment
process , special precautions may be required. For example , if
downstream from anaerobic digestion and planned for more than a
few hours of storage, the blending tank should be designed with a
cover and be equipped to collect and remove combustible digester
gas. If downstream from chlorine stabilization, it should be
designed to function in a very low pH ( acid ) environment ,
Whatever its function , however , the holding tank must be designed
to eliminate the production of malodorous gaseous discharges.
This elimination is made especially difficult when the holding
tank must provide equalizing storage and operate on a batch
basis. Unless the solids supplied to the holding tank are
completely stabilized ( a condition seldom encountered with
wastewater sludge ), the tank ' s use for extended periods of
storage will result in the creation of nuisance odors.
Even short periods of storage of unstabilized primary and

secondary sludges in a holding tank can produce nuisance odors if
no form of temporary inhibiting treatment has been applied .
Decant tanks following thermal conditioning often create major
odor problems. There are many ways of dealing with the odorous
--
gases created by these holding tanks for example , by passing the
gases back through the aeration system , activated carbon filters,
chemical scrubbers , and incinerators. The best design solution,
however , is to minimize their creation.
Design Examples
The Sacramento California Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant,

now under construction , is to be provided with a holding and/or
blending tank that will be capable of receiving the daily
-
anaerobically digested sludge discharged from nine complete mix
digesters (15 ). This digested sludge discharge will vary from
0.56 to 0.94 MGD per day ( 24.5 to 41.2 1/s ) over the next
20 years. The blending tank will be 110 feet ( 33.5 m ) in
diameter and will have a 38.5 foot ( 11.7 m ) sidewater depth. It
-
will be provided with a Downes type floating cover that will have
a vertical movement of at least 14 feet ( 4.3 m ). This floating
cover movement will allow the blending tank to mix the entire
daily discharge from all the nine digesters prior to discharging
its daily accumulation to downstream facultative sludge lagoons.
This blending tank will provide a complete separation between the
-
operational control of the complete mix tank and the controlled
feeding of the 20 lagoons. Total solids retention time of the
blended sludges will be at least three days , and approximately
-
one third of the liquid contents of the blending tank will be
displaced each day. Except for the provision for the extra
floating cover travel and the use of bottom mounted gas
diffusers , the blending tank will have the same design as the
-
four complete mix tanks now under construction. This method of
blending and containment will minimize the release of odorous
gases and maintain a safe control on the production and use of
the digester gas during the blending operation. Figure 15 3
shows a sectional sketch of this proposed blending digester. In
-
-
15 20
Aliso,
proposed
California, two 26 , 000 gallon blending tanks are being
to blend and equalize unstabilized sludge flows from
-
several sources at the Aliso Regional Solids Stabilization
Facility (16 ) .
These tanks are being provided with hydraulic
mixing and fixed covers .
The gas cap above the varying liquid
level within the fixed covered tanks will be maintained a t a
constant pressure by an i n t e r t i e with the low pressure digester
gas system .
This intertie will eliminate the need for special
odor control equipment, minimize the danger from the possible
p r o d u c t i o n o f a n e x p l o s i v e g a s- a i r m i x t u r e , a n d n e g a t e t h e n e e d
for some highly complicated pressure control system t o protect
against a rapid drawdown that might pull a vacuum or a i r into the
blending tank , Figure 15 4 shows a sectional elevation of this -
raw sludge blending tank .
fiAWCE Dr urcnATiiViG
WATER SURFACE ( W SVl .
14‘(T 6Jt PRESSURE - VACUUM
RiUFf AND FLAME FLEXi& Li
TRAP HOSES FQS
14" Am ttr DIA COVER TRAVEL
GAS COLLECTION AND
TV FREEBOARD SLUDGE SUPPLY
PIPELINES
CONCRETE GAS DOME SLOPE TO GAS DOME
4L
1}
ROOF
BALLAST
n
-
- J1.—in'*
-
IS
i:
i
QQWINES TYPE .TYPICAL W .S. ALWAYSAT PROVIDE
FLOATING COVERV v ~
LEAS? 1 0" ARQVE BOTTOM OF GAS
X DOMt SPIRAL
GUIDES
A W STABILITY CONCRETE BALLAST RING H I | TYP OF 12 l
ACCESS ,
< 11 Qf OIA
PIPE
{ COVER SUPPOFiT CORBEL |TYT OF 2 AI
TRENCH EQUIPMENT
\s IP 0
\ GALLERY
4?'* OIA
ACCESS o s
0" DIA Cl RC SLUDGE
SUCTION AND 0
r
*
MH ’i SUPPLY PIPING 47" OIA BOTTOM
i (TYPICAL OF 61 (TYPICAL OF 4.1 ACCESS M.H.
1
GAS DIFFUSER
B" DIA DIGESTED 4
J-x - '
ASSEMBLY SLUDGE
.U U Li PIPELINE
(TYP OF 4
1 ft = 0,305 m
*
1 in “ 2.54 cm \
^ fO" DIA PIPE TD DIGESTER PSA IN
POMP STATION
FIGURE 15- 3
PROPOSED DESIGN FOR BLENDING DIGESTER — SACRAMENTO

REGIONAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT
General Comments
While very l i t t l e specific design guidance is provided in

the literature for sludge holding tanks, the major issue that
must be dealt with i s the same as for most sludge treatment
p r o c e s s e s--m a t e r i a l m a n a g e m e n t , Wastewater sludge can contain
almost anything , If a h o l d i n g t ank design is to incorporate
mechanical m i x i n g , which can b e incapacitated by stringy
15- 21
material , t h e designer m u s t m a k e sure t h a t material is either
r e m o v e d o r c u t u p before reaching t h e b l e n d i n g t a n k , Likewise ,
h y d r a u l i c m i x i n g p u m p s m u s t b e o f t h e n o n- c l o g t y p e o r t h e
material r e d u c e d in p a r t i c l e size by grinding s o t h a t it c a n p a s s
through the minimum clearances o f the t y p e o f pump u s e d.
6" PRESSURE VACUUM

ULTRASONIC LEVEL RELIEF AND FLAME TRAP
TRANSMITTER
6" DIA DIGESTED /
SLUDGE /
6" FLAME TRAP
24 OfA M.H.
i
l
fr
L
mmMEfesiisssllfe - OM
&
6 " DIA
LOW PRESSURE
T O MAX W. L. ELEV 214.3

%
os SLUDGE GAS
CONNECTION
8" DIA '&ft T
42 DIA
J1
TO DIGESTERS
OVERFLOW m ACCESS M.H ,

0.4
M
QC
. 4?
b ;
%> <t ELEV 209.5 >p9:,
& 0w
h$ -
m GROUND b ’ SV 2Q 7 . & ‘-’ A ft
fertor.
-1
EQUIPMENT PIT M
' EQUIPMENT PIT
:IS*W la
15'- 0" IT
EQUALIZING &g ,<t £ LEV

P
O DIGESTER SUPPLY
CIRCULATING U-5 6" DIA CIRC S£2 PUMP ( TYP OF S
PUMP PUMP FOR TWO TANKS)
\ DISCHARGE
. % TO DIGESTERS
s
MIN W L ElEV 196.0
ELEV ttU- ELEV

196 * 0 DISCHARGE NOZZLE :o 198.0
cF t ELEV 195.5
II
TO ASSURE MIXING 6" DIA
RAW
SLUDGE >; - Q
I
ELEV 194.3 SUPPLY
m CT?
<$ rMm *
6” OIA SUCTION
TO OTHER
v. P . > -
fig DIGESTER
\ *
6" DIA CIRC PUMP 6" DIA DIGESTER SUPPLY
SUCTION INV ELEV 191 £ SUPPLY SUCTION PUMPS
AND DRAIN
1 ft = 0,305 nn SUMP
1 m 2.56 unft
TABLE 15- 4
26 , 000 CALLON SLUDGE EQUALIZATION TANK ( TYPICAL OF TWO )

AL1SO SOLIDS STABILIZATION FACILITY
-
15 22
T h e o t h e r major design p r o b l e m involves t h e c o n t r o l o f odors t h a t
a r e s o o f t e n a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f any t y p e o f s l u d g e holding t a n k .
T h e S a c r a m e n t o and Aliso holding t a n k design e x a m p l e s indicate
t w o very s u c c e s s f u l means o f dealing with s u c h o d o r s ( that is ,
containing and incorporating them with the low pressure
digester g a s s y s t e m ). In many locations stabilized material is
h e l d within t h e holding t a n k o n l y a f e w h o u r s , U n d e r t h e s e
circumstances, their design d e p e n d s o n minimum o d o r g e n e r a t i o n , a
r e a s o n a b l e assumption given t h e s h o r t retention p e r i o d , Often
decant t a n k s and conditioning blending t a n k s c a n n o t depend o n
either of these methods of odor control, The designer should be
very a w a r e that w h e n s u c h a situation exists it will be e x p e c t e d
t h a t o d o r s will be confined and treated t o t h e point w h e r e their
d i s c h a r g e ceases t o c r e a t e a nuisance , O d o r control is a very
c o m p l i c a t e d s u b j e c t. Designers are referred to a Manual of
Practice s o o n t o be released by a Joint Committee of t h e ASCE a n d
Water Pollution C o n t r o l Federation.
1 5 . 3.1 . 2 Facultative S l u d g e L a g o o n s
Introduction
Sludge lagoons have been used for years to store wastewater
solids. Unfortunately , m o s t of this u s e h a s been with c o m p l e t e
disregard t o t h e aesthetic impact o n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g environment .
Such misuse has become so widespread that just the use of
t h e t e r m " s l u d g e l a g o o n " is o f t e n e n o u g h t o e l i m i n a t e t h e i r
consideration in p r e s e n t-day alternatives analyses.
R e c e n t studies in S a c r a m e n t o, California, based o n t h e successful
operation of facultative s l u d g e l a g o o n s in Auckland , N e w Zealand ,
indicate t h a t sludge l a g o o n s c a n be d e s i g n e d t o be environmen-
t a l l y a c c e p t a b l e a n d s t i l l r e m a i n e x t r e m e l y c o s t- e f f e c t i v e
( 1 7 , 1 8 ). T h e facility studied in S a c r a m e n t o provides s t o r a g e f o r
a t least five years o f sludge production. T h e s l u d g e s t o r e d in
the facultative sludge lagoon continues to stabilize without
creating a n o d o r level u n a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g neighbor-
hood. Table 1 5- 3 lists the a d v a n t a g e s and limitations of using
facultative s l u d g e l a g o o n s f o r l o n g -t e r m s t o r a g e.
Theory
Facultative sludge lagoons ( FSLs ) are designed to maintain
a n a e r o b i c s u r f a c e l a y e r f r e e o f s c u m o r m e m b r a n e - t y p e film
build - u p. T h e aerobic layer is maintained by keeping the annual
organic loading t o the l a g o o n a t or below a critical a r e a loading
r a t e a n d by using s u r f a c e mixers t o provide agitation and m i x i n g
of t h e aerobic surface layer. T h e aerobic surface l a y e r o f t h e
F S L s is u s u a l l y f r o m one t o t h r e e feet ( 0 . 3 0 t o 0.91 m ) in d e p t h
a n d s u p p o r t s a v e r y d e n s e p o p u l a t i o n o f b e t w e e n 5 0 x 1 0 -3 a n d
6 x 1 0 ® o r g a n i s m s/ m l o f a l g a e ( u s u a l l y C h o r e 1 1 a ). Dissolved
o x y g e n is s u p p l i e d t o t h i s l a y e r b y a l g a l p h o t o s y n t h e s i s , b y
direct surface transfer f r o m t h e a t m o s p h e r e , and by t h e surface
m i x e r s. T h e o x y g e n is u s e d by t h e b a c t e r i a in t h e a e r o b i c
1 5- 2 3
degradation of colloidal a n d s o l u b l e o r g a n i c m a t t e r in t h e
digested sludge liquor, while t h e digested sludge solids settle
t o t h e bottom of the basins a n d continue their anaerobic
d e c o m p o s i t i o n. S l u d g e liquor o r s u p e r n a t a n t is periodically
returned t o the plant ' s liquid process stream.
TABLE 15- 3
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF USING FACULTATIVE SLUDGE

LAGOONS FOR LONG- TERM STORAGE
Advantages Limitations „’“=

*“**«11'
Provides long -term storage with 1. Can only be used following anaerobic
acceptable environmental impacts stabilization. If acid phase of
(odor and groundwater contamination digestion takes place in lagoons they
risks are minimized ). will stink.
Continues anaerobic stabilization , with up 2. Large acreages require special odor
to 45 percent VS reduction in first year. mitigation measures.
Decanting ability assures minimum solids 3. Requires large areas of land , for
recycle with supernatant (usually less example , 15 to 20 gross acres (6 to
than 500 mg/1) and maximum concentration 8 ha) for 10 MGD , (438 1/s) 200
for storage and efficient harvesting gross acres (80 ha) for 136 MGD
( > 6 percent solids) starting with digested (6 ,000 1) carbonaceous activated
sludge of < 2 percent solids. sludge plants.
-
Long term liquid storage is one of few
natural (no external energy input) means
4. Must be protected from flooding.
of reducing pathogen content of sludges. 5. -

Supernatant will contain 300 600 mg/1
of TKN , mostly ammonia.
Energy and operational effort requirements
are very minimum. 6. Magnesium ammonia phosphate ( struvite)
Once established , buffering capacity is
deposition requires special supernat
ant design.
-
almost impossible to upset.
Allows for all tributary digesters to
-
operate as primary complete mix units
(one blending unit may be required for
large installations).
Provides environmentally acceptable place
for disposal of digester contents during
periodic cleaning operations.
Sludge harvesting is completely independent
from sludge production.
T h e nutrient and carbon dioxide released in both the aerobic and

anaerobic degradation o f the remaining organic m a t t e r within
the digested s l u d g e are , in t u r n, used by the a l g a e in the
cyclic- symbiotic relationship. This vigorous relationship
maintains the pH of the FSL surface layer between 7.5 and 8.5,
which effectively minimizes any hydrogen sulfide ( H 2 S ) release
and is believed t o b e one of t h e major k e y s t o the successful
operation of this sludge s t o r a g e process.
Facultative s l u d g e l a g o o n s m u s t o p e r a t e in conjunction with

anaerobic digesters. T h e y c a n n o t function p r o p e r l y ( without
m a j o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s ) w h e n s u p p l i e d w i t h either
1 5-2 4
unstabilized o r aerobically d i g e s t e d s l u d g e , I f t h e acid p h a s e
o f a n a e r o b i c stabilization b e c o m e s p r e d o m i n a n t, t h e l a g o o n s will
stink . F i g u r e 1 5-5 p r o v i d e s a schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e
reactions i n a t y p i c a l F S L .
SOI AR PM PR r,V
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FIGURE 15 - 5
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF A FACULTATIVE

SLUDGE LAGOON (FSL)
Current Status
F a c u l t a t i v e s l u d g e l a g o o n s w e r e installed i n i t i a l l y i n 1 9 6 0
in the Auckland, New Zealand , Manukau sewage treatment plant
to provide for the storage and disposal of that plant's
anaerobically digested primary sludge, Although lagoons were
i n s t a l l e d a t D u b l i n- S a n R a m o n , C a l i f o r n i a i n 1 9 6 5 , M e d f o r d ,
O r e g o n i n 1 9 7 1 , a n d o t h e r s i t e s in t h e United S t a t e s s i n c e 1 9 6 0
i n a n a t t e m p t t o d u p l i c a t e t h e s u c c e s s f u l Auckland i n s t a l l a t i o n ,
it was not until 1974 that the area loading became the critical
c r i t e r i o n f o r their s u c c e s s , S t u d i e s a t S a c r a m e n t o s i n c e 1 9 7 4,
w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 0 a c r e s ( 1 6 . 2 h a ) o f F S L s, h a v e d e t e r m i n e d
that the standard annual loading rate can be doubled during the
1 5-2 5
warm , long , sunny days of July , August , and September , Reduced
algae activity during the colder winter months indicates that the
standard loading rate should not be exceeded.
Since 1974 , additional FSLs have been placed in service at

Corvallis , Oregon - 4.5 acres ( 1.82 ha ) and Salinas, California -
6.0 acres ( 2.43 ha ). Other FSLs are being built or are under
design for Eugene - Spr i ngfie1 d , Oregon 25 acres , ( 10.1 ha );
Red Bluff , California 0.93 acres ( 0.38 ha ); Sacramento ,
California 84 acres ( 34 ha ); Flagstaff , Arizona 7.3 acres
( 2.95 ha ); and Colorado Springs , Colorado 60 acres ( 24.3 ha ).
Successful operation was experienced this past winter under
freezing conditions at Corvallis , Oregon , Experience to date
indicates the design criteria established at Sacramento are
applicable under other climatic conditions.
Design Criteria
Design considerations for the FSLs include the area loading
rate , surface agitation requirements , dimensional and layout
limitations , and physical factors , All have been developed
during the studies conducted over the past five years at the
Sacramento lagoons.
Area Loading Rate. To maintain an aerobic top layer , the
annual organic loading rate to that FSL must be at or below
20 pounds of volatile solids ( VS ) per 1 ,000 square feet per day
-
( 1.0 t VS/ha d ). Lagoons have been found to be capable of
receiving the equivalent of the daily organic loading rate every
second , third , or fourth day without experiencing any upset.
That is , lagoons have assimilated up to four times normal daily
loadings as long as they have had three days of rest between
loadings. Loadings as high as 40 pounds VS per 1 ,000 square feet
-
per day ( 1.0 t VS/ha d ) have been successfully assimilated for
several months during the warm summer and fall. Experiments on
small basins loaded to failure indicate that peak loadings up to
-
90 pounds VS per 1 ,000 square feet per day ( 4.4 t VS/ha d ) can be
tolerated during the summer and fall as long as they do not occur
for more than one week .
Surface Agitation Requirements , Experiments on FSLs that were

continuously loaded at the standard rate indicate FSLs cannot
function in an environmentally acceptable manner without daily
operation of surface agitation equipment , Observations indicate
-
the brush type mixer is required to breakup the surface film that
forms during the feeding of the lagoon , If this film is not
dissipated , a major source of oxygen transfer to the surface
layer is eliminated . FSLs with surface areas of from 4 to
7 acres ( 1.6 to 2.8 ha ) require the operation of two surface
mixers from 6 to 12 hours per day to successfully maintain scum
free surface conditions. All of the successful installations
-
-
to date have used brush type floating surface mixers to achieve
the necessary surface agitation , -
brush type surface mixer. Recent experiments indicate that
-
-
15 26
-
two brush type mixers with 8-foot- long ( 2.4-rn) rotors turning at
approximately 70 rpm and driven by 15 horsepower ( 11.2 kW ) motors
are required for a 4 to 7 acre ( 1.6 to 2.8 ha ) lagoon. The
mixers need to operate 12 hours per day. Lagoons of much less
than 4 acres ( 1.62 ha ) should be able to achieve the same results
with two mixers with 6-foot ( 1.8-m ) long rotors and 5-horsepower
( 3.7 kW ) motors . Operation time is expected to be about the same
number of hours per day. FSLs of larger than 7 acres ( 2.8 ha )
have not been found to be cost-effective because of the need to
take the lagoons out of service during sludge removal operations.
FIGURE 15 - 6
TYPICAL BRUSH -TYPE SURFACE MIXER,

SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA
Brush type mixers have been used to limit the agitation to the
surface layer of the FSLs. So far this has been an acceptable
application ; however , there is some question as to their
applicability for very cold climates , Several submerged pump -
type floating aerators have been reviewed , and they could be
-
15 27
adapted to provide the necessary surface agitation if the
-
brush type could not function under severe freezing conditions.
Two mixers are used per FSL to assure maximum scum break up in
those areas of the lagoon where the prevailing wind deposits the
-
daily loading of scum. The agitation and mixing action of the
two mixers located at opposite ends or sides of the lagoon also
act to maintain equal distribution of the anaerobic solids.
Dimensional and Layout Limitations. FSL size is usually

determined by the number of lagoons required to assure adequate
surface area , while sludge is removed from a lagoon. If the
removed sludge is to be reused , several spare lagoons are
-
required to keep full lagoons out of service for the 2 to 3 year
pathogen die off period ( 3 ). The maximum area for a single
-
-
lagoon area is somewhat arbitrary but is based on the most
practical size for loading , surface agitation , mixing , and
removal requirements . -
Large , 4 to 7 acre ( 1.6 2.8 ha ) individual
lagoons would be applicable only to plants with over 70 acres
( 28 ha ) of FSLs. FSLs as small as 150 feet ( 45.7 m ) on a side
have been operated successfully.
Lagoon depth was established by the practical limitation of

commercially available dredges with a proven capability of
removing wastewater solids from beneath liquid surfaces.
Equipment that meets this requirement is available to extract
-
sludge from FSLs up to 11 1/2 and 15 feet ( 3.5 and 4.7 m ) of
depth. -
For plants £l 0 MGD ( 440 1/s ), the 11 1/2 foot ( 3.5 m )
depth dredge should be adequate. For plants > 10 MGD ( 440 1/s )
- -
the 15 foot (4.7 m ) depth should be used to provide additional
storage flexibility , If surface agitation must be maintained
by submerged pump type aerators , it may be necessary to employ
the deepest lagoon possible to assure adequate separation between
the aerobic zone and the anaerobic settling zone of the FSL.
Contractors can supply dredge equipment for a lagoon , either with
or without the manpower to operate it.
FSLs are usually best designed to have a long and a short
dimension with the shortest dimension oriented parallel to the
direction of the maximum prevailing wind , The longer side is
made conducive to efficient dredge operation , while the short
side's parallel orientation to the prevailing wind direction
helps to minimize wave erosion on the surrounding levees.
-
Figure 15 7 is a typical FSL layout , while Figure 15 8 is a
typical FSL cross section.
-
When the area of FSLs exceeds 40 acres (16.2 ha ), the potential
cumulative effect of large odor emission areas to the vicinity
must be considered . -
Figure 15 9 shows the layout for the
124 acres ( 50.2 ha ) of Sacramento FSLs that were sited on the
basis of the least odor risk to surrounding areas.
Work at Sacramento has also determined that batteries of FSLs
totalling 50 to 60 acres ( 20 to 24 ha ) are about the maximum size
for most effectively reducing the transport of odors.
-
15 28
PREVAILING WIND DIRECTION
SUPERNATANT
OVERFLOW SLUDGE REMOVAL
AUTOMATIC VALVES
CONTROL VALVE
IV,
m
i. . t
!
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z LINE
¥
DIGESTED SLUDGE *
H.
*•
-
\
\
t •
w
* -- SLUDGE
) I '0
i
* I
REMOVAL
%
\
1 ;
1 i
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l
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t ENDS
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nit
U
1 I
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FIGURE T 5 “7
TYPICAL FSL LAYOUT
t
FREEBOARD
T
3'0" AEROBIC LAYER
SLOPE
12 0 M ANAEROBIC
J
6" IMPERVIOUS
y
//y/s P ROT E cr ION Y///// /7/
LAYER LAYER ' /1/&Z///// ENGINEERED FILL'
8‘r DIGESTED
DIGESTED SLUDGE
INLET SLUDGE LINE
NATURAL
2 '6" COVER GRADE
1 ft = 0,3 m NOT TO SCALE

1 in - 2,5 cm
FIGURE 15 - 8
TYPICAL FSL CROSS SECTION
Physical Considerations, Many of the d e t a i l e d physical

considerations applied t o the f i n a l design of the Sacramento FSLs
a r e s h o w n o n F i g u r e s 1 5- 8 a n d 1 5 9 Supernatant withdrawal is -.
-
15 29
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15- 9 \
V
LAYOUT FOR 124 ACRES OF FSLs

SACRAMENTO
— i
\ /
\ / 1 5 -3 0
\ /
\ J
i
l o c a t e d u p s t r e a m f r o m t h e p r e v a i l i n g winds t o minimize s c u m
b u i l d - u p in i t s v i c i n i t y. F S L s u p e r n a t a n t w i l l p r e c i p i t a t e
magnesium ammonia phosphate ( struvite ) on any rough surface
t h a t is n o t c o m p l e t e l y s u b m e r g e d . I t h a s a l s o b e e n found t o
precipitate inside cavitating pumps. This crystalline material
c a n completely c l o g c a s t iron fittings a n d p u m p valves w h e n t h e
surface g o e s t h r o u g h a fill-a n d - draw c y c l e or w h e n its o p e r a t i o n
r e s u l t s in t h e p r e s e n c e o f d i f f u s e d a i r. T h e m o s t p r a c t i c a l
a p p r o a c h t o successful elimination of this p r o b l e m h a s been t o
use PVC piping throughout the FSL supernatant process and to
design the process for gravity return t o the plant influent , with
a minimum of critical d e p t h conditions. If pumping is required ,
s u b m e r g e d slow -s p e e d n o n-clog centrifugal pumps with low suction
a n d discharge velocities ( t o minimize cavitation ) will be t h e
m o s t trouble- f r e e. All equipment t h a t c a n n o t be P V C o r o t h e r
s m o o t h n o n- m e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s h o u l d b e c o a t e d w i t h a s m o o t h ,
impervious surface.
T w o d i g e s t e d s l u d g e f e e d l i n e s a r e p r o v i d e d , e a c h w i t h its
o w n automatic v a l v e , t o a s s u r e a d e q u a t e distribution of s o l i d s
over t h e w h o l e volume of the F S L . Surface mixers a r e d o w n s t r e a m
of t h e prevailing winds. T h e harvested s l u d g e d r e d g e h o o k u p is
centrally located. L a g o o n dike slopes are conservative-- t h r e e
horizontal t o one vertical — with a d e q u a t e rip-r a p provided in t h e
w o r k i n g z o n e o f t h e s u r f a c e l e v e l. S u f f i c i e n t f r e e b o a r d is
provided t o p r o t e c t against a n y conceivable o v e r t o p p i n g of t h e
d i k e s. Digested sludge feed pipelines are located directly
below t h e bottom o f the l a g o o n s, with t h e inlet surrounded by a
p r o t e c t i v e c o n c r e t e s u r f a c e. All p i p i n g w i t h i n t h e b a s i n is
o u t of t h e w a y of f u t u r e dredging operations.
Many of the physical considerations for the basins have

b e e n r e q u i r e d by t h e S t a t e D a m S a f e t y A g e n c y. Larger FSLs
most probably will come under some regulatory agency whose
responsibility involves seeing t h a t earthen structures used t o
confine l a r g e quantities of liquid a significant h e i g h t a b o v e
t h e e x i s t i n g g r o u n d surface a r e s a f e. I t is wise t o c h e c k early
t o ascertain w h a t , w h e r e, and h o w t h e s e agencies will b e involved
in F S L design.
Operational Considerations
Operational considerations can b e divided into t h r e e categories:
t h e l o a d i n g o r p l a c e m e n t of s l u d g e i n t o t h e F S L s ? their routine
o p e r a t i o n ; a n d t h e r e m o v a l o f their s o l i d s , Considerations
listed below were d e v e l o p e d during the five y e a r s o f s t u d y o n t h e
S a c r a m e n t o l a g o o n s.
Start- up and Loading , F S L s s h o u l d b e i n i t i a l l y f i l l e d with

effluent. I d e a l l y , t h a t effluent should t h e n h a v e a b o u t t h r e e t o
six w e e k s f o r d e v e l o p m e n t of a n aerobic s u r f a c e layer prior t o
t h e introduction of d i g e s t e d s l u d g e , A l l F S L s s h o u l d be
loaded daily , with the loading distributed equally between FSLs.
Loadings should be held below 2 0 p o u n d s V S per 1 , 0 0 0 s q u a r e feet
1 5- 31
per day ( 1.0 t VS/ ha- d ) on an average annual basis , As indicated
earlier , considerable flexibility does exist . Loads can vary
from day to day , and batch or intermittent loading of once every
four days or less is acceptable . Shock loadings, such as with
digester cleanings , should be distributed to all operating FSLs
in proportion to the quantity of sludge inventory they possess .
FSLs should be loaded during periods of favorable atmospheric
conditions , particularly just above ground surface, to maximize
odor dispersion . The fixed and volatile sludge solids loadings
to the FSLs and their volatile contents should be monitored
quarterly.
Daily Routine . Surface mixers should operate for a period
of between 6 and 12 hours. Operation should not coincide with
FSL loading and should always be during the hours of minimum
human exposure ( usually midnight to 5 a.m. ) and during periods of
favorable atmospheric conditions. FSL supernatant return to the
wastewater treatment process should be regulated to minimize
shock loadings of high ammonia. Supernatant return flows should
be monitored so that their potential impact on the liquid
treatment process can be discerned . The sludge blanket in a
lagoon should not be allowed to rise higher than two feet below
the operating water surface.
Sludge Removal . FSLs that are to be emptied of accumulated

solids should be removed from routine operation at least 30 days
prior to the removal of any solids. Pathogen safe reuse requires
removal from operations for two to three years ( 3 ). Sludge
removal should be limited to those FSLs that are concentrating
the sludge solids to six to eight percent. During FSL sludge
removal operations, the water surface level should not be allowed
to drop more than 12 to 18 inches ( 30 to 46 cm ) below its normal
operating level .
Energy Impacts
Energy requirements of FSLs are relatively small because FSLs use

solar energy. The sun supplies the needed energy for the algal
photosynthesis. In turn, the algal cells supply the dissolved
oxygen to support the aerobic bacterial action in the surface
layer. The only outside power used in normal FSL operation is for
surface agitation , supernatant pumping and treatment , and the
supply and removal of the sludge. For the 124-acre ( 50.2 ha )
Sacramento installation , it was recently calculated that these
energy requirements could equal 31 , 700' x 10 ^ Btu per year
( 33 , 400 GJ/yr ) when the FSLs became fully loaded in 1990 ( 19 ).
As loading is based on area , the energy impact of FSLs will be
255 x 10 ^ Btu/yr/acre ( 670 GJ /yr/ ha ). With maximum odor source
control and transport reduction measures, this energy use will
increase to 294 x 106 Btu per year per acre ( 765 GJ /yr / ha ).
As no chemicals or major structures are involved , all FSL energy
impacts are direct. There are no secondary impacts.
15 -32
Actual Performance Data
The following figures and tables report the actual performance of
the eight FSLs in operation at the Sacramento Central Wastewater
Treatment Plant .
Although the plant is designed as a 24 MGD
.
-
(l.l m3/s ) carbonaceous activated sludge secondary wastewater
-
treatment plant with anaerobic digestion for solids
stabilization , it treats the total solids from three upstream
secondary treatment plants , the total annual flow of which is
considerably greater than its own. Solids from those upstream
plants are transported to the Central plant by its tributary
sewer collection system. The Central plant also receives a
substantial solids loading ( up to 35 percent daily surcharge )
from seasonal canning operations. Table 15-4 indicates the FSL
loadings for the four years from 1975 through 1978.
TABLE 15- 4
SACRAMENTO CENTRAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT

PLANT VOLATILE REDUCTIONS , DIGESTED
SLUDGE QUANTITIES AND FSL AREA LOADINGS
Digested solids to FSLs FSL loading

Annual average Annual average
Digester volatile total solids , Percent Percent lb volatile solids ,
Year reduction, percent
^
lO lb/daya volatile solids 103 sq ft„/daya
— -.
tay ?••• .
1975 52 44.1 63 1.7 22.5

1976 50 35.9 67 1.6 15.9
1977 51 44.0 68 1.6 17.1
1978 45 52.7 66 1.6 20.7
aDry weight.
Source: Treatment plant records.
lb = 0.4536 kg.
sq ft = 0.0929 sq m.
-
Figure 15 10 summarizes typical surface layer data for four of
the FSLs for July 1977 through June 1978. Unfortunately , some
turbidity and algae count data are missing , but the seasonal
-
trend is quite apparent. Table 15 5 summarizes the FSL's design
data and provides the necessary background to understand the FSL
solids inventory in Table 15 6. Data from Table 15 6 was used to
-
calculate a volatile solids reduction of 42 percent. Solids
-
profiles are taken quarterly in all FSLs.
Recycled FSL supernatant quality for 1978 is given in Table 15 7 ,
and complete mineral , heavy metals , and chlorinated hydrocarbon
-
data for digested , FSL , and harvested solids for 1977 is provided
-
in Table 15 8. While the specific conductance in the supernatant
remains high ( 2 ,500 to 4 ,300 mhos/cm ), the supernatant contains
very little of the heavy metals. Rainfall increases the quantity
-
15 33
of supernatant and decreases i t s strength , Winter specific
conductivity always dropped in Sacramento following significant
-
rainfall .The only solution t o this problem would seem t o be t o
reduce the heavy metals concentrations in the unstabilized
sludge.
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FIGURE 15- 10

PLANT SURFACE LAYER MONITORING DATA
FOR FSLs 5 TO 8
1 5-3 4
Public Health and Environmental Impact
FSLs been found to have the following insignificant
have
environmental impagts at Sacramento during five years of study:
No vector impacts
« No groundwater impacts
« Controlled pathogen impacts
Acceptable odor impacts
TABLE 15- 5

PLANT FSL DESIGN DATA
Area at water
Depth from surface Volume below Loading capacity
Date placed water surface 1 ,000 ft2 sludge blanket, of basin ,a
FSL in operation to bottom , ft {acres ) 1 ,000 cu ft 1, 000 lb VS/day
1 7/73 11 164.0 1,030.4 3.23
( 3.8)
2 8/7 3 11 164.0 1,030.4 3.28
( 3.3)
3 9/74 14 244.2 2,137.0 4.88
( 5.6)
4 11/74 14 229.0 1 , 983.0 4.58
( 5.3)
5 8/76 15 204.2 1,851.0 4.03
(4.7)
6 8/76 15 204.2 1 ,850.0 4.08
(4.7)
7 11/75 15 270.0 2 ,689.0 5.40
( 6.2 )
8 11/75 15 270.0 2,689.0 5.40
(6.2)
Total 1 ,749.6 15 ,259.8 31.80

(40.1)
>• ==
*
-
:
*r
aCapacity of lagoon based on a design volatile solid ( VS) loading

of 20 lb/1 ,000 ft 2 of water surface area per day.
1 ft = .3048 m
ft 2 = .0929 m .
1
1
1
lb
-
cu f t
0.4536 kg.
28.32 1.
TABLE 15- 6

PLANT FSL SLUDGE INVENTORY DRY TONS .
FSL 1 1
FSL ! FSL 1 FSL 4 FSL 5 FSL .
f FSL 7 FSL a Total.
Parameter TS VS TS VS TS VS TS VS TS VS TS VS TS VS TS VS TS VS
Digested sludge
added3 3 ,925 2,690 4,580 2,995 5,398 3,416 5,801 3,596 2,222 1 ,461 2,211 1 ,454 3 ,486 2,317 3,275 2,177 30 ,898 20,106
Stored sludge *5 1,973 860 3,009 1 ,629 2 ,950 1 ,721 3 ,845 2 ,092 1 ,459 816 1 , 173 719 3 , 782 2 ,214 3,208 1,076 21 , 399 11,727
Quantities account for sludge that has been (1) added to the SSBs , (2) applied to land
(1,256 dry tons in 1974, 1 ,688 in 1975, 976 in 1976 and 1,930 in 1977) and ( 3) transferred
between basins since beginning of operations ,
b
Quantities calculated based on data obtained from sludge samples collected .July 12, 1978.
15-35
TABLE 15- 7

PLANT RECYCLED FSL SUPERNATANT QUALITY
Constituent3 10/5/78 10/6/78 10/7/78 10/11/78 10/30/78 12/20/78 Average

BOD 140 140 140 96 200 110 143
TP04 51 50 66 120 110 80 79
Sulfides 0 0 0 0 0 0
COD 910 960 874 935
TKN 220 360 394 290
PH 7.7 7.7 7.8 7.7
SS 470 420 728 445
-
NH 3 N 300 335 300
aIn mg/1 except for pH.
Vector Impacts. Rodents and flies have apparently not bred

around the FSLs for the last five years. Scum control is
obviously the key to elimination of this problem.
Groundwater Impacts. Groundwater contamination is nonexistent.
Monitoring wells surrounding the 40 acres ( 16.2 ha ) of existing
FSLs in Sacramento have been sampled monthly and have never shown
any indication of groundwater contamination traceable to the
lagoons. Tests show that sludge which settles to the bottom
quickly and effectively seals off the lagoon contents from the
surrounding soils. Undisturbed soil samples taken directly from
the bottom of a lagoon with a limited history (one to two
years ) and a lagoon with a long history ( four to five years )
confirm that the FSL contents have a limited penetration into the
surrounding soils. These studies indicate that the sealing of
FSLs is a combination of soil pore plugging by suspended and
colloidal materials within the sludge and the formation of
-
mucus like materials that create an impermeable membrane between
the stored sludge and the underlying soil. Sandy soils take
longer to seal than silty clay soils , but both achieve complete
sealing in two to three months.
- -
The two to six inch ( 5.08 to 15.24 cm ) engineered fill seal
provided over the natural bottom and side slopes of the typical
- -
FSL cross section on Figure 15 8 assures that none of the FSL
-
start up sewage or diluted sludge content escapes during the
natural sealing process.
Pathogen Impacts. It has been recognized for many years that
-
long term liquid storage significantly reduces the pathogenic
microorganism content in sludge ( 3 ). Studies at Sacramento
confirm this for the most common bacteria , Figure 15 11
indicates that the fecal coliform population decreases as the
-
sludge passes through the sludge management system , Studies of
parasitic protozoans and their cysts, helminths and their eggs
( ova ) , and virus were inconclusive either because insufficient
-
15 36
n u m b e r s w e r e found o r t h e t e c h n i q u e s r e q u i r e d f o r r e a s o n a b l e
reproducibility were unavailable t o the project . T h e system o f
d i s p o s a l selected , t h a t of dedicated land disposal , m a d e further
investigatory work unnecessary.
TABLE 15- 8
SACRAMENTO CENTRAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT

COMPARISON OF DIGESTED FSL AND REMOVED
SLUDGE ANALYTICAL DATA
3
Stored sludge
Digested Removed
Constituent sludqea FSL 1 FSL 2 FSL 3 FSL 4 FSL 5 FSL 6 FSL 7 FSL 8 sludgea
Alkalinity 2,556 2,653 2 ,676 2,638 2,348 1,940 1,687 2,239 2,175 2 ,069
Chloride0 143 178 225 204 209 169 166 171 186 171
Ammonia0 444 685 765 751 649 502 452 613 600 573
Soluble0phosDhorus (P)c 65 44 38 49 33 28 50 51 49 45
Sulfate 38 87 97 91 113 73 77 68 49 151
Percent dry weight
Total phosphorus (P) 1.8 2.0 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.9
Total nitrogen ( N) 8.7 5.1 5.2 5.2 4. 1 5.4 6.2 5.8 5.1 5.9
ppm, dry weight
Calcium 21,000 27 ,000 25 ,000 21,000 28 , 000 28 ,000 24 ,000 26 , 000 21,000 24 ,000
Magnesium 5,800 8, 200 7.900 7,900 6.300 5 ,500 5 , 300 6 , 300 3 ,500 8 , 600
Potassium 5 ,500 3 , 200 3.900 3,800 2 , 900 2,600 3 ,000 3,100 3.200 4 , 500
Sodium 9,200 3,10 0 3,450 3 , 500 3.300 4,100 5 ,600 4 ,600 4.200 5 ,400
Arsenic 47 75 72 89 101 22 28 82 62 15.4
Beryllium < 2.2 < 1.1 < 1.1 < 1.0 < 1.1 < 1.4 < 1.5 < 1.0 < 1.2 < 1.3
Cadmium 12 24 26 19 16 14 13 21 17 19
Chromium 165 218 245 224 243 173 220 278 188 181
Copper 340 410 398 385 721 400 477 456 353 384
Lead 185 134 123 96 134 116 183 153 121 159
Mercury 3.7 5.3 5.1 5.3 5.2 5.0 5.8 5.8 4.2 5.6
Molybdenum < 22 < 13.4 < 16 < 14 < 12.5 < 13.7 < 15.4 < 12.2 < 11.8 < 13
Nickel 63 58 72 70 115 46 48 60 53 77
Selenium 1.6 1.7 1.4 1.6 1.4 4.1 3.2 2.6 1.4 5.6
Silver 28 26 26 26 23 34 38 35 27 28
Zinc 930 1,700 1, 500 1, 300 1 ,325 1,207 1,400 1 ,400 1,090 1 , 200
PCB 1242 e < 2.8 < 3.1 < 2.9 < 2.6 < 2.3 < 2.6 < 3.0 < 3.0 < 2.1
PCB 1254 e 5.5 5.3 4.0 4.8 4.7 3.8 6.6 3.3 4.6
Tech chlordane e 3.8 4.0 3.6 4.0 3.9 4.2 5.9 3.8 5.0
Other pesticidals ^ e 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.22 0.25 0.25 0.27 0.23 < 0.7
Units as noted
Cd/Zn ratio, percent 1.3 1.4 1.7 1.5 1.0 1:1 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.5
Total solids , percent 1.7 7.0 6.3 6.1 7.6 4.7 3.4 4.8 5.7 4.1
Volatile solids , per
cent of total
- 68 55 55 53 52 60 62 61 52 54
PH c 7.5 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.2 7.4 7.3 7.3 7.4
Specific conductance ,
pmhos/cm 4 ,742 5, 109 5 ,847 5,743 4,914 4 ,434 4 ,093 5 ,061 4 ,760 4 ,731
aValues are averages from samples collected during 1977.

bAs CaC, determined by potentiometric titration of supernatant.
03
determined on supernatant; other determinations run on solution resulting from acid digestion of whole sample ,
dther pesticidals include residues such as DDT / DDE , dieldrin , etc .
eAnalysis not performed.
O d o r I m p a c t s. O d o r i m p a c t s c h a n g e in d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n t o
the F S L's surface area. I n m o s t small plants ( t h o s e requiring
< 4 0 acres 1 6 . 2 h a ] o f
[ F S L s ), controlling t h e loading r a t e, using
a d e q u a t e surface a g i t a t i o n , providing sufficient b u f f e r i n g area
and carefully selecting t h e best time periods f o r f e e d i n g and
s u r f a c e agitation o p e r a t i o n are sufficient t o achieve acceptable
l e v e l s o f o d o r r i s k . T a b l e 1 5 -9 s h o w s t h e a n n u a l o d o r risk
analysis developed for t h e existing 4 0 a c r e s ( 16.2 h a ) o f FSLs a t
t h e S a c r a m e n t o site before t h e installation o f t h e barriers a n d
wind m a c h i n e s ( 1 ). No high technology mitigation has been
15 -3 7
required to maintain this acceptable risk level , For larger
areas of FSLs , additional odor control measures would probably be
required . These might include the installation of a blender
digester to keep raw sludge from short circuiting to the FSLs ,
vacuum vaporization to remove entrained odors from the digested
sludge prior to its discharge into the FSLs , separation of
-
batteries of FSLs , construction of special 12 foot ( 3.7 m ) high
barriers around the FSLs , to ensure maximum odor dispersion
at low wind speeds , and the use of wind machines to aid odor
dispersion when the atmosphere is calm , Figure 15 12 shows
typical wind machines and barriers at the Sacramento FSLs.
-
10'
I09
10s
1 G7
k.
U
» VO6
I
|ID5
a
W
&U 104
4
H
M-l
* io3
w
1
5
2 tO2
<
O
CL
10\
°
10
°
rl
102
RAW DIGESTED FSL FSL TREATED
SLUDGE SLUDGE STORED REMOVED SOILS
SLUDGE SLUDGE
FIGURE 15- 11

PLANT 1977 FECAL C- OLIFORM POPULATIONS FOR
VARIOUS LOCATIONS IN THE SOLIDS TREATMENT-
DISPOSAL PROCESS
-
15 38
TABLE 15- 9
SACRAMENTO CENTRAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT ODOR RISK

FOR 40 ACRES OF FSLa , ANNUAL EVENTS (DAYS )
Downwind odor Direction towards which wind is blowing

concentration ,
C N NE E SE S sw w NW Total
2b 2.8 2.1 3.2 7.3 11.5 6.7 4.1 3.1 38.9
5a
10
0.3
0.08
0.3
0.06
0.5
0.10
• 1.2
0.20
1.6
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.3
0.1
5.4
1.1
Includes source control mitigation -

controlled organic surface loading rate ,
adequate surface mixers , and controlled feeding and mixer operating times
and odor transport mitigation -
2 ,000 to 5 ,000 feet of buffer.
-
b
2 ou/cf barely detectable ambient odor criteria.
5 ou/cf threshold complaint conditions.
10 ou/cf consistent complaint conditions.
1 AC .4047 ha .
foot 0.3048 m.
1 cf = 0.02832 m 3 .
The odors from 40 acres ( 16.2 ha ) of FSLs at Sacramento have

proven to be completely acceptable. An analysis of the expected
annual odor risks for the 124 acres ( 50.2 ha ) of FSLs to be
constructed for the new regional treatment plant ( see
-
Figure 15 9 ) is shown in Table 15 10 (1 ). This analysis shows -
that with the installation of complete control measures , the
incidence of threshold complaint odor levels at the plant
boundary ( 2 ,000 to 5 ,000 feet [610 to 1 ,520 m] downwind ) will be
less than once every two years , regardless of wind direction, and
once every seven years for the worst specific wind direction.
This level of odor risk was found to be acceptable in the public
environmental impact hearings.
Cost Information- ma*m. itta
The major elements involved in determining FSL costs are land and
earth moving. Both are usually quite site specific. Normally ,
land costs vary less predictably than construction costs.
A typical FSL storage facility for a 10 MGD ( 438 1/s ) secondary
carbonaceous activated sludge treatment plant with primary
- -
sedimentation , anaerobic digestion , and normal strength domestic
and industrial sewage will cost about $1.5 million to construct
and $ 25 ,000 per year to operate. Construction costs are based on
a 3500 Engineering News Record Construction Cost Index and do
not include the cost of land. Operation costs are based on 1978
wage rates and do not include dredge operators or any other
removal costs .
15 39-
4 *
8
FIGURE 15- 12
TYPICAL WIND MACHINES AND BARRIERS

SACRAMENTO , CALIFORNIA
Construction costs include the installation of three complete

-
four acre (1.62 ha ) FSLs. This is assumed to be the capacity
needed to meet the annual digested sludge loading rate criterion
-
of 20 pounds VS per 1 ,000 square feet per day (1.0 t VS/ha d ).
It is based on a conservative unstabilized sludge production
rate and a nominal 50 percent volatile solids reduction in the
anaerobic digesters. The three lagoons will provide capacity for
daily loading , digester cleaning , and maintenance and storage for
intermittent removal to dedicated land disposal. FSLs are
assumed to be 15 feet ( 4.6 m ) in depth and have 3 :1 dike side
slopes. If they are required , purchase of the dredge and booster
pump would add another $150 ,000 to $180 ,000 to the construction
costs.
Odor control costs , including blending digester , vacuum

vaporiz e r , barriers , and wind machine could increase the
construction costs another $ 250 ,000 and the operation costs
-
15 40
a n o t h e r $ 2 5,0 0 0 p e r y e a r , As indicated by the odor impact
assessment, sufficient area to ensure maintenance of loading
criteria, together with surface agitators and proper buffer,
w o u l d m a k e it p o s s i b l e t o a v o i d t h e c o s t o f t h e aforementioned
m o r e extensive o d o r m i t i g a t i o n facilities.
TABLE 15- 10
SACRAMENTO REGIONAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT ULTIMATE

ODOR RISK FOR 124 ACRES OF FSLa , ANNUAL EVENTS (DAYS )
Downwind odor Direction towards which wind is blowing

concentration ,
C N NE E SE s sw w NW Total
°
2 0.44
0.08
0.15
0.02
0.18
0.03
0.41
0.06
0.85
0.13
0.31
0.04
0.22
0.03
0.33
0.05
2.9
0.44
10 0.02 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.01 < 0.09
Includes source control mitigation -

controlled organic surface loading rate ,
adequate surface mixers , blending digester , vacuum vaporization and controlled
feeding and mixer operation times , and odor transport mitigation 2 , 000 to
5 ,000 feet of buffer and , separation of groups of FSLs , barriers and wind
-
machines.
b
2 ou/cf barely detectable ambient odor criteria ,
5 ou/cf threshold complaint conditions.
10 ou/cf consistent complaint conditions.
1 AC
foot - .40407 ha.
0.3048 m.
1 cf = 0.02832 m 3.
Construction costs for the 124 acres ( 50.2 ha ) of FSLs with

c o m p l e t e o d o r m i t i g a t i o n facilities f o r t h e S a c r a m e n t o R e g i o n a l
W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t P l a n t a r e e s t i m a t e d t o b e $ 2 8 . 7 m i l l i o n.
This includes almost $ 3.3 million for the existing 40 acres
( 16.2 ha ) of FSLs with barrier wall and wind machines, This
a c r e a g e will s t o r e t h e s o l i d s from a 1 3 6- M G D ( 5 ,9 6 0-1/s ) s e c o n-
d a r y c a r b o n a c e o u s activated s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t. O p e r a t i o n
c o s t s a r e estimated t o b e $ 6 5 0 , 0 0 0 p e r y e a r.
1 5 . 3 .1 . 3 Anaerobic L i q u i d S l u d g e L a g o o n s
Many such lagoons are being operated throughout the United
S t a t e s. O n e s y s t e m t h a t h a s c o l l e c t e d s o m e m e a n i n g f u l d a t a is
the 220.2 acres ( 89.1 ha ) in operation at the Metropolitan
S a n i t a r y District o f G r e a t e r C h i c a g o ( M S D G C ) Prairie P l a n l a n d
reclamation p r o j e c t in F u l t o n C o u n t y , Illinois. I n a p e r s o n a l
communication R.R. R i m k u s, C h i e f o f M a i n t e n a n c e a n d O p e r a t i o n s
M S D G C p r o v i d e d t h e l a y o u t s h o w n o n F i g u r e 1 5-1 3 o f t h e f o u r
l a g o o n s a t t h i s s i t e. H e r e p o r t s t h a t L a g o o n s 1 a n d 2 h a v e b e e n
i n s e r v i c e f o r e i g h t a n d s e v e n y e a r s, r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d L a g o o n s
3 a a n d 3 b f o r s i x y e a r s. L a g o o n s 1 a n d 2 h a v e a n a v e r a g e d e p t h
o f 3 5 f e e t ( 1 0 . 7 m ), p l u s o r m i n u s o n e f o o t ( 0 . 3 m ), w h i l e
L a g o o n s 3 a and 3 b a r e a b o u t 1 8 f e e t ( 5 . 5 m ) d e e p. L a g o o n s 3 a and
3 b a r e u t i l i z e d m o r e f o r s u p e r n a t a n t t r e a t m e n t a n d s t o r a g e.
1 5- 4 1
PUMP STATION
DREDGE
DREDGE
62,3 AC
DECANT
HOLDING BASINS
SUPPLY
RAFT DECANT
3a TRANSFER [ PUMP
54.9 AC "*f 9 "
3b
37,3 AC
1 acre = 0.4 C 5 ha
FIGURE 15- 13
ANAEROBIC LIQUID SLUDGE LAGOONS , PRAIRIE PLAN LAND

RECLAMATION PROJECT , THE METROPOLITAN SANITARY
DISTRICT OF GREATER CHICAGO
1 5-42
Rimkus further indicates barged anaerobically digested
waste- activated sludge from Chicago is discharged into Fulton
County Lagoons 1 and 2 throughout the year , when river shipment
conditions permit , at a frequency of about 20 days per month .
Solids loading varies between 65 , 000 to 95 , 000 dry tons
( 59 , 000 to 86 , 200 t ) per year. Based on the total loading
received by Lagoons 1 and 2 and the volatile solids content of
the digested sludge equaling 57 percent, the organic loading rate
to the Fulton County Lagoons varies between 36 and 50 pounds VS
per 1000 square feet per day ( 1.7 to 2.4 t/ ha - d ). This is
considerably above the 20 pounds VS per 1000 square feet per day
( 1.0 t/ ha-d ) established at Sacramento to maintain facultative
conditions within the lagoons , If the area of all four lagoons
is considered , this organic loading rate drops to 21 to 29 pounds
VS per 1 ,000 square feet per day ( 1.0 to 1.4 t/ ha- d ), which is
close to the facultative sludge lagoon concept .
Rimkus reports that the solids concentration of sludge pumped
from the barge to the lagoons varies from four to six percent by
weight. Further , the sludge pumped from lagoons to fields in
1978 varied from 3.57 to 5.93 percent by weight. The average
annual quantity of removed sludge is 60, 000 dry tons ( 54 , 400 t ).
Mean value for volatile solids content of 1978 removed sludge
was 47.5 percent. If the barged sludge volatile content is
57 percent, then the lagoons are reducing the volatile solids
by 17 percent. Data for sludge removed in 1978 are given in
Table 15-11. Sludge removal is usually accomplished in about
115 days, between May 1 and November 15.
According to Rimkus, Fulton County supernatant is disposed of on
1 , 320 acres ( 534.2 ha ) of alfalfa - brome hay fields. Average
annual quantity to dispose equals 700 , 000 wet tons ( 634,900 t )
with an average ammonia content of 109.9 mg /1 and an average TKN
content of 156.4 mg /1. Table 15-12 provides other data on lagoon
supernatant. Dissolved oxygen ( D.O. ) measurements taken in
the summer and fall of 1977 in Lagoons 3 a and 3 b indicate the
surface D.O . ranged between 0.9 and 8.5 mg /1, while the bottom
D.O . ranged between 0.4 and 2.6 mg / 1 . The lowest lagoon
temperature during this period was 40.6 °F ( 15.5 °C ). The lagoon
surface is frozen between 45 and 60 days per year , with scum
build - up experienced only during periods of new sludge input. No
surface agitation equipment is used on any of the lagoons. The
nearest residence to the lagoon is approximately 6 , 000 feet
( 1 ,800 m ) from the perimeter of the installation. No information
is available regarding odors or odor complaints.
15.3.1.4 Aerated Storage Basins
To use aerated storage basins successfully for wastewater solids ,

a design must meet the following criteria:
• Basin contents must be sufficiently mixed to assure

uniformity of solids concentration and complete
dissemination of oxygen.
15- 43
Sufficient oxygen must be available to maintain aerobic
conditions throughout t h e basin a t maximum attainable
solids concentration.
• Liquid level variation must be sufficient to

a c c o m m o d a t e maximum s t o r a g e n e e d s under anticipated
rainfall.
TABLE 15- 11
1978 REMOVED SLUDGE- PRAIRIE PLAN LAND

RECLAMATION PROJECT , THE METROPOLITAN
3
SANITARY DISTRICT OF GREATER CHICAGO
Minimum , Maximum , Mean , Mean content ,

Constituent mg/lb mg/1 ^ rng/lk lb/dry ton
pH, units 7.2 7.9
EC, umhos/cm 2, 500 6 ,800 4 ,675
Total phosphorus 900 2 ,960 1,416 59.6
Kjeldahl nitrogen
Nitrogen as ammonia
N
N NH
-- -
1,276
772
2,905
1 ,338
2 ,329
1,046
98. 1
44.0
Alkalinity as CaCCU ^ 1 ,640 5 ,750 3 ,630 153
Cloride
Iron - Fe
Cl
- 228
1 , 000
752
2,900
388
1,938
16.3
81.6
Zinc - Zn 87 231 171 7.2
Copper - Cu 44.8 124 81.6 3.44
Nickel -Ni 9 28 18 0.76
Magnesium Mn - 8.5 28.3 18.0 0. 758
Potassium K - 80 200 166 6.99
Sodium -Na
Manganese , Mg
30
80
120
810
88
450
3.7
18.9
Calcium - Ca 710 1,800 1,185 49.9
Lead - Pb
Chromium - Cr
25.9
90.6
54.5
513
42.1
175
1.77
7.37
Cadmium - Cd 7.5 20.2 13.2 0.556
Aluminum Al - 340 900 679 28.6
Mercury Hg -
Total solids , percent
0.132
3.57
1.920
5.93
0.417
4.75
0. 018
2 , 000
Total volatile solids ,> percent 43.5 50.0 47.5 950
Liquid fertilizer applied to fields from May 23 , 1978 to November 18 , 1978.

Results are based on 24 weekly composite samples. Data supplied by Metropolitan
Sanitary District of Greater Chicago.
^mg/l unless otherwise noted.
1 lb = 0.4536 kg
1 ton .907 t
Mixing Requirements
Equipment required for aerated s t o r a g e basins is similar to that

for aerobic digestion ( see C h a p t e r 6 ). Unfortunately for the
d e s i g n e r , mixing capability f o r v a r i o u s t y p e s o f static or
mechanical aeration devices varies greatly . Fixed or floating
15-44
-
turbine or propeller type aerators are often affected by very
-
limited side boundaries , while brush type aerators and aspirating
pumps often have almost unlimited side boundaries but rather
restricted vertical mixing capabilities , Submerged static
aeration devices are excellent for vertical mixing but are always
limited by very confined side boundaries. The designer should
-
rely on a performance type specification to achieve desired
results. The equipment supplier should be given information
about the configuration of the basin , its liquid level operating
range , the maximum solids concentration expected , and the level
of dissolved oxygen to be maintained . The designer is expected
-
to have established the most cost effective basin configuration
equipment requirements.
-
based on loading , site specific conditions and available aeration
A maximum horsepower limit should be
established , and the specifications should include a bonus to be
'
added to the bid price and a penalty to be subtracted from the

bid price based on the energy costs involved when the equipment
meets the required performance. A guarantee should be used to
assure that the final installation will meet the performance
requirement.
TABLE 15- 12
1973 / 1974 SUPERNATANT- PRAIRIE PLAN RECLAMATION

PROJECT , THE METROPOLITAN SANITARY
DISTRICT OF GREATER CHICAGO *
Mean value , Range ,

Constituent mg/1 mg/1
BOD - total 170 28 - 466

BOD soluble 62 20 - 114
COD - total 951 325 - 2 , 120
COD soluble 695 328 - 1 , 026
TSS 276 52 - 1,041
aData supplied by The Metropolitan Sanitary

District of Greater Chicago.
Oxygen Requirements
Oxygen requirements to maintain aerobic conditions within an
aerobic storage basin will be considerably less than that
required for aerobic digesters if the material being stored has
been stabilized prior to its introduction to the basin. Minimum
-
15 45
m e a s u r a b l e dissolved oxygen levels of about 0.5 mg/1 a r e q u i t e
a d e q u a t e t o maintain a basin f r e e from anaerobic activity , as
l o n g a s it is p r o v i d e d w i t h a d e q u a t e m i x i n g , If the basin
i n f l u e n t is n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y s t a b i l i z e d t o m i n i m i z e o x y g e n
requirements , t h e n t h e aerobic s t o r a g e basin m u s t b e designed for
oxygen requirements similar t o aerobic digesters ( see C h a p t e r 6 ).
O x y g e n transfer c a p a b i l i t i e s a r e similar t o mixing c a p a b i l i t i e s
f o r t h e various t y p e s of applicable equipment. T h e design should
t h e r e f o r e include o x y g e n t r a n s f e r r e q u i r e m e n t s a s p a r t o f t h e
p e r f o r m a n c e requirement indicated in t h e preceding section on
mixing specifications.
L e v e l Variability
Often, aerated storage basins cannot be decanted , because

s o l i d s s e t t l e w h e n t h e a e r a t o r is t u r n e d o f f , a n d a n a e r o b i c
d e c o m p o s i t i o n may a l s o o c c u r , r e s u l t i n g in o d o r p r o d u c t i o n.
A t t e m p t s a t in- basin d e c a n t i n g without a e r a t i o n a n d mixer
s h u t d o w n will usually result in t h e recycling of t h e concentrated
solids back t o the liquid p r o c e s s. S e p a r a t e continuous decanting
is u s u a l l y p o s s i b l e e i t h e r b y s e d i m e n t a t i o n o r d i s s o l v e d
air flotation, E v a p o r a t i o n w i l l a l s o q u i t e o f t e n r e s u l t in
significant liquid removal, A e r o b i c s t o r a g e basins t h a t d o
n o t h a v e s e p a r a t e d e c a n t i n g facilities m u s t be o p e r a t e d o n
single-p h a s e concentration o r displacement s t o r a g e c o n c e p t s.
T h e s i n g l e- p h a s e concentration c o n c e p t will function a s described

for aerobic digesters , The displacement concept , however , will
require liquid level variability and m a k e aerated s t o r a g e basin
equipment installation quite complicated. U n d e r such conditions,
this equipment m u s t be c a p a b l e of maintaining a d e q u a t e mixing
and oxygen transfer over the complete range of liquid level
variation. This r e q u i r e m e n t m a y cause this e q u i p m e n t t o h a v e
varying mixing and aeration capabilities , depending o n t h e basin
d e p t h. Variable speed drives , multi-speed drives, or variation
in the quantity of diffused air should be investigated , At no
time should t h e equipment be o p e r a t e d under conditions t h a t will
w a s t e e n e r g y. Mixing a n d aeration design r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d l a y o u t
details c a n be found in C h a p t e r 6.
15.3 .2 Facilities Provided Primarily for S t o r a g e of

Dewatered S l u d g e
Dedicated dewatered sludge storage of wastewater solids can

include t h e s t o r a g e of easily m a n a g e d dry solids ( > 6 0 p e r c e n t
solids ) o r h a r d t o m a n a g e w e t solids ( 1 5 t o 6 0 p e r c e n t solids ).
Dry solids are usually the product of heat-drying , h i g h
t e m p e r a t u r e conversion, o r air- drying p r o c e s s e s a n d c a n be stored
by s t a n d a r d d r y material s t o r a g e techniques , Descriptions of
t h e s e techniques a r e readily available in materials processing
t e x t b o o k s , a n d , if d e s i r e d , m o r e d e t a i l e d d a t a is available
( 20, 21 ). The storage of wet solids is another matter , however.
The successful application of common storage techniques to this
1 5-4 6
normally unstable organic material is practically impossible.
The most commonly accepted methods of providing dedicated storage
for wet organic material involves the use of drying sludge
lagoons , placing the material in some type of confined structure
or placing it in unconfined stockpiles , All three methods can
involve special ; design considerations.
15.3. 2.1 Drying Sludge Lagoons
Drying sludge lagoons are probably the most universally practiced

method of storing of wet organic sludge. Actually , the material
arrives at the lagoons in a liquid form , but as described under
Chicago' s actual performance data , most of the storage capability
is derived while the material is in a partially dewatered state.
Unfortunately , many existing applications of this method
of storage are being operated with sludge that has not been
anaerobically stabilized prior to its discharge to the lagoons .
In some cases , drying sludge lagoons are used after aerobic
digestion, and in other cases they have been used as digesters
with no upstream stabilization. In these instances , odors that
are quite unacceptable to the surrounding community are produced .
When such lagoons are considered a means of ultimate disposal ,
they are called " permanent lagoons." Because permanent sludge
lagoons have sometimes been the source of strong odors , they are
often rejected as a means to store sludge , either in the liquid
or semisolid state ( 22 ). A detailed discussion of design
criteria for drying sludge lagoons can be found in Chapter 9.
Performance Data
Several reasonably successful drying sludge lagoon operations do

exist . An investigation of their actual performance , however ,
indicates that these lagoons are acceptable because they receive
adequately stabilized anaerobically digested sludge and do not
normally generate the odors associated with the acid phase of
anaerobic stabilization.
San Jose , California. The San Jose/Santa Clara Water Pollution

Control Plant in San Jose , California, is a secondary treatment
plant that operates on the Kraus modification of the activated
sludge process during its seasonal canning loading period .
The plant stores its anaerobically digested primary and
waste- activated sludge in 73 sludge lagoons on 580 acres ( 235 ha )
of land immediately adjacent to the plant ( 2 ). In 1978 the plant
operated both anaerobic liquid sludge lagoons and drying sludge
lagoons with 35 either filled or more than half filled with
liquid sludge and 32 containing 2 feet ( 0.60 m ) or less of dried
sludge . Three lagoons have never been used , and three have been
dredged and are now empty . The drying sludge lagoons were filled
in layers of approximately one foot ( 0.3 m ) , and each layer was
allowed to dry by evaporation prior to the addition of the next
15-47
layer . The drying lagoon operation took place from 1974 until
1976 , when operational limitations and odor production resulted
in the return to anaerobic liquid sludge lagoon storage , Liquid
sludge lagoon storage had been practiced prior to 1974.
As a result of existing operations , the present storage capacity

of the lagoons will last until 1986. Because the plant does not
have existing dewatering facilities , it will not be able to
dispose of over 900 ,000 gallons per day ( 3 ,400 1/d ) of liquid
sludge without providing additional sludge treatment facilities
by 1986 . Studies are now under way evaluating alternative
dewatering and drying processes and facilities for the disposal
and use of dewatered and dried sludge.
Residents living in areas near the sludge lagoons have become
increasingly concerned about odors produced by the lagoons.
During 1976 , several complaints were registered with the Air
Pollution Control Board . The area most affected is a residential
community just southeast of the plant. Correlation of complaints
with atmospheric conditions indicates that the greatest odor risk
occurs with a northwest wind and when dry weather is followed by
heavy rain. This points to the danger of rewetting the dried
surface layers and anerobically stabilized material and confirms
that this can create strong odors.
Chicago , Illinois
The Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago ( MSDGC)
operates 30 drying sludge lagoons , each with an average storage
capacity of 200 ,000 cubic yards (153 ,000 m 3 ) and a storage depth
-
of 16 feet ( 4.9 m ) ( 23 ). Figure 15 14 provides a plan view of a
typical lagoon. Anaerobically digested sludge is pumped to the
MSDGC lagoons at a solids content of about 4 percent , Volatile
content of this material is approximately 57 percent. Sludge is
-
usually applied to each available lagoon in 6 inch ( 152 mm ) -
layers in rotation. Rotations are repeated .
Supernatant appears on the lagoon surface approximately five to

seven days after each fresh sludge application , I t i s t h e n
-
drained from the surface and returned to the West Southwest
Sewage Treatment Works by removing one or more stop logs from the
-
draw off box. Once the supernatant is decanted , the eight to
ten percent solids sludge is further concentrated by evaporaion.
Evaporation tapers off , however , as an aerobic sludge crust
develops , Supply sludge concentration ( 4 percent solids) is
beneficial , as it covers the entire lagoon surface with only a
slight gradient from the point of application , Any higher
concentration would inhibit this coverage and reduce the
evaporative surface area per unit volume . Lagoons that have been
filled to capacity by this method have an average solids content
of 18 to 22 percent by weight, Volatile solids content of this
material is in the range of 35 to 40 percent , indicating that
the lagoons are producing about a 34 percent volatile solids
reduction.
-
15 48
©
+S + 1 - i1,000 ft
i 305 m
c
® DRAW - OFF BOX & TRUSS
(gl CRESCENT SCRAPER

AND CARRSER
(C) SLACKLINE CRANE
{0) SLUDGE INFLUENT
§ 1— ,
UT T
(f) TAIL ANCHORAGE
( BULLDOZERS
+1 +1
0 DRAGLINE ( LOADING
PARTIAL DEWATERED SLUDGE )
© FIVE A X L E DUMP TRUCK
(fi) LAGOON PERIMETER
0 ADJACENT LAGOONS
FIGURE 15- 14
PLAN VIEW OF DRYING SLUDGE LAGOON NEAR

WEST- SOUTHWEST SEWAGE TREATMENT WORKS , CHICAGO
Once the drying sludge lagoons are filled , they are taken out of
service and preconditioned to provide an improved drainage
gradient. For this purpose , the sludge is excavated from the
-
area adjacent to the draw off box and the slope within the lagoon
is allowed to stabilize to the point at which the area remains
reasonably free of solids. Excavation is by pump with nearby
mixers and additional water , if necessary , to assure sludge
-
fluidity. Figure 15 15 illustrates a cross section of this
area after preconditioning is complete . When the sludge has
stabilized , the lagoon is left dormant through the following
winter and early spring . Trapped water and rainfall runoff are
-
drained by gravity to the draw off structure.
Once relatively dry weather returns , a slackline cable system is
utilized with a dragline crane to further condition the sludge.
The slackline system , which is shown on Figure 15 16 , is used to
improve the lagoon surface drainage and to scrape as much of the
-
dried crust as possible to the side of the lagoon. This system
provides the following four operational benefits:
Drier sludge is scraped to the side , where it can be

reached by portable dragline or clamshell and loaded onto
dump trucks.
Piling sludge along sides improves lagoon drainage

pattern and profile.
Removal of crust exposes wetter sludge to atmosphere for

optimum evaporation.
-
15 49
""s
<
Some of dried crust mixes with wetter material during

removal and increases the wet sludge solids content .
MONORAIL BEAM
WALKWAY
STEEL TRUSS
- MONORAIL HOIST
L4
COUNTERWEIGHT -n LJ
“ LJ DISCHARGE
HOSEV
\ PUMP &
DIKE LJ
LJ ^ MIXERS
LJ
H
SLUDGE
SEWER .* ... . ^
DRAW- OFF LAGOON BOTTOM
BOX
FIGURE 15- 15
CROSS SECTION OF DRAW- OFF BOX AREA DRYING

SLUDGE LAGOON NEAR WEST- SOUTHWEST SEWAGE
TREATMENT WORKS , CHICAGO
Figure 15 -16 shows the location of the equipment during lagoon

partial dewatering and removal operation .
CRESCENT
SCRAPER TAIL
CRANE
ANCHORAGE
( BULLDOZER }
CARRIER
LAGOON
K, SOLIDS
LAGOON BOTTOM
FIGURE 15- 16
CROSS SECTION OF DRYING SLUDGE LAGOON WITH

SLACKLINE CABLE NEAR WEST- SOUTHWEST
TREATMENT WORKS , CHICAGO
-
15 50
O n c e t h e s l u d g e c r u s t is s c r a p e d t o t h e s i d e o f t h e l a g o o n,
it is r e m o v e d b y p o r t a b l e d r a g l i n e o r c l a m s h e l l , l o a d e d o n t o
w a t e r t i g h t f i v e- a x l e d u m p t r u c k s , a n d delivered t o t h e g e n e r a l
p u b l i c f o r r e u s e. T h i s l a g o o n s l u d g e, a t its time o f delivery ,
usually has an average solids content of 30 to 35 percent by
weight. T r e e nurseries , s o d f a r m s , landfills , a n d s t r i p p e d l a n d
a r e a m o n g t h e m a j o r u s e r s o f t h i s material. I n 1 9 7 7, t h e M S D G C
d i s p o s e d o f 6 9 , 3 6 2 d r y t o n s ( 6 2,9 2 5 t ) o f d r y i n g l a g o o n s l u d g e a t
a n a v e r a g e c o s t o f $ 1 6 . 7 5 p e r d r y t o n ( $ 1 8 . 4 7/ t ). I n 1 9 7 8 ,
p r o d u c t i o n w a s e x p e c t e d t o e x c e e d 1 0 0,0 0 0 d r y t o n s ( 9 0, 7 0 0 t ) a t
a c o s t o f $ 1 7 . 7 6 p e r d r y t o n ( $ 1 9 . 5 8/t ). P r e c o n d i t i o n i n g c o s t s
a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y $ 3 . 0 0 p e r d r y t o n ( $ 3 . 3 1/t ) , which m a k e s t h e
c o s t f o r t h e w h o l e o p e r a t i o n a b o u t $ 2 1 . 0 0 p e r d r y t o n ( $ 2 3 . 1 5/t ).
P r e c o n d i t i o n i n g is a c c o m p l i s h e d by M S D G C m a n p o w e r a n d e q u i p m e n t,
a n d t h e s e r v i c e s o f t h e s l a c k l i n e , d r a g l i n e, a n d t r u c k s a r e
c o n t r a c t e d o u t. The overall operation requires little capital
i n v e s t m e n t, m i n i m a l l e a d t i m e, a n d l i m i t e d e f f o r t, N a t u r a l
p r o c e s s e s a r e o p t i m i z e d a n d o d o r s minimized , T h e l e v e l o f o d o r
involved h a s n o t b e e n q u a l i f i e d.
1 5 . 3.2 . 2 Confined H o p p e r s o r B i n s
A d e s i g n e r is o f t e n t e m p t e d t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e volumetric
r e d u c t i o n in material p r o v i d e d by t h e d e w a t e r i n g p r o c e s s a n d l a y
o u t h i s s l u d g e d i s p o s a l s y s t e m b a s e d o n s h o r t a n d l o n g- t e r m
s t o r a g e ( 3 w e e k s t o > 6 m o n t h s ) o f t h e d e w a t e r e d p r o d u c t. I f t h e
p r o d u c t i s t o o w e t ( < 3 0 p e r c e n t s o l i d s ), s e v e r a l p r o b l e m s
m a y a r i s e w i t h t h i s t y p e o f s t o r a g e. T h e s e p r o b l e m s i n c l u d e
c o n t i n u i n g d e c o m p o s i t i o n, l i q u e f a c t i o n, a n d concentration and
c o n s o l i d a t i o n. A l t h o u g h e a c h m a y h a v e its o w n r e s u l t, a l l t h r e e
p r o b l e m s a r e i n t e r r e l a t e d a n d combine t o limit t h e u s e o f t h i s
t y p e o f s t o r a g e t o e q u a l i z a t i o n s t o r a g e a n d t h e n o n l y if s p e c i a l
a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n t o c o n t r o l l i n g t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s. A b r i e f
d e s c r i p t i o n o f s o m e o f t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s i s g i v e n in t h e
f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s.
Continuing Decomposition
Unless it is stabilized to non-reactive levels ( < 50 percent
b y w e i g h t ), t h e b i o d e g r a d a b l e v o l a t i l e o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l o f
wastewater solids will continue to decompose if the moisture
c o n t e n t i s t o o h i g h ( s o l i d s c o n t e n t < 3 0 p e r c e n t ). This
d e c o m p o s i t i o n will r e d u c e o r g a n i c material a n d g e n e r a t e g a s e o u s
b y p r o d u c t s. D e p e n d i n g o n t h e s t a g e a n d sometimes t h e t y p e o f
s t a b i l i z a t i o n e m p l o y e d p r i o r t o d e w a t e r i n g, t h e m e t h o d o f
c o n d i t i o n i n g f o r d e w a t e r i n g , a n d t h e d e w a t e r i n g m e t h o d itself ,
g a s e o u s b y p r o d u c t s m a y o r m a y n o t b e o d o r o u s. F o r e x a m p l e, a
b i o d e g r a d a b l e v o l a t i l e c o n t e n t of <5 0 p e r c e n t w o u l d r e s u l t in
s t r o n g o d o r s ; a e r o b i c a l l y stabilized d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e w o u l d b e
more subject to strong odors than anaerobically stabilized
d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e ; p o l y m e r- conditioned d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e w o u l d b e
m o r e s u b j e c t - t o s t r o n g o d o r s t h a n l i m e a n d f e r r i c conditioned
dewatered s l u d g e; a n d c e n t r i f u g e d d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e w o u l d b e m o r e
s u b j e c t t o s t r o n g o d o r s t h a n v a c u u m f i l t e r e d d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e.
1 5- 5 1
Enclosed structures are often used in this type of storage to
-
assure odor free operation. Such structures may be extremely
hazardous if the designer fails to recognize the potentially
explosive nature of some of these gaseous byproducts and assure
that they are never mixed with air within the combustible
range. If such protection involves the replacement of the
displaced volume , it may become the limiting feature of the
storage structure's ability to manage the sludge.
One solution to this problem is to treat the volume above the

solids as part of the digester gas storage system. However , this
is only practical if the overall solids treatment system uses
anaerobic digestion for stabilization and the gas collection
system has sufficient capacity to fill the void created by
storage discharge within the required period of time . Major
problems of such a system are the sealing of sludge supply and
discharge and the assurance of accessibility for maintenance.
To eliminate the discharge and supply problems and assure
convenient access to the storage loading equipment , the enclosed
area of the storage structures should be sufficiently ventilated .
The area must be ventilated with about 20 to 30 air changes per
hour. Air movement should be felt by the operators who work in
the area. To assure ventilation of all areas, regardless of any
continuously or intermittently operating openings , both supply
and exhaust air should be managed by powered fans , All exhaust
air should pass through an odor removal system. The quantity
of exhaust ventilation air should be slightly greater than the
quantity of supply ventilation air to assure a negative pressure
within the area and minimize leakage that might bypass the odor
removal system. The atmosphere of enclosed areas should be
monitored with hydrocarbon detectors ( see Chapter 17 ) to provide
ample warning if the gas release begins to develop dangerous
mixtures of methane and air.
Liquefaction
When the reduction of putrescible organic material is carried out
-
within a confined structure used for short or long range storage
( three to four weeks to more than one month ), the liquefaction of
dewatered solids occurs. Liquefaction is negligible when the
storage is limited to equalization ( three to four days ) , The
designer must be aware of the effects of this liquefaction
and realize that as the liquid or moisture content of the
sludge increases , the difficulties of transport also increase.
An example of this liquefaction , in which no evaporation or
additional moisture is assumed to be added during storage , can be
seen in the following calculation:
Typical Liquefaction Calculation
Dewatered digested sludge ( polymer conditioner used )
Solids to be stored , dry wt , tons 1 , 000 (907 t )
-
15 52
Total solids ( TS) content, percent 20
Volatile solids , percent 65
Assumed reduction of VS during
6 months storage , percent 20
Water content of dewatered sludge , tons 5 ,000 ( 4 , 535 t )
VS , dry tons at start of storage
,
650 ( 590 t )
VS , dry tons at end of storage 520 ( 472 t )
Fixed solids , dry tons ( unchanged ) 350 ( 317 t )
TS , dry tons at end of storage 870 ( 789 t )
Total solids content at end of storage ,
perce nt 14.8
The example indicates how a reasonably dry , dewatered digested
sludge ( 20 percent solids ) can be liquefied to a fairly wet ,
digested sludge ( 14.8 percent solids) if the putrescible organic
material continues to be reduced , The speed of this reduction is
greatly affected by temperature and organic content in the
dewatered sludge. Thus , liquefaction will be a greater problem
in warm climates or during the hot summer seasons , If lime and
ferric chemicals are used to condition the digested sludge for
dewatering , liquefaction will be greatly reduced , both because
of the lower overall organic content of the material and the
inhibiting effects of the chemicals on the bacterial reduction of
the putrescible organic matter.
Concentration and Consolidation

The material handling properties of the dewatered sludge entering
the storage facilities often do not resemble those of the
material discharged from the same facility . The method of
controlling the discharge must be flexible enough to adapt to
these changes in properties at any time. A live bottom discharge
-
for variable positive control and back up isolating valves for
-
positive shut off if the live bottom equipment fails or the
material starts to run like water are mandatory when the volume
of storage greatly exceeds the volumetric capacity of the
transport system receiving the discharge , As long as the
storage structure's volume does not exceed the capacity of the
transport system receiving the discharge , and that transport
system is of the bulk handling type ( for example , truck , rail
-
car , or barge ) the discharge control can be a simple open close
valve . Water collecting , tracked , hopper valves with remote
motor or air cylinder operation can be used for this control.
Facilities whose storage volume exceeds the discharge transport
system capacity or whose transport system is of the continuous
rate type ( for example , conveyor belts , screw conveyors , and
-
15 53
pipelines ) m u s t be provided with a discharge s y s t e m capable of
infinite variability under all degrees of moisture content o r
concentration . S u c h s y s t e m s m u s t b e p r o v i d e d with r e m o t e
c o n t r o l s t h a t are c a p a b l e o f detecting overloads p r i o r t o
their overwhelming the transport system . The controls must be
capable of automatically closing the discharge control system' s
backup, o p e n- close isolating valve. Sonic level detectors and
capacitance p r o b e s can b e used for this function , Chapter 17
provides additional information on this type of level detection
instrumentation.
The use of polymers t o condition the sludge prior t o dewatering
can have a major effect o n its ability to be stored conveniently
in t h e d e w a t e r e d s t a t e. Hansen reports that high polymer
doses used experimentally ( testing a belt filter press ) at the
Los Angeles County plant created a dewatered sludge that was
quite viscous , This material tended t o act like glue and was
e x t r e m e l y difficult t o r e m o v e from c o n v e y o r s e s p e c i a l l y a t
t r a n s f e r p o i n t s and t h e head point a b o v e the h o p p e r s , The
m a t e r i a l c o u l d b e s t o r e d , b u t required a p o s i t i v e type o f
unloading s y s t e m a t t h e s t o r a g e discharge t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e
lumps were pushed o n t o the discharge conveyor.
W h e n exceptionally dry dewatered sludge ( g r e a t e r than 3 0 p e r c e n t

solids ) is s t o r e d , bridging c a n b e a v e r y difficult p r o b l e m .
N o n e of t h e facilities investigated had successfully solved this
problem . It is suggested that any large system which anticipates
storing dewatered sludge much d r y e r than 30 p e r c e n t solids set u p
a test facility t o develop a reliable system for overcoming this
difficulty.
Performance D a t a
Probably o n e of the most successful confined bin dewatered sludge

s t o r a g e facilities is located at the County Sanitation Districts
o f L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y Joint W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l Plant in
C a r s o n , California . T h e Joint W a t e r Pollution Control Plant
( JWPCP ) provides advanced primary wastewater treatment for about
350 MGD ( 15.3 m /s ) of w a s t e w a t e r . T h e JWPCP a l s o receives the
^
sludge from five tertiary treatment plants that employ activated
s l u d g e followed by multimedia filtration and h a v e a combined
capacity o f 1 2 0 M G D ( 5 . 2 m 3/ s ) , S l u d g e from a l l six p l a n t s
is t r e a t e d a t t h e J W P C P using t h e anaerobic stabilization
( d i g e s t i o n ), d e w a t e r i n g ( c e n t r i f u g a t i o n ), and c o m p o s t i n g
( windrow ) processes.
In June 1979 , Mischeri reported the centrifuges were producing

about 4 0 0 t o 600 wet tons ( 360 t o 540 t ) o f dewatered digested
sludge each day with a 25 percent a v e r a g e solids c o n t e n t. Twelve
s t o r a g e bins , each capable of holding 550 w e t tons ( 5 0 0 t ) o f
d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e , a r e provided t o e q u a l i z e 2 4 - h o u r - p e r - d a y
centrifuge production with 10-hour- per-day windrow construction.
T h e s t o r a g e b i n s a l s o provide t h e five - d a y s t o r a g e needed t o
.
assure continuous dewatering w h e n both the composting and backup
1 5- 5 4
sanitary f i l l disposal options are unavailable due to excessive
rainf all . The f a c i l i t i e s have been in service about three
years , and according t o Hansen , the maximum period of disposal
unavailability has not exceeded two days to date , although there
have been times when a l l twelve of the bins have been filled with
dewatered sludge . An i s o m e t r i c s k e t c h o f t h e JWPCP s t o r a g e and
t r u c k l o a d i n g s t a t i o n i s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 1 5-1 7 .
END OF CONVEYOR
AND TAKFufS OvFR
fcNL) SU'lKAGt yiNii
SURGE
SCHCW BINS
CONVEYOR
WEIGH
CAUSTIC; SODA
Ai SCFIUBBEHS
* ASSEMBLY
TRUCK
CONTROL
LOAD INii
ROOM
STATION
DISCHARGE STORAGE BLN

CONVEYORS DISCHARGE
CONTROL
SYSTEM
{ X Y P Uh 12:
FROM DEVIATERiNG STATIONS
FIGURE 15- 17
ISOMETRIC OF SLUDGE STORAGE AND TRUCK LOADING

STATION , JOINT WATER POLLUTION CONTROL PLANT ,
LOS ANCELES COUNTY , CALIFORNIA
The upper and end a r e a s of t h e JWPCP s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s a r e

completely enclosed with metal cladding and equipped with
positive supply and exhaust ventilation , The potentially most
odorous ventilation air i s passed through caustic wet scrubbers
prior to discharge to the atmosphere, T h e r e i s some i n d i c a t i o n
t h a t additional activated carbon scrubbing may be required t o
assure complete removal of a l l odors , Although the supply
and discharge areas of the storage buildings are continuously
monitored for explosive conditions , Hansen reports l i t t l e methane
g a s seems t o b e g e n e r a t e d a s l o n g a s t h e d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e s o l i d s
-
15 55
content is g r e a t e r than 18 p e r c e n t and the sludge is not left in
s t o r a g e more than a few d a y s , Bubbles , which can be observed in
the standing w a t e r on top of the stored sludge , attest to the
fact that decomposition is continuing in the bins.
Each storage bin is fabricated of steel , is 30 feet in diameter ,

and tapers at the bottom to a five-foot -square discharge. The
t a p e r is a t 3 0 d e g r e e s off the vertical. Hansen indicates this
t a p e r s e e m s t o eliminate b r i d g i n g , e x c e p t during the s t o r a g e
of e x t r e m e l y d r y ( g r e a t e r t h a n 3 0 p e r c e n t solids ) s l u d g e.
The five -foot -square ( 1.5-m square ) discharge is equipped with
five 1 2- inch ( 30.5 cm ) diameter continuous screw c o n v e y o r s
( live- bottom s y s t e m ) that can be operated in any combination or
number t o positively control the stored s l u d g e discharge t o the
d i s c h a r g e c o n v e y o r belt . N o r m a l o p e r a t i o n r e q u i r e s o n l y t h e
three middle screw conveyors to be in service. A cylinder- type
plug valve with five ten - inch ( 25.4 - cm ) long by e i g h t - inch
( 20.3 - c m ) wide o p e n i n g s h a s b e e n p r o v i d e d t o a s s u r e p o s i t i v e
isolation between the live - bottom s y s t e m and t h e d i s c h a r g e
conveyor. The plug valve is fabricated of 0.406 - inch ( 1.03 cm )
s t e e l wall , 1 2 - inch ( 3 0 . 5 cm ) O . D. s t e e l pipe , a p p r o x i m a t e l y
five feet ( 1.5 m ) long and is actuated by a pneumatic cylinder
that positively rotates the valve 90 degrees from a full open to
a tight shut -off position. An isolating bull g a t e that can be
hydraulically forced between the bottom of the s t o r a g e bin and
the top of the live - bottom assembly is also provided . It can be
used t o cut off sludge discharge should the live- bottom assembly
fail with a load in the hopper. It has been suggested that a
hydraulically operated g a t e valve or knife- gate valve could also
be used t o provide this isolation. An isometric view of this
discharge control system is shown on Figure 1 5-18.
Hansen reports the s t o r a g e facilities were built in 1973 at a

cost of $ 3 million. Sludge variability during start - u p created
several problems that have now been successfully solved ( 24 ).
Solutions included : simplifying the s u p p l y t o t h e s t o r a g e
tanks by equipping each with a plow and moving the end of the
s u p p l y belts over the end h o p p e r s ; providing the live - b o t t o m
discharge s y s t e m with a positive discharge isolation valve ; and
increasing the ventilation level in the s u p p l y and storage areas
t o achieve the " breeze " atmosphere n e c e s s a r y to satisfy operator
safety concerns.
15.3.2.3 Unconfined Stockpiles

Unconfined stockpiles are a major method of providing long -term
storage for dewatered sludge. This method is used primarily for
the storage of air-dried , anaerobic or aerobic stabilized sludge
at thousands of small plants across the country , Probably the
largest storage and weathering installation is operated by the
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago ( MSDGC ) at
their West -Southwest Sewage Treatment Works ( WSW - STW ). All of
the air-dried Imhoff sludge at WSW -STW is stored and aged up to
1 5 - 56
several years on between 50 and 100 acres ( 20 and 40 ha ) of
land and then made available for delivery t o the public as
" N u- E a r t h " ( 2 3 ) .
T h e a i r-d r i e d m a t e r i a l w e a t h e r s t o l e s s t h a n
50 percent moisture after one t o two years of aqing .
BULL GATE
HYDRAULIC
OPERATOR
/ LIVE BOTTOM
DRIVE ASSEMBLY
Live BOT
SYSTEM X
MAINTENANCE
TRACK
X
V N EMERGENCY
>
LIVE BOTTOM O V E R L O A D
COUPLING ' DISENGAGED
TO CONTROL NUMBER GF
SCREW CONVEYORS IN OPERATION
1 ft 0.305 rn
- -
1 in 2.5fl cin
1 ion - 0.SO7 1
CONVEYOR LOAD
MONITORING
PHOBFS
FIGURE 15- 18
STORAGE BIN DISCHARGE CONTROL SYSTEM , JOINT

WATER POLLUTION CONTROL PLANT , LOS ANGELES
COUNTY , CALIFORNIA
Unconfined stockpiles of mechanically dewatered stabilized

sludge , which has less than 25 percent solids , usually are
destroyed ( loose a l l semblance of s t a b i l i t y ) when exposed t o
extensive rainfall .
While i t is possible to maintain such a
s t o c k p i l e f o r e q u a l i z i n g o r s h o r t- t e r m s t o r a g e , e s p e c i a l l y i n
very dry climates like the southwest, long term storage i s -
.
usually quite impossible Stabilized sludges with a high chemical
c o n t e n t ( g r e a t e r t h a n 4 0 p e r c e n t l i m e p l u s some f e r r i c ) o r a v e r y
low organic content ( less than 50 percent volatile solids )
sometimes prove to be exceptions Highly stabilized lagooned.
15- 57
sludges can also be one of these exceptions , Such open
stockpiles usually quickly absorb atmospheric moisture and
r a p i d l y d e t e r i o r a t e in c l i m a t e s w i t h i n t e n s e o r f r e q u e n t
rainfall.
C o v e r e d s t o c k p i l e s a r e o f t e n u s e d in those a r e a s w h e r e rainfall
i s intense o r f r e q u e n t t o a s s u r e the d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e integrity
d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f e q u a l i z i n g s t o r a g e, Such stockpiling is
usually limited because of the expense of developing covered
areas o f sufficient size t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e s t o r a g e area a n d
e q u i p m e n t a c c e s s i b i l i t y. T h e N o r t h S h o r e S a n i t a r y District
( N S S D ) ( 2 5 ), n o r t h o f C h i c a g o, I l l i n o i s , d i s p o s e s o f t h e i r
a n a e r o b i c a l l y s t a b i l i z e d ( d i g e s t e d ) d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e in d e e p
t r e n c h e s o n a 3 0 0 a c r e ( 1 2 1 h a ) s i t e. D u r i n g 1 0 t o 2 0 d a y s
p e r y e a r , t h e N S S D d i s p o s a l o p e r a t i o n is a b a n d o n e d d u e t o w e t
conditions , a n d t h e d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e i s s t o r e d i n a c o v e r e d and
enclosed building for d i s p o s a l within a few d a y s. T h e building
is enclosed to maintain odor control, The District also
f r e q u e n t l y l i b e r a l l y s p r i n k l e s the d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e w i t h l i m e
d u r i n g t r a n s p o r t a n d s t o r a g e t o m a i n t a i n o d o r c o n t r o l.
Unfortunately, no quantitative work has been published regarding

t h e o d o r risk o f s t o c k p i l i n g d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e. Drying l a g o o n s,
like those o p e r a t e d a t S a n J o s e, California, d o c r e a t e m a l o d o r o u s
conditions in surrounding urban areas during or immediately
a f t e r b e i n g w e t t e d b y rainfall. W o r k i n S a c r a m e n t o, California,
however, indicates that odors are generated cumulatively in
direct r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the a r e a covered b y t h e o d o r producing
s l u d g e ( 1 ). Good housekeeping around such stockpiles is
m a n d a t o r y t o assure p r o p e r r o d e n t c o n t r o l.
15.4 References
1. S a c r a m e n t o A r e a C o n s u l t a n t s. Sewage Sludge Management

Program Final Report , V o l u m e 4 , S S B s a n d O d o r s , 1 9 7 8.
S a c r a m e n t o R e g i o n a l C o u n t y Sanitation District . S a c r a m e n t o,
California 9 5 8 1 4. S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 9.
2. San Francisco Bay Region Wastewater Solids Study ,
S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y R e g i o n S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t P l a n. V o l u m e V ,
S a n J o s e /S a n t a C l a r a P r o j e c t a n d E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t
R e p o r t. P 2 - 4. O a k l a n d , California 9 4 6 2 0. D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 8.
-
3. U S E P A. Communication t o J .B. F a r r e l l, Ultimate D i s p o s a l
S e c t i o n t o O f f i c e o f S o l i d s W a s t e. B e s t M a n a g e m e n t
Technology Definitions for ( a ) Sludge Stabilization and
( b ) A d d i t i o n a l P a t h o g e n R e d u c i n g P r o c e s s e s. M E R L E.
Cincinnati, O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. N o v e m b e r 1 9 7 8.
4. M e t c a l f a n d E d d y , I n c. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment
D i s p o s a l , R e u s e - S e c o n d E d i t i o n. M c G r a w- Hill B o o k C o m p a n y.
P 3 2 2 a n d 3 5 3. 1 9 7 9.
-
1 5- 5 8
5 . Water Pollution Control Federation Manual of Practice .
No .
8 , Wastewater Plant Design WPCA W a s h i n g t o n , D C . . .
P - 57 . 1977 .
6. USEPA .
MERL P u b l i c a t i o n S e r i e s Evaluation of Flow .
Equalization in Municipal Wastewater Treatment Cincinnati, .
Ohio, 45268 .
E P A-6 0 0 / 2-7 9- 0 9 6 May 1979 . .
7 . USEPA .
Technology Transfer Upgrading Existing Wastewater
Treatment Plants .
USEPA C i n c i n n a t i , Ohio 45268 October .
1974 .
8. Berk , W L . .
The Design , Construction and Operation of the
Oxidation Ditch .
R A D- 2 1 1 , L a k e s i d e E q u i p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n ,
.
1022 E Devon Avenue, B a r t l e t t , I l l i n o i s 60103 .
9 . Dick , R I • 9 E L . . .
Thakston , and W W Eckenfelder , J r • 9 Ed . . .
Water Q u a l i t y E n g i n e e r i n g New Concepts and Developments .
J e n k i n s P u b l i s h i n g Co , A u s t i n and New York .
1972 . .
10 . Keinath , T M , M D .
Ryckman , C H . .
Dana , J r , D A Hofer . . . . . .
Design and Operational Criteria for Thickening of Biological
Sludges, Parts I , I I , I I I , IV Water Resources Research .
Institute , Clemson University September 1976 . .
11 . Tucker , D L • 9 N D Vivado . . .
"Design of an Overland Flow .
System a t Newman , C a l i f o r n i a " P r o c e e d s o f t h e 5 1s t A n n u a l .
Water Pollution Control Federation Conference Anaheim , .
California . October 1978 .
12 . Liptak , B G • / Ed .
Environmental Engineers . Handbook ,
Volume I Water Pollution
Radnor , Pennsylvania 1974
Chilton Book Comany
.
.
.
. P 807
- .
13 . State of California Water Resources Control Board Final .
R e p o r t-P h a s e I , R u r a l W a s t e w a t e r D i s p o s a l A l t e r n a t i v e s .
Sacramento, California P 12 September 1977 . - . .
14 . USEPA . Upgrading Lagoons . Technology Transfer Seminar
Publication Cincinnati, . Ohio 45268 .
E P A - 6 2 6 / 4 - 7 3- 0 0 1 6 .
Revised June 1977 .
15 . Sacramento Area Consultants Sewage Sludge Management .
Program Final Report , Volume 7, Environmental Impact Report
and Advanced Site Planning Sacramento Regional County .
Sanitation District Sacramento , California 95814 . .
September 1979 .
16 . Brown and Caldwell .
Joint Regional Wastewater and Solids
Treatment Facility Project Design Report M o u l t o n -M i g u e l .
W a t e r D i s t r i c t -A l i s o W a t e r M a n a g e m e n t A g e n c y March 1978 . .
17 . Sacramento Area Consultants Sewage Sludge Management .
Program F i n a l Report , Volume 2 , SSB Operation and
Performance .
Sacramento Regional County Sanitation
District .
Sacramento, California 95814 September 1979 . .
1 5- 5 9
1 8. S a c r a m e n t o A r e a C o n s u l t a n t s. Study of Wastewater Solids
P r o c e s s i n g a n d D i s p o s a l , A p p e n d i x C. Sacramento Regional
C o u n t y Sanitation District . S a c r a m e n t o, California 9 5 8 1 4.
J u n e 1 9 7 5.
1 9. S a c r a m e n t o A r e a C o n s u l t a n t s. Innovative a n d Alternative
Technology Documentation Sacramento Regional Wastewater
T r e a t m e n t P l a n t - S o l i d s P r o j e c t. Sacramento Regional
C o u n t y Sanitation District . S a c r a m e n t o, California 9 5 8 1 4.
A p r i l 1 9 7 9.
20 . H a w k , H.C. E d . B u l k Materials H a n d l i n g . _
University of
P i t s b u r g , S c h o o l o f E n g i n e e r i n g. P i t t s b u r g , P e n n s y l v a n i a.
1 9 7 1.
21 . National Lime Association. Lime H a n d l i n g A p p l i c a t i o n a n d

S t o r a g e in T r e a t m e n t P r o c e s s e s, Bulletin 2 1 3. Washington,
D.C. S e c o n d Edition. 1 9 7 1 .
22. V e s i 1 i n d , P . A. T r e a t m e n t and D i s p o s a l of Wastewater

S l u d g e s. A n n- A r b o r S c i e n c e Publishers, I n c. Ann Arbor,
M i c h i g a n. 1 9 7 4.
2 3. Rimkus, R. R • / J.M. Ryan, R.W. Dring . "A New Approach to

D e w a t e r i n g a n d D i s p o s a l o f L a g o o n e d D i g e s t e d S l u d g e."
P r o c e e d s o f t h e A n n u a l C o n v e n t i o n, A S C E, C h i c a g o, I l l i n o i s.
O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
24. B . E. H a n s e n , D. L . S m i t h , W.E . G a r r i s o n. " S t a r t -U p

P r o b l e m s o f S l u d g e D e w a t e r i n g F a c i l i t y." Proceeds of the
5 1 s t A n n u a l W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Federation C o n f e r e n c e ,
A n a h e i m , California. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
2 5. L u k a s i k , G.D., J . W. C o r m a c k. D e v e l o p m e n t a n d O p e r a t i o n o f
a S a n i t a r y L a n d f i l l f o r S l u d g e Disposal - North Shore
S a n i t a r y D i s t r i c t. N o r t h S h o r e S a n i t a r y District. 1 9 7 6.
1 5-6 0
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chater 16. Sidestreams from Solids Treatment

Processes


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 16
S I D E S T R E A M S FROM S O L I D S
TREATMENT PROCESSES
Sidestreams are a major reason why solids treatment and disposal

facilities often become t r o u b l e s p o t s at wastewater t r e a t m e n t
p l a n t s. Failure to account for these sludge processing liquors
in t h e w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t d e s i g n can result in overloading o f
the treatment facility , It has been conventional practice to
r e t u r n s l u d g e sidestreams t o t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t at a convenient
point , usually at the headworks, with no pretreatment and with
little concern f o r its p o l l u t a n t loadings , T h e s e sidestreams can
increase the o r g a n i c loading b y 5 t o 5 0 p e r c e n t , depending on t h e
t y p e a n d number o f solids t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s u s e d .
The major objectives of this c h a p t e r are to describe t h e

sidestreams produced by sludge treatment processes, factors that
affect sidestream quality , and options available to designers in
managing the sidestreams. Information on the pollutant loads of
the sidestream produced by a particular process is presented in
the chapter dealing with that process.
16.1 Sidestream Production

Sidestreams are produced when wastewater solids are concentrated ,
and when water , usually plant effluent , is used to remove odors
or particulate matter from flue gases , or to wash and transport
debris from structures and equipment. Some sidestreams require
special attention because of their impact o n a w a s t e w a t e r
treatment plant ' s efficiency.
U s u a l l y several sidestreams are produced at a particular p l a n t.
Figure 1 6 - 1 is a flow diagram showing eight w a s t e w a t e r solids
s i d e s t r e a m s: ( 1 ) s c r e e n i n g s c e n t r a t e, ( 2 ) g r i t s e p a r a t o r
o v e r f l o w , ( 3 ) g r a v i t y thickener s u p e r n a t a n t , ( 4 ) dissolved air
flotation subnatant , ( 5 ) decantate following heat treatment ,
( 6 ) v a c u u m filter filtrate and washwater , ( 7 ) s c r u b b e r water from
furnace flue g a s c l e a n u p, and ( 8 ) overflow f r o m biological o d o r
removal s y s t e m.
This chapter devotes special attention to the most pronounced
e x a m p l e s of t h e p r o b i e m — anaerobic d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t a n d
thermal conditioning liquor. F o r additional information o n
p r o d u c t i o n a n d t r e a t m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s s idestreams ,
s e v e r a l p u b l i c a t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e. Municipal W a s t e w a t e r
Treatment Plant Sludge and Liquid Sidestreams deals with side -
s t r e a m s from several solids handling and treatment p r o c e s s e s ( 1 ).
16 -1
Effects of Thermal Treatment of Sludge on Municipal Wastewater
Treatme nt Costs describes the increased wastewater treatment
capacity required by use of thermal conditioning ( 2) .
iMASTE WATER
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FIGURE 16- 1
EXAMPLE OF SIDESTREAM PRODUCTION
16.2 Sidestream Quality and Potential Problems
The interrelationship between a wastewater treatment plant ' s

effluent quality requirements and the processes used for solids
treatment and disposal must be carefully scrutinized during
planning and design to avoid problems caused by sidestreams .
Generally, more sophisticated wastewater treatment plants produce
g r e a t e r q u a n t i t i e s o f m o r e d i f f i c u l t- t o m a n a g e b i o l o g i c a l a n d -
chemical sludges, When processed , t h e s e sludges may i n d i r e c t l y
cause the production of sidestreams containing large quantities
of soluble and colloidal materials including nutrients .
Sidestream quality from a specific process is strongly affected
by upstream solids handling processes, Vacuum f i l t e r f i l t r a t e
and washwater quality , for example, are determined by the
upstream conditioning or stabilization process .
1 6-2
Sidestreams s h o u l d b e r e t u r n e d t o p o i n t s i n t h e w a s t e w a t e r
t r e a t m e n t process w h i c h will r e s u l t in t r e a t m e n t of t h e s i d e-
stream and prevent nuisances and operational problems. The
r e t u r n points s h o w n o n F i g u r e 1 6-1 c o m p l y with this requirement.
Runoff from sludge composting areas and leachate from sludge
l a n d f i l l i n g a r e a s m a y p o s e a u n i q u e p r o b l e m , s i n c e it m a y b e
d i f f i c u l t a n d c o s t l y t o r e t u r n t h e m t o t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t if
t h e l a n d f i l l o r c o m p o s t i n g s i t e is r e m o t e f r o m t h e t r e a t m e n t
facility. Chian and DeWalle extensively investigated the
c o m p o s i t i o n and t r e a t m e n t o f s a n i t a r y l a n d f i l l l e a c h a t e ,
i n c l u d i n g anaerobic biological filtration , chemical precipita-
t i o n , chemical oxidation, a n d activated c a r b o n t r e a t m e n t ( 3 ) .
D a t a a r e a l s o a v a i l a b l e o n g r o u n d w a t e r monitoring n e a r s e w a g e
s l u d g e o r combined solid w a s t e s e w a g e s l u d g e landfills ( 4 , 5 ,6 ) .
I n a d d i t i o n , U S E P A' s P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l , M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e
Landfills , discusses m e t h o d s o f handling leachate ( 7 ). I n d r y
climates , leachate c a n o f t e n b e r e c y c l e d t o t h e landfill site.
At Beltsville, Maryland , runoff from a composting site is stored
in a pond and periodically sprayed on a forest floor. Monitoring
wells have been installed , and no groundwater contamination has
been detected . At Durham , New Hampshire , and Bangor , Maine ,
runoff is recycled back to the treatment works without pretreat-
ment . At Sacramento, California, runoff has been returned from
a dedicated land disposal site to the plant headworks and has
been monitored for several parameters ( 8 ). It was found that
runoff is polluted with constituents, particularly the first
runoff following the spreading of sludge. The concentrations of
insoluble constituents such as heavy metals , however, were
low .
16.3 General Approaches to Sidestream Problems
Several general approaches to preventing or solving problems that

may result from sidestreams can be identified :
Modification of solids t r e a t m e n t and disposal systems

to eliminate particular sidestreams.
Modification of previous solids processing steps to
improve sidestream quality from a particular solids
treatment process.
Changing the timing , return rate, or return point for
reintroducing sidestreams into the wastewater treatment
process.
Modification of wastewater treatment facilities to
accommodate sidestream loadings.
Provision of separate sidestream treatment prior to
return.
Potential applications for each of these are described .
1 6- 3
1 6 . 3.1 Elimination of Sidestream
Although n o t generally practical , specific situations arise in
which it is possible t o modify the solids treatment and disposal
s y s t e m and eliminate a troublesome sidestream. A particular case
involves anaerobic digester s u p e r n a t a n t , which h a s often been
identified a s a source of p r o b l e m s when a mixture o f primary and
w a s t e- activated s l u d g e s is d i g e s t e d , Mignone h a s pointed o u t
that w h e r e mechanical dewatering follows anaerobic digestion , it
would be beneficial t o eliminate the s e c o n d a r y ( unmixed ) digester
by converting it t o a primary mode ( 9 ,1 0 ,1 1 ). There would be no
variable s u p e r n a t a n t s t r e a m , o n l y a p r e d i c t a b l e f i l t r a t e o r
centrate stream of low solids c o n t e n t which would be amenable t o
b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t.
16.3.2 Modification of Upstream

Solids Processing S t e p s
Thickening of s l u d g e p r i o r t o anaerobic digestion b y t h e use of
gravity , flotation , o r centrifugal thickeners can improve the
quality and reduce t h e quantity of digester s u p e r n a t a n t ( 12 ).
Residence time in t h e d i g e s t e r s is increased and /o r s m a l l e r
digesters can be constructed . Liquor t h a t would otherwise be
p r o d u c e d b y the s e c o n d a r y digester as s u p e r n a t a n t is p r o d u c e d
instead in t h e t h i c k e n i n g s t e p. I t s q u a l i t y will b e b e t t e r , and
it w i l l h a v e a l e s s e r i m p a c t w h e n r e t u r n e d t o t h e w a s t e w a t e r
t r e a t m e n t facility.
Other digester operating p a r a m e t e r s such as organic loading and
t e m p e r a t u r e a l s o a f f e c t s u p e r n a t a n t q u a l i t y . An i n c r e a s e in
o r g a n i c l o a d i n g will g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t in p o o r e r s u p e r n a t a n t
q u a l i t y ( 1 3 ). Thermophilic digestion produces p o o r e r s u p e r n a t a n t
quality than mesophilic digestion.
Substitution of an equivalent solids treatment process for
a n o t h e r m a y a l s o r e d u c e sidestream p r o b l e m s. F o r e x a m p l e,
substitution of chemical conditioning for elutriation or heat
treatment can reduce t h e level o f contaminants in sidestreams
from s u b s e q u e n t dewatering s t e p s.
T h e high colloidal c o n t e n t o f elutriate has been successfully
r e d u c e d in s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s b y a d d i t i o n o f c h e m i c a l s ,
particularly polymer , t o the elutriation process. I n 1973 the
s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m at the District o f Columbia' s Blue Plains
-
plant ( a 253- M G D [ 11.1 mVsec] facility ) consisted o f gravity
t h i c k e n i n g , s i n g l e - s t a g e anaerobic d i g e s t i o n , e l u t r i a t i o n o f
d i g e s t e d s l u d g e , chemical s l u d g e c o n d i t i o n i n g , and v a c u u m filtra -
t i o n. Large quantities of fines and activated sludge solids
were r e c y c l e d with the elutriate , and the primary clarifiers and
aeration process could not accommodate t h e m. Solids accumulated
in the plant ; u p s e t s occurred in both the wastewater and s l u d g e
t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s ; a n d it b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y t o t e m p o r a r i l y
discharge elutriate directly t o the plant effluent. E v e n t u a l l y ,
addition of p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e t o t h e elutriation p r o c e s s , c o u p l e d
1 6- 4
with intensive e f f o r t on t h e p a r t o f p l a n t s t a f f t o i m p r o v e
e l u t r i a t i o n a n d v a c u u m f i l t r a t i o n p e r f o r m a n c e , r e s u l t e d in a
9 0 p e r c e n t solids c a p t u r e t h r o u g h the t w o p r o c e s s e s.
The Metropolitan Toronto main p l a n t and the Richmond , California ,
facility experienced the same r e s u l t s as t h e B l u e Plains p l a n t.
An e x a m p l e o f successful use of p o l y m e r t o improve elutriation is
shown in T a b l e 16 — 1 ( 1 4 ).
TABLE 16- 1
EFFECT OF POLYMER ON ELUTRIATION ( 14 )
Before After
polymer polymer
Parameter use use
Elutriate suspended
solids , mg/1 3 , 385 365
Solids capture , percent'
65.1 95.3
Underflow solids con-
centration , percent 3.5 4.3
1 6 . 3.3 Change in Timing , Return Rate,

o r R e t u r n Point
Sidestreams are n o r m a l l y r e t u r n e d t o the w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
facilities a t t h e p l a n t h e a d w o r k s. In g e n e r a l , r e t u r n o f
sidestreams t o p l a n t headworks should b e at a l o w , s t e a d y r a t e
rather than in slugs , since these are likely to cause u p s e t s and
o v e r l o a d s. In i n s t a n c e s w h e r e t h e r e a r e high d i u r n a l l o a d
fluctuations and t h e p l a n t is approaching capacity , consideration
should be given t o returning sidestreams during o f f - p e a k h o u r s,
thus equalizing wastewater loadings. A d v e r s e effects o n primary
t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s , s u c h a s s e p t i c i t y, o d o r s, a n d f l o a t i n g
sludge can be avoided b y returning sidestreams t o the biological
treatment process influent , Alternatively , mixing s u p e r n a t a n t
with w a s t e- activated sludge before returning it t o t h e headworks
m a y a l s o aid in r e d u c i n g o d o r s because o f t h e a d s o r p t i v e n a t u r e
o f t h e activated s l u d g e particles.
1 6 . 3.4 Modification of W a s t e w a t e r
Treatment Facilities
Liquid t r e a t m e n t facilities should be designed with the capacity
t o t r e a t r e c y c l e d s i d e s t r e a m s w h e n e v e r t h e s i d e s t r e a m will
contain significant concentrations of pollutants o r h a v e a l a r g e
h y d r a u l i c impact , T a b l e 16 - 2 shows an e x a m p l e o f the effect o f
s u p e r n a t a n t r e t u r n o n s u s p e n d e d solids and p h o s p h o r u s loadings at
1 6- 5
-
an activated sludge plant using two stage anaerobic digestion
( 15 ). -
Table 16 3 shows estimated increases in BOD 5 treatment
capacity required by sidestreams from several sludge treatment
processes ( 16 ).
TABLE 16- 2
EFFECT OF SUPERNATANT RETURN ( 15 )
Suspended solids , lb/day Phosphorus , lb/day

Wi th Without With Without
supernatant supernatant supernatant supernatant
Point of measurement return9 return return3 return
Raw wastewater 10 ,520 16 ,035 756 857
To primary clarifiers 36 ,801 15,969 1,304 914
To secondary clarifiers 15 , 306 9 ,501 991 803
Final effluent 3 ,467 2 ,836 435 500
Primary sludge 19 ,626 13 ,249 299 156
Waste activated sludge 14 ,645 9 , 593 453 287
aReturned ahead of primary clarifiers.
The Central Contra Costa Sanitary District Water Reclamation

Plant, an advanced waste treatment facility , removes
-
nutrients through chemical primary treatment and nitrification -
denitrification. Recycled sidestreams were taken into account in
plant design by allowing for additional loads of 1 2 percent for
BOD 5 and 21 percent for suspended solids , Recycled streams
include gravity thickener overflow , centrate from a two stage
dewatering centrifuge , and drainwater from a wet scrubber.
-
Sidestreams may contain compounds that are difficult to remove
in wastewater treatment facilities , For example , the nonbio
degradable COD in heat treatment liquor will pass through normal
-
secondary treatment unchanged . Digester and sludge lagoon
supernatant may contain high concentrations of nutrients, In
some instances separate treatment may be appropriate . The
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago has conducted
several investigations involving nitrification and nitrogen
removal from sludge lagoon supernatant , using both attached
growth and suspended growth biological processes ( 17 ,18 ,19 ).
In evaluating solids treatment and disposal processes , both the

direct costs of the solids treatment and disposal systems and the
indirect costs associated w i t h return of sidestreams to the
wastewater treatment facilities should be included in the cost-
effectiveness analysis , The cost of handling the increased
sidestream flows may or may not be negligible , but capital and
operating expenses will surely increase as a result of the BOD5
and suspended solids load of the returned stream. Major
-
16 6
components of such indirect costs include increased aeration tank
size and blower capacity ( for diffused air - activated sludge
systems ), increased sludge treatment capacity, increased power
requirements for blowers, and increased labor for operating and
maintaining more heavily loaded secondary treatment facilities.
Additional costs will also be incurred if odor control facilities
are required .
TABLE 16- 3
ESTIMATED INCREASE IN WASTEWATER STREAM

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT CAPACITY REQUIRED TO
HANDLE SIDESTREAMS FROM VARIOUS SOLIDS
TREATMENT PROCESSES ( 16 )
Required capacity
Treatment process increase , percent
Liquid sludge to land 0
Raw sludge to drying beds 7
Chemical conditioning and 6 - 11
filter pressing
Rotoplug dewaterer 10 - 30
Digestion and drying beds 0.6

Digestion , chemical con- 5
ditioning , and filter
pressing
Digestion , chemical con- 4
ditioning , and vacuum
filtration
Heat treatment of raw 30

sludge
Heat treatment of di - 7
gested sludge
Indirect solids treatment costs for handling sidestreams will

vary significantly , The indirect costs associated with heat
treatment have been estimated as 20 percent of the direct thermal
treatment costs , A report has been prepared describing the
effects of sludge heat treatment on overall wastewater treatment
costs ( 2 ).
.
16.3 5 Separate Treatment of Sidestreams
Most sidestreams from properly operating solids treatment and

disposal systems can be recycled to the wastewater treatment
facilities without significant problems. In many cases two-stage ,
anaerobic digester supernatant return to the wastewater treatment
16 - 7
facilities c a u s e s operating difficulties. H e a t treatment is less
widely used , b u t it results in c o n v e r s i o n o f some o f t h e C O D t o
the soluble form, F u r t h e r m o r e, a p o r t i o n o f t h e C O D c a n b e
nonbiodegradable.
1 6 . 3 .5 . 1 Anaerobic Digester S u p e r n a t a n t
In m o s t cases, B O D 5 a n d s u s p e n d e d solids are o f c o n c e r n , a l t h o u g h

u n d e r certain circumstances, nitrogen and p h o s p h o r u s removal m a y
a l s o b e desirable. Anaerobic digester s u p e r n a t a n t characteris-
tics a r e summarized in C h a p t e r 6 , and typical values a r e given a s
a p a r t o f t h e e x a m p l e on F i g u r e 1 6 - 2. T a b l e 1 6- 4 lists p o s s i b l e
t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s f o r e a c h m a j o r constituent ( 2 0 ). Chemical
t r e a t m e n t of d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t h a s b e e n studied f o r many years
( 21 , 2 2 , 23 ). Rudolfs and G e h m studied coagulation using ferric
chloride, lime , caustic soda , sulfuric acid , chlorine , bentonite
clay , a n d zeolite ( 2 1 ). I t w a s found t h a t a lime/ferric chloride
combination g a v e the b e s t results and 1 5 0 m g/1 ferric chloride
and 1 , 2 0 0 m g/1 lime r e d u c e d turbidity f r o m 4 2 0 t o 1 1 0 units.
T h e c a r b o n dioxide in digester s u p e r n a t a n t will r e a c t with t h e

lime t o form calcium carbonate precipitate, Lime requirements
and the quantity of lime sludge produced can be reduced
significantly by first air stripping carbon dioxide from the
s u p e r n a t a n t. This m a y also release o d o r s , a n d f o r this reason,
its u s e should be a p p r o a c h e d with caution , B e c a u s e lime raises
the pH of the supernatant and under high pH conditions the
ammonia molecule tends t o be in the nondissociated form, ammonia
stripping c a n be affected a f t e r coagulation. T h e relatively high
t e m p e r a t u r e of d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t a l s o aids ammonia stripping
f o r t h e s a m e reason.
F i g u r e 1 6-2 s h o w s a p o s s i b l e t r e a t m e n t s c h e m e f o r d i g e s t e r
s u p e r n a t a n t based principally o n chemical coagulation ( 20 ). Also
shown are probable removals and common influent and expected
effluent concentrations. S t r a i g h t aeration o f digester s u p e r-
n a t a n t a t p l a n t s c a l e h a s a l s o b e e n a t t e m p t e d ( 1 2 , 2 4 , 2 5 ).
E v e n w h e r e t h e s u p e r n a t a n t a f t e r aeration w a s n o t s e t t l e d prior
t o r e t u r n and n o discernible improvement in quality resulted , it
w a s f o u n d t h a t w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t operation improved , probably
a s a r e s u l t of b e t t e r settling in t h e primary clarifiers.
Biological filters , either aerobic o r anaerobic , appear t o be

feasible m e t h o d s o f biologically treating digester s u p e r n a t a n t.
T h e G r e a t e r L o n d o n Council studied aerobic biofilter t r e a t m e n t o f
s u p e r n a t a n t l i q u o r using c o k e a s t h e filter medium ( 26 ). At a
1 :1 d i l u t i o n w i t h c l a r i f i e d p l a n t e f f l u e n t , 8 5 t o 9 0 p e r c e n t
B O D 5 r e m o v a l and 6 0 p e r c e n t ammonia r e m o v a l w e r e obtained .
H o w e s u g g e s t e d s t o r a g e of d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t in l a g o o n s
for long periods to reduce contaminant levels ( 2 2). In one
e x p e r i m e n t , a detention time of 6 0 d a y s reduced B O D5 , s u s p e n d e d
solids , c o l o r , a n d ammonia by a b o u t 8 5 p e r c e n t ; h y d r o g e n sulfide
1 6-8
was reduced by approximately 95 percent . Facultative sludge
lagoons designed f o r l o n g- t e r m s t o r a g e h a v e b e e n f o u n d t o r e d u c e
levels of a l l contaminants except ammonia : ( see Chapter 15 ) .
SUPERNATANT
BOD5 = 7,600
SS * 5,000
ORG.N = 400
i P = 150
NH 3 600
002 = 1,000
REDUCTIONS
C O2 S T R I P P I N G -
95 98 PERCENT C02
LIME/
FERRIC CHLORIDE
-
70 85 PERCENT
80- 90 PERCENT
BOD5
SS
COAGULATION -
65 70 PERCENT 0 RG,N
PLUS SETTLING -
86 95 PERCENT P
AMMONIA
STRIPPING -
05 90 PERCENT NH3
TREATED
!. SUPERNATANT
BOD5 1,750 mg/1

SS = 760
.
ORG N = ISO
P » 15
NH3 = 75
CO2 = 50 -
FIGURE 16- 2
POSSIBLE TREATMENT SCHEME

FOR ANAEROBIC DIGESTER SUPERNATANT ( 20 )
1 6- 9
TABLE 16- 4
POSSIBLE DIGESTER SUPERNATANT

TREATMENT PROCESSES (20 )
Constituent Processes
Suspended Coagulation , settling ,
solids microstraining
BOD 5 Removal with suspended
’
solids , stripping of
volatile acids , bio -
logical .treatment , ad -
sorption on activated
carbon
Phosphorus Removal with suspended

solids , chemical pre-
cipitation , ion exchange
Nitrogen Removal with suspended
solids ( limited ) ,
ammonia stripping, ion
exchange
CO Lime addition , air strip -

2
ping
The chlorine stabilization process ( see Chapter 6 ) has also been

used to treat digester supernatant before it is returned to the
treatment plant ( Table 16 - 5 ) . Low chlorine doses ( 100 to
300 mg / 1 ) have little effect on BOD 5 and COD levels , but
according to the manufacturer, they may be used to reduce odors
and improve treatability of the supernatant. Very high dosages
( 1 , 500 to 2 , 000 mg / 1 ) are required to appreciably reduce the
levels of oxygen demanding materials in the supernatant liquor.
16.3.5.2 Thermal Conditioning Liquor
Heat treated sludge liquor , which is received as decantate

and filtrate or centrate , contains high levels of soluble
pollutants and a significant fraction of nonbiodegradable COD.
The color level of the liquor may dlso be high , affecting
the color of the final effluent ( 27 ). Furthermore, chlorination
of effluent containing recycled heat treatment liquor may cause
taste and odor problems if the receiving stream is used for
drinking water supply ( 28 ).
Loll has cited average BOD5 loading increases of 7 to 15 percent
and COD increases of 10 to 20 percent at wastewater facilities
recycling untreated liquor ( 29 ) . Recycle of heat treatment
16-10
liquor a t C o l o r a d o Springs , C o l o r a d o, caused t h e B O D5 loading
t o be increased b y 20 p e r c e n t a n d t h e s u s p e n d e d solids l o a d b y
3 0 p e r c e n t ( 2 7 ).
TABLE 16- 5
CHLORINE TREATMENT OF DIGESTER SUPERNATANT
Value3
Supernatant treated at indicated
chlorine dose , mg/1
Untreated
Parameter supernatant 500 1, 500 1,800 1,900 2,000
Suspended solids ,
percent 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.7 2.0
Chlorine residual, mg/1 0 0 0 10 80 190
pH 6.8 5.8 5.5 4.8 4.4 2.7
Specific conductance ,
micromhos 1,950 2 , 750 2 , 380 2,500 2 ,600 4 ,500
Alkalinity , mg/1 1 , 100 170 83 60 32 0
BOD5, mg/1 2 ,600 2 ,600 2,600 2 , 200 2 ,000 1,500
COD, mg/1 43 ,900 43 ,100 40 ,800 32 ,000 31,200 20,200
Total nitrogen , mg/1 2 , 100 2 , 200 1,900 1 ,600 1,400 1 , 100
Total phosphate
phosphorus , mg/1 510 430 440 400 380 260
aBased on results obtained with Purifax laboratory unit.
T r i c k l i n g f i l t e r s , t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s, a n a e r o b i c
biological filtration, a n d aerobic digestion h a v e b e e n u s e d t o
t r e a t t h e liquor. T o r e d u c e t h e nonbiodegradable C O D, activated
carbon has been used. Ozonation or chlorination c a n a l s o be used
t o r e d u c e C O D l e v e l s.
Loll h a s described experiments using autothermal thermophilic

a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n o f h e a t t r e a t m e n t l i q u o r s ( 2 9 ). Because
the reactions a r e exothermic , t h e p r o c e s s is t h e rmally
self -supporting.
P r e s e n t e d o n F i g u r e 1 6-3 a r e t h e r e s u l t s o f b a t c h a e r o b i c
d i g e s t i o n t e s t s. Note that the temperature rose during the
period o f m o s t rapid degradation , T h e results o f continuous flow
t e s t s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1 6-6 a t r e s i d e n c e t i m e s o f f i v e
and t e n d a y s. T h e C O D reduction is significantly l e s s t h a n t h e
B O D5 reduction , reflecting t h e nonbiodegradable c h a r a c t e r of a
p o r t i o n of the w a s t e.
Erickson a n d K n o p p used t h e activated s l u d g e p r o c e s s f o r heat

t r e a t m e n t l i q u o r ( 3 0 ). They reported a COD reduction of
8 3 p e r c e n t a n d a B O D5 reduction o f 9 8 p e r c e n t with a n aeration
time of 4 1 h o u r s. R e s u l t s are shown in T a b l e 1 6-7, ( page 1 6-1 4 ).
1 6- 1 1
=
1
15 60
O COO
X BOD5
VOLATILE ACIDS
50
A TOC
• TEMPERATURE 1
-J 40
E
8
o
O
ui
£T
Z D
o 30
I-
<
H a:
< Ui
z
H -
ft
s
m
H
O
z
o
o 20
10
20
TEST LENGTH, days
FIGURE 16 - 3
AEROBIC DIGESTION OF
HEAT TREATMENT , BATCH TESTS ( 29 )
Anaerobic b i o l o g i c a l filtration o f h e a t t r e a t m e n t l i q u o r h a s b e e n
tested for use at the City of Los Angeles Hyperion treatment
p l a n t ( 3 1 ). T h e w a s t e-activated s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t s c h e m e i s s h o w n
o n F i g u r e 1 6-4 • T h e a n a e r o b i c f i l t e r, o r i g i n a l l y d e v e l o p e d b y
Y o u n g and M c C a r t y is similar t o t h e conventional aerobic t r i c k -
l i n g filter in t h a t o r g a n i s m s a r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e media s u r f a c e
a n d a s h o r t h y d r a u l i c d e t e n t i o n t i m e r e s u l t s ( 3 2 ). Advant ages
1 6 -1 2
are that the production of methane can result in energy recovery
and that n o p o w e r is required for o x y g e n addition. Care must
be t a k e n , however , t o avoid a n y plugging from p e r i o d i c high
suspended solids loadings. Results of a two- month test are shown
in Table 16-8 ( 31 ). At a hydraulic detention time of two days,
BOD5 and COD removals averaged 85 and 76 percent , respectively.
This s t u d y concluded that detention time could be reduced t o
about 0 . 5 t o 1.0 d a y s without s i g n i f i c a n t deterioration in
performance. Other pilot scale tests on anaerobic filtration of
heat treatment liquor have been conducted . One study reported
COD removals of approximately 65 percent at detention times of
3.5 d a y s and organic loadings of 125 lb COD per 1 ,000 cubic feet
per d a y ( 2.0 kg /m /day )( 33 ).
^
TABLE 16- 6
AEROBIC DIGESTION OF HEAT TREATMENT LIQUOR ( 29 )
Residence time ,
days
Parameter 5 10
Temperature ,
°c 38 34
COD
Influent , mg/1 13 , 500 12, 400
Effluent , mg/1 4 , 100 3, 800
Reduction , percent 66 71
BOD5
Influent, mg/1 6, 900 6 , 100
Effluent , mg/1 510 250
Figure 16-5 illustrates the AS pilot treatment scheme used in

a pilot study in Great Britain ( 28 ). The purpose of the study
was t o reduce t h e quantity o f r e f r a c t o r y organics entering
the T h a m e s River f r o m t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s c o n d i t i o n i n g s l u d g e
with heat treatment. The study was prompted by the fact that the
T h a m e s is used for w a t e r s u p p l y , and possible t a s t e and odor
problems would result from chlorinating the water ; in addition,
there was uncertainity about the exact composition and effects of
the o r g a n i c s in t h e liquor. The p r o c e s s can reduce C O D f r o m
20,000 m g /1 t o about 100 mg /1 , or by approximately 99.5 percent.
The chlorine oxidation process can a l s o be used f o r treating
liquor from thermal sludge conditioning , BOD 5 and COD levels
are reduced b y approximately 2 5 t o 3 5 p e r c e n t , The o d o r is
changed from noxious to chlorinous or medicinal. The color is
16-13
c h a n g e d from d a r k b r o w n t o y e l l o w o r t a n which m a y a l l o w t h e
l i q u o r t o g o undetected w h e n diluted in the liquid s t r e a m.
Results of a pilot t e s t o n Z i m p r o process liquor are shown in
Table 16-9. A flow diagram indicating sampling point locations
is shown on Figure 1 6-6 .
TABLE 16- 7
ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT OF THERMAL

CONDITIONING LIQUOR ( 30 )
Aeration time ,
hours
Parameter 21.8 40.9
Temperature , °C 33 .4 31.7
COD
Influent , mg/1 10 ,600 11 ,900
Effluent , mg/1 4 , 300 2 , 000
BOD5
Influent , mg/1 4 ,700 5 ,900
Effluent, mg/1 400 110
METHANE
CARBON D!QX ! DE
t EFFLUENT
RECYCLED TO
WASTE TREATMENT
* '
i
PLANT
7
^
ACTIVATED c
i K £ rst ING
SLUDGE
HEAT
FLOTATION TREATMENT
•a &
ANAEROBIC
SOLIDS L
— 3% 1.2%
*«
i
FILTRATION
CONCENTRATION 5
a.
9%
1
1
' H EAT
UNDERFLOW TREATMENT
LIQUOR
TO TREATMENT
PLANT
DEWATERING
r
I
CAKS-
FIGURE 16- 4
FLOW DIAGRAM , ANAEROBIC FILTRATION OF

HEAT TREATMENT LIQUOR ( 31 )
16 -1 4
TABLE 16- 8
AEROBIC BIOLOGICAL FILTRATION OF THERMAL
CONDITION LIQUOR ( 31 )
Parameter Value
Hydraulic detention time , days 2.0

Temperature , C ° 32
COD
Influent , mg/la 9 , 500
Effluent , mg/1 2 , 300
Reduction , percent 76
BOD 5
Influent , mg/la 3 ,000
Effluent , mg/1 450
Reduction , percent 85
Suspended solids
Influent , mg/la 110
Effluent , mg/1 100
Total solids
Influent , mg/1 8 ,800
Effluent , mg/1 4 ,900
Volatile acids
Influent , mg/1 520
Effluent , mg/1 300
Alkalinity , as CaCOg b
Influent , mg/la 2 , 200
Effluent , mg/1 3 , 500
PH
Influent3 7. lb
Effluent 7.1
a , .
Decant liquor.
b
pH following thermal conditioning was
approximately 5.5 ; 1 , 600 mg/1 alkalinity
added to influent for pH adjustment.
16-15
HEAT TREATMENT LIQUOR
COD 20,000 mg/I APPROXIMATELY
nlrROUGHING
I
ACTIVATED ACTIVATED
l'“i
I ACTIVATED
M 1L i i CARBON CARBON CARBON
FILTER I
COLUMN COLUMN COLUMN
EFFLUENT TO SEWAGE
TREATMENT WORKS
I ( COD 100 mg/I)
AERATION
TANKS HUMUS PUMP
49 HRS. TANKS WELL
( COD 3,000 mg/I )
DETENTION
( COD 900 mg /I )
FICURE 16- S
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF PLANT FOR PROCESSING

HEAT TREATMENT LIQUOR ( 2 )
TABLE 16- 9
CHLORINE OXIDATION TREATMENT

OF THERMAL CONDITIONING LIQUOR
Valuea , b
Parameter 1 2 3 4
COD , mg/1 40 ,664 31 ,280 3 ,910 70, 380

Suspended solids , mg/1 19 , 300 15 ,400 172 51 ,600
Total solids, mg/1 24 , 500 16 ,800 5 ,700 52,000
Total volatile solids , percent 63.1 65.5 66.4 56.1
Ammonia , mg/1 225 209 209 269
Chlorine dose , mg/1 0 1 , 000 1 ,000 1 ,000
Chlorine residual after three 0 0 0 0
hours , mg/1
pH 5.1 3.7 3 .5 3.9
aFor location of sampling point , see Figure 16 - 6.

^Data taken at Canton Water Pollution Control Center ,
May 10 and 11 , 1977 .
16-16
ZIMPRO DECANTING DECANTING
PROCESS TREATMENT
I
TO
DEWATERING
NOTE : CIRCLED NUMBERS DESIGNATE SAMPLING

POINTS; SEE TABLE 16-9 FOR QUALITY DATA.
FIGURE 16- 6
CHLORINE TREATMENT OF HEAT TREATMENT LIQUOR
16.4 References
1 . Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant Sludge and Liquid

Sidestreams . .
U S E P A R e p o r t N o E P A 4 3 0 / 9 - 7 6- 0 0 7 . Office of
Water Program Operations P 119 . -
June 1976 . .
2 . ..
E w i n g, L J , J r , H H . . .
A l m g r e n, a n d R L
of Thermal Treatment of Sludge on Municipal Wastewater
Culp Effects .. .
Treatment Costs
.
..
USEPA Report No .
EPA- 600 / 2- 78 - 073 .
-
P 102 June 1978
3 . . .
C h i a n, E S K • / a n d F B
Leachates and Their Treatment "
DeWalle .. "Sanitary Landfill
.
.
P r o c e e d i n g s ASCE, J o u r n a l
of the Environmental Engineering Division Vol 102, P 411 . . - .
1976 .
4 . Lofy, .
R J•/ H T . . Phung, R P . . Stearns, and J. J . W a l s h.
Subsurface Disposal of Municipal Wastewater Treatment
S l u d g e, E n v i r o n m e n t a l A s s e s s m e n t . USEPA O f f i c e o f S o l i d
. . .
W a s t e , p r e p u b l i c a t i o n i s s u e , C o n t r a c t N o 6 8 - 0 1- 4 1 6 6 1978
5 . S i k o r a , L . J . , C . M . M u r r a y , N .H . F r a n k o s , a n d J. M. W a l k e r .
"W a t e r Q u a l i t y a t a S l u d g e E n t r e n c h m e n t S i t e. " G r o u n d w a t e r.
V o l. 1 6. 1 9 7 8 .
6 . W a l k e r , J . M. , L . E l y , P.S lHu udngdee nEmn tarnenn,c hNm.e nFt r aSny ks toesm, faonrd UAs .e
K a m i n s k i. U S E P A . Sewage
byS m a l l C o m m u n i t i e s . E P A - 6 0 0 / 2- 7 8 - 0 1 8 . F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 8 .
7. USEPA , Technology T r a n s f e r . P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l,
M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e L a n d f i l l s . P 1 9 5. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8 .
-
1 6-1 7
8. S a c r a m e n t o A r e a C o n s u l t a n t s. Sewage Sludge Management
P r o g r a m , Final R e p o r t , V o l u m e 5 , Dedicated L a n d Disposal
"
S t u d y. S a c r a m e n t o R e g i o n a l C o u n t y S a n i t a t i o n District .
S a c r a m e n t o, California 9 5 8 1 4. S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 9.
9. Mignone, N.A . "D i g e s t e r S u p e r n a t a n t D o e s N o t H a v e T o B e a
P r o b l e m." W a t e r & S e w a g e W o r k s. P 5 7. D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 6.
-
10. M i g n o n e, N.A . "S u r v e y o f Anaerobic D i g e s t i o n S u p e r n a t a n t
T r e a t m e n t A l t e r n a t i v e s. " W a t e r & S e w a g e W o r k s. P. 4 2 .
J a n u a r y 1 9 7 7.
11 . Mignone, N .A . "Elimination of Anaerobic Digester

Supernatant " . W a t e r & S e w a g e W o r k s. p. 4 8. F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 7 .
12. K a p p e , S.E. " D i g e s t e r S u p e r n a t a n t: P r o b l e m s , Character -
i s t i c s , a n d T r e a t m e n t." S e w a g e and I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e s.
V o l. 3 0 , P. 9 3 7. 1 9 5 8.
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" S o m e Characteristics o f Anaerobic S l u d g e D i g e s t i o n i,
E f f e c t o f L o a d i n g." S e w a g e and Industrial W a s t e s. V o l. 3 1,
6 6 9. 1 9 5 9.
p
-
1 4. B u r d , R.S. " U s e o f N e w P o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s in S e w a g e S l u d g e
C o n d i t i o n i n g ." P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e 2n d Vanderbilt S a n i t a r y
Engineering C o n f e r e n c e. M a y 1 9 6 3.
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P h o s p h o r u s R e m o v a l." Journal Water Pollution Control
Federation. V o l. 4 3 , p p. 1 9 7 5- 1 9 9 0. 1 9 7 1.
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on t h e D e s i g n and O p e r a t i o n of S e w a g e T r e a t m e n t P l a n t s."
W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l .
V o l. 7 6 • 9 P 4 5 2. 1 9 7 7.
-
1 7. . .
L u e- H i n g , C • f A .W. O b a y a s h i , D.R Z e n z , B W a s h i n g t o n, a n d
B . M. S a w y e r . "Nitrification of a High Ammonia Content
S l u d g e S u p e r n a t a n t by U s e o f R o t a t i n g Discs." Presented
at the 2 9 t h A n n u a l P u r d u e I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e C o n f e r e n c e.
West L a f a y e t t e , Indiana. -P 2 4.5 M a y .
1974
1 8. L u e -H i n g , C • f A.W. O b a y a s h i , D.R. Z e n z , B. W a s h i n g t o n, and
B.M. S a w y e r. " B i o l o g i c a l Nitrification o f a H i g h A m m o n i a
C o n t e n t S l u d g e S u p e r n a t a n t. U n d e r Ambient Winter a n d S u m m e r
C o n d i t i o n s by U s e o f R o t a t i n g D i s c s. " P r e s e n t e d a t t h e
47 t h A n n u a l N e w Y o r k W a t e r Pollution Control C o n f e r e n c e .
J a n u a r y 1 9 7 5.
19. P r a k a s a m , T .B.S • r W . E. R o b i n s o n , a n d C. L u e- H i n g . " N i t r o g e n

Removal From Digested Sludge Supernatant Liquor Using
A t t a c h e d a n d S u s p e n d e d G r o w t h S y s t e m s." Presented at
the 3 2 n d A n n u a l P u r d u e I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e C o n f e r e n c e .
W e s t L a f a y e t t e , Indiana. P 7 4 5. M a y 1 9 7 7.
-
1 6- 1 8
• it
'
^'KaWT «
-
<S i
20 . M a l i n a , J .F • / and J . DiFilippo .
"T r e a t m e n t o f S u p e r n a t a n t
a n d L i q u i d s A s s o c i a t e d w i t h S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t ." Water &
S e w a g e W o r k s , R e f e r e n c e N u m b e r , p R- 3 0 . 1971 . .
21. Rudolfs, W • a n d L . S. F o n t e n e l l i
/ .
"S u p e r n a t a n t L i q u o r
T r e a t m e n t with Chemicals." S e w a g e W o r k s J o u r n a l. V o l. 1 7,
p. 5 3 8 . 1 9 4 5 .
22 . H o w e , R .H . " What To D o w i t h S u p e r n a t a n t." Wastes

E n g i n e e r i n g. V o l. 3 0 , P 12. 1959 .
-
2 3. K e e f e r , C .E ., a n d H. K r a t z , J r. " T r e a t m e n t o f S u p e r n a t a n t
S l u d g e L i q u o r B y C o a g u l a t i o n a n d S e d i m e n t a t i o n." Sewage
W o r k s J o u r n a l . V o l. 1 2 , p . 7 3 8 1 9 4 0 . .
2 4. E r i c k s o n, C.V. "T r e a t m e n t a n d D i s p o s a l o f D i g e s t i o n T a n k
S u p e r n a t a n t L i q u o r." S e w a g e W o r k s J o u r n a l. V o l. 1 7 ,
p. 8 8 9 . 1 9 4 5 .
2 5. " T h e P F T S u p e r n a t a n t L i q u o r T r e a t e r." S e w a g e W o r k s J o u r n a l .
V o l. 1 5 , p . 1 0 1 8 . 1 9 4 3 .( A u t h o r a n o n y m o u s ).
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t h e D e w a t e r i n g o f Digested a n d Activated S l u d g e." Water
P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l. V o l. 7 1 , P 6 1 . 1 9 7 2 .
-
2 7. B o y c e, J .D. a n d D.D. G r u e n w a l d . "Recycle of Liquor from
H e a t T r e a t m e n t o f S l u d g e. " J o u r n a l W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l
Federation . V o l. 4 7 , p p. 2 4 8 2- 2 4 8 9 .. 1 9 7 5 .
28 . C o r r i e , K .D." U s e o f A c t i v a t e d C a r b o n in t h e T r e a t m e n t o f
Heat Treatment Plant Liquor " .
W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l.
V o l. 7 1, P 6 2 9 . 1 9 7 2 .
-
29 . L o l l, U. "T r e a t m e n t of Thermally Conditioned Sludge
L i q u o r s ." W a t e r R e s e a r c h. V o l. 1 1 , p p. 8 6 9-8 7 2 . 1 9 7 7 .
30 . Erickson , A.H. and P.V . Knopp. " Biological Treatment of
Thermally Conditioned Sludge L i q u o r s ." Proceedings of
the 5 th International Water Pollution C o ntrol Research
C o n f e r e n c e , S a n Francisco. V o l. I I , P 3 0 1 9 7 0 . - .
3 1. H a u g , R .T • r S.K . Raksit, a n d G.G. W o n g . " Anaerobic Filter
T r e a t s W a s t e A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e ." W a t e r & S e w a g e W o r k s.
p. 4 0. F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 7.
3 2. Young, J .C . a n d P . L . M c C a r t y , "The Anaerobic Filter

f o r W a s t e T r e a t m e n t. " Journal Water Pollution Control
Federation. V o l. 4 1, R e s e a r c h S u p p l e m e n t , p. R1 6 0 . 1 9 6 9 .
3 3. USEPA Pilot Scale Anaerobic Filter Treatment of High
Strength Heat Treatment Liquo rs. MERL, C i n c i n n a t i ,
O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. D r a f t, U n d a t e d C o n t r a c t N o. 6 8-0 3- 2 4 8 4 .
^
1 6- 1 9
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 17. Instrumentation


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 17
INSTRUMENTATION
17.1 Introduction
W a s t e w a t e r solids t r e a t m e n t a n d disposal s y s t e m s are g e n e r a l l y
u n d e r - instrumented in c o m p a r i s o n t o o t h e r t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s ,
s u c h as t h o s e in w a t e r supply o r chemical processing p l a n t s ( 1 ).
W h i l e t h e economics a n d o p e r a t i n g e f f i c i e n c i e s o f v a r i o u s
m e a s u r i n g d e v i c e s , c o n t r o l e q u i p m e n t , a n d o p e r a t o r interface
displays should be carefully evaluated by the treatment s y s t e m
designer , increased u s e of instrumentation is recommended , This
c h a p t e r examines instruments suitable f o r s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t and
disposal facilities.
1 7 . 1.1 P u r p o s e s of Instrumentation
M o s t o f t h e m e a s u r i n g d e v i c e s d e s c r i b e d in t h i s c h a p t e r a r e
" o n- 1 i n e " e q u i p m e n t d e s i g n e d f o r e s s e n t i a l l y u n a t t e n d e d
o p e r a t i o n. H o w e v e r , some critical data c a n be obtained o n l y by
the use of portable t e s t o r laboratory equipment t h a t requires
manual operation o r attention. O n- line instrumentation serves
t h e following p u r p o s e s in a w a s t e w a t e r solids t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m:
• R e d u c e s labor
• R e d u c e s chemical consumption
• R e d u c e s energy consumption
• I m p r o v e s t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s efficiency a n d reliability
• Provides information f o r planning
• Verifies c o m p l i a n c e with discharge requirements
• Assures p e r s o n n e l safety
17.1.2 Instrumentation Justification

and D e s i g n Considerations
S o m e u s e s o f instrumentation — f o r e x a m p l e , t o r e d u c e l a b o r ,
chemical c o n s u m p t i o n , o r e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n--wi 1 1 be justified
primarily from a n economics viewpoint. Economics may , however ,
be a s e c o n d a r y consideration in decisions t o install instrumenta-
tion f o r a n y of t h e o t h e r p u r p o s e s listed above. F o r instance ,
instrumentation f o r providing planning information a n d /o r f o r
verifying c o m p l i a n c e with discharge requirements may b e justified
o n n o n - e c o n o m i c g r o u n d s. The information provided may be
essential for planning n e w facilities a n d /o r improving existing
facilities. Such information m a y a l s o be required for monitoring
1 7 -1
treatment results for reports to various g o v e r n m e n t agencies.
Economic considerations will a l s o be secondary for those s y s t e m s
requiring continuous monitoring to protect operating personnel .
Economic a n a l y s e s o f instrumentation , w h e n r e q u i r e d , m u s t
include both capital and o p e r a t i o n and maintenance ( 0/M ) c o s t s.
0/M c o s t s can be high , especially in s l u d g e m a n a g e m e n t , where the
materials being measured are u s u a l l y d e b r i s- l a d e n and sometimes
corrosive . A 1976 USEPA study found that many wastewater
t r e a t m e n t instruments are not properly o p e r a t e d or maintained
a n d q u i c k l y fall into disuse ( 1 ). This is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e
in s m a l l p l a n t s w h e r e t h e maintenance s t a f f u s u a l l y d o e s n o t
include full-time instrumentation specialists , and where c o n t r a c t
i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n s p e c i a l i s t s a r e u n a v a i l a b l e. The designer
m u s t consider whether proper operation and maintenance will be
available before incorporating instrumentation into a p l a n t' s
d e s i g n. I n l a r g e r p l a n t s ( 2 0 t o 3 0 M G D [ 0 . 8 8 t o 1 . 3 m 3/ s ] ) ,
O/M staffs should include full- time instrumentation specialists.
Aside from the cost evaluations and O/ M requirements discussed

a b o v e , s e v e r a l f a c t o r s will i n f l u e n c e t h e s e l e c t i o n o f
instruments for a specific application. These include:
Characteristics of t h e process fluid , particularly t h e

w a t e r , g r e a s e , grit , and gas c o n t e n t and the degree of
variability in the influent material from d a y t o d a y.
« Configuration of process piping , channels , o r vessels.
Requirements relating t o instrument measurement range and

accuracy .
U t i l i t y availability ( instrument air , purge water ,
electricity , etc.).
The instrumentation information presented in Tables 1 7- 1 t h r o u g h

1 7- 12 is applicable t o a wide variety o f s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t and
d i s p o s a l p r o c e s s e s. T h e t a b l e s list t h e p r o c e s s a n d p r o c e s s
v a r i a b l e s , t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s , and t h e s u g g e s t e d instruments
f o r individual p r o c e s s s t e p s in t r e a t m e n t and d i s p o s a l . The
specific instruments listed in these tables should be considered
a s candidates, not as specific recommendations.
More detailed information a b o u t the various instruments is

available including illustrations, descriptions, and lists of
manufacturers ( 2 ). Note , however , that although many specific
instruments are used in both sludge processing and in conven -
tional industrial processes , some manufacturers are not active in
the wastewater field . T h e suitability o f their instruments for
sludge applications has not been established .
1 7- 2
TABLE 17- 1
THICKENING
Process and process

variables Measurements Suggested instruments
Gravity Thickener
Feed sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Weir
Pump displacement
Dilution water FIow , Venturi
Magnetic
Ultrasonic
Propeller
Orifice
Tank sludge depth Blanket level Optical
Ultrasonic
Supe rnatant -
(See Table 17 12 , Sidestreams )
Collection equipment Torque or power Shearpin
draw Amme ter
Thickened sludge Flow Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressur e Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Diaphragm
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Polymer or chemicals Level Tape and float
Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Flow Magnetic
Rotameter
Pump displacement
We ight Static
Flotation Thickener
Magnetic
Doppler
Pipe empty Capacitance
Nuclear
Thickened float or Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
sludge Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Subna tant ( See Table 17-12 , Sidestreams )
polymer or chemicals Leve 1 Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Tape and float
Flow Magnetic
Rotameter
Pump'displacement
We ight Static
17- 3
TABLE 17- 1
THICKENING (Continued )
Process and process

Flotation Thickener (continued )

Dissolution system ( assuming Flow Venturi
subnatant recycle Magnetic
-
or full make up) Ultrasonic
Propeller
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon
Diaphragm
Air supply Flow Rotame ter
Pitot tube
Pressure Bourdon
Diaphragm
Centrifuge
Feed sludge Flow Magnetic
Pump displacement
Nuclear
Centrate -
(See Table 17 12, Sidestreams)
Thickened sludge Level Ultrasonic
Flow Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
De ns i ty Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Centrifuge operation Vibration Accelerome ter
Displacement probes
Torque or power Ammeter
draw
Polymers or chemicals Level Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Tape and float
Flow Magnetic
Rotame ter
Propeller
Pump displacement
We ight Static
17- 4
TABLE 17- 2
/
tv 5
STABILIZATION
Process and process ,

.
Anaerobic Digesters
Magnetic
Doppler
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Digester liquid surface '
,
Floating cover Le ve 1 Tape ( attach to cover)

Fixed cover Leve1 Bubbler with nitrogen purge
Diaphragm
Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Gas holding cover Level D i a p h r a g m (d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e )
'
Digester contents Temperature RTD
pH and ORP P o r t a b l e s e l e c t i v e- i o n
Circulating sludge Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Temperature' RTD ( pad type)
pH and ORP S e l e c t i v e- i o n ( p i p e l i n e m t g )
Digested sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
RTD ( pad type)
Density Nuclear
A Optical
Ultrasonic
pH and ORP P o r t a b l e s e l e c t i v e- i o n
Supernatant ( S e e T a b l e 1 7-1 2 , S i d e s t r e a m s )
Digester gas Flow Orifice
Turbine
Vortex
Pressure Diaphragm
Composition Chromatograph
Heat value Calorimeter
Hot water heating system Pressure Bourdon
Temperature RTD
Atmospheric monitoring Hyd rocarbons Catalytic
Odors Portable olefactometer
17- 5
TABLE
-v
17- 2
STABILIZATION (Continued )
Process and process

Aerobic Digesters
Magnetic
Doppler
Density Nuclear
Optical
Digester liquid surface Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Digester contents Temperature RTD
Suspended solids Optical
Dissolved oxygen Polarographic
Galvanic
Thallium
pH or ORP -
Portable selective ion
Sedimentation tank Blanket level Optical
Ultrasonic
Supernatant -
Recycled sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Density Nuclear
Digested sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Temperature RTD ( pad type )
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
pH and ORP -
Selective ion ( pipeline mtg )
Lime Treatment
Feed Sludge Flow Magnetic
Doppler
Venturi with diaphragm seal
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
pH and ORP -
Treated sludge Flow Magnetic
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
pH and ORP -
17 - 6
TABLE 17- 2
STABILIZATION (Continued)
Process and process

Lime Treatment ( continued )

Chemicals Level Ultrasonic
Flow Magnetic
Pump displacement
Weight Static
Chlorine Treatment
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Treated sludge Flow Magnetic
Doppler
Temperature RTD
Density Nuclear
Optical
Chemicals
pH -
. Flow Rotameter
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon with diaphragm seal
Weight Static
17 - 7
TABLE 17- 3
DISINFECTION
Process and process

variables Measurements Suggested instruments MYS
**Iff *4
Pasteurization
Feed sludge Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
pasteurization system Pressure Bourdon with flush diaphragm
seal
Time Digital
Synchronous motor
Pasteurized sludge Level Ultrasonic
Flow Pump displacement
Steam supply Flow Nozzle
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon with steam service
siphon
Temperature RTD
Feed Sludge Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
monitoring
-
Irradiation system E beam
Power draw Amme ter
Irradiated sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm seal
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
17 - 8
TABLE 17- 3
DISINFECTION (Continued )
Process and process

( continued )
Cooling air Flow Pitot tube
Flow loss Vane
Differential pressure
Thermal
Gamma Irradiation
Feed sludge Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Irradiation system
Radiation
- Dosage
Safety
Geiger counter
Geiger counter
Dosimeter
Badge
Irradiated sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Transport displacement
Radiation Geiger counter
-
Jar2lx *< »
17-9
TABLE 17 - 4
CONDITIONING
Process and process

Inorganic Chemical Conditioning

Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Chemicals
( aluminum sulfate , Level Ultrasonic
aluminum chloride , Tape and float
lime ferric chloride , Flow Magnetic
ferrous sulfate ) Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with chemical seal
Weight Static
Organic Chemical Conditioning
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Polymers Level Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Tape and float
Flow Magnetic
Rotameter
Pump displacement
Weight Static
-
Non Chemical Additions

Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Miscellaneous materials Level Capacitance
( ash , pulverized coal , Ultrasonic
sawdust , wastepaper Weight Static
Mass flow
17 - 10
TABLE 17- 4
CONDITIONING (Continued )
Process and process

Thermal Conditioning
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Temperature RTD ( pad type)
Density Nuclear
Optical
Sonic
Nuclear
Conditioning Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Thermocouple
Solids separation Level Ultrasonic
Blanket level Optical
Ultrasonic
Atmospheric monitoring Odors Portable olefacttometer

Panel
Decant liquor -
( See Table 17 12 , Sidestreams )
Conditioned sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Temperat ure RTD ( pad type )
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon with steam siphon
Temperature RTD
Air supply Flow Venturi
Ro tometer
Orifice
Pressure Be 1 lows
Diaphragm
Elutriation
Magnetic
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
17- 11
TABLE 17- 4
CONDITIONING (Continued )
Process and process

Elutriation ( continued )
Solids separation Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic
Elutriate -
(See Table 17 12, Sidestreams )
Conditioned sludge Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Wash water Flow Venturi
Magnetic
Rotameter
Propeller
17- 12
TABLE 17- 5
^ - DEWATERING
Process and process

Drying beds
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Bed contents Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Dewatered sludge Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Weight Static
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Drainage and surface
runoff -
Weather Wind speed (15 ft ( 4.6 m )) Anamome ter
above ground
Wind direction ( 15 ft Wind vane
( 4.6 m )) above
grou nd
Temperature , dry bulb
( 5 and 25 ft ( 1.5 and RTD with solar shield
and 7.6 m )) above Thermistor with solar shield
ground
Relative humidity RTD with lithium chloride
cloth ( wet bulb tempera
ture)
-
Rainfall Tipping bucket
Solar radiation Thermopile
Atmospheric monitoring Odors Portable olefactometer
Drying Lagoons
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Dens i ty Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
17- 13
TABLE 17- 5
DEWATERING (Continued )
Process and process

Drying Lagoons ( Continued )

Lagoon contents Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Harvested sludge Flow ( volume) Transport displacement
We i g h t Static
Supernatant and
surface runoff
Weather
-
( See Table 17 12 , Sidestreams)
Wind speed ( 15 ft Anemometer
( 4.6 m )) above ground
Wind direction (15 ft Wind vane
( 4.6 m above ground
Temperature ( 5 and 25 ft RTD with solar shield
ft ( 1.5 and 7.6 m )) above Thermistor with solar shield
ground
cloth ( wet bulb temperature)
Atmospheric Odors Portable olefactometer
monitoring
Centrifugal Dewatering
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Nuclear
Centrate -
Centrifuge operation Torque of power draw Ammeter
Vibration Accelerometer
Displacement probes
Dewatered sludge Flow ( volume) Pump displacement
Weight Static
Mass f 1ow
Lab test
Ultrasonic
Tape and float
Flow Magnetic
Rotameter
Propeller •
Pump displacement
We ight Static
17- 14
TABLE 17- 5
DEWATERING (Cohtinued)
Process and process

Filtration Dewatering
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Nuclear
Vacuum filter
Operation Level Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Speed Reluctance pick up -
Filtrate -
Spent wastewater
and rejected ( See Table 17-12 , Sidestreams )
feed sludge
Washwater Flow Venturi
Rotameter
Propeller
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon
Belt filter presses
Operation Pressure Bourdon or bellows with
chemical seal
Diaphragm
Speed Reluctance
Filtrate -
Spent wastewater
and rejected (See Table 17-12 , Sidestreams)
feed sludge
Washwater Flow Venturi
Rotame ter
Propeller
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon
Recessed plate filter
presses
Operation Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Filtrate -
(See Table 17 12 , Sidestreams)
Spent washwater
and reject ( See Table 17- 12 , Sidestreams)
feed sludge
17-15
TABLE 17-5
DEWATERING (Continued )
Process and process

Filtration Dewatering
{Continued )
Dewatered sludge Flow Pump displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Moisture content Portable ohmeter
Lab test
Ultrasonic
Tape and float
Flow Magnetic
Rotame ter
Propeller
Pump displacement
Weight Static
Cyclonic Separation
Feed wastewater solids Flow Magnetic
Pressure
Doppler - *
: '
Bourdon with cylindrical seal

Density Nuclear ( sludge system only )
U1 trasonic
Overflow -
Underflow Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Screening
Feed wastewater Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Flow Venturi
Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Feed wastewater solids Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Ultrasonic ' •' '

Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Nuclear
Automatic bar screens Torque or power draw Shear pin
Ammeter
Hydraulic sieve bends Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Moving screens Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Speed Bubbler
Diaphragm
Screened liquid -
17-16
TABLE 17- 6
HEAT DRYING
Process and process variables Measurements Suggested instruments
Flash drying
Feed sludge Flow , volume Pump displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Lab test
Nuclear
Drying operation Temperature RTD (pad type)
Dried sludge Flow , volume Transport displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Lab test
Hot air furnace
Burner operation Flame monitoring Ultravilot scanner
Fuel Flow Pitot tube
Orifice
Positive displacement
Combustion air Flow Pitot tube
Orifice plate
Pressure Diaphragm
Bellows
Temperature RTD
Heated air Temperature Thermocouple
Fan monitoring Flow loss Vane
Thermal
Scrubber water -
Direct rotary dryer

Feed sludge Flow , volume Transport displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Lab test
Speed Reluctance
Torque or power draw Shearpin
Ammeter
Weight Static
Mass flow
Lab test
. W*M
17- 17
TABLE 17- 6
HEAT DRYING (Continued )

Direct rotary dryer (continued )
Hot air furnace
Burner operation Flame monitoring Ultravilot scanner
Orifice
Vortex
Orifice
Pressure Diaphragm
Temperature RTD
Thermal
Scrubber water -
Indirect and direct -indirect
. V:
rotary dryers
Feed sludge Flow , volume Pump displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Lab test
Speed Reluctance
Torque or power draw Shearpin
Ammeter
Weight Static
Mass flow
Hot air furnace
Burner operation Flame monitoring Ultraviolet scanner
Fue 1 Flow Pitot tube
Orifice
Vortex
Or ifice
Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm
Temperature RTD
Thermal
Scrubber water
* *
* w
_
-
fi'
*
-
aSee -
Table 17 12 , Sidestreams.
17-18
TABLE 17- 6

Incinerators -
(See Table 17 7 , High Temperature Processes)
Torodial dryers
^
Liquid or dewatered solids

storage
-
(See Table 17 11, Storage)
Dewatering (See Table 17-5 , Dewatering )

Feed sludge Flow , volume Transport displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Lab test
Drying operation Temperature RTD ( pad type)
Weight Static
Mass flow
Lab test
Hot air furnace
Burner operation Flame monitoring Ultraviolet scanner
Orifice
Vortex
Orifice
Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm
Temperature RTD
Fan monitoring Vibration Accelerometer
Flow loss Vane
Thermal
Scrubber water -
Spray drying
Feed sludge Flow Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Drying operation Temperature RTD ( pad type)
Weight Static
Mass flow
Hot air supply Temperature Thermocouple
aSee Table 17-12 , Sidestreams. cSee -

Table 17 11, Storage
-
See Table 17 7 , High Temperature Processes. ^ See Table 17- 5 , Dewatering.
17-19
TABLE 17- 6
HEAT DRYING (Continued)

Solvent extraction
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Cooled sludge Temperature RTD ( pad type )
Extraction system Pressure Bourdon with chemical seal
Temperature RTD
Temperature RTD (pad type)
Weight Static
Mass flow
Lab test
Product water Flow Venturi
Magnetic
Pump displacement
Temperature RTD
Chemical oxygen demand TOC analyzer
Hot air Temperature RTD
Thermocouple
Chilled water Flow Rotameter
Propeller
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon
Temperature RTD
-
Multiple effect evaporator
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Fluidizing system
Fluidizing tank Level Ultrasonic
1 7- 2 0
TABLE 17- 6
-
Multiple effect evaporator
(continued ) .
Fluidizing system (continued )
Fluidizing pump Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Feed tank Level Ultrasonic
Feed pump Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Evaporation system Pressure Bourdon with chemical seal
Weight Static
Mass flow
Lab test
Condensate Flow Rotameter
Orifice
Recycled oil Level Ultrasonic
Flow Orifice
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with diaphragm seal
Temperature RTD
Orifice
Temperature RTD
1 7- 2 1
TABLE 17- 7
HICH TEMPERATURE PROCESS
Process and process

Incineration
Feed sludge Flow ( volume ) Pump displacement
Temperature RTD
Weight Static
Mass flow
Lab test
Furnace operation
Multiple hearth - Temperature Thermocouple
Speed Reluctance
Torque of power Shear pin
draw Amme ter
Flame monitoring Ultraviolet scanner
Flu id bed - Pressure Bourdon with diaphragm seal
Temperature Thermocouple
Electric Temperature Thermocouple
Speed Reluctance
Power draw Ammeter
-
Single hearth cyclonic Temperature Thermocouple
Speed Reluctance
Torque or power Shear pin
draw Ammeter
Ash Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Combustion air Flow loss Vane
Therma 1
Pressure Diaphragm
Bellows
Recycled flue gas Temperature Thermocouple
Afterbu rner Temperature Thermocouple
-
Multiple hearth furnace Temperature Thermocouple
Electric furnace Temperature Thermocouple
Power draw Ammeter
Exhaust (stack gas ) Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm
Oxygen content Paramagnetic
Catalytic
Ceramic
Opacity Optical
Other measurements As required
as required by
local air quality
management dis
tricts
-
r me •w
—
17- 22
TABLE ,17- 7
HIGH TEMPERATURE PROCESS (Continued )
Process and process

Incineration ( continued )
Heat recovery system
Flue gas Temperature Thermocouple
Boiler Level Float { cage mounted )
Pressure Bourdon
Steam produced Flow Nozzle
Orifice
Scrubbing water
Fuel
-
Electric furnace Power draw Amme ter

Other furnaces Level Diaphragm
Tape and float
Flow Positive displacement
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon
Bellows
Diaphragm
Starved Air Combustion

Feed sludge Flow ( volume) Pump displacement
Temperature RTD
Weigh t Static
Mass flow
Lab test
Furnace operation Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm

We igh t Static
Mass flow
Thermal
Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm
Temperature RTD
Af terburner Temperature Thermocouple
17- 23
TABLE 17- 7
Process and process

Starved Air Combustion ( continued )

Exhaust ( stack: gas) Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm
Oxygen content Pa ramagne tic
Catalytic
Ceramic
Opacity Optical
as rquired by
local air quality
management dis
tricts
-
Boiler Level Float ( cage mounted )
Pressure Bourdon
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon
Temperature RTD
Scrubbing water -
Fuel
Flue gas for after
burner
- Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm
Supplemental fuel Level Diaphragm
Tape and float
Flow Orifice
Positive displacemeent
Pressure Bourdon
Bellows
Diaphragm
Watergate Furnace
Feed scum Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Furnace operation Level Diaphragm
Ultrasonic
Exhaust ( stack gas ) Pressure Be 1 lows
Diaphragm
-
17 24
TABLE 17- 7
Process and process

Watergate Furnace ( Continued )

Exhaust ( stack gas) Oxygen content Paramagnetic
(continued ) Catalytic
Ceramic
Opacity Optical
as required by
local air quality
management dis
tricts
-
Scrubbing water
Fuel Leve 1
-
(See Table 17 12 , Sidestreams)
Diaphragm
Tape and float
Flow Orifice ,
Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm
-
Co Combustion with Municipal Refuse
Feed sludge
Liquid state Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Dewatered state Flow ( volume) Transport displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Lab test
Municipal refuse Flow ( volume) Transport displacement
Weigh t Static
Mass flow
Lab test
Furnace operation
Grate fired Temperature Thermocouple
-
Multiple hearth Temperature Thermocouple
Speed Reluctance
Torque or power Shear pin
draw Ammeter
17- 25
TABLE 17- 7
Process and process

-
Co Combustion with Municipal Refuse
(continued )
Furnace operation ( continued )
-
Fluid bed Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm
Weight Static
Mass flow
Therma 1
Pressure Diaphragm
Bellows
Temperature RTD
Recycled flue gas Temperature Thermocouple
Afterbu rner
Multiple hearth Temperature Thermocouple
Exhaust (stack gas ) Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm
Oxygen content Paramagnetic
Cataly tic
Ceramic
Opacity Optical
as required by
local air quality
management dis
tricts
-
Boiler Level Float ( cage mounted )
Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm
Orifice
Scrubber water ( See Table 17-12 , Sidestreams )
17 26-
TABLE 17- 8
COMPOSTING
Process and process

“ " ra*
Unconfined
Windrow
Feed sludge Level Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Weight Static
Compos ting Temperature Portable thermometer
Lab test
Aerobic condition Portable galvanic cell
Portable polarographic cell
Composted sludge Flow ( volume) Truck displacement
Weight Static
Lab test
Amendment or bulking
agent Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Weight Static
Lab test
Leachate and surface
runoff -
Weather Wind speed ( 15 ft Anemometer

( 4.6 m )) above
ground
Wind direction Wind vane
( 15 ft ( 4.6 m ))
above ground
Temperature ( 5 and RTD with solar shield
25 ft (1.5 and Thermistor
7.6 m )) above
ground
Relative humidity RTD with lithium chloride cloth
(wet bulb temperature )
Solar radiation Thermophile
Atmosperic monitoring Odors Portable olefactometer
Aerated pile
Flow ( volume ) Ultrasonic
Weight Transport displacement
Lab test
17- 27
TABLE 17- 8
COMPOSTING (Continued )
Process and process

Unconfined (continued )
Aerated pile
Ultrasonic
Flow ( volume) Transport displacement
Weight Stat ic
Mass flov;
Lab test
Compos ting Temperature RTD
Portable thermometer
Lab test
Composted sludge Flov/ ( volume) Transport displacement
Weight Static
Lab test
Aeration air Flow Venturi
Pitot tube
Orifice
agent Flov/ ( volume) Transport displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Lab test
Leachate and surface
runof f (See Table 17-12 , Sidestreams )
Weather Wind speed (15 ft Anemometer
(4.6 m )) above
ground
(15 ft ( 4.6 m ))
above ground
Temperature ( 5 and RTD )
25 ft ( 1.5 and Thermistor) with solar shield
7.6 m )) above
ground
( wet bulb temperature)
Ra infall Tipping bucket
17-28
TABLE 17- 8
COMPOSTING (Continued)
Process and process

Confined Systems
Ultrasonic
Weight Static
Mass flow
Lab test
Composting Temperature RTD
Composed sludge Leve 1 Capacitance
Ultrasonic
We ight Static
Mass flow
Lab test
agent Level Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Weight Static
Mass flow
Lab test
1 7- 2 9
«sitmse&mva
^
TABLE 17- 9
MISCELLANEOUS CONVERSION PROCESSES
Process and process

Fixation
Feed sludge Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Lab test
Fixed sludge Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Encapsulation
Lab test
Polyethlene system Pressure Bellows with diaphragm seal
Temperature RTD
Thermocouple
Asphalt system Temperature RTD
Thermocouple
Encapsulated sludge Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Earthworm Conversion
Feed sludge Flow (volume ) Transport displacement
Temperature Portable thermometer
Lab test
Castings (egesta ) Flow ( volume ) Transport displaceement
Lab test
-
17 30
TABLE 17- 10
TRANSPORTATION
Process and process

Pumping
Centrifugal and torque
flow pumps
Variable speed drive Speed Tachometer generator
Reluctance
Pumped sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Empty pipe Capacitance
Nuclear
pumps
Variable speed drive Speed Reluctance
Pumped sludge Flow Reluctance ( revolution counter )
Empty pipe Capacitance
Nu clear
Pipelines
Corrosion , electrolytic Power draw Ammeter

Pig location Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Pump displacement
Conveying
Continuous belt Unde rspeed Reluctance
Level ( volume Capacitance
overload ) Ultrasonic
Weight Mass flow
Positive displacement Underspeed Reluctance
Pneumatic ejection Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Open screw Level ( volume Capacitance
overload ) Ultrasonic
Underspeed Reluctance
Trucking Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Vehicle detection
Weight Stat ic
Barging Level Bubbler

Diaphragm
Ultrasonic
Railroad Cars Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Vehicle detection
Weight Static
17-31
TABLE 17-11
STORAGE
Process and process

Wastewater Treatment
Sedimentation facilities Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Aeration reactors Suspended solids Optical
Imhoff and septic tanks Blanket level Optical
Ultrasonic
Density Nuclear
Optical
Oxidation ditches Suspended solids Optical
Stabilization ponds Suspended solids Optical
Wastewater Solids Treatment (See Individual Process Tables )

.
aknilWICw I h f f l M M W W W f
—
Liquid Storage
Holding Tanks
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Tank liquid surface
Fixed cover Leve 1 Bubbler
Diaphragm
Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Floating cover Level Tape ( attach to cover)
Tank contents Temperature RTD
pH -
Circulating sludge Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
pH -
Discharged sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Temperatur e RTD ( pad type )
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
17- 32
TABLE 17- 11
STORAGE (Continued )
Process and process

Confined Hoppers or Bins

Feed sludge Flow ( volume) Transport displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Lab test
Hopper or bin contents Level Capacitance
Ultrasonic
We igh t Static
Discharged sludge Level (volume over Capa citance
load ) Ultrasonic
We igh t Static
Mass flow
Lab test
Atmosperic monitoring Hydrocarbons Catalytic
Odors Portable olefactometer
Unconfined Stockpiles
We igh t Static
Lab test
Stockpiled sludge •
Lab test
Harvested sludge Flow ( volume) Transport displacement
Weigh t Static
Lab test
(4.6 m ) above
ground
(15 ft ( 4.6 m ))
above ground
shield
25 ft ( 1.5 and Thermistor) with solar
7.6 m )) above
ground
cloth ( wet bulb temperature)
17- 33
TABLE 17- 11
Process and process

Facultative Sludge Lagoons

Feed sludge F low Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Dens ity Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Lagoon contents pH -
Conductivity Portable conductivity probe
Blanket level Portable optical
Portable ultrasonic
Dissolved oxygen Portable galvanic
Portable polarographic
Harvested sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
U1 trasonic
Supernatant -
Weather Wind speed ( 15 ft Anemometer
(4.6 m )) above
ground
( 15 ft ( 4.6 m ))
above ground
Temperature ( 5 and RTD ) with solar shield
25 ft ( 1.5 and Thermistor )
7.6 m )) above
ground
Relative humidity RTO with lithium chloride cloth
(wet bulb temperature)
Atmospheric monitoring Odor Portable olefactometer
Anaerobic Sludge Lagoons

Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
U1 trasonic
Lagoon contents Sludge blanket Portable optical

Portable ultrasonic
-
17 34
TABLE 17- 11
Process and process

Anaerobic Sludge Lagoons

(Continued )
Harvested sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors

Magnetic
Doppler
Supernatant -

( 4.6 m )) above
ground
i ( 15 ft ( 4.6 m ))
above ground
i
with solar shield
25 ft ( 1.5 and Thermistor)
7.6 m )) above
ground
(wet bulb temperature)
Aerated Basin
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Basin contents Dissolved oxygen Portable galvanic
Portable polarographic
Magnetic
Doppler
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Supernatant ( See Table 17-12 , Sidestreams )
Solid State Storage

Drying sludge lagoons -
(See Table 17 5 , Dewatering )
17- 35
TABLE 17- 12
SIDESTREAMS
Process and process

Thickening
Gravity supernatant Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with diaphragm sensors
Suspended solids Optica 1
Flotation subnatant Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Pump displacement
Centrifuge centrate Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Pump displacement
Stabilization
Anaerobic digestion
supernatant Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Tape and float
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Sludge blanket Optical
Sonic
pH -
Chemical oxygen TOC Analyzer
demand
Ammo nia -
Selective ion analyzer
Aerobic digestion
superna tant Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Float and tape
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
17- 36
TABLE 17- 12
SIDESTREAMS (Continued )
Process and process

Stabilization ( continued )
Aerobic digestion
supernatant ( continued ) Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optica 1
Ultrasonic
pH -
Atmospheric monitoring odors

Ammonia -
Portable olefactometer
Conditioning
Thermal liquor
( decant and filtrate) Leve 1 Bubbler
Diaphragm
Float and tape
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
pH -
Chemical oxygen TOC analyzer
demand
Ammonia
Bubbler
-
Elutriation elutriate Leve 1
Diaphragm
Float and tape
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optica 1
U1 trasonic
pH -
Ammonia
-
Ultrasonic
-
17 37
TABLE 17- 12
Process and process

Conditioninq ( continued )
Atmospheric monitoring Odors Portable defactometer
Panel
Dewatering
Drying bed drainage Le ve 1 Bubbler
and surface runoff Diaphragm
Float and tape
Magne tic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Pump displacement
Suspended solids Portable optical
pH Portable selective- ion
Ammonia Lab test
Drying lagoons super
natant and surface
- Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
runof f Ultrasonic
Flow Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Pump displacement
pH -
Centrifuge centrate Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optica 1
Ultrasonic
pH -
Ammonia -
Ultrasonic
Vacuum , belt press , recessed
plate and frame and screw
and roll press filters
Filtrate Le ve 1 Bubbler
Diaphragm
Float and tape
Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Pump displacement
17- 38
TABLE 17- 12
Process and process

Dewatering ( Continued )
Filtrate ( continued ) Pressure Bourdon with diaphragm seal
pH -
Ammonia -
Spent washwater and Level Bubbler
rejected feed sludge Diaphragm
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
pH Selective-ion ( pipeline mtg )
Ammonia -
Cyclonic separation
Overt low Leve 1 Bubbler
Diaphragm
Flow Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Screening
Screening liquid Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Flow Venturi
Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Density Nuclear
Sonic
High Temperature Processes

and Heat Drying
Scrubber water
supply Leve 1 Bubbler
Diaphragm
Float and tape
Flow Rotameter
Propeller
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon
Temperature RTD
Discharge Flow Venturi
Magnetic
Ultrasonic
Orifice
Temperature RTD
17- 39
TABLE 17- 12
Process and process

_
Composting Leachate and
Surface Runoff Leve 1 Bubbler
Diaphragm
Float and tape
Magnetic
Doppler
We irs
pH -
Chemical oxygen Total organic carbon
demand analyzer
Storage
Facultative sludge Level Bubbler
lagoon supernatant Diaphragm
Ultrasonic
Flow Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
pH -
Ammonia Lab test
Anaerobic sludge Level Bubbler
lagoon supernatant Diaphragm
Ultrasonic
Flow Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
pH
Ammo nia Lab test
-
Landfilling Leachate and

Surface Runoff Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Ultrasonic
Float and tape
Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Pump displacement
pH -
Chemical oxygen Total organic carbon
demand Analyzer
Ammonia -
17- 40
17.2 Measurements
T h i s s e c t i o n b r i e f l y describes e a c h o f t h e instrumentation
devices listed in Tables 1 7-1 through 1 7- 1 2.
1 7 . 2.1 Level Measurements

Level m e a s u r e m e n t s are required for both displacement volume and
o p e n channel flow instrumentation , S o m e instruments have almost
unlimited applicability , while others a r e restricted because o f
material interferences , Sometimes these interferences can b e
m i n i m i z e d or eliminated with s p e c i a l p u r g i n g ; h o w e v e r , t h e
d e s i g n e r m u s t p r o v i d e t h e s u p p o r t s y s t e m s r e q u i r e d if s u c h
instruments are t o be reliable .
17.2.1 . 1 Bubblers
The pneumatic bubbler remains the m o s t universally applicable
liquid level measuring device in w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t facilities.
In its simplest form , a bubbler consists of a d i p t u b e through
w h i c h a c o n s t a n t s m a l l f l o w o f p u r g e g a s, u s u a l l y a i r , i s
discharged . T h e g a s f l o w p r e v e n t s t h e liquid from rising in the
dip t u b e ; therefore , the p r e s s u r e required t o maintain t h e g a s
flow is directly proportional t o the d e p t h of a liquid above t h e
d i p t u b e outlet. This p r e s s u r e c a n be measured by virtually a n y
p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t d e v i c e , s o m e o f which a r e d e s c r i b e d i n
Section 1 7 . 2.3 . T h e bubbler can b e used with almost a n y liquid ,
but clogging may be a problem when solids are p r e s e n t . Clogging
c a n b e controlled by f r e q u e n t purging with h i g h p r e s s u r e air .
W h e r e t h e use o f a n a i r p u r g e i s u n d e s i r a b l e , s u c h a s in
anaerobic digesters, nitrogen or natural gas can be used for
p u r g i n g the bubbler d i p t u b e , F i g u r e 1 7- 1 s h o w s a t y p i c a l
bubbler schematic with air purge capabilities .
1 7 . 2.1 . 2 Diaphragms
B u b b l e r d i p t u b e clogging p r o b l e m s c a n be o v e r c o m e b y u s e o f
diaphragm level element. A diaphragm is u s u a l l y 3 t o 4 inches
( 7.6 t o 1 0. c m ) in diameter and serves a s one wall o f what is ,
e s s e n t i a l l y , a b o x . Inside t h e b o x , a p n e u m a t i c , h y d r a u l i c ,
o r e l e c t r i c mechanism transmits a n y p r e s s u r e e x e r t e d o n t h e
d i a p h r a g m . T h e e n t i r e b o x i s s u b m e r g e d in a v e s s e l , o r t h e
d i a p h r a g m m a y b e inserted in t h e w a l l o f t h e v e s s e l b y m e a n s
o f a standard pipe f l a n g e. In either case , the pressure exerted
o n t h e d i a p h r a g m is d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e d e p t h o f
l i q u i d a b o v e t h e d i a p h r a g m. The type of diaphragm shown on
Figure 1 7- 2 is air - purged and p r o d u c e s a b a c k p r e s s u r e similar t o
a b u b b l e r. T h u s , b o t h t h e a i r s u p p l y a n d p r e s s u r e m e a s u r i n g
devices a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e used in bubbler s y s t e m s. T h e
air- p u r g e d d i a p h r a g m can , therefore , be used as a r e p l a c e m e n t for
e x i s t i n g bubblers. T h e s e c o n d t y p e o f d i a p h r a g m uses a filled
1 7- 41
***S £&taw*v
COMPRESSED
AIR SUPPLY
30 p&tg
MINIMUM
1/ 2" PIPE
PRESSURE
l/2> BALL
#
ELEMENT
VALVE HIGH FLOW
PURGE VALVE
3 /B“ PVC JACKETED -- PURGE

COPPER TUBING
ON PANEL ( TYPJ
PATH I T > NORMAL
PATH
f t Q
BULKHEAD
DRAIN PLUG - ^ FITTINGS
REQUIRED WHEN
Z — * ~
ÂIR SUPPLY FROM

ABOVE!
FILTER REGULATOR —*
/ 1/4" PVC TUBES
ASSEMBLY W/GAUGE
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
REGULATOR W /NEEDLE SCREW ADAPTER
VALVE Si CAP TO PERMIT
ROTAMETER W /CHECK RDDDING
VALVE, 0- 2 SCFH
Ifwhtt x 0*39
m h * 8.146 - cm
fcN/m2 3/4“ SCMED 80
PVC PIPE
LAI
NOTCH
1/2" x 1/2''
FIGURE 17- 1
TYPICAL BUBBLER SCHEMATIC WITH

AIR PURGE CAPABILITIES
17-42
COMPRESSED
AIR SUPPLY
30 psig
MINIMUM
N/
1 /2" PIPE
PRESSURE j
1/2" 8 ALL ELEMENT I
VALVE
3 /8" PVC JACKETED

COPPER TUBING
9 CN-
ON PANEL ( TYP )
DRAIN PLUG “
( REQUIRED WHEN
— “
BULKHEAD
FITTINGS
AIR SUPPLY FROM

ABOVE )
/
7 I 1/4“ PVC TUBES
FILTER REGULATOR I
ASSEMBLY W / GAUGE
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
REGULATOR VWNEEDLE
VALVE
ROTAMETER W /CHECK
VALVE, CF 2 SCFH
4
1 NPT PIPE -
INSTRUMENT
CONNECTION
CONNECTION !
1" SCHED 80
VENT PVC PIPE
I (SUPPORT ONLY !
inches x 0,39 « cm *
piig x 0 145
r kN/m ^
i
TEFLON COATED
i
FIBERGLASS DIAPHRAGM
\ OSAPNflAGM
]|ELEMENT
7 (SEE DETAIL )
FIGURE 17- 2
TYPICAL BUBBLER SCHEMATIC WITH

DIAPHRAGM ELEMENT
1 7- 4 3
capillary tube between the diaphragm and a conventional pressure
transmitter , t h u s eliminating the need for an air supply. When
a filled capillary tube is employed , the volumetric displacement
of the diaphragm is critical , and p r e s s u r e indicators o r
transmitters should have as low a displacement as possible so
that diaphragms with low movement can be used . Capillary filling
fluid should have a low thermal expansion coefficient to limit
errors r e s u l t i n g f r o m t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e s , Diaphragms a r e
flush- mounted and have no crevices to accumulate solids. The
almost insignificant movement required for accurate measurement
is maintained even when the diaphragm is coated with grease.
17.2 . 1.3 Capacitance Transmitters
In r e c e n t y e a r s , s e v e r a l electronic l e v e l measuring devices

have a p p e a r e d . C a p a c i t a n c e a n d ultrasonic instruments a r e
particularly applicable for sludge measurements , The capacitance
liquid level transmitter consists of a steel rod or cable
( probe ), usually teflon -coated , which is installed in the tank .
The probe forms one plate of a capacitor , and the liquid , which
must be conductive and grounded , forms the second . The probe
insulation f o r m s a dielectric b e t w e e n these t w o p l a t e s. T h e
electrical capacitance b e t w e e n the p r o b e and the liquid is
proportional to the axial length of probe immersed in liquid . An
electrical instrument measures this capacitance and provides a
signal proportional to level . This signal can be used t o provide
either o n- off or continuous level measurement. Gross changes in
fluid conductance can affect calibration of capacitance probes.
This is not ordinarily a problem in sludge handling facilities.
One disadvantage with capacitance instruments is that, even with
tefIon - c o a t e d p r o b e s , g r e a s y material c a n a d h e r e and cause
errors. Improved electronics has reduced this problem on some
units. V e r y successful level measurements have been made for all
t y p e s of sludge , including the fluid level inside fixed cover
digesters. Capacitance instruments are also used t o measure the
level o f d r y solids in bins o r silos. In this application , a
b a r e r o d or c a b l e ( p r o b e ) is used , and the side of t h e t a n k
s e r v e s as t h e g r o u n d p l a t e . W h e r e t a n k s are n o n - metal 1 ic , a
metallic ground plate can be installed on the side of the tank .
The material in the tank then serves as the dielectric and must
have a stable dielectric constant significantly different from
air. Since m a n y solids contain large and varying amounts of air ,
the use of capacitance probes for solids level measurement is
frequently unsuccessful.
17.2 . 1.4 Ultrasonic Transmitters

Ultrasonic level instruments operate with the level transmitter
completely o u t of contact with the process material , This is a
v e r y appealing a d v a n t a g e f o r s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t and d i s p o s a l
processes. A transducer suspended above the material emits an
ultrasonic p u l s e t o w a r d the l i q u i d . T h e p u l s e b o u n c e s off
17- 44
t h e material s u r f a c e and t h e r e f l e c t e d p u l s e r e t u r n s t o t h e
transducer. T h e time that e l a p s e s between the transmitted p u l s e
and the received p u l s e is related t o the distance between t h e
transducer and the reflecting surface by the s p e e d of sound in
air. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s p e e d of sound in air is affected by
both t e m p e r a t u r e and humidity , and the reflected signal is also
scattered . These conditions substantially weaken the received
p u l s e. All t h e s e p r o b l e m s c a n be o v e r c o m e with m o r e c o m p l e x
electronics and l a r g e r transducers, but experience t o date ( 1979 )
with t h e s e u n i t s h a s b e e n v e r y p o o r . T h e i r use c a n n o t be
r e c o m m e n d e d until t h e i r s e r v i c e a b i l i t y h a s b e e n p r o v e d u n d e r
treatment p l a n t conditions.
17.2.1 . 5 T a p e- Supported Floats
T a p e - s u p p o r t e d floats are suitable for level m e a s u r e m e n t s of m a n y

liquids . Floats are s u s p e n d e d from a t a p e that winds o n a drum.
T h e d r u m is provided with either a c o u n t e r w e i g h t or a " constant
t e n s i o n " s p r i n g t o r e m o v e a l l t h e slack f r o m t h e t a p e . T h e
position of the drum is a very a c c u r a t e measure o f float position
and , hence , liquid level. Standard units provide an a c c u r a c y o f
0 . 0 1 feet ( 3.09 mm ) f o r local readout and can be equipped with
electric signal transmission f o r remote readout. In the case o f
f l o a t i n g cover d i g e s t e r s , the cover becomes the float , and the
same d r u m a s s e m b l y provides measurement of level in the digester .
T a p e- s u p p o r t e d f l o a t s are often located within concentric wells
t o isolate them f r o m t h e turbulence of the liquid surface being
measured. T o assure maximum reliability , these wells are u s u a l l y
p u r g e d with w a t e r a t r a t e s s u f f i c i e n t t o k e e p a c o n t i n u o u s
flow f r o m the w e l l , even during periods o f maximum rising levels.
S u c h installation is u s u a l l y n o t p r a c t i c a l w h e n t h e material
b e i n g monitored contains s i g n i f i c a n t a m o u n t s o f d e b r i s and
grease.
1 7 . 2. 2 Flow Measurements
Flow i s a n i m p o r t a n t m e a s u r e m e n t f o r s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t and
disposal operations. A c c u r a c y has been an ongoing problem with
a l l t y p e s o f f l o w m e t e r s. Venturi - t y p e f l o w t u b e s , o r i f i c e
p l a t e s , and weirs are regarded a s standard flow measuring devices
providing p r o p e r a p p r o a c h conditions--t h e length of s t r a i g h t pipe
u p s t r e a m and d o w n s t r e a m from t h e device--a r e maintained . This by
itself is a s t r o n g a r g u m e n t in f a v o r o f their use . I n m a n y
situations , proper approach conditions cannot be obtained or a
wider r a n g e of operation is needed . S o m e in- p l a n t method should
be p r o v i d e d t o " p r o v e " t h e a c c u r a c y o f n o n - s t a n d a r d m e t e r s.
A liquid f l o w m e t e r can f r e q u e n t l y be calibrated b y d i s c h a r g i n g
a flow into a tank of known dimensions and measuring the c h a n g e
in l e v e l . I n o t h e r c a s e s , m e t e r s m a y b e c o m p a r e d with o t h e r
m e t e r s of p r o v e n a c c u r a c y . For comparison , the meter under
t e s t m u s t be left in t h e actual plant piping , or a test stand
with a n identical piping configuration m u s t be provided . Flow
1 7- 45
m e a s u r e m e n t s o f wastewater s l u d g e are difficult t o take , The
d e s i g n e r m u s t select t h e instrument with care , recognizing that
reliability m a y be a far more important criterion t h a n accuracy .
17.2.2.1 Venturi Tubes

V e n t u r i-t y p e f l o w t u b e s h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y u s e d f o r a l l
s l u d g e s, including primary s l u d g e. Venturi tubes are classical
differential p r e s s u r e p r o d u c e r s t h a t f u n c t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o
B e r n o u l l i ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p s. A Venturi t u b e h a s a restricted
throat . A pressure d r o p is p r o d u c e d as the fluid accelerates
through the throat . T h e pressure d r o p is proportional t o the
square of t h e liquid v e l o c i t y and is measured by differential
pressure instruments , as described in Section 1 7 . 2.3. Modern
flow t u b e s o p e r a t e on the same principles ; t h e y are improvements
on early Venturi devices. However , t h e y are less expensive and
p r o d u c e l e s s r e s i d u a l h e a d l o s s. W h e n u s e d f o r s l u d g e f l o w
measurement , the pressure t a p s must be p r o t e c t e d from plugging .
This can be done by water purge o r by use o f diaphragms similar
t o those described earlier and installed in the t u b e wall. T h e
disadvantage o f a Venturi t u b e i s the narrow usable flow ranges
available. Anything o v e r 3 t o 1 is u s u a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d at
r e d u c e d a c c u r a c y. If air - p u r g i n g is used , t h e Venturi t u b e
static lines require careful sloping t o eliminate errors caused
b y t r a p p e d bubbles. Water- purged s y s t e m s require a source w a t e r
free o f both soluble and insoluble solids t o avoid clogging of
flow control needle valves. Consideration should be g i v e n t o the
potential impact of purging water on d o w n s t r e a m s l u d g e processes.
1 7 . 2 .2 . 2 Nozzles
F l o w n o z z l e s a r e s i m i l a r in o p e r a t i o n t o Venturi t u b e s b u t
are substantially l e s s expensive , Residual head loss is much
g r e a t e r than for Venturi tubes and approaches t h a t of an orifice
plate installation , F l o w nozzles d o n o t wear o u t as quickly as
orifice p l a t e s and can handle fluids containing limited solids.
The m o s t common application o f the flow nozzle is for s t e a m f l o w
m e a s u r e m e n t.
1 7 . 2.2 . 3 Magnetic Meters
T h e m a g n e t i c f l o w m e t e r functions a c c o r d i n g t o F a r a d a y ' s l a w
which , in simple t e r m s , states that when a n electrical conductor
( in t h i s case w a t e r ) p a s s e s t h r o u g h a m a g n e t i c field , a n
electrical v o l t a g e is developed at right a n g l e s t o t h e direction
o f t h e field a n d t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e m o v e m e n t . If t h e
magnetic field is c o n s t a n t , the v o l t a g e is proportional t o the
conductor's velocity. Hence , a magnetic flowmeter is simply a
tube with magnetic coils that uses electronics t o measure the
voltage produced . In the p a s t , a number of poor applications has
1 7- 4 6
put magnetic flowmeters in disfavor. When they are properly
applied with modern electronics , magnetic flowmeters are now as
reliable as any other flow measuring devices.
Flow velocity of primary sludge through a magnetic flow tube
should be in the range of 5 to 25 feet per second ( 1.5 to
7.6 m/s ), providing a usable range of 5:1. The lower limit is
established by the minimum scouring action required to keep
electrodes free of grease. The upper limit is necessary to
limit erosion of the tube's plastic liner. Flow velocity for
secondary sludges may be extended down to 3 feet per second
( 0.9 m/s) because less grease is present. For intermittent flow ,
velocities may be extended up to 30 feet per second ( 9 m/s )
because less grit is present. Combining these conditions
provides a usable range for secondary sludges of 10:1. Magnetic
flowmeter manufacturers generally recommend certain accessories ,
such as electrode cleaning devices , when metering sludge .
Purchase specifications should clearly state the application and
require provision of all recommended accessories. Properly
applied and installed , modern magnetic flowmeters are giving
excellent service in many installations.
17.2.2.4 Ultrasonic Meters

Ultrasonic meters are a fairly new development , and no two meters
work exactly the same , There are two basic types. The first and
most common one , which is listed as the ultrasonic device in this
chapter , consists of a pair of transducers mounted on opposite
sides of the pipe and displaced so that one transducer is one
pipe diameter downstream from the other , The first transducer
emits an ultrasonic pulse , and the time it takes this pulse to
reach the second transducer is measured . The system is then
reversed. The second transducer emits the pulse , and the time
until the first transducer receives this pulse is measured , The
travel time is known as propagation time. In one case , flow
velocity decreases propagation time , and in the reverse case ,
increases the propagation time , The difference in time between
the two measurements is directly proportional to flow velocity.
The ultrasonic flow measuring system is relatively insensitive to
factors that normally affect the speed of sound ( for example ,
temperature ). This is because the effects are cancelled as
the signals reverse , However , some difficulties have been
experienced with this technique. Most sludge is sonically
opaque. The signal cannot travel between the transducers , even
with a high power , Therefore , at this time , this type of meter
is not considered reliable.
17.2.2.5 Doppler Meters
The second type of ultrasonic flowmeter depends on the Doppler

effect. A continuous ultrasonic signal is emitted into the
pipe by the transducer. This signal is reflected by solids
-
17 47
o r b u b b l e s in t h e l i q u i d s t r e a m and is r e t u r n e d t o a s e c o n d
t r a n s d u c e r a t a f r e q u e n c y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t transmitted .
This difference is related t o the velocity o f t h e material that
c a u s e d t h e r e f l e c t i o n . P r e s e n t l y , difficulties p r e v e n t t h e
practical application o f this technique. The frequency change is
affected by the velocity o f sound , which in t u r n is affected b y
t e m p e r a t u r e in the fluid . Furthermore , in s l u d g e a p p l i c a t i o n s ,
the p a r t i c l e s o r bubbles causing reflections will v e r y p r o b a b l y
be located close t o t h e pipe walls , and their velocity m a y not be
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a v e r a g e fluid velocity. Hence , the accuracy o f
this t y p e of meter is questionable. Actual field experience with
this t y p e of m e t e r is n o t extensive.
17.2.2.6 Rotameters
R o t a m e t e r s a r e c o m m o n l y u s e d for b o t h g a s and liquid f l o w

m e a s u r e m e n t s o f c l e a r h o m o g e n e o u s fluids. Their use in s l u d g e
m a n a g e m e n t is primarily for chemical feed s y s t e m s , air flows , and
purge s y s t e m s. A rotameter consists o f a " float " in a conically
s h a p e d tube. T h e " float " d o e s not a c t u a l l y float , since it must
sink into the fluid being measured . The size o f the rotameter
orifice increases as the " float " rises in the tube ; therefore ,
the u p w a r d force o n the " float " for a n y fluid velocity d e c r e a s e s
as the float rises. The e q u i l i b r i u m point between " float " weight
and u p w a r d force d u e t o flow velocity is an indication o f flow .
R o t a m e t e r s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d o f a w i d e v a r i e t y o f materials ,
i n c l u d i n g m e t a l s and p l a s t i c s. They can be constructed to
measure almost a n y t y p e of fluid . Rotameters a r e available up t o
3 - inch ( 8 cm ) p i p e size. Larger pipes are accommodated by
installing an orifice plate p a r a l l e l t o the rotameter so that a
known fraction o f the flow p a s s e s t h r o u g h the r o t a m e t e r. This is
called a " by-p a s s " r o t a m e t e r. If the float is made o f magnetic
material o r contains an i r o n c o r e , a m a g n e t m o u n t e d o n t h e
outside of the t u b e can be m a d e t o f o l l o w it. This m a g n e t can be
attached t o a transmitting mechanism t o provide remote readout.
17.2.2.7 Propeller Meters
R e l a t i v e l y c l e a n , n o n - corrosive f l u i d s f l o w i n g t h r o u g h l a r g e
pipes ( 2 inches [ 5 cm ] or l a r g e r ) can be readily m e a s u r e d with
p r o p e l l e r m e t e r s. P r o p e l l e r m e t e r s can p r o v i d e local readout or
can be equipped with transmitting mechanisms for remote readout
o r recording . T h e y are not applicable for s l u d g e flows , but can
p r o v i d e reliable , cost - effective service for s u p p o r t systems.
1 7 . 2.2 . 8 Pitot T u b e s
Pitot tubes v e r y economically measure flow in pipes o f almost
any size .
The pitot tube produces a differential pressure
proportional t o the square o f the fluid v e l o c i t y , which m a y be
1 7- 4 8
m e a s u r e d b y differential p r e s s u r e transmitters described i n
Section 1 7 . 2.3 . O n e commercial unit p r o v i d e s four p o r t s s p a c e d
across t h e diameter of the pipe and a v e r a g e s the impact p r e s s u r e
o f e a c h t o p r o v i d e c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r i r r e g u l a r f l o w p r o f i l e s.
T h e pitot tube p r o d u c e s a very small p r e s s u r e differential f o r
liquid f l o w velocities typically used in t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s and ,
therefore , is not particularly suitable f o r liquid service. I t
is frequently suitable f o r g a s flows w h e r e wide flow r a n g e s are
n o t r e q u i r e d. T h e s m a l l t u b e e n t r a n c e s m a k e it c o m p l e t e l y
unsuitable f o r use with sludge flows.
1 7 . 2.2.9 Weirs and Flumes

Weirs a n d f l u m e s p r o v i d e a s i m p l e, v e r y a c c u r a t e m e t h o d o f
measuring liquid flows in o p e n c h a n n e l s. T h e y a r e n o t applicable
t o p r e s s u r e s y s t e m s. A n y of t h e l e v e l m e a s u r i n g instruments
d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 1 7 . 2.1 p r o v i d e a m e a n s o f m e a s u r i n g t h e
liquid level behind t h e weir o r at t h e critical point in a f l u m e.
Weirs a r e not suitable f o r f l o w s with l a r g e a m o u n t s o f settleable
solids o r debris. This material will c o l l e c t behind t h e weir and
c h a n g e weir measuring characteristics.
1 7 . 2.2.10 Orifice Plates

G a s f l o w m e a s u r e m e n t is c o m m o n l y r e q u i r e d w h e r e a n a e r o b i c o r
aerobic digesters a r e used . G a s p r o d u c e d by anaerobic digesters
is dirty and corrosive. Permissible head losses in anaerobic and
aerobic digesters a r e often very low and t h e r a n g e of operating
requirements extreme . A n orifice p l a t e c a n b e u s e d in t h i s
service. Orifice p l a t e s are similar in t h e o r y t o Venturi tubes;
t h a t is, p r e s s u r e d r o p through t h e device is proportional t o t h e
s q u a r e o f the liquid velocity. Orifice p l a t e s, however, lack a
s m o o t h r e c o v e r y c o n e a n d, c o n s e q u e n t l y , h a v e a m u c h g r e a t e r
residual head loss. T h e a d v a n t a g e of t h e orifice p l a t e, o t h e r
t h a n lower c o s t , is t h e ease with which it c a n b e c h a n g e d . T h e
optimum size of orifice p l a t e can b e readily installed f o r a n y
flow . Q u i c k c h a n g e fittings permit changing o f orifice p l a t e s
without disturbance of a piping r u n.
1 7 . 2.2.11 Turbine Meters

Turbine meters, which provide good service in gas flow
a p p l i c a t i o n s , consist o f f l o w d i r e c t i n g c h a n n e l s , a s u i t a b l e
turbine blade, gearing , shafting, and a readout device, I n the
s i m p l e s t f o r m, t h e o u t p u t s h a f t d i r e c t l y d r i v e s t h e r e a d o u t
r e g i s t e r. W h e r e r e m o t e readout is desired , t h e s h a f t rotation
a c t u a t e s a n electrical switch , E a c h switch c l o s u r e r e p r e s e n t s a
discrete quantity o f g a s. T h e m e t e r m u s t b e specially designed
f o r dirty and corrosive g a s. M o d e r a t e maintenance is required t o
k e e p t h e meter clean , T h e turbine meter's ability t o o p e r a t e
o v e r w i d e r a n g e s m a k e s it a t t r a c t i v e f o r t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f
anaerobic d i g e s t e r g a s.
1 7- 49
1 7 . 2.2 . 1 2 Vortex M e t e r s
The Vortex shedding flowmeter is a comparatively new meter that

is also applicable t o anaerobic digester g a s flow m e a s u r e m e n t.
T h e m e t e r consists of an obstruction placed in t h e pipeline with
sensors that d e t e c t t h e vortices caused b y the obstruction , T h e
flow is proportional t o the number of vortices p r o d u c e d , These
m e t e r s are suitable for R e y n o l d s Numbers above 5 , 0 0 0 and readily
provide a usable operating r a n g e of 100 : 1.
1 7 . 2.2.13 Positive Displacement

Meters
O r i f i c e p l a t e s , t u r b i n e m e t e r s , and V o r t e x m e t e r s h a v e a l l
provided a d e q u a t e instrumentation f o.r a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r g a s
flow. However , t h e s e instruments cannot provide the absolute
a c c u r a c y of positive displacement meters a t the v e r y low f l o w s
encountered during digester operations , Positive d i s p l a c e m e n t
meters can be of the rotating cavity ( lobe ) or the diaphragm
t y p e. Positive d i s p l a c e m e n t m e t e r s are probably the oldest m e t e r
used for digester g a s measurements. In recent y e a r s, they h a v e
been almost c o m p l e t e l y r e p l a c e d b y t h e inline m e t e r s described
in the previous p a r a g r a p h s , Positive displacement m e t e r s a r e
frequently used for c l e a n oil o r clean g a s flow m e a s u r e m e n t s and
are inherently useful over a n e x t r e m e l y wide operating r a n g e.
T h e m e t e r' s cavities, exposed bearings, and /or close clearances
make them unsuited for dirty g a s service.
17.2. 2.14 P u m p and T r a n s p o r t

Displacement S y s t e m s
Sludge transport systems should not be overlooked as flow

measurement devices, Progressive cavity and other positive
displacement pumping equipment can be equipped with speed
monitors or cycle counters that provide a fairly accurate
f l o w i n d i c a t i o n. None of the problems usually associated
with flowmeters o p e r a t i n g on s l u d g e a r e encountered , Where
materials are trucked the number of , t r u c k loads will provide a
r o u g h measure o f quantities. If the t r u c k s a r e a l s o weighed - in
and - o u t , a c c u r a t e m e a s u r e m e n t s c a n b e obtained .
1 7 . 2. 3 Pressure Measurement
P r e s s u r e measurement is basic t o m a n y level and f l o w measuring

systems, as well as to the measurement of individual process
p r e s s u r e s. A s a result , p r e s s u r e e l e m e n t s a r e without a d o u b t
the m o s t highly developed instruments used in industry.
1 7-5 0
1 7 . 2.3 . 1 Bourdons or Bellows
P r e s s u r e Elements
T h e bourdon tube is the most c o m m o n l y used pressure element for
p r e s s u r e r a n g e s o f 1 5 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e inch ( 1 0 3 k N / m 2 )
or greater. The bourdon tube is essentially a piece of
tubing c l o s e d a t o n e e n d a n d b e n t in a n a r c. W h e n p r e s s u r e is
a p p l i e d t o t h e t u b e , it t e n d s t o s t r a i g h t e n , T h e m o v e m e n t.
p r o d u c e d a t t h e f r e e o r closed end is amplified by mechanical
linkage t o o p e r a t e a pointer o r transmitter mechanism , Bellows
are frequently used when lower pressures must be measured or
g r e a t e r m o v e m e n t is r e q u i r e d f o r d i r e c t a c t u a t i o n o f c o n t r o l
mechanisms. B o u r d o n t u b e s a r e r a r e l y u s e d in m o d e r n industrial
p r o c e s s p r e s s u r e transmitters , Bellows elements are frequently
used in process pressure transmitters for p r e s s u r e r a n g e s from
1 0 inches w a t e r pressure ( 2.4 k N/m 2 ) t o a s high a s 6 0 0 pounds p e r
s q u a r e inch ( 4 . 1 4 MN / m 2 ). B e l l o w s e l e m e n t s a r e a l s o r e a d i l y
a d a p t a b l e t o differential p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d a b s o l u t e
p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s.
Chemical Seals
Both bourdon tubes and bellows are unsuitable for direct
measurement of fluids containing solids, Collecting solids
within the p r e s s u r e element is t h e p r o b l e m , Corrosive fluids
a l s o m u s t be k e p t o u t of t h e p r e s s u r e e l e m e n t , A " chemical seal "
is u s e d f o r t h e s e applications. T h e m o s t c o m m o n chemical seal
consists of a s m a l l metal o r elastomer diaphragm, o n e side o f
which is e x p o s e d t o t h e process fluid , Sometimes this e x p o s e d
s i d e i s p u r g e d w i t h w a t e r o r m o u n t e d f l u s h w i t h t h e fluid
containment v e s s e l. T h e o t h e r side of t h e seal is c l o s e- c o u p l e d
o r c o n n e c t e d by a capillary t u b e t o t h e measuring element a n d
f i l l e d w i t h a s u i t a b l e f l u i d s u c h a s s i l i c o n o i l. For very
dirty , grease- l a d e n process fluids s u c h a s w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e,
a n in - l i n e t u b u l a r o r c y l i n d r i c a l c h e m i c a l s e a l , a s s h o w n o n
F i g u r e 1 7 - 3 , m u s t b e u s e d t o a s s u r e o p e r a t i o n a l r e l i a b i l i t y.
This s e a l is c o n s t r u c t e d a s a n elastomer t u b e o f t h e s a m e size
as the process pipe line and mounted within a flanged steel
p i p e s p o o l. T h e s p a c e b e t w e e n t h e e l a s t o m e r a n d s t e e l s p o o l
is s e a l e d , f i l l e d w i t h a s u i t a b l e fluid ( a n t i - f r e e z e w h e n
n e c e s s a r y ) , a n d c o n n e c t e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e p r e s s u r e e l e m e n t.
Pressure elements with electrical contacts and cylindrical
'
chemical s e a l s should be used immediately d o w n s t r e a m f r o m a l l

positive displacement pumps transporting w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e. This
will p r o v i d e a reliable s y s t e m for emergency s h u t d o w n w h e n e v e r
the p u m p discharge pressure becomes excessive.
Chemical s e a l s u s e d t o isolate corrosive fluids f r o m pressure
e l e m e n t s are available in a g r e a t variety of materials. Care
m u s t b e e x e r c i s e d in t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a n y c h e m i c a l s e a l t o
e n s u r e t h a t it h a s s u f f i c i e n t d i s p l a c e m e n t t o o p e r a t e t h e
m e a s u r i n g e l e m e n t. U s e o f c h e m i c a l s e a l s f o r r a n g e s o f l e s s
t h a n 5 0 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e inch ( 3 4 5 k N/ m 2 ) c a n be e x p e c t e d t o
introduce significant errors in t h e m e a s u r e m e n t.
1 7- 5 1
F LtJS *L:
'
ilT L.IUEF*
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FIGURE 17-3
CYLINDRICAL CHEMICAL SEAL FOR

SLUDGE PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
17.2.3.2 Diaphragms
P r e s s u r e Element
.- .
wvm vimtiMUt w nro
Where a direct mechanical readout is n o t required f r o m a p r e s s u r e

e l e m e n t , t h e d i a p h r a g m p r e s s u r e t r a n s m i t t e r is s u i t a b l e f o r
a n y application where bourdon tubes or bellows would be used .
T h e f o r c e - b a l a n c e is the o l d e s t t y p e o f d i a p h r a g m p r e s s u r e
transmitter and continues t o be widely applied in industry and
w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t. N e w e r t y p e s s u c h a s t h e s t r a i n g a u g e ,
r e l u c t a n c e , and c a p a c i t a n c e , are f u n c t i o n a l l y similar and a r e
b e c o m i n g m o r e common , Diaphragm pressure transmitters are
available t o measure g a u g e pressure , differential p r e s s u r e , o r
a b s o l u t e p r e s s u e , with ranges as low a s 1- inch water column t o
1 0 , 000 p o u n d s per s q u a r e inch ( 250 N/m t o 80 MN/ m ) or higher. ^ ^
Chemical Seals
Chemical seals are not g e n e r a l l y required with diaphragm pressure
t r a n s m i t t e r s f o r s o l i d s b e a r i n g f l u i d s b e c a u s e t h e measuring
element itself is an essentially flat diaphragm. Chemical s e a l s
are still frequently used for corrosion protection and , in high
t e m p e r a t u r e applications , t o s e p a r a t e transmitter electronics
from t e m p e r a t u r e s above permissible levels. Chemical seals are
a l s o used with differential pressure configurations to permit
flush - mounting of the diaphragms t o the process at t w o physically
s e p a r a t e d locations.
1 7 . 2 .4 Temperature Measurements
Stabilization , disinfection , c o n d i t i o n i n g , c o m p o s t i n g , a n d
heat processes in sludge t r e a t m e n t all m a y require t e m p e r a t u r e
i n f o r m a t i o n t o assure s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n. Temperature
1 7-5 2
instrumentation is r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e ; h o w e v e r , s u c c e s s f u l
application requires locating p r o b e s t o obtain representative
r e a d i n g s without obstructing s l u d g e f l o w , The designer m u s t be
aware o f t h e s e application restrictions and locate and specify
instruments correctly.
1 7 . 2.4 . 1 Resistance T e m p e r a t u r e
Detectors ( RTDs )
Resistance temperature detectors ( RTDs ) are applied at

t e m p e r a t u r e s up t o a b o u t 1 ,0 0 0 ° F ( 540° C ). This is well within
the r a n g e o f most s l u d g e t e m p e r a t u r e s. R D T s work o n the basis o f
the f a c t t h a t the electrical resistance of metals c h a n g e s with
t e m p e r a t u r e. E l e c t r o n i c a m p l i f i e r s m e a s u r e this r e s i s t a n c e
c h a n g e and provide an o u t p u t proportional t o t e m p e r a t u r e .
Thermistors are sometimes used for special temperature

measurement a pplications, A t h e r m i s t o r i s a t e m p e r a t u r e-
sensitive semi - conductor. L i k e R T D s , t h e t h e r m i s t o r' s
resistance c h a n g e s w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e, b u t t h e c h a n g e i s e x t r e m e l y
n o n- 1 i n e a r. The a d v a n t a g e o f using a t h e r m i s t o r is t h a t a
large c h a n g e in resistance can be obtained over a very narrow
t e m p e r a t u r e range.
1 7 . 2.4 . 2 Thermocouples
F o r p r o c e s s e s with t e m p e r a t u r e s in e x c e s s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y
1 , 0 0 0 ° F ( 5 4 0 ° C ) ( f o r e x a m p l e , incineration ) , R T D s a r e n o t
suitable and t h e r m o c o u p l e s m u s t be used , T h e r m o c o u p l e s consist
of two junctions of dissimilar metals , One junction, the
m e a s u r i n g j u n c t i o n , is p l a c e d in o r on t h e material t o be
measured . The second , or reference , junction is located in a
constant temperature zone, or the measuring instrument may
include an artificial reference junction. T h e Peltier effect
s t a t e s that at a n y junction o f dissimilar m e t a l s , an electric
motive force ( v o l t a g e ) will b e p r o d u c e d . T h u s , t w o voltages ,
( o n e at each junction ) are produced in a series circuit. T h e
m e a s u r i n g instrument d e t e c t s t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e s e
t w o v o l t a g e s and produces an output proportional to process
t e m p e r a t u r e. T h e r m o c o u p l e s produce v e r y small v o l t a g e s at low
t e m p e r a t u r e s. M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e d i f f e r e n c e in v o l t a g e
produced by the reference and measuring junction is v e r y small .
F o r this reason , t h e r m o c o u p l e s are n o t generally used t o measure
small variations in t e m p e r a t u r e. T h e r m o c o u p l e s are g e n e r a l l y
less expensive than RTDs but require greater attention to
installation p r o c e d u r e s t o r e d u c e e l e c t r i c a l i n t e r f e r e n c e .
Wiring for thermocouples must be especially matched to the
t h e r m o c o u p l e junction material .
1 7- 5 3
1 7 . 2.5 Weight Measurements
T w o t y p e s o f w e i g h t m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e o f i n t e r e s t in s l u d g e
handling facilities. The first is the common static m e a s u r e m e n t.
The second is the weight per unit of time , which is actually a
mass f l o w measurement.
1 7 . 2.5 . 1 Static
Mechanical s c a l e s are f r e q u e n t l y used for static weight measure-

ments. Such scales consist of a platform or vessel and a s y s t e m
of pivots and levers t o provide a usable readout. Mechanical
scales a r e constructed t o measure anything from 0.40 ounces ( 11 g )
in the l a b o r a t o r y t o 100 , 000 p o u n d s ( 45.4 Mg ) o r more t o weigh a
r a i l r o a d c a r. Many modern scales use load cells under the
p l a t f o r m t o eliminate t h e c o m p l e x lever and pivot s y s t e m. Load
cells a r e p l a c e d u n d e r o n e o r m o r e o f t h e p l a t f o r m s u p p o r t
points , and the o u t p u t of the cells is s u m m e d t o obtain the total
weight . In some cases , t h e number of load cells can be lower
than t h e number of s u p p o r t points because load s y m m e t r y allows
m u l t i p l y i n g t h e o u t p u t of t h e installed c e l l s by a f a c t o r t o
a c c o u n t f o r t h e m i s s i n g c e l l s. Load c e l l s m a y b e either t h e
hydraulic o r strain g a u g e t y p e. Hydraulic load cells resemble
a piston that converts force t o a h y d r a u l i c p r e s s u r e. T h i s
p r e s s u r e is r e a d i l y m o n i t o r e d b y p r e s s u r e i n s t r u m e n t s, a s
previously described. S t r a i n g a u g e l o a d c e l l s consist o f a
calibrated s t r u c t u r a l member t o which a resistance wire element
is a t t a c h e d . W h e n t h e s t r u c t u r a l m e m b e r i s strained b y a n
applied force , the resistance wire element' s dimensions c h a n g e.
Hence , its electrical resistance changes. Suitable electronic
circuitry converts these small resistance changes to an
electrical o u t p u t proportional t o the f o r c e applied t o the cell.
1 7 . 2.5 . 2 Mass Flow
Mass f l o w measurements involve a fixed t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m such as a

belt conveyor. Mass flow measurement o n a belt c o n v e y o r is m a d e
by supporting one or t w o c o n v e y o r belt idler rollers o n a scale ,
measuring the conveyor speed a s described in Section 1 7 . 2 .8 , and
m u l t i p l y i n g w e i g h t and s p e e d t o g e t h e r t o o b t a i n m a s s f l o w .
Modern belt scales using load cells and two idlers are very
accurate and are easily maintained. Nuclear belt scales can
provide this function without contacting either the belt or
t h e material being weighed , This m a y b e a n a d v a n t a g e in s o m e
installations. Nuclear scales are almost identical in operation
t o nuclear density m e t e r s , T h e o n l y difference is that a nuclear
s c a l e is calibrated t o monitor total mass in its path rather t h a n
the c h a n g e in mass caused b y s u s p e n d e d solids in a liquid . This
is a less difficult application , and premium radiation monitors
are n o t r e q u i r e d , b u t n u c l e a r s o u r c e d e c a y still c a u s e s t h e
calibration t o drift. The radioactive source is a controlled
1 7- 54
s u b s t a n c e subject t o United S t a t e s Nuclear Regulatory Commission
r e s t r i c t i o n s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s. I t r e q u i r e s s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g ,
s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n s, and t e s t i n g . T h i s a d d s t o o p e r a t i o n and
maintenance c o s t s.
All c o n v e y o r mass f l o w scales measure the total mass o f material
on the p l a t f o r m s o r belt , No differentiation is made between
solids a n d water ; therefore , t h e reading is most a c c u r a t e if t h e
moisture content is constant or can be measured .
1 7 . 2.6 Density and S u s p e n d e d

Solids M e a s u r e m e n t s
S l u d g e density and suspended solids are the same m e a s u r e m e n t from
an instrumentation point of view , However , they are quite
different from the operation standpoint. Sludge density is a
c o m m o n t e r m u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f solids in
s l u d g e m i x t u r e s in which s o l i d s a r e t h e f a v o r e d c o m p o n e n t.
S l u d g e d e n s i t y is u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d in p e r c e n t s o l i d s b y
weight. Suspended solids is a common t e r m used t o describe t h e
concentration o f solids in w a t e r in which the liquid element is
the favored c o m p o n e n t — for e x a m p l e , the solids p r e s e n t in the
p l a n t i n f l u e n t o r t h e s o l i d s l e f t in t h e s u p e r n a t a n t a f t e r
gravity thickening. Suspended solids are usually expressed
in w e i g h t o f s o l i d s p e r u n i t v o l u m e o f w a t e r , T h e r e is n o
instrument available t h a t d i r e c t l y measures either s l u d g e density
or s u s p e n d e d solids , Instruments that a r e used a c t u a l l y measure
nuclear radiation absorption , light transmission or reflection
( optical ) , or sonic attenuation characteristics of the mixture.
These measurements are then empirically correlated to sludge
d e n s i t y o r s u s p e n d e d solids concentration , In m o s t cases, this
correlation d o e s n o t remain c o n s t a n t , and periodic recalibration
i s necessary. T h e f r e q u e n c y o f this recalibration is d e p e n d e n t
on the characteristics of the liquid being monitored , In no case
do these instruments provide adequate accuracy for reporting
p u r p o s e s, a l t h o u g h t h e y c a n b e used f o r c o n t r o l , L a b o r a t o r y
a n a l y s i s is u s u a l l y required t o obtain t h e a c c u r a c y n e c e s s a r y t o
develop Q F D ( see C h a p t e r 3 ) d i a g r a m s , N u c l e a r a n d o p a c i t y
d e n s i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s c a n be u s e d in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h c o n t r o l
s y s t e m s t o a l l o c a t e s l u d g e a u t o m a t i c a l l y t o various p r o c e s s
facilities o n a mass flow basis. Sonic density measurements a r e
usually only applicable to the on and off control of sludge
pumping equipment.
1 7 . 2.6 . 1 Density
Nuclear
Nuclear density g a u g e s u s u a l l y work well o n primary and mixed
primary and s e c o n d a r y s l u d g e s in the higher concentration r a n g e.
They usually have limited applicability to secondary sludge
alone. The nuclear d e n s i t y g a u g e consists o f a s m a l l radioactive
source , u s u a l l y cesium -137, and a d e t e c t o r p l a c e d o n opposite
1 7 -5 5
sides of the pipe , G a m m a radiation is emitted and absorbed
by the material in the pipe in direct proportion to its density.
However , the difference in radiation absorption between plain
water and water containing the suspended solids concentration
must be significant for nuclear meters t o function well , These
meters are generally effective where suspended solids concentra-
tions are in the r a n g e of 1 t o 1 0 p e r c e n t , The radioactive
source itself decays, and the high gain amplifiers suffer from
gain changes resulting from component aging , Both factors cause
t h e instrument calibration t o c h a n g e r a p i d l y , and f r e q u e n t
adjustment is required t o maintain a c c u r a c y , When nuclear
density gauges are to be used t o measure sludge solids concentra -
tion , t h e y m u s t be s p e c i f i e d with s p e c i a l p r e m i u m low - drift
a m p l i f i e r s. T h e source is a c o n t r o l l e d s u b s t a n c e subject t o
United S t a t e s N u c l e a r R e g u l a t o r y Commission restrictions and
regulations. When properly installed and maintained , nuclear
density gauges have functioned quite successfully with wastewater
sludge .
Optical
Optical t y p e meters are usually used to measure sludge density

concentrations of less than 3 percent , These instruments use
either light transmittance or a combination light transmittance /
s c a t t e r m e a s u r e m e n t and a r e suitable for concentrations from
0 . 2 p e r c e n t t o 1 0 percent solids. Units that employ a mechanical
wiper t o k e e p the o p t i c s c l e a n have b e e n v e r y successful .
Caution must be exercised in the application of these units t o
primary s l u d g e , which may contain g r i t that d a m a g e s o p t i c a l
surfaces and wipers.
Ultrasonic
The sonic density gauge is a relatively new product proposed for
measuring the density of primary sludge. The sonic density gauge
consists of t w o ultrasonic t r a n s d u c e r s m o u n t e d on o p p o s i t e
sides of a pipe section , Ultrasonic signals emitted from one
transducer pass t h r o u g h the material in the pipe t o the second
transducer. Suspended solids in the signal path attenuate this
s i g n a l. T h e signal received d e c r e a s e s in s t r e n g t h with an
increa se in s u s p e n d e d solids. The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the
s t r e n g t h o f the signal received and the s u s p e n d e d solids
concentration is non- linear but sufficiently predictable t o be
used for control of sludge pumps. Sonic density m e t e r s have been
used s u c c e s s f u l l y and are m u c h less e x p e n s i v e t h a n n u c l e a r
density meters.
17.2.6 . 2 Suspended Solids Measurements
The optical instrument described for providing density

m e a s u r e m e n t s is a l s o s u i t a b l e for s u s p e n d e d solids m e a s u r e -
m e n t s. I n s t r u m e n t s are available with a r a n g e from 0 - 3 0 t o
0- 30 , 0 0 0 mg/1 . The mechanical wiper optical unit is generally
-
17 56
the most suitable for this application. Surface scatter types
with no optics in contact with the process fluid are also
usable. Care should be taken to exclude larger solids , such as
particles of floating debris , that are frequently present in the
liquid being monitored . More information on suspended solids
instrumentation is available ( 3 ).
17.2.7 Time Measurements

Digital and synchronous motor batch ( reset ) timers are available
for control of sludge management and support services. Digital
timers provide one second resolution up to about 2 3/4 hours.
Synchronous motor timers provide 0.1 minute resolution up to
16 hours and 0.1 hour resolution up to 1 ,000 hours. Both types
use power line frequency as a time reference. They are designed
to reset at zero at the completion of a cycle . If time functions
cannot be interrupted by power failure or the wastewater plant
generates all its own electrical power , the designer must take
special precautions to see that all control timers function as
required on the emergency standby or continuous plant electric
power frequency. Digital timers can be obtained with an internal
quartz crystal to provide their frequency reference. They can
therefore operate independently of power line frequency.
17.2.8 Speed Measurements

Speed is readily measured either by a tachometer generator
coupled to equipment or by a reluctance pick up.
-
- Tachome ter
generators are generally more expensive and require higher
-
maintenance than reluctance pick ups. - This is because
tachometers have their own bearings , brushes , and usually a
-
timing belt coupling . A reluctance pick up installation consists
of a split gear bolted around a shaft on the equipment . The
pick up is then mounted in close proximity to the gear teeth.
-
Suitable electronics amplify the pulses that come from the
-
pick up each time a gear tooth passes and converts these pulses
to a voltage or current output proportional to speed .
Electronic trip units can be used with either tachometer -
-
generators or reluctance pick ups to permit these devices to be
used as underspeed switches , Mechanical underspeed switches
-
are also available. Tachometer generators and mechanical units
- -
are not reliable for operating speeds that are normally below
50 revolutions per minute. Reluctance pick 'p systems can
provide reliable operation at virtually any speed .
17.2.9 Moisture Content Measurements

Measurement of the moisture content of dewatered sludge is
necessary if the output of weighing equipment is to be directly
interpreted as weight of dry solids.
17-57
T h e r e i s n o p r o v e n o n - line instrumentation f o r m e a s u r i n g
moisture in s l u d g e. Consideration of available options leads
t o e s s e n t i a l l y t w o p o s s i b i l i t i e s - - a m a n u a l resistance p r o b e
and laboratory t e s t s. A m a n u a l resistance p r o b e m u s t b e
considered a very approximate instrument since it is not actually
m e a s u r i n g m o i s t u r e , and r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s ( m o i s t u r e
c o n t e n t ) will v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y with t h e c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e
b e t w e e n t h e m o n i t o r e d m a t e r i a l and t h e p r o b e. H o w e v e r , t h e
p o r t a b l e resistance p r o b e can provide t h e a c c u r a c y needed for
i m m e d i a t e p r o c e s s c o n t r o l m e a s u r e m e n t s; f o r e x a m p l e, c o m p o s t
p i l e s o r windrows. The l a b o r a t o r y t e s t is t h e o n l y moisture
measurement method , however, that can provide the repeatable
a c c u r a c y demanded f o r Q F D calculations ( see C h a p t e r 3 ). Special
infrared d r y i n g equipment with integral weighing instrumentation
is available t o make such l a b o r a t o r y testing both convenient and
ef ficient.
7.2.1 0 Dissolved O x y g e n M e a s u r e m e n t s
T h r e e t y p e s o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n p r o b e s a r e c o m m o n l y u s e d in
w a s t e w a t e r treatment p l a n t s for measuring the dissolved oxygen
level in liquid s t r e a m s c o n t a i n i n g h i g h l e v e l s o f s u s p e n d e d
solids. T h e s e include the galvanic cell t y p e , the polarographic
cell t y p e , and the thallium c e l l t y p e.
Each o f these cell t y p e s has its own p r o p o n e n t s , The galvanic
cell is p r o b a b l y t h e most c o m m o n l y used in existing wastewater
treatment plants , Both the galvanic cell and the polarographic
cell use a membrane ( u s u a l l y teflon ) t h r o u g h which o x y g e n can
migrate into a n e l e c t r o l y t e in which the e l e c t r o d e s are immersed .
Membrane cleaning and electrolyte replenishment require a
significant maintenance effort with these cells , The thallium
c e l l s d i s p e n s e with t h e m e m b r a n e a n d i m m e r s e t h e e l e c t r o d e s
directly in the fluid t o be analyzed , None of these cells is
a p p l i c a b l e f o r m e a s u r i n g d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n in l i q u i d s h a v i n g
solids c o n t e n t s much higher t h a n 2 p e r c e n t.
1 7 . 2.1 1 pH Measurements
M o d e r n selective - i o n p H s e n s o r s with " n o n - f 1 o w i n g " r e f e r e n c e
electrodes are suitable for measuring the pH of sludge , The
non- flowing reference electrode replaced the liquid reference
junction in which the e l e c t o l y t e ( generally potassium chloride )
f l o w e d c o n t i n u a l l y f r o m a r e s e r v o i r i n t o the p r o c e s s s t r e a m .
T h e s e s y s t e m s s o m e t i m e s p l u g g e d , c a u s i n g erroneous r e a d o u t s.
N o n- flowing r e f e r e n c e electrodes use a semi - solid e l e c t r o l y t e
that does not require frequent replenishment or reservoir
p r e s s u r i z a t i o n to maintain flow , E l e c t r o d e s should be installed
in lines w h e r e s l u d g e flows p a s s the sensor , maintaining a fresh
s a m p l e a t t h e measuring point ; for e x a m p l e, circulation lines.
E l e c t r o d e a s s e m b l i e s s h o u l d b e d e s i g n e d t o hold e l e c t r o d e s
essentially flush with the pipe wall , The electrodes should be
easily removable for cleaning o r r e p l a c e m e n t.
1 7-5 8
17.2 12 . Chemical Oxygen Demand Measurements
Often liquid sidestreams from sludge treatment processes carry

significant levels of organics back into the liquid processing
system . The chemical oxygen demand measurements can be useful
in determining the strength of these sidestream organic loadings
and , therefore , provide input on their effect on the liquid
treatment processes downstream from their point of recycle .
Automated wet chemistry analyzers are capable of making a
s t a n d a r d c h e m i c a l o x y g e n demand ( COD ) a n a l y s i s , b u t t h e s e u n i t s
have not given satisfactory service under wastewater treatment
plant conditions , The t o t a l o r g a n i c c a r b o n ( TOC ) a n a l y z e r i s
more suitable o p e r a tionally , providing suitable correlation
c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n TOC a n a l y z e r m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d COD
laboratory data .
There are several u n i t s on the market , and each
operates somewhat differently , O p e r a t i o n o f one TOC u n i t i s a s
follows: T h e s a m p l e i s t r e a t e d w i t h H C1 t o r e m o v e i n o r g a n i c
c a r b o n a s CO 2 .I t i s then oxidized in a thermal reactor and
t h e r e s u l t i n g CO2 m e a s u r e d b y a n i n f r a r e d a n a l y z e r .
T O C a n a l y z e r s o p e r a t e w i t h m o d e r a t e- s i z e d s a m p l e s a n d c a n h a n d l e
suspended solids , However , they are high maintenance devices
requiring daily servicing .
17.2 13 . . Ammonia Measurements
A s e l e c t i v e- i o n e l e c t r o d e i s a v a i l a b l e f o r m e a s u r i n g a m m o n i a .
Ions other than ammonia frequently i n t e r f e r e with accurate
measurement and elimination of interferences requires treatment
of the sample before the measurement i s made Package analyzers .
are available t o prepare the sample and make the measurement .
Since custom sample preparation i s frequently required , a sample
should be submitted to the analyzer manufacturer prior to
purchasing this type of equipment .
17.2 14 . Gas Measurement and Analysis
17.2 14.1 . Composition Analyzer
The composition of digester gas i s a useful parameter for

monitoring the health of the anaerobic digestion process ( see
Chapter 6 ) . The chemical process industries make extensive use
o f o n- l i n e g a s chromatographs for measuring gas composition , The
heart of t h e c hromatograph i s the " column " . The column i s a
length of t u b i n g f i l l e d w i t h a n a b s o r b e n t m a t e rial , As a gas
sample passes through this column , d i f f e r e n t g a s c o m p o n ents are
first absorbed , t h e n r e l e a s e d b a c k i n t o t h e g a s s t r e a m , The
rate o f a b s o r p t i o n /release i s d i f f e r e n t f o r e a c h c o m p o n e n t a nd ,
as a c o n s e q u e n c e , each c o m p o n e n t e m e r g e s f r o m t h e c o l u m n a t a
different time
another .
. The components are thus
A detector at this exit measures the eluting gas ,
s e p a r a t e d f r o m o n e
1 7-5 9
and its o u t p u t is plotted a s a function of time. The resulting
p l o t consists o f a series o f p e a k s and v a l l e y s , w i t h e a c h p e a k
representing the d e t e c t o r's r e s p o n s e t o one of t h e g a s e s being
measured . Each p e a k c a n be associated with a specific c o m p o n e n t ,
since t h e time ( relative t o s a m p l e i n j e c t i o n ) a t which the
c o m p o n e n t p e a k will e m e r g e from the column is known . The area
under each of t h e p e a k s is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e g a s concentration.
E v e n t h o u g h t h i s u n i t i s c a l l e d " o n- l i n e " i t i s a b a t c h
i n s t r u m e n t which , a t b e s t , m i g h t m a k e f o u r m e a s u r e m e n t s p e r
hour. T h e o n-line mass s p e c t r o m e t e r is a l s o c a p a b l e of t h e s e
measurements but is even more expensive than the c h r o m a t o g r a p h.
Digester g a s s a m p l e s for analysis m u s t be stripped of h y d r o g e n
sulfide and filtered to remove solids before passing through
analysis equipment , S a m p l e lines m u s t be heat -traced t o avoid
moisture condensation. With adequate s a m p l e preparation , g a s
analysis instruments should function without undue maintenance ;
h o w e v e r , a t p r e s e n t , n o d a t a is a v a i l a b l e o n a s u c c e s s f u l
wastewater treatment plant installation of any of these
instruments.
1 7 . 2.1 4 . 2 Calorimeter
A suitable instrument for measuring the heat value o f digester
g a s is a calorimeter , which e s s e n t i a l l y b u r n s a g a s s a m p l e. T h e
instrument m u s t be located in a n area free of d r a f t s, which can
affect its a c c u r a c y o r even extinguish t h e flame , Instrument
r e s p o n s e is s l o w , This s h o u l d b e o f n o c o n s e q u e n c e d u r i n g
monitoring applications , h o w e v e r , since digester g a s composition
will n o r m a l l y c h a n g e s l o w l y . Care must b e exercised , however , if
the instrument is t o be used t o control mixing of digester g a s
with o t h e r g a s e s t o m a i n t a i n a c o n s t a n t h e a t v a l u e o r if t h e
i n s t r u m e n t is t o b e used w i t h a m u l t i p l e s a m p l i n g s c h e m e f o r
monitoring several digesters , C a l o r i m e t e r s h a v e b e e n used
s u c c e s s f u l l y in full-scale operations at wastewater t r e a t m e n t
p l a n t s.
17.2.1 5 Stack G a s M e a s u r e m e n t s
and Analysis
On-line analysis of boiler o r furnace s t a c k g a s composition is
u s e d f r e q u e n t l y and h a s p r o v e n s u c c e s s f u l . It is directly
applicable t o w a s t e w a t e r solids s y s t e m s incorporating heat drying
a n d h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e p r o c e s s e s. T h e s e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e used
for combustion control and are u s u a l l y m a n d a t o r y if air pollution
is t o b e minimized . Obtaining a representative sample and
c o n d i t i o n i n g it f o r t h e a n a l y z e r a r e t h e b i g g e s t p r o b l e m s
in a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s . T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f
different p a r a m e t e r s t h a t m a y require measurement t o meet air
p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l r e q u i r e m e n t s , b u t o x y g e n is t h e p a r a m e t e r
n o r m a l l y used t o control the a i r- fuel ratio. T w o t y p e s of stack
g a s o x y g e n a n a l y z e r s are c o m m o n l y used. T h e o l d e r unit is the
1 7 -6 0
p a r a m a g n e t i c t y p e a n d t h e m o r e m o d e r n is t h e c a t a l y t i c t y p e .
A new s y s t e m u s e s a ceramic e l e m e n t f o r which t h e manufacturer
claims satisfactory operation on dirty flue gases without
c l e a n- u p. Precautions are required where sulfides are present.
O x y g e n analysis equipment is normally included a s p a r t o f t h e
combustion control s y s t e m of a furnace.
17.2.16 Odor Measurements
Odor measurements are required during sludge management to

assure that the treatment and disposal processes selected meet
regulatory agency requirements ( no nuisance ) , There are no
instruments for on- line measurement of odors. A device called a
" direct reading olfactometer " ( D R O ) provides a m e a n s t o m a k e a
semi - objective manual measurement of odors directly in t h e
location affected . Figure 17 - 4 shows a close - up of the DRO
assembly and a DRO in use with subject and controller , The DRO
is essentially a breathing mask with carbon filter , rotameters,
and valves to permit mixing known ratios of filtered and
unfiltered ambient air. The subject conditions his nose by
breathing 100 percent filtered air and then the operator adds
increasing amounts of unfiltered air until the subject indicates
he detects an odor. Repeated measurements with the same subject
permit detection of changes in odor conditions or odor levels at
different locations , within an accuracy of about plus or minus
25 to 50 percent. However , no absolute measurement exists.
Standard test procedures call for the use of odor panels ( usually
six people ) who rate odor levels from bagged samples taken at the
location affected. T h e panel usually w o r k s in a filtered air
environment , w h e r e a b s e n c e of e x t r a n e o u s odors c a n be g u a r a n t e e d.
17.2.17 Aerobic Condition M e a s u r e m e n t s
Aerated pile composting operations require the measurement of

oxygen concentration in the pile. The portable oxygen indicator
frequently used for personnel safety monitoring is applicable to
this service. These instruments operate on the same principle as
the catalytic or polarographic cell dissolved oxygen analyzers
described in Section 17.2.10 but are designed to be portable ,
with a hand pump for drawing a gas sample.
17.2.18 Blanket Level Measurements
Measurements of sludge blanket level in sedimentation tanks and

gravity thickeners can be accomplished with optical ( turbidity )
’
type instruments and with ultrasonic instruments, as described
in Section 17.2.6 . The success of this measurement is dependent
on the characteristics of the sludge blanket , A well defined
blanket interface provides a readily detectable change in
suspended solids concentration. Where the blanket is poorly
defined this measurement
, is not satisfactory.
17-61
ASSEMBLY DETAILS OF DRO SHOWING
SUBJECT ' S MASK AND CONTROL 'S DILUTION METERS
SUBJECT AND CONTROL MEASURING FOR ODORS IN FIELD

CATTERY PACK USED FOR PORTABILITY
FIGURE 17- 4
DIRECT READING OLFACTOMETER (DRO ) ( 4 )
17-62
Air- lifts with intakes at multiple elevations have been provided
in a n u m b e r of p l a n t s f o r d r a w i n g a s l u d g e s a m p l e. The
i n d i v i d u a l air l i f t s f o r a t a n k c a n be manifolded t o g e t h e r
a n d t h e f l o w p a s s e d t h r o u g h a turbidimeter t o p r o v i d e r e m o t e
monitoring . The individual air lifts are actuated in sequence ,
and a s l u d g e profile is obtained . A turbidimeter o f the falling
s t r e a m t y p e is recommended f o r t h i s service. It should be
installed a t the air- lift location .
17.2.19 Hydrocarbons and Flammable

G a s Detectors
M e t h a n e is t h e f l a m m a b l e g a s m o s t l i k e l y t o o c c u r i n s l u d g e
management. C a t a l y t i c d e t e c t o r s , available f r o m a n u m b e r o f
manufacturers , are sensitive t o any flammable g a s and ordinarily
m a y b e installed in t h e s p a c e to be monitored , thus eliminating
sampling s y s t e m s. T h e detector consists of a heated catalytic
element exposed to the ambient air and a similar reference
element isolated from ambient air. If flammable g a s is p r e s e n t ,
the e x p o s e d element t e m p e r a t u r e will rise above the reference
probe as the gas is oxidized. This temperature difference
results in a change in electrical resistance , which is measured
b y the detector' s electronics. These units should be calibrated
periodically with a standard reference g a s. Catalytic probe life
is d e f i n i t e l y limited , and p e r i o d i c r e p l a c e m e n t is r e q u i r e d .
U n d e r v e r y s e v e r e conditions , t h e p r o b e m a y l o s e s e n s i t i v i t y
in l e s s t h a n a y e a r. When these conditions occur , a sampling
s y s t e m t o c l e a n up the s a m p l e and remove the moisture should be
considered .
1 7 . 2.2 0 Radiation Monitoring

If g a m m a radiation is used in sufficient quantities t o effect
t r e a t m e n t , s a f e t y m o n i t o r i n g will b e r e q u i r e d t o p r o t e c t
personnel. N o t e t h a t n u c l e a r d e n s i t y and w e i g h t e q u i p m e n t
uses such s m a l l g a m m a sources that no significant hazard exists,
a n d p e r s o n n e l s a f e t y m o n i t o r i n g is n o t r e q u i r e d . P e r s o n n e l
safety monitoring r e q u i r e s monitoring of t h e radiation levels in
the e x p o s e d s p a c e s t o detect abnormal l e a k a g e from t h e p r o c e s s
and individual monitoring t o detect e x p o s u r e of that individual
to radiation . S p a c e m o n i t o r i n g is a c c o m p l i s h e d b y s u i t a b l e
geiger counters. Personnel who are not normally exposed to
radiation c a n b e a d e q u a t e l y monitored b y b a d g e s c o n t a i n i n g
p h o t o g r a p h i c e m u l s i o n. Personnel who may absorb radiation
d u r i n g j o b p e r f o r m a n c e will h a v e t o c a r r y i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n
capable of accurately accumulating the amount of radiation
absorbed t o control d o s a g e t o a c c e p t a b l e limits. S p e c i a l i s t s in
nuclear monitoring must be consulted if this t y p e o f process is
c o n t e m p l a t e d.
1 7-6 3
1 7 . 2. 21 Machinery Protection
Wastewater solids treatment and disposal m a c h i n e r y requires

protection similar to that required b y the machinery in other
wastewater t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s, H o w e v e r , s o m e solids s y s t e m
protective instrumentation is unique , This section deals with
this unique protective instrumentation.
1 7 . 2.21.1 Empty Pipe D e t e c t o r s
E m p t y pipe detectors were d e v e l o p e d t o provide protection f o r

sludge pumps that might be o p e r a t e d with no fluid in the suction
pipe. This protection is particularly a p p l i c a b l e t o positive
d i s p l a c e m e n t or p r o g r e s s i v e c a v i t y p u m p s , w h i c h c a n s u f f e r
extensive s t a t o r d a m a g e if o p e r a t e d without fluid . Capacitance
elements fabricated a s a w a f e r t o fit between pipe flanges a r e
m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d . T h e t h e o r y o f o p e r a t i o n i s identical t o
t h e c a p a c i t a n c e l e v e l e l e m e n t s described e a r l i e r . Nuclear
level switches c a n also be used for this application but r e q u i r e
more m o u n t i n g space. T h e n u c l e a r device c l a m p s o n t o the outside
o f t h e p i p e and o p e r a t e s m u c h like t h e n u c l e a r d e n s i t y m e t e r
described earlier . T h i s is a v e r y s i m p l e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
nuclear unit. T h e unit used h a s a much lower cost t h a n nuclear
units required f o r density m e a s u r e m e n t. T h e n u c l e a r device may
be e a s i e r t o install in e x i s t i n g p l a n t s since e x i s t i n g piping
would n o t have t o be disturbed as l o n g a s sufficient space is
available.
17.2.21.2 Vibration - Acceleration and

Displacement S y s t e m s
Vibration detectors are provided f o r most machinery that o p e r a t e s

at high rotational s p e e d s-- for e x a m p l e , c e n t r i f u g e s. Vibration
detectors are usually capable of giving advance warning of
incipient machine failure. This allows for o r d e r l y shutdown,
t h e r e b y minimizing d a m a g e t o both p r o c e s s and m a c h i n e r y. The
cost o f the p r o t e c t i o n afforded is u s u a l l y justified o n l y for
l a r g e r pieces of equipment . T w o t y p e s of d e t e c t o r s are generally
a p p l i c a b l e: acceleration and displacement. Accelerometers are
less expensive than displacement s y s t e m s and provide moderate
protection to lower value machinery, such as thickening or
dewatering c e n t r i f u g e s. D i s p l a c e m e n t p r o b e s a r e mounted rigidly
t o a bearing p e d e s t a l or similar stationary object and provide a
v e r y a c c u r a t e measure of a c t u a l shaft movement in t h e journals.
A l a r g e n u m b e r o f displacement p r o b e s a r e required t o provide
f u l l p r o t e c t i o n . Their i n s t a l l a t i o n and a l i g n m e n t is r a t h e r
c o m p l e x w h e n c o m p a r e d t o t h e a c c e l e r o m e t e r , w h i c h is s i m p l y
attached to the machine housing. As a result , displacement
installations must be c a r e f u l l y engineered and are relatively
expensive . Displacement s y s t e m s are generally used o n large,
high- s p e e d machinery, such a s c e n t r i f u g a l b l o w e r s in sizes o f
500 h o r s e p o w e r or g r e a t e r.
17-6 4
1 7 . 2.2 1 . 3 F l o w L o s s Monitors
Gas or air flow can be effectively monitored for loss of flow by

vane s w i t c h e s, differential p r e s s u r e s w i t c h e s, and t h e r m a l f l o w
s w i t c h e s. V a n e switches a r e t h e s i m p l e s t , b u t r e q u i r e f a i r l y
h i g h velocities f o r reliable o p e r a t i o n. A differential p r e s s u r e
rise f r o m t h e suction t o t h e d i s c h a r g e s i d e o f a fan o r b l o w e r ,
o r a differential p r e s s u r e l o s s f r o m t h e suction t o t h e d i s c h a r g e
side of a filter or other piping element provides a simple
m o n i t o r o f f l o w t h a t i s a d e q u a t e f o r m o s t p u r p o s e s. W h e r e
p r e c i s i o n o p e r a t i o n is r e q u i r e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y a t l o w velocities,
a thermal f l o w switch is m o s t suitable. T h e s e devices consist o f
a h e a t e d e l e m e n t t h a t is c o n v e c t i o n - c o o 1 e d b y a i r f l o w . T h e
c h a n g e in h e a t l o s s o f t h e e l e m e n t p r o v i d e s reliable detection o f
g a s o r a i r f l o w.
V a n e s w i t c h e s, differential p r e s s u r e s w i t c h e s, a n d t h e r m a l f l o w
switches a r e a l s o a p p l i c a b l e t o liquid f l o w s. H o w e v e r , t h e v a n e
switch i s unsuitable f o r s o l i d s- bearing fluids, such a s s l u d g e.
O n e t h e r m a l f l o w s w i t c h i s c o n s t r u c t e d a s a s m o o t h r o d. I f
installed a t a n a n g l e with t h e p i p e r a d i u s o r into a n e l b o w , this
unit is applicable to solids bearing fluids, Differential
p r e s s u r e devices m u s t b e p r o v i d e d with chemical s e a l s i f t h e y are
t o b e s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d t o solids- b e a r i n g fluids.
1 7 . 2.2 1 . 4 O v e r l o a d Devices
All electric motor drives at wastewater treatment plants are

p r o v i d e d with t h e r m a l o v e r l o a d s. H o w e v e r , t h e s e units a r e n o t
fast enough to protect the driven machinery from damage due
t o m e c h a n i c a l b l o c k a g e. C o l l e c t o r d r i v e s, i n p a r t i c u l a r ,
a r e v i r t u a l l y a l w a y s p r o v i d e d with s o m e t y p e o f instantaneous
p r o t e c t i o n f r o m e x c e s s i v e t o r q u e. One of the most common
applications involves the circular collector of secondary
s e d i m e n t a t i o n t a n k s a n d c i r c u l a r g r a v i t y t h i c k e n e r s. The
s i m p l e s t o v e r l o a d device for s u c h e q u i p m e n t i s t h e s h e a r p i n.
T h e s h e a r p i n h a s t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e o f w o r k i n g o n l y o n c e. W h e n it
h a s p r o v i d e d p r o t e c t i o n f o r o n e o v e r l o a d , it m u s t b e r e p l a c e d
with a n identical p i n. As a r e s u l t , s e v e r a l mechanical resetable
o v e r l o a d d e v i c e s h a v e b e e n u s e d. T h e o n e m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d
t o d a y i s a n i n s t a n t a n e o u s o v e r- c u r r e n t r e l a y o r a m m e t e r w i t h
h i g h a l a r m c o n t a c t s i n s t a l l e d in t h e m o t o r c i r c u i t . These
u n i t s a r e s i m p l e , v e r y r e l i a b l e , and a l s o p r o v i d e a continuous
indication o f load . T h i s is useful f o r d e t e c t i n g a n y a b n o r m a l
load b u i l d - u p s.
1 7 . 2.2 1 . 5 Flame Safeguard Equipment
Wastewater solids systems that use boilers or furnaces to

m a i n t a i n anaerobic d i g e s t i o n , h e a t d r y i n g , o r h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e
processes require flame safeguard instrumentation , F 1 ame
s a f e g u a r d e q u i p m e n t s h u t s o f f t h e oil a n d g a s b u r n e r s in c a s e o f
1 7- 6 5
ignition loss. Ultraviolet light detectors provide virtually
instantaneous p r o t e c t i o n since ultraviolet e n e r g y i s p r e s e n t
only in the actual flame. This equipment is n o r m a l l y provided
as p a r t of t h e burner control p a c k a g e , This package a l s o
includes sequencing systems as necessary to ensure the purging of
explosive g a s e s from the fire b o x e s b e f o r e burner relighting
following a flame-out.
17.3 Sampling Systems
Sampling s y s t e m s include s a m p l e t r a n s p o r t and s a m p l e condi -

tioning . Where practical , measuring elements should be installed
directly into process vessels. In some cases, however , immersing
a measuring element directly into the process is not possible or
desirable. Some analyzers simply are not a d a p t a b l e to direct
on- line measurements , In other cases , the cost of an analyzer is
s o g r e a t t h a t it m u s t be time - s h a r e d b e t w e e n s e v e r a l s a m p l e
streams.
Anytime a sample must be transported a significant distance , care

must be t a k e n to ensure that t h e sample delivered to the analyzer
is fresh and that critical characteristics do not change during
the t r a n s p o r t time . P u m p s and piping materials m u s t not b e
corroded b y the s a m p l e nor s h o u l d t h e y in a n y w a y affect the
sample composition. Fluid velocities in t r a n s p o r t lines must be
k e p t high e n o u g h t o p r e v e n t solids settlement and t o limit
transit time . Flow t o t h e a n a l y z e r s h o u l d be continuous t o
maintain clean lines and deliver a fresh sample immediately t o
the analyzer , where sample switching is practiced . Where pumps
are r e q u i r e d , t h e y must be suitable for continuous o p e r a t i o n
without excessive maintenance. Where switching systems are used
to direct multiple samples into an analyzer , three-way diverter
v a l v e s are r e q u i r e d for each s a m p l e s t r e a m , with one p o r t t o
the drain and the other to t h e sampler.
Solenoid - c o n t r o l l e d , p n e u m a t i c a l l y o p e r a t e d ball v a l v e s a r e
recommended for sample switching . These units are capable of
handling m a n y o p e r a t i o n s without excessive maintenance and
can provide s l o w o p e r a t i o n o f t h e ball v a l v e and , therefore ,
smooth switching of the sample stream. Electric motor -operated
ball valves can be used but life expectancy of ball valves in
repetitive operations is short. Rapid direct switching with
l a r g e solenoid valves c a u s e s s i g n i f i c a n t p r e s s u r e s t r e s s o n
s a m p l e v a l v e piping . If solenoid v a l v e s are used t o switch
s a m p l e s d i r e c t l y , some s y s t e m must be provided t o a b s o r b
water hammer. Large , three - way solenoid valves with suitable
characteristics are not readily available ; therefore , two two- way
valves, one normally open and one normally closed , are u s u a l l y
required t o obtain the three-w a y switching function .
some type of program timer is required t o control sample valves

and synchronize readout devices with the s a m p l e s , The time
program m u s t also consider t h e settling time of an a n a l y z e r
1 7-6 6
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reach new readings. In m a n y cases , a n analysis is used o n l y for
recording o r indication ( that is , not for control purposes ), and
it is a c c e p t a b l e t o provide a single o u t p u t instrument with some
means o f identifying the s a m p l e source c u r r e n t l y being measured .
In s y s t e m s w h e r e t h e o u t p u t o f t h e a n a l y z e r is used f o r control ,
some means must be provided of holding the last value of the
p a r a m e t e r during periods that the a n a l y z e r is working on o t h e r
s a m p l e s. It is also essential t o review control s y s t e m dynamics
in a n i n t e r m i t t e n t l y s a m p l e d d a t a e n v i r o n m e n t , I n g e n e r a l ,
completely different control strategies are required for
intermittently sampled data systems than for continuous data
systems .
G a s s a m p l e l i n e s s h o u l d b e h e a t - traced t o avoid condensation
within the lines. In cold climates, e x p o s e d liquid s a m p l e s will
also require heat tracing t o avoid freezing .
S a m p l e p r e p a r a t i o n i s critical t o s a t i s f a c t o r y o p e r a t i o n o f
a n a l y s i s e q u i p m e n t . T h e d e g r e e o f g r i n d i n g and /o r f i l t e r i n g
required d e p e n d s o n the nature of the analysis and the equipment.
I n g e n e r a l , t h e aid of t h e a n a l y z e r m a n u f a c t u r e r s h o u l d b e
enlisted in working o u t a suitable s y s t e m. M o r e information o n
s a m p l e t r a n s p o r t is available ( 5 ).
17.4 O p e r a t o r Interface
1 7 . 4. 1 Location
Modern electronic instruments that provide information to
o p e r a t o r s ( for e x a m p l e , indicators and recorders ) are designed
f o r i n s t a l l a t i o n in c l e a n , air - conditioned c o n t r o l r o o m s.
Field locations are u s u a l l y n o t suitable for these instruments
unless additional p r o t e c t i o n is provided . H y d r o g e n sulfide is
p r e s e n t in m a n y p r o c e s s areas, and if it is allowed t o contact
instruments t h a t are not designed for this a t m o s p h e r e , failures
m a y result from corrosion. S o m e p r o c e s s areas a r e classified a s
h a z a r d o u s, s o that electrical equipment m u s t be e x p l o s i o n- proof.
E x p l o s i o n- p r o o f electronic o p e r a t o r interface instruments are n o t
available. T o be usable in a hazardous area , non- explosion- p r o o f
instruments must be enclosed in a suitable box . This makes them
v i r t u a l l y i n a c c e s s i b l e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , difficult t o use a n d
maintain. W h e r e instruments must be located in a contaminated
o r h a z a r d o u s p r o c e s s a r e a , p n e u m a t i c i n s t r u m e n t s , which a r e
i n h e r e n t l y e x p l o s i o n- p r o o f and are f a i r l y resistant t o dirt a n d
corrosion , should be considered , Where pneumatic instruments
are n o t practical , air purging of cabinets o r special filters
m a y p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e p r o t e c t i o n t o electronic i n s t r u m e n t s.
A suitable r e m o t e control room is the m o s t desirable solution.
1 7-6 7
17.4.2 Indicator Boards
S l u d g e handling s y s t e m s are f r e q u e n t l y designed with considerable
o p e r a t i n g f l e x i b i l i t y , with l a r g e n u m b e r s o f v a l v e s a n d m a n y
p o s s i b l e flow c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , A s a m i n i m u m , some m e a n s i s
required t o tell the o p e r a t o r what the p r e s e n t flow configuration
is. A chalk board can be used for this p u r p o s e , but it d o e s not
r e a d i l y p r o v i d e a g r a p h i c p i c t u r e of t h e piping configuration.
T h e r e f o r e , in m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d p l a n t s , s o m e t y p e o f g r a p h i c
indicator board is desirable t o p r e v e n t errors , In t h e simplest
f o r m o f indicator b o a r d , a g r a p h i c p a n e l is p r o d u c e d w i t h
m a n u a l l y m o v e a b l e f l a g s o r i n d i c a t i n g l i g h t s with w h i c h t h e
o p e r a t o r s indicate c u r r e n t v a l v e positions and p u m p operation.
Such a system can give an excellent picture of the present
operating configuration , but is d e p e n d e n t o n the o p e r a t o r s t o s e t
the f l a g s c o r r e c t l y , The use of limit switches o n valves and
indicating l a m p s is more reliable and also provides t h e o p e r a t o r
with a r e a d y means t o check t h e validity o f t h e valve settings
and p u m p selection , Figures 1 7 - 5 and 1 7 -6 show t w o e x a m p l e s o f
g r a p h i c p a n e l s with indicating lights f o r showing v a l v e o r g a t e
positions.
17.5 References
1. U S E P A. Instrumentation and Automation Experiences in
W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t Facilities. MERL. Cincinnati , Ohio
4 5 2 6 8. EPA-6 0 0/2- 7 6- 1 9 8. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 6.
2. L i p t a k , B . G. , e d i t o r . I n s t r u m e n t E n g i n e e r s H a n d b o o k.
Chilton Book C o m p a n y. Radnor , Pennsylvania. 1969.
3. U S E P A. Advanced Automatic Control Strategies for the
Activated S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t P r o c e s s. ERIC. Cincinnati , Ohio
4 5 2 6 8. EPA- 670/ 2- 75- 039. M a y 1975.
4. C o u r t e s y o f Eutek , I n c. S a c r a m e n t o, California .
5. USEPA. W a s t e w a t e r S a m p l e T r a n s p o r t and Conditioning S y s t e m .
Cincinnati , Ohio 4 5 2 6 8. EPA- 6(10/ 2- 7 6-1 46. October 1976.
1 7 -6 8
m .
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FIGURE 17-5
AERATION CONTROL GRAPHIC PANEL AND CONSOLE

LIGHTS SET MANUALLY ON GRAPHIC PANEL
17-69
.
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VIAAliY-viV/V *’
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FIGURE 17- 6
INCINERATOR-DIGESTER CONTROL GRAPHIC PANEL
LIGHTS CONTROLLED BY REMOTE VALVE LIMIT
SWITCHES
17- 70
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 18. Utilization


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 18
UTILIZATION
18.1 Introduction
Utilization refers to the beneficial use of sludge or sludge
b y - p r o d u c t s. Sludge disposal options that do not involve
beneficial u s e ( f o r e x a m p l e, w h e n d i s p o s a l is t h e o n l y g o a l ) a r e
discussed i n C h a p t e r 1 9.
S l u d g e m a y b e u s e d a s a:
Soil amendment, Sludge contains both crop nutrients and

organic matter, Sludge can be used as a fertilizer
a nd in the reclamation of disturbed lands , such as
c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e s , s t r i p-m i n e d l a n d s , g r a v e l p i t s, a n d
c l e a r- c u t f o r e s t s , It may be used to stabilize bank
s p o i l s a n d moving s a n d d u n e s.
Source of heat and work , Energy may be recovered from

the gas produced during anaerobic stabilization, or
p a r t i a l o r f u l l p y r o l y s i s o f s l u d g e s, a n d f r o m t h e d i r e c t
burning of sludges, This energy may be converted to
h e a t o r w o r k a n d p u t t o a v a r i e t y o f in- p l a n t u s e s, o r
e x p o r t e d f o r u s e s outside t h e p l a n t .
S o u r c e o f o t h e r u s e f u l p r o d u c t s. O t h e r u s e f u l p r o d u c t s
include w a s t e t r e a t m e n t chemicals , landfill t o p p i n g s ,
industrial r a w materials , a n i m a l feed , a n d materials o f
c o n s truetion.
T h e t h r u s t o f r e c e n t l e g i s l a t i o n h a s b e e n t o e n c o u r a g e beneficial
r e u s e. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1 9 7 2
( P L 9 2- 5 0 0 ) s t a t e d t h a t "T h e Administrator s h a l l e n c o u r a g e w a s t e
t r e a t m e n t m a n a g e m e n t w h i c h r e s u l t s in t h e construction o f r e v e n u e
p r o d u c i n g facilities f o r . . . t h e r e c y c l i n g o f p o t e n t i a l s e w a g e
p o l l u t a n t s t h r o u g h t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e, silviculture,
o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s, o r a n y combination t h e r e o f." T h e C l e a n
W a t e r A c t ( C W A ) o f 1 9 7 7 ( P L 9 5- 2 1 7 ) o f f e r e d f u r t h e r incentives
f o r p r o j e c t s t h a t involved innovative a n d a l t e r n a t i v e t e c h n o l o g y
( for example , sludge utilization , energy recovery ), In
a d d i t i o n, t h e C W A r e q u i r e s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f i n d u s t r i a l
waste pretreatment programs with the objective of reducing
t o x i c p o l l u t a n t l o a d i n g s t o m u n i c i p a l t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s.
Implementation of pretreatment programs will make more municipal
s o l i d s s u i t a b l e f o r r e u s e.
1 8 -1
T h e p r e t r e a t m e n t p r o g r a m s u p p l e m e n t s p r o g r a m s established by t h e
Toxic Substance Control Act ( P L 9 4-469 ) which authorized USEPA
t o o b t a i n p r o d u c t i o n and t e s t d a t a from industry o n selected
chemical substances and r e g u l a t e them w h e r e t h e y p o s e an
unreasonable risk t o the environment , S t e p s t o w a r d s the g o a l
o f f u r t h e r i n g s l u d g e utilization w e r e t a k e n b y t h e R e s o u r c e s
C o n s e r v a t i o n a n d R e c o v e r y A c t ( R C R A ) ( P L 9 4- 5 8 0 ) , w h i c h
authorized USEPA to develop treatment and application rate
c r i t e r i a f o r s l u d g e t o be a p p l i e d t o l a n d g r o w i n g f o o d - c h a i n
c r o p s, as well as t o nonagricultural areas . RCRA also authorized
funds for research , demonstrations, training , and other
activities r e l a t e d t o d e v e l o p m e n t o f o t h e r resource r e c o v e r y
s c h e m e s.
A t t h e same time , it is r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e r e are p o t e n t i a l

hazards associated with wastewater s l u d g e utilization and that
utilization without careful planning , m a n a g e m e n t , and operation
could p r e s e n t a d a n g e r t o human health and t o t h e environment.
18.2 '
S l u d g e as a Soil Amendment
Approximately 1.3 million dry t o n s per y e a r ( 1.2 million t/yr ),

o r 31 p e r c e n t of t h e treated municipal sludge g e n e r a t e d in the
United S t a t e s t o d a y , is a p p l i e d t o t h e land f o r p r o d u c t i v e
use. T h e quantities o f treated sludge projected for ultimate
d i s p o s a l by 1990 r a n g e f r o m 5.6 t o 7.6 million d r y t o n s p e r y e a r
( 5.1 t o 6.9 t /yr ). T h e s l u d g e quantities generated will d e p e n d
in .g r e a t p a r t u p o n t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h m u n i c i p a l i t i e s a d o p t
l a n d t r e a t m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r. L a n d t r e a t m e n t , w h i c h is a n
alternative t o conventional forms o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t ,
reduces substantially t h e a m o u n t of s l u d g e p r o d u c e d.
1 8 . 2.1 Perspective
The impact of sewage sludge on the national commercial

fertilizer market is relatively insignificant. This is shown in
Table 1 8-1 , where t h e amount o f nutrients in c u r r e n t l y utilized
and potentially usable sludges are compared against the
nutrients presently consumed in the form of commercial
chemical fertilizers. N i t r o g e n , p h o s p h o r u s , and potassium in
c u r r e n t l y utilized s l u d g e s are estimated t o be o n l y 0 . 2 , 0 . 9 , and
0.1 percent , r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f t h o s e nutrients consumed w i t h
chemical fertilizers. If all United S t a t e s wastewater sludges
were applied t o land , these p e r c e n t a g e s would increase t o 0 . 6 ,
,
3.2 and 0.4 p e r c e n t , respectively , If t h e value p e r pound of
n u t r i e n t in t h e s l u d g e was t h e s a m e as that paid by farmers
for the c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o m m e r c i a l n utrient , the monetary
value o f utilized nutrient sludges in 1978 was $ 9 . 5 , $ 26.0 , and
$ 1.7 million p e r y e a r for n i t r o g e n , p h o s p h o r u s, and potassium ,
respectively.
1 8-2
TABLE 18- 1
COMPARISON OF CURRENT AND POTENTIAL SLUDGE UTILIZATION

TO COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER CONSUMPTION IN THE UNITED STATES ( 1 )
Nutrient usage , 1 , 000 ton/yr
C. Nutrients
A. Nutrients in B. Nutrients in presently consumed A , as B , as
currently potentially in commercial percent percent
Nutrient utilized sludges useable sludges fertilizers of C of C
a a
Nitrogen as N 21.6 65.3 10,642 0. 2 0.6
Phosphorus as P 21.5 80.7 2 ,453 0.9 3.2
Potassium as K 4.3 18.9 4,841 0.1 0.4
a
Nitrogen m sludge expressed as available N , assumed to be
50 percent of total N.
While the values of nutrients in sludge are small relative to the

current dollar values of commercial fertilizers , they are by no
means insignificant to those who would benefit monetarily , For
example , wastewater treatment plants could reduce operating costs
by sludge sales or by elimination of more expensive treatment and
disposal methods. Sludge users , for example , private citizens ,
can obtain nutrients for lawns and gardens at low cost.
It is estimated that by the year 1990 , annual savings in
utilization were increased to about 50 percent ( 2 ).

-
treatment costs could be $ 100 $ 500 million if sewage sludge
This
utilization increase could result, in part, from the incentives
for innovative and alternative technologies provided by the
1977 CWA if various constraints to sludge utilization , including
regulations , are not overly stringent , If 50 percent of sewage
sludge were utilized on land , about $50 million ( 1978 dollars ) in
nutrients and organic matter could be recovered and utilized for
growing crops and improving soil structure.
A number of locations where various sludge utilization options

are currently being employed are listed in Table 18-2. Some of
these operations have only recently started up ( for example ,
Madison, Wisconsin ), while others have been in operation for as
long as 50 years ( for example , Los Angeles County , California ).
18.2.2 Principles and Design Criteria for Applying

Wastewater Sludge to Land
Certain basic elements are common to all land application

projects, no matter how or where the sludge is to be applied .
These elements include preliminary planning , site selection ,
process design ( which includes determination of sludge
18 3-
application rates ), facilities design , and facility management
and operation. Full and complete discussions of each of
these elements are too lengthy to be included in this manual.
Therefore , this section will provide only a brief outline. For
full details , the reader should consult Reference 3. At this
writing , this is USEPA' s primary reference for the utilization of
sewage sludges on land . The entire subject of sludge use on
land will be covered more extensively in a future Technology
Transfer design manual.
TABLE 18- 2
EXAMPLES OF COMMUNITIES PRACTICING LJAND UTILIZATION ( 2 )
Wastewater Sludge
flow , utilized , a
Communities MGD dry ton/day Description
Landspreading of liquid sludges

Clinton , New Jersey 1 0.5 PO, PL
Rochester , Indiana 1 0.8 MO, PL
Little Falls , Minnesota 1 0.6 MO, ML , PL
Peru , Indiana 2.5 0.8 MO, PL
Bowling Green , Ohio 3.5 1.7 MO, PL
Muncie , Indiana 17 10 MO, PL
Salem , Oregon 30 8 MO, PL
Madison , Wisconsin 36 27 FO, PL
Seattle , Washington 150 28 PO, PL
Chicago , Illinois 909 165 MO, ML
Composting
Durham , New Hampshire 0.8 0.7 MO, GAM
Burlington , Vermont 5.9 2.3 MO, PL, ML
Toms River , New Jersey 6.5 7.8 ML, PL
Bangor , Maine 7 2 MO, GAM
Windsor , Ontario 21 25 MO
Camden , New Jersey 32 12 MO, GAM
Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 113 30 MO , ML , PL
Washington , D.C. 300 55 PO, GAM , S
Los Angeles , California 440 150 MO, S
Drying
Little Falls , Minnesota 1 0.4 Drying bed , ML , PL
Largo, Florida 8 2.5 Heat dry , S
Marion , Indiana 9 0.2 MO, PL
Fort Worth , Texas 75 41 Drying bed , MO ML
Houston , Texas 73 18 Heat dry , S
Toledo , Ohio 78 35 PO, PL, Filter cake
Milwaukee , Wisconsin 132 190 Heat drying , MO , S
Denver , Colorado 140 125 MO, ML, Filter cake
Chicago , Illinois 909 131 Heat dry , MO , S
a
PO
PL
- Private
Privately operated
land
(contractor)
MO - Municipally operated
ML - Municipal land
FO
GAM
-
-
Farmer operated
Giveaway to municipality
S Sale
18 4-
18.2.2.1 Preliminary Planning
P r e l i m i n a r y planning consists o f the following s t e p s:
• A planning team is formed of individuals who are

interested in t h e p r o p o s e d p r o g r a m a n d w h o s e expertise
and support are required , A major activity of the
planning t e a m is t o solicit a n d obtain p u b l i c s u p p o r t
for t h e p r o g r a m, particularly t h e s u p p o r t o f p o t e n t i a l
s l u d g e users and local g o v e r n m e n t , T h e importance of
obtaining public s u p p o r t c a n n o t be overemphasized. Many
utilization projects have failed b e c a u s e p l a n n e r s h a v e
failed t o recognize t h i s necessity .
• Basic d a t a is collected , including s l u d g e q u a n t i t i e s and
characteristics , climatic conditions and local , s t a t e,
and federal regulations.
1 8 . 2.2 . 2 Site Selection

Site selection consists of:
• Preliminary screening. A r o u g h estimate of t o t a l a c r e a g e
required is obtained by dividing total s l u d g e quantity
by an assumed application rate , Land that might be
available within about 3 0 miles is identified ; obviously
unsuitable sites a r e immediately eliminated , If this
rough analysis indicates that sufficient land is
available, a m o r e detailed s t u d y o f p o t e n t i a l sites is
initiated .
S i t e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n. P o t e n t i a l l y a v a i l a b l e s i t e s
remaining a f t e r preliminary screening a r e characterized
as to topography , land use, soil characteristics,
g e o l o g y , a n d d i s t a n c e f r o m t r e a t m e n t p l a n t. The
characterization at first is general , taken from
published a n d readily available sources o f information,
such a s soils s u r v e y s and topographical m a p s. T h e least
suitable sites a r e eliminated by an objective ranking
p r o c e d u r e, similar t o t h e second -c u t analysis described
in P r o c e s s Selection Logic , C h a p t e r 3. The procedure
is r e i t e r a t e d , with m o r e d e t a i l e d a n d s ite - s p e c i f i c
information in e a c h iteration , until f i n a l l y t h e b e s t
site o r sites a r e determined .
• Site acquisition. Sites are acquired either by outright

p u r c h a s e o r by t h e municipality obtaining a c o n t r a c t f o r
t h e r i g h t t o use p r i v a t e l a n d f o r s l u d g e utilization.
18.2.2 . 3 Process Design

Process design involves selecting suitable c r o p s and determining
appropriate sludge application rates as well as application
methods. A l t h o u g h basic d e s i g n g o a l s ( maximization o f c r o p yield
1 8- 5
and quality , and minimization of environmental damage ) remain
constant regardless of projected land use , design procedures
differ for applications on agricultural , forested , and reclaimed
lands:
• Application on agricultural land. Sludge should be
applied to agricultural land at a rate equal to
the nitrogen uptake rate of the crop unless lesser
application rates are required because of cadmium
limitations. Annual loading rates for cadmium on
soils have been set at 1.8 pounds per acre per year
( 2.0 kg/ha-yr ) for food chain crops ; however , this value
can be regarded as provisional and may be revised on the
basis of ongoing and future research and future federal
regulations. The basis for the nitrogen criterion is to
minimize nitrate leaching to groundwater , The annual
limit for cadmium is chosen to minimize uptake by crops
- -
and the potential for long term , sub clinical adverse
effects on human health . Site lifetime limits are
established on the basis of maximum cumulative loadings
of lead , zinc , copper , nickel , and cadmium , These limits
-
are designed to allow growth and use of food chain crops
at any future date.
Application on forested land. As with agronomic crops,
the harvesting of a forest stand removes the nutrients
accumulated during growth. However , the amounts removed
in forest harvesting annually are significantly lower
than in agronomic crop harvesting. Uptake by vegetative
cover is negligible. Therefore , forest systems rely
primarily on soil processes ( denitrification ) to minimize
nitrate leaching into groundwater. As a result , nutrient
loadings on forested lands must generally be less than
those on agricultural sites. No annual limitations are
set for cadmium , since no food chain crops are grown.
-
Lifetime metals limits used for agricultural sites are
suggested for forested land ; this would minimize metal
toxicity to trees and allow growth of other crops if the
area were cleared at a future date.
• Application on reclaimed land. Sludge is usually applied

to impoverished lands at rates sufficient to satisfy the
nutrient requirements of the cover crop.
18.2.2.4 Facilities Design

Once the site has been chosen and crops and approximate sludge
application rates have been decided upon , the project can proceed
to the facility design stage , This phase of the project is
-
site specific and consists of:
• Detailed site investigations. On-site soil analyses are

conducted to determine such factors as available
phosphorus and potassium , soil pH and lime requirements,
18-6
c a t i o n e x c h a n g e c a p a c i t y , a n d o r g a n i c m a t t e r, Such
information will a l l o w f o r finalizing s l u d g e a p p l i c a t i o n
r a t e s d e t e r m i n e d in t h e P r o c e s s D e s i g n p h a s e , Soil
should be characterized t o p r o v i d e baseline d a t a against
which s u b s e q u e n t analyses can b e c o m p a r e d , This will
a l l o w d o c u m e n t a t i o n of c h a n g e s in t h e p h y s i c a l a n d
chemical properties o f the soil d u e t o sludge applcation.
• Petermining p r e- application t r e a t m e n t. T h i s refers t o

upstream sludge treatment , including thickening ,
stabilization , disinfection, conditioning , dewatering ,
and drying ( see Chapters 5 through 10 for detailed
d i s c u s s i o n s ). F o r n e w p l a n t s, t h e m e t h o d o f s l u d g e
d i s p o s a l o r utilization may dictate t h e p r e a p p l i c a t i o n
p r o c e s s i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n. For existing plants,
p r e- a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t influences s l u d g e f o r m a n d
c o m p o s i t i o n , a n d t h u s a f f e c t s a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e,
the method of spreading , and the mode of sludge
transportation.
• Determining sludge application m o d e. T h e application

m o d e d e p e n d s u p o n t h e s l u d g e form. Liquid s l u d g e c a n b e
s p r e a d by tank truck, sprayed , injected , o r applied by
t h e ridge-and - furrow technique. Dewatered s l u d g e s a r e
u s u a l l y a p p l i e d by c o n v e n t i o n a l f e r t i l i z e r s p r e a d i n g
equipment . S e e C h a p t e r 1 9 f o r a discussion of s l u d g e
application techniques.
• Determining s l u d g e s t o r a g e requirements. S t o r a g e s h o u l d
be provided w h e n s l u d g e c a n n o t b e s p r e a d ( f o r e x a m p l e,
during inclement weather ), Storage can also provide
a d d i t i o n a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n a n d d i s i n f e c t i o n. See
C h a p t e r 1 5 f o r information o n s t o r a g e.
1 8 . 2.2 . 5 Facility M a n a g e m e n t , Operations,

a n d Monitoring
O n c e t h e s y s t e m h a s b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d , it m u s t b e m a d e t o r u n
s m o o t h l y a n d efficiently :
Operations m u s t be scheduled , Spreading m u s t b e timed t o

satisfy farming requirements, If t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y
g r o w s its own c r o p s, tilling , planting , a n d harvesting
operations m u s t a l s o b e scheduled.
Operations m u s t be m a n a g e d t o r e d u c e o f f-site impacts
( o d o r s , c o n t a m i n a t i o n of g r o u n d w a t e r s , a n d s u r f a c e
w a t e r s ).
O p e r a t i o n s m u s t be monitored t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e s y s t e m is
operating a s intended . S l u d g e must be a n a l y z e d t o ensure
its acceptability t o t h e user a n d t o provide a r e c o r d of
nutrient a n d m e t a l additions t o t h e soil. S o i l , c r o p s,
1 8-7
groundwaters, and surface w a t e r s need t o be monitored
only if sludge nutrients are applied at rates exceeding
t h e u p t a k e capacity o f crops or soils.
18.3 Sludge as an Energy Source

W h e t h e r p r o d u c e d f r o m direct b u r n i n g of s l u d g e o r f r o m t h e
combustion o f s l u d g e - derived f u e l s s u c h as d i g e s t e r g a s o r
pyrolysis g a s, the end p r o d u c t is energy , Heat can be made to
perform a variety of useful functions.
18.3 .1 Perspective
T h e p r e c i p i t o u s r i s e in energy p r i c e s d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 s has
generated intense interest in the conservation and recovery of
this precious commodity. For example, the United S t a t e s Energy
Research and Development Administration ( now the Department of
E n e r g y ) h a s p r o p o s e d o n e - s e v e n t h o f t h e United S t a t e s e n e r g y
requirements be produced by bioconversion processes ( for example
anaerobic digestion ) by t h e year 2 0 2 0 ( 4 ). Clearly , however,
this a w e s o m e quantity of energy will n o t be g e n e r a t e d f r o m
municipal wastewater sludge; there is simply insufficient sludge.
Very large external organic sources ( for example , manure from
feed lots or municipal refuse ) and external processing systems
( energy farms ) will be required t o effect such production. As
with utilization of s l u d g e on land , t h e impact of energy recovery
from municipal sludges will be largely local, that is, it will be
felt m o s t strongly at the treatment plant and in its immediate
vicinity . H e r e , the effects can be significant .
A s Figure 6 -3 2 indicates, t h e energy value of methane generated
from the anaerobic digestion process exceeds the energy
requirements of the digestion process. T h e excess can be used t o
supply t h e energy n e e d s o f o t h e r p l a n t p r o c e s s e s. I n some
instances , t h e gas generated is sufficient to supply the energy
needs of the entire wastewater t r e a t m e n t plant , with excess gas
available for sale. Notable examples are the British Southern
a n d M o g d e n p l a n t s a n d t h e C o u n t y Sanitation D i s t r i c t s of
L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y J o i n t Disposal P l a n t ( 5 ). H e a t recovery
is p o s s i b l e e v e n if d i g e s t i o n is not used , for e x a m p l e, h e a t
recovery from coincineration of sludge and municipal refuse is
expected t o provide all the energy needs of the Central Contra
Costa Sanitary District ( CCCSD ) plant in Concord , California ( 6 ).
I n J a n u a r y 1978 , t h e S t a t e of California Public Utilities
Commission ( PUC ) p a s s e d a resolution directing a l l s t a t e
utilities t o augment cogeneration projects by setting u p new rate
schedules covering interruptible electric service; by creating
new specific rates t o e n c o u r a g e cogeneration, including revisions
t o s t a n d b y r a t e s ; a n d by d e v e l o p i n g g u i d e l i n e s c o v e r i n g t h e
p r i c e a n d conditions f o r t h e p u r c h a s e of energy a n d capacity
from c o g e n e r a t i o n facilities owned by others ( 7 ). T h e term
cogeneration in this context means the production of power by
utilization of waste heat ; it also covers power produced through
1 8-8
the
The
burning of alternative fuels , such as municipal waste
resolution significantly changes the economics of power
.
generation a t California Wastewater treatment plants and
-
encourages the use of in plant energy recovery .
On June 27 , 1979, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission issued
proposed regulations providing for the qualification of small
power production and cogeneration f a c i l i t i e s under Section 201 of
the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 ( 8 ) . The
proposed regulations are set up to assure opportunities for
s m a l l p o w e r p r o d u c e r s ( < 8 0 MW ) t o s e l l e l e c t r i c i t y t o . e l e c t r i c
u t i l i t i e s when such e l e c t r i c i t y i s generated through the use of
renewable energy sources ( such as sludge ) or recovered process
heat .
These regulatory actions are an indicator of future trends in the
U n i t e d S t a t e s a s t h e c o u n t r y s e e k s t o i n c r e a s e i t s n o n- f o s s i l
fuel energy production, The designer should be aware of their
impacts on future planning for using sludge as an energy source .
The recovery of energy in the form of fuels and heat from
municipal sludges will be discussed in detail in the following
sections .
.
18.3 2 Recovery of Energy From Sludge
F i g u r e 1 8-1 s h o w s o n o n e d i a g r a m p r o c e s s e s w h i c h r e l e a s e e n e r g y
from sludge; devices which convert the released energy to useful
forms ; useful energy forms ; and suggested applications of
recovered energy , either at the wastewater treatment plant or
-
off site .
Special consideration must be made when designing
processes to recover energy from wastewater sludge , Some of
these considerations are discussed below .
18.3 2.1. Treatment of Digester Gas
The treatment required depends on the digester gas ' anticipated
use . Treatment i s minimal if the gas i s burned in a boiler or in
a high temperature internal combustion engine, Conversely , if
i t is sold for utilities as a natural g a s substitute i t must be
upgraded to natural gas quality . This involves treatment to
.
r e m o v e p a r t i c u l a t e s , H 2S , C O 2 , a n d w a t e r As a g e n e r a l r u l e, g a s
t r e a t m e n t s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d t o a s g r e a t a d e g r e e a s p o s s i b l e. I t
is preferable to set up recovery systems that can be operated
with untreated d i g e s t e r gas.
Particulates are carried over with the gas as i t leaves the
digester .
They may be removed i n large sedimentation traps and
cyclonic separators .
H 2S i s most commonly removed by -
iron sponge scrubbers . The
"s p o n g e" c o n s i s t s o f w o o d s h a v i n g s i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h i r o n o x i d e .
H 2S r e a c t s w i t h i r o n o x i d e t o f o r m n o n v o l a t i l e f e r r i c s u l f i d e .
The sponge can be regenerated with a i r .Sponge capacity i s
-
18 9
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FIGURE 18 - 1
THE RELEASE, CONVERSION, FORMS AND USES

OF ENERGY FROM SLUDGE
18 10 -
about 0.6 p o u n d s o f sulfur p e r p o u n d o f iron oxide ( 0.6 k g /kg ).
P r o b l e m s h a v e been e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h f o u l i n g o f t h e iron-s p o n g e b y
o i l s a n d g r e a s e s entrained i n t h e d i g e s t e r g a s. I r o n - s p o n g e
s c r u b b e r s a r e c o m m e r c i a l l y available . Other H 2S scrubbing
p r o c e s s e s are less commonly used and are proprietary.
CO 2 r e m o v a l p r o c e s s e s can be divided into three broad categories ;

a b s o r p t i o n ( both p h y s i c a l a n d chemical ) , a d s o r p t i o n , a n d
c r y o g e n i c processing. M a n y C O 2 removal processes also remove
H 2 S. T h e o n l y process which h a s received much use in wastewater
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s is a b s o r p t i o n in w a t e r ; t h i s p r o c e s s h a s
b e e n t e s t e d a t M o d e s t o, C a l i f o r n i a , a n d L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y ,
California. In 1 9 7 6 , t o t a l c o s t s f o r a w a t e r s c r u b b i n g unit
o f 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 c u b i c f e e t p e r d a y ( 2 8 , 3 0 0 m 3 /d ) c a p a c i t y w e r e
estimated a t $ 2 . 5 0 p e r m i l l i o n B t u ( $ 2 . 3 7 /G J ) o f e n e r g y ( 9 ).
S o m e methane is a l s o absorbed during the scrubbing p r o c e s s; c o s t s
were based o n e n e r g y leaving the scrubber a s o p p o s e d t o energy in
the untreated gas. O f this, $ 0 . 1 5 p e r million B t u ( $ 0 . 1 4/GJ ) was
attributed t o t h e c o s t of iron-sponge H 2S removal, which must
necessarily p r e c e d e the w a t e r scrubber. I t w a s estimated t h a t
this unit would p r o d u c e 2 M G D ( 8 7 1/s ) o f spent scrubbing w a t e r.
Costs for treating the s p e n t scrubbing w a t e r w e r e included in the
estimate. These units a r e commercially available.
G a s leaves the d i g e s t i o n s y s t e m at a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9 5 ° F ( 35 °C ) and
i s s a t u r a t e d with w a t e r v a p o r. D u r i n g t r a n s p o r t t h e g a s i s
cooled. Condensate formed m u s t be removed t o p r o t e c t downstream
equipment . Water t r a p s should be installed at low s p o t s in the
g a s pipe and at f r e q u e n t intervals. If moisture must be reduced
substantially , adsorption drying or g l y c o l d e h y d r a t i o n can be
used .
1 8 . 3.2.2 G a s- Burning Equipment
Corrosion F a c t o r s
O n e o f t h e m a j o r p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d with r e c o v e r i n g h e a t
f r o m d i g e s t e r g a s is c o r r o s i o n c a u s e d b y S O 2 a n d S O 3 , t h e
combustion products of H 2S. I f the e x h a u s t g a s t e m p e r a t u r e is
allowed to drop below its dewpoint, the condensate which
f o r m s is a c i d i c a s t h e r e s u l t o f a b s o r b i n g S O 2 a n d S O 3. T h e
a c i d i c c o n d e n s a t e is c o r r o s i v e t o m e t a l l i c e l e m e n t s o f t h e
exhaust - carrying s y s t e m. There are t w o alternatives t o alleviate
t h e p r o b l e m. T h e first is s c r u b b i n g o f H 2 S f r o m t h e g a s
before combustion. The second is maintaining the exhaust g a s at
t e m p e r a t u r e s considerably g r e a t e r than its’ dewpoint , t o p r e v e n t
condensation. This g e n e r a l l y requires that the water t e m p e r a t u r e
o f a n y boiler o r engine using unscrubbed g a s be a t least 2 1 2 ° F
( 1 0 0 ° C ). A l s o , s t a c k g a s t e m p e r a t u r e s s h o u l d n o t b e a l l o w e d
t o d r o p below 350 ° t o 400 °F ( 1 7 7 ° t o 2 0 4 °C ). U s e o f unscrubbed
d i g e s t e r g a s is p r e f e r r e d . E q u i p m e n t fueled by unscrubbed
digester g a s should n o t b e used in intermittent service , since
c o n d e n s a t i o n w i l l o c c u r e a c h t i m e t h e u n i t is s h u t d o w n.
1 8-1 1
S h u t d o w n s s h o u l d b e m i n i m i z e d, Similarly , the equipment should
be designed so that even when operated a t i t s lowest loadings ,
exhaust gas temperatures are s u f f i c i e n t l y high to prevent
condensation .
VENT
J HEAT TRANSFER
TUBES
CONDENSER
° a n
a o V
a . c -
-
FREE L I Q U I D - 4
*
13
*
SURFACE
STEAM-
RETURN
WATE R
MIXTURE WATER
HOT COOLED
GAS GAS
RETURN HOT
FROM WATER
BOILER HEAT TO
DEMAND HEAT
DEMAND
FICURE 18- 2
SCHEMATIC OF COMBINED BOILER / CONDENSER

SYSTEM FOR HOT WATER PRODUCTION
1 8- 1 2
Boilers
S c o t c h - t y p e t u b e boilers a n d c a s t iron sectionalized b o i l e r s

h a v e both worked well with untreated d i g e s t e r g a s as long a s the
water or steam temperatures are maintained above 212°F ( 100 °C ).
F i g u r e 1 8 - 2 illustrates a n e f f e c t i v e m e t h o d f o r h o t w a t e r
production using boilers. The heat source ( the boiler ) and heat
demands are not directly tied together, but separated by a
c o n d e n s e r. T h e c o n d e n s e r is m o u n t e d directly above the boiler.
The s p e c i f i c gravity o f the s t e a m /water mixture p r o d u c e d in t h e
boiler t u b e s is less than t h a t o f the w a t e r r e t u r n i n g t o the
b o i l e r. T h e mixture is d i s p l a c e d u p w a r d into t h e c o n d e n s e r ,
g i v e s u p its heat , then flows by gravity back t o the boiler. A
natural circulation p a t t e r n is t h u s s e t u p.
If heat supply e x c e e d s heat demand , t h e excess heat is released

by venting steam from the condensers , T e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l is
automatic , being s e t by the v e n t p r e s s u r e , A d v a n t a g e s o f this
s y s t e m a r e s i m p l i c i t y , elimination o f c o s t s associated with
pumping , automatic temperature control , and independent
operation o f the boiler from o t h e r heat sources and heat demands.
I n d e p e n d e n t o p e r a t i o n is particularly important ; it a l l o w s the
boiler t o o p e r a t e a t its o w n best conditions , without being
affected by the operations o f other c o m p o n e n t s o f the s y s t e m.
Prime Movers
D i g e s t e r g a s can be used t o fuel reciprocating e n g i n e s and g a s
t u r b i n e s. Prime m o v e r s c o n v e r t p a r t o f t h e f u e l ' s e n e r g y t o
work , rejecting the remainder a s waste heat . Thermal efficiency
can be dramatically improved if portions o f the rejected heat can
be recovered and used for p r o c e s s o r b u i l d i n g heating. Waste
h e a t r e c o v e r y is m o r e efficient if p r i m e movers a r e r u n h o t ,
since h e a t r e j e c t e d a t h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s c a n b e p u t t o a
g r e a t e r variety o f uses than heat rejected at low t e m p e r a t u r e.
A l s o, exhaust s y s t e m s last l o n g e r because S O 2-S O 3 corrosion is
reduced .
Reciprocating E n g i n e s. E n g i n e s m a y b e c o o l e d u s i n g e i t h e r a
forced circulation s y s t e m in which w a t e r is pumped t h r o u g h the
engine , o r a natural draft s y s t e m. T h e equipment configuration
f o r n a t u r a l circulation c o o l i n g is s i m i l a r t o t h a t described
for boiler natural circulation systems except the engine
r e p l a c e s the boiler in the f l o w d i a g r a m ( see Figure 1 8- 2 ). T h e
a d v a n t a g e s of natural circulation cooling a r e the same as those
discussed for natural circulation boiling. Cooling system
higher pressures cooling water could leak past the cylinder

(
^
p r e s s u r e s a r e limited t o about 1 0 psig 6 9 kN/m ); if o p e r a t e d at
liner s e a l s a n d into the cylinder. T h e maximum cooling w a t e r

t e m p e r a t u r e is t h u s a b o u t 2 4 0 ° F ( 116 ° C ) , corresponding t o the
t e m p e r a t u r e of saturated s t e a m at 10 psig ( 69 k N/m ). ^ Engines
using natural circulation cooling are relatively small , typically
d e v e l o p i n g l e s s t h a n 1 , 500 h o r s e p o w e r ( 1 , 1 2 0 k W ). Flow r a t e s
developed by natural circulation cooling m a y be insufficient t o
1 8- 1 3
cool larger engines. Flow rates may be increased by installing
a booster pump in the circulating l o o p near the entrance t o the
engine jacket. There are reciprocating engines on the market
designed t o o p e r a t e at t e m p e r a t u r e s in the 160° t o 180 ° F ( 71° t o
8 2 ° C ) range. However , they are not recommended for services
with unscrubbed d i g e s t e r g a s because o f potential p r o b l e m s
with S O 2-S O 3 corrosion. Heat recovered from the engine jacket is
typically used t o sustain the digestion p r o c e s s and for s p a c e
heating .
Reciprocating engines commonly employed in wastewater treatment
plants fall into two categories ; dual-fuel ( compression ignited )
and s p a r k ignited e n g i n e s. D u a l - f u e l e n g i n e s use a blend o f
diesel fuel and digester gas ; the fraction o f diesel fuel can be
varied from a minimum of 4 percent all the way t o 100 percent of
the mixture. Dual-fuel engines are typically used if there is
insufficient digester gas to satisfy power demands .
Dual- fuel
engines have been specified for new plants where digester gas
production is expected t o lag behind power demands for several
years.
Spark - ignited engines are generally used when there is sufficient
digester gas to satisfy power demands. Spark - ignited engines can
o p e r a t e on several different t y p e s of fuel ( for example , digester
gas and natural g a s ). Special carburetors are provided t o blend
d i g e s t e r g a s with an air - d i l u t e d b a c k u p f u e l ( f o r e x a m p l e ,
natural g a s ) during infrequent periods when not enough digester
g a s is available t o satisfy power requirements. Spark- ignited
engines are less complex then dual -fuel engines , are available
in smaller sizes , and are less costly t o operate since expensive
diesel fuel is not required .
Naturally aspirated feed s y s t e m s are preferred to turbocharged
systems for spark - ignited engines. Turbocharged s y s t e m s require
that g a s be delivered at high pressure , which means the gas must
be first c o m p r e s s e d , t h e n delivered t h r o u g h a f u e l m e t e r i n g
s y s t e m w i t h r e s t r i c t e d o p e n i n g s. Gas impurities ( oils,
g r e a s e s , and water ) are condensed when the gas is compressed and
cooled ; these impurities often clog the fuel metering system .
Naturally aspirated systems o p e r a t e at low pressures ( < 0.5 psig
[ 3.4 kN /m 2 ] ). With careful design of the g a s transport systems ,
compression of the feed gas is not required , Low pressure fuel
metering systems also have relatively large openings compared
t o m e t e r i n g s y s t e m s used with t u r b o c h a r g e d units. F o r these
reasons , n a t u r a l l y - a s p i r a t e d f u e l s y s t e m s are t h e r e f o r e l e s s
susceptible to clogging than systems with t u r b o c h a r g e d units .
E n g i n e s r e p r e s e n t a l a r g e c a p i t a l investment and s h o u l d be
c o n s e r v a t i v e l y d e s i g n e d t o p r o t e c t that investment . For
four -stroke engines it is recommended that brake mean effective
pressure ( BMEP ) not exceed 80 t o 85 psig ( 550 t o 590 kN /m 2 ) t o
minimize strain on the equipment. Engine speeds in the 700 to
1 , 000 r p m are preferred as are average piston speeds in the range
of 1 , 200-1 , 500 feet per minute ( 370 to 460 m/rain ). Heavy- duty
industrial engines should be specified , not automotive engines.
1 8-14
G a s Turbines. G a s turbines have had relatively limited use t o
d a t e. W h e r e used , t h e r e h a v e been fouling p r o b l e m s which are
i n h e r e n t with c o m p r e s s i n g a d i r t y g a s t h r o u g h f u e l m e t e r i n g
s y s t e m s w i t h s m a l l c l e a r a n c e s. H o w e v e r , new d e v e l o p m e n t s in
t h e turbine field and t h e fact t h a t less N 0 X is p r o d u c e d b y
turbines t h a n by reciprocating engines has led t o a second look
at turbines, particularly in nonattainment air q u a l i t y areas. A
n e w s y s t e m t h a t u s e s a r e l a t i v e l y l o w ( 4/1 ) p r e s s u r e r a t i o
turbine with recuperation has the potential t o solve m a n y o f the
p r o b l e m s which plagued earlier installations ( 1 0 ). T h e n o r m a l l y
low efficiency o f the low p r e s s u r e ratio turbine is boosted by
p r e h e a t i n g t h e c o m p r e s s e d air with h e a t r e c o v e r e d f r o m t h e
exhaust g a s. Ignition for this turbine can be s t a g e d t o minimize
NOx g e n e r a t i o n. Emissions c o n t r o l is particularly important in
n o n-a t t a i n m e n t a r e a s w h e r e n e w s t a t i o n a r y s o u r c e s m u s t u s e
B e s t Available Control Technology ( BACT ). BACT for reciprocating
engines is considered t o be catalytic denitrification , while BACT
for low p r e s s u r e ratio turbines can be s t a g e d ignition.
18.3.2.3 Generators
G e n e r a t o r s m a y be s y n c h r o n o u s o r induction t y p e s, Synchronous
g e n e r a t o r s are by f a r the most common. However, in s m a l l e r sizes
( below 5 o r 1 0 MW ) induction units are g e n e r a l l y l e s s expensive
than synchronous units. T h e y are also easier t o maintain since
t h e y r e q u i r e n o g o v e r n o r o r synchronizing equipment , Induction
generators have the disadvantage of being unable to operate
unless parallelled with synchronous generation , either utility o r
in-p l a n t. Thus an induction g e n e r a t o r by itself c a n n o t be used
t o provide e m e r g e n c y p o w e r.
18.3.3 E x a m p l e s of E n e r g y R e c o v e r y
The following t w o e x a m p l e s demonstrate calculations for t w o o f

the m o s t c o m m o n l y encountered e n e r g y r e c o v e r y practices , Other
e x a m p l e s and case histories can be found in References 1 1 and 1 2.
1 8 . 3.3.1 E n e r g y R e c o v e r y from Digester G a s
G a s f r o m an anaerobic digestion s y s t e m is t o be utilized t o h e l p

^
s u p p l y p l a n t e n e r g y n e e d s in a 3 0 M G D ( 1 . 3 m /s ) a c t i v a t e d
s l u d g e plant. D i g e s t e r g a s will be used t o fuel a s p a r k - ignited
i n t e r n a l combustion e n g i n e e q u i p p e d w i t h n a t u r a l circulation
c o o l i n g. T h e engine will drive an electrical g e n e r a t o r. The
electricity g e n e r a t e d will be used t o power various plant m o t o r
drives. H e a t recovered from t h e engine cooling j a c k e t and f r o m
the exhaust silencer will be used for s p a c e and p r o c e s s heating.
It is h o p e d that sufficient heat will be recovered t o supply at
least digester heat requirements ; any excess heat recovered will
be used f o r " o t h e r " p r o c e s s heating . I t is anticipated t h a t heat
recovered from the engine jacket ( u s u a l l y low t e m p e r a t u r e heat )
1 8-1 5
will be used to make hot water for digester heating , while heat
recovered from the exhaust silencer ( high temperature heat ) will
be used to generate steam. Figure 18 3 is the system flowsheet. -
( iAR A
(
\ STQRwSt j
/ DIGESTER •>
C? l
it
•j
3?
. z 2L
sc
a JJ
HI
<
n \_) lb
-
Jj CIRCULATING X
s ...
SLUDGE CONDENSER
<
RAW SLUHOF
HEM £ fi •
X"
'in
HEATER > FOR FNQ&NE
C01O RAW J JACKET UJ

> CC
< r I
SlUUGt ^ WvW
" SPACE
HEATUP
S**M JL-t IsTi
vwi fvWl K'VVi
^
0;r
ENtjlNF Kv :
EXHMJSI
FLE TfllCITY
5
*
o
u.
UJ
SILENCE R
-
tr rQT
s
Yr;
Q) LI & % EXHAUST ^vVVVVVw
X LX LX
HUT WATER CIRCULATING LOOP
4 Ii
^ WSAAA
/
Q
JJ
2.
3
A
s-*
J
Zi
a
O THfcR"
"'
HEAT
*
iAAWVsA
DEMANDING
SUBSTANCES
^ **
HEATER FOR
HIGH TFMPFRATURF
l > 2»‘ F Dthteftf !
*
FIGURE 18- 3
PROCESS SCHEMATIC FOR EXAMPLE OF ENERGY

RECOVERY FROM DIGESTER CAS
The following data is estimated for the sludges and digester gas:
Digester feed 50 ,000 pounds per day ( 22,700 kg/d ), dry
weight basis. The feed solids are 75 percent volatile.
The sludge is 4 percent solids by weight.
Fifty percent of the volatile solids ( VS) are destroyed
during digestion.
Raw sludge temperature is 60°F ( 16°C ).

Fifteen standard cubic feet ( 0.42 nX ) of digester gas
are generated for every pound (0.454 kg ) of VS destroyed.
The gas composition is 66 percent CH 4 , 28.3 percent
CC> 2 , and 5.7 percent water ( by volume ). Other gases
( H 2 , H 2 S , N 2 ) are present but not in s u f f i c i e n t
quantities to affect the heat balance.
18 16-
619 Btu ( 648 kJ ) of heat are produced for every standard
cubic foot ( 28.3 l i t e r s ) of digester gas combusted .
The plant has the following energy requirements , which could
be supplied in part or in whole by energy recovery from
d i g e s t e r gas:
1, 0 0 0 k W o f e l e c t r i c i t y .
Energy for raw sludge and digester heating ( to be
computed ) .
15 x 106 Btu per day (15.8 x G J /d ) f o r m i s c e l l a n e o u s
heating .
The following calculations are required :
Determine the energy value of the digester gas .

Determine if energy that can be recovered from the
combusted gas is sufficient to satisfy the energy
requirements listed above .
Provide an energy flow diagram .
Determine overall heat recovery efficiency .
To make comprehension of t h i s example easier, the energy flow
diagram is presented first ( see Figure 18 4 ) The calculation - .
i s divided into four sections , as illustrated by the numbered
"boxes" on the diagram .
The magnitudes of the energy streamd
-
shown on Figure 18 4 a r e developed i n t h e following c a l c u l a t i o n s:
Determine the Energy Value of t h e Digester Gas ( Box 1)
1 . Digester gas flow rate
50, 000 lb solids 0 . 7 5 l b VS 0 . 5 l b VS destroyed

day lb solids l b VS f e d
x l/ i b V S 1 d5 e ss ct rf o y e d = 2 8 1 , 2 5 0 s c f d ( 8 , 1 5 7 m 3 /d )
2. Energy value of the gas
= ( 281, 250 s c f d ) ( 6 1 9 B t u /s c f )
= 174 x 106 B t u p e r d a y ( 1 8 3 . 5 G J /d )
Strictly speaking , the energy value of the digester gas

should include not only the heat of combustion but the
heat contents ( enthalpy ) of the reactants ( air, fuel gas )
18 17 -
c a l c u l a t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o a s e l e c t e d b a s e t e m p e r a t u r e.
H o w e v e r, t h e h e a t c o n t e n t s o f t h e r e a c t a n t s a r e v e r y s m a l l
compared to the heat of combustion and may be neglected with
very little loss of accuracy and with a substantial reduction
in a m o u n t o f c a l c u l a t i o n s n e c e s s a r y .
B t -
LNERGT VALUE
i cj!$r $i A isAs
OF
*
lW .il
<.
STRJCTURA
W A T LOSS
.^.. . SP
DiGESTE R BO
*2
.
I
I EXCESS
AIR ML A f
e.o
r
" f .Q , HEAT LOSS TO
JS
ALL VALUES l
** SuRROuwoiltlGS
COOLED
AP E IN UMTS OF
f . 41.(1 4£ ? EHsCibE EXHAUST
u
1( DTU'OAV Hi A 7 LCOS ~C
\f* 87 ! -
'
— 1U8FICATING
3.1 GAS
I BTU - T.9W
v
ELECTRICITY
-‘ 4
GENERATOR
LOSS
S3.2
7
OIL >
EXHAUST $AS EXHAUST 3A ?

£ ?. 4 ! ! SILENCER
hSJf Suits *
SUB
.
i
Jy Mi AT LOSS TD
•
v SURRCusMQNDi
CCUJ
RAW
SLUDGE
J RA'A SLUDGE
MI ATE P
DFrCUlATINO
$LU0fCF
HEA"ER H ST1ACE
HEAT HI
MI >T
LOSE
TO ClWKViSH
L. - .
O
ISA
OTHER
:
I
L. SIJNMCIMMOIAOS FOR EMGLYE
"
PROCESS USES
'
r nc
- i 5.0 Th 3.0
JACK! T
J
i
BOX
*
FIGURE 18- 4
ENERGY FLOWSHEET FOR EXAMPLE OF

ENERGY RECOVERY FROM DIGESTER GAS
M a k e a- H e a t B- a- l a n c e A r o u n d t. hê E n g i n e/G e n e r a t o r ( B o x 2 )-
a« •
* 1 vwn r l :*gmwr*ir IA .vuir/ wir r*m r •
« IV [ 1
1. Assume 28 percent of the energy value of the f u e l gas i s

c o n v e r t e d t o w o r k.
Work produced
= 0.28 ( 174 x 106 B t u/d a y )
= 48.7 x 10 ^ B t u p e r d a y ( 5 1 . 3 G J /dJ
Assume 90 percent of the work produced can be converted to

ele ctricity .
18- 18
Electricity
= 0.90 ( 48.7 x 106 B t u /d a y ) = 4 3 . 9 x 106 B t u /d a y ( 4 6 . 2 G J /d )
T h i s is e q u i v a l e n t t o 5 3 5 k W. Since a v e r a g e p l a n t electrical
d e m a n d is 1 ,0 0 0 k W, a u x i l i a r y p o w e r m u s t be p u r c h a s e d .
2. Assume 33 percent of the energy value of the fuel gas is

r e c o v e r e d in t h e e n g i n e j a c k e t w a t e r.
E n e r g y r e c o v e r e d in t h e j a c k e t w a t e r
= 0.33 ( 174 x 106 B t u/d a y )
= 57.4 x 106 B t u p e r d a y ( 6 0 . 5 G J /d )
3. A s s u m e t h e r a d i a n t heat l o s s f r o m t h e e n g i n e is 4 p e r c e n t o f
t h e e n e r g y v a l u e o f t h e f u e l g a s.
Radiation l o s s
= 0.04 ( 174 x 10
^ B t u/d a y ) = 7 . 0 x 10 ^ B t u p e r d a y ( 7 . 4 G J /d )
4. A s s u m e 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e e n e r g y v a l u e o f t h e f u e l g a s is
t r a n s f e r r e d t o l u b r i c a t i n g o i l.
Heat loss to oil
= 0.05 ( 174 x 106 B t u /d a y ) = 8 . 7 x 1 0 ^ B t u p e r d a y ( 9 . 2 G J /d )
5. H e a t in t h e e x h a u s t g a s i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e e n e r g y
v a l u e o f t h e f u e l g a s a n d t h e h e a t l o s s e s determined in items
1 t h r o u g h 5.
H e a t in t h e e x h a u s t g a s
= ( 174.0 - 48.7 - 57.4 - 7 . 0 - 8 . 7 ) x 10 ^

= 52.2 x 106 B t u p e r d a y ( 5 5 . 0 G J /d )
Determine Whether Sufficient Heat can be Recovered From the

—
( Box 3 )
n «
——
J a c k e.t - C o. o l i n q
I - -
mi
W a t e.r
Win MUM I
— ——
to Satisfy
rliHHII MMMM III .
l 'T III II
Diqester
T> tiJB
*
Heatinq
-
* +'
Requirements
“ " m" '
" /
“ ’Mf
' " I MIIW
1. Energy required to heat raw sludge
5 0 , 0 0 0 l b s o l i d s /d a y 1.0 B t u
0 . 0 4 l b s o l i d s/l b s l u d g e l b s l u d g e/°F
(95 - 6 0° F )
= 42.0 x 106 B t u p e r d a y ( 4 4 . 3 G J /d )
2. Determine e n e r g y r e q u i r e d f o r c i r c u l a t i n g s l u d g e heating.
The purpose of the circulating sludge heater is to make
up for any heat lost through the digester structure Heat .
1 8 -1 9
l o s s c a l c u l a t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h e s e s h o w n in C h a p t e r 6 ,
S e c t i o n 6 . 2 .6 . 2 , i n d i c a t e s t h a t f o r t h e d i g e s t e r o f t h i s
e x a m p l e, l o s s e s a r e o n t h e o r d e r of 5 . 0 x 1 0 ® B t u p e r d a y
( 5 . 3 G J /d ).
3. Determine h e a t l o s s in t h e h o t w a t e r circulating l o o p, T h e r e
is v e r y l i t t l e h e a t l o s s b e c a u s e t h i s is a c l o s e d s y s t e m
( s e e F i g u r e 1 8 - 3 ). The only losses will be through the
insulation. I t is r o u g h l y a s s u m e d t h a t h e a t l o s s is 5 p e r c e n t
o f t h e h e a t leaving t h e e n g i n e jacket.
Heat loss
= 0 . 0 5 ( 57.4 x 1 0 ® ) = 2.9 x 1 0 ® B t u p e r d a y ( 3 . 0 G J /d )
4. T o t a l h e a t required for t h e digestion s y s t e m
= ( 42.0 + 5.0 + 2.9 ) x 106 = 49.9 x 106 B t u/d a y ( 52.6 G J/d )
5. H e a t available in t h e c o o l i n g w a t e r m i n u s t o t a l h e a t r e q u i r e d
f o r t h e digestion s y s t e m
= ( 57.4 - 49.9 ) x 106 = 7.5 x 106 B t u /d a y ( 7 . 9 G J / d )
To keep the internal combution engine adequately cooled ,

t h i s h e a t m u s t be rejected in s o m e m a n n e r. T h e h e a t m a y b e
r e j e c t e d b y renting s t e a m f r o m t h e c o n d e n s e r. I n this c a s e ,
however, t h e d e s i g n e r h a s c h o s e n t o use t h e e x t r a h e a t for
b u i l d i n g h e a t , t h e r e b y u t i l i z i n g r a t h e r t h a n w a s t i n g it.
D e t e r m i n e if S u f f i c i e n t H e a t c a n b e R e c o v e r e d f r o m t h e H o t
C o m b u s t i o n G a s e s L e a v i n g t h e E n g i n e t o S a t i s f y "O t h e r" P r o c e s s
Requirements ( Box 4 )
From p r e v i o u s c a l c u l a t i o n s, t h e h e a t a v a i l a b l e i n t h e h o t
c o m b u s t i o n g a s i s 5 2 . 2 x 1 0 ® B t u p e r d a y ( 5 5 . 0 G J / d ). N o t
a l l o f t h i s h e a t c a n b e r e c o v e r e d f o r u s e. P r a c t i c a l l i m i t s
exist to the degree to which the hot gas can be cooled, For
e x a m p l e, t h e h o t g a s e s m u s t b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y w a r m e r t h a n t h e
material being h e a t e d t o c a r r y o u t h e a t t r a n s f e r in a n e x c h a n g e r
o f r e a s o n a b l e size a n d c o s t. I n this e x a m p l e, h o w e v e r , t h e l o w e r
t e m p e r a t u r e limit is set at 3 5 0°F t o p r e c l u d e c o r r o s i o n t h a t
m i g h t o c c u r b y condensation o f w a t e r v a p o r o n t h e inside o f t h e
e x h a u s t s t a c k walls. T h e d e s i g n e r m u s t t h e r e f o r e determine if
s u f f i c i e n t h e a t c a n b e obtained t o s a t i s f y " o t h e r " p r o c e s s u s e s
w h e n t h e h o t combustion g a s e s a r e c o o l e d t o 3 5 0 °F ( 1 1 7 °C ) in t h e
e x h a u s t s i l e n c e r. S i n c e t h e h e a t c o n t e n t o f t h e h o t combustion
g a s e s i s k n o w n ( 5 2 . 2 x 1 0 ® B t u p e r d a y [ 5 5 . 0 G J /d ] ), h e a t
available can readily be calculated once the heat content of
t h e g a s a t 3 5 0 °F ( 1 1 7 °C ) h a s b e e n determined , T h i s is c a l c u l a t e d
a s f o l l o w s:
1. F i r s t c a l c u l a t e t h e v o l u m e o f e x h a u s t g a s. G a s p r o d u c t i o n
c a n b e p r e d i c t e d f r o m s t o i c h i o m e t r y:
1 8- 2 0
CH 4 + 202 CO 2 + 2H 20 -
( 18 1 )
a . C 02 present = C02 in digester gas plus C02 formed

by combustion of methane.
1. From previous calculations , digester gas production

is 281 ,250 standard cubic feet per day ( 8 ,157 m3/d ).
2. Unburned digester gas contains 28.3 percent C02 by

volume.
C02 associated with digester gas
0.283 ( 281 ,250 scfd ) = 79 ,593 scfd ( 2 ,252 m 3/d )
3. -
From Equation 18 1 , one cubic foot of C02 is formed
for every cubic foot of methane burned. Digester gas
contains 66 percent methane by volume.
C02 formed by combustion of methane
= 0.66 ( 281 ,250 scfd ) = 185,625 scfd ( 5 , 253 m 3/d )
4. Total C02 volume
79 ,593 + 185 ,625 = 262,218 scfd ( 7,505 m3/d )
b . CH4 present: none , all converted to C02.
c. 02 present: assume that air supplied exceeds theoretical

requirements by 10 percent. Oxygen associated with this
-
excess is not consumed . From Equation 18 1 , theoretical
oxygen requirements are two cubic feet of oxygen for
every cubic foot of methane burned.
Oxygen in excess of theoretical requirements
0.66 ft3 CH4

( 2 )( 0.10 ) ( 281 ,520 scfd )
ft3 digester gas
= 37,125 scfd ( 1 ,050 m 3/d )
d. N 2 present: N 2 associated with the air passes through

the system unchanged in quantity.
-
18 21
N 2 flow
0.66 ft3 CH 4
281 ,250 scfd
( ft3 digester gas )
[l.lO x 2]ft3 Og delivered 0.79 ft3 n2
x
ft3 CH4 0.21 ft3 02
= 1 ,536 ,265 scfd ( 43 ,476 m3/d )
e . H 2O present H 2O in digester gas plus that created by

combustion of methane.
1. Digester gas contains 5.7 percent H 2O by volume.
H 2O in digester gas
= 0.057 ( 281 ,250 scfd ) = 16 ,031 scfd (453 m3/d )
2. -
From Equation 18 1 , two cubic feet of HgO are formed
for every cubic foot of methane burned.
HgO formed
0.66 ft3 CH 4 2 ft3 H 20
281 ,250 scfd
ft3 digester gas )( ft3 CH 4
= 371 ,250 scfd ( 10 ,506 m 3/d )
3. Total water 16 , 031 + 371 , 250 387 , 281 scfd

( 10,960 m 3/d )
f . Total gas flow = 262,218 + 37 ,125 + 1 ,536 ,265 + 387 ,281
= 2,222,889 scfd ( 62,907 m3/d )
2. Next calculate the heat content of the exhaust gas at 350°F
(117°C ). The heat content of the exhaust gas is the sum of
the heat contents of its individual components , The heat
content of any component at 350°F is the sum of the sensible
and latent heats required to raise the component from an
arbitrarily selected base temperature to 350°F ( 177°C ). Mean
heat capacity data for several gases is shown on Figure 18 5.
-
The base temperature for Figure 18 5 is 77°F ( 25°C ). The
-
mean heat capacity of a gas over the range 77°F to 350°F is
the value found at 350°F .
a. Heat content of CO2
Wlb
(
9.5 Btu mole\ 350
( -
° 77°F ) ( 262,218 scfd )
=
lb mole/°F
1 . 9 x 10
359)
^ scfj
^ Btu per day (2.0 GJ/d )
-
18 22
H Li*
y3
2 E£
<
o ^
_
LU DO
X
1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4Q00 4400 4800 5200
TEMPERATURE, F °
° °
( F = 1,8 C + 32)
FIGURE 18- 5
MEAN MOLAL HEAT CAPACITIES OF CASES AT CONSTANT

PRESSURE ( 13 ) (MEAN VALUES FROM 77 to T F ) ° °
b. Heat content of O 2
7.2 Btu lb mole
( 350°- 77 °F ) ( 37 , 125 scfd )
lb mole/°F 359 scf
= 0.2 x 106 Btu per day ( 0.2 GJ/ day )
c. Heat content of N 2
6.8 Btu lb mole
( 350 °- 77 °F ) ( 1, 536 , 265 scfd )
lb mole/°F 359 scf
= 7.9 x 106 Btu/day ( 8.4 GJ /d )
d. Heat content of water , In this calculation , water is

pictured as heated in a liquid state to the dew point,
evaporated , and heated as a vapor to final temperature.
Other approaches can also be used ; these are described in
thermochemistry textbooks.
18 - 23
387 , 281 scfd H 20
1. Water comprises 100
2, 222, 889 scfd total
= 17.4 percent by volume of the exhaust gas. The
dew point for gas containing 17.4 percent water by
volume is 135 ° F ( 58°C ).
2. Heat to raise liquid water to the dew point

387, 281 scfd 18 Btu ( 135-77°F )
359 scf /lb mole lb mole/° F
= 1.1 x lO
^ Btu per day ( 1.2 GJ /d )
3. Heat to vaporize water at the dew point
387 , 281 scfd 18, 720 Btu

359 scf /lb mole lb mole
= 20.2 x 106 Btu per day ( 1.19 GJ /d )
4. Heat to raise water vapor from the dew point

to 350 ° F
8.2 Btu 387, 281 scfd ( 350-135 °F )

lb mole/° F 359 scf /lb mole
= 1.9 x 106 Btu per day ( 2.0 GJ /d )
5. Total heat content of water ( 1.1 + 20.2 + 1.9 )

x 106 = 23.2 x 106 Btu per day ( 24.5 GJ /d ).
e . Heat content of exhaust gas at 350 °F ( 117° C )

= ( 1.9 + 0.2 + 7.9 + 23.2 ) x 10
^ = 33.2 x 10 ^ Btu per day
( 35.0 GJ /d )
3. Energy available to satisfy " other " requirements
= ( 52.2 - 33.2 ) x 106 = 19.0 x 106 Btu per day ( 20.0 GJ /d ).
.
4 Determine heat loss in steam /condensate circulating loop.
There will be very little heat loss because this is a
closed system ( see Figure 18-3 ). Assume losses are roughly
5 percent of the heat transferred from the exhaust silencer.
Heat loss
= 0.05 ( 19.0 x 10 *5 Btu/day ) = 0.9 x 10 ^ Btu per day

( 1.0 GJ /d )
18-24
5. H e a t a v a i l a b l e f o r "o t h e r " p r o c e s s d e m a n d s
( 19.0 - 0.9 ) x 106 = 18.1 x 10 ^ B t u p e r d a y ( 1 9 . 1 G J /d )
T h e a v a i l a b l e h e a t i s sufficient t o s a t i s f y t h e d e m a n d s.
Determine E f f i c i e n c y o f t h e E n e r g y R e c o v e r y S y s t e m
T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l m e t h o d s f o r evaluating t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e
e n e r g y r e c o v e r y s y s t e m. O n e a p p r o a c h is t o c o m p u t e t h e u s e f u l
h e a t a n d w o r k recovered a s a p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e e n e r g y i n p u t.
1. U s e f u l h e a t a n d w o r k:
a. Electrical e n e r g y = 4 3 . 9 x 1 0 6 B t u p e r d a y ( 4 6 . 2 GJ /d ).
b. Raw sludge heating = 42.0 x 10 ^ B t u p e r d a y ( 4 4 . 2 G J /d ).
c . Circulating sludge heating 5.0 x 106 Btu per day

( 5 . 3 G J /d ).
d. "Other " process heating 15.0 x 106 Btu per day

( 1 5 . 8 G J /d ).
e . Space heating = 7.5 x 10 ^ B t u p e r d a y ( 7 . 9 G J /d ).
2. Energy input from digester gas 174 x 106 B t u /d a y

( 1 8 3 . 4 G J /d ).
3. Computed efficiency = 43.9 + 42.0 + 5.0 + 15.0 + 7.5 100

174.0
65 percent
T h i s activated s l u d g e p l a n t is n o t a b l e t o s u p p l y a l l its e n e r g y
n e e d s u s i n g d i g e s t e r g a s ( i n s u f f i c i e n t e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y ).
G e n e r a l l y , d i g e s t e r g a s is s u f f i c i e n t t o s a t i s f y t h e e n e r g y
r e q u i r e m e n t s o f m o s t p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s b u t n o t activated
sludge plants, since aeration blowers generally have high
e l e c t r i c a l d e m a n d s.
1 8 . 3.3 . 2 R e c o v e r y o f E n e r g y f r o m Incinerator F l u e G a s
^
A w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t o f 1 2 5 M G D ( 5 . 4 8 m /s ) c a p a c i t y u s e s
incineration t o p r o c e s s 1 9 0 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 8 2, 2 6 0 kg /d ) o f
combined p r i m a r y a n d w a s t e-activated s l u d g e s. H e a t is r e c o v e r e d
from the flue g a s e s as electricity and s t e a m in a s t e a m turbine
p o w e r c y c l e, u s i n g a w a s t e h e a t boiler. T h e d e s i g n e r's o b j e c t i v e
is t o m a x i m i z e w o r k p r o d u c t i o n ( e l e c t r i c i t y and d i r e c t p o w e r ).
1 8- 2 5
S t e a m is n o t used for s p a c e o r p r o c e s s heating , A flow sheet o f
the process is shown o n F i g u r e 1 8 -6. T h e following additional
information is provided :
• T h e f l u e g a s h e a t c o n t e n t is 6 0 6 x 1 0 ^ Btu per day

( 6 3 9 G J /d ) , b a s e d o n a n a s s u m e d g a s c o m p o s i t i o n a n d
g a s t e m p e r a t u r e , using methods described in t h e e x a m p l e
o f Section 1 8 . 3.3.1. Similarly , the heat content o f t h e
stack gas is 250 x 10 ^ B t u p e r d a y ( 2 6 3 G J /d ). H e a t
losses from t h e boiler structure are 1 8 x 106 Btu per
d a y ( 1 9 GJ /d ).
• The boiler produces superheated steam at 615 psia

( 4 , 261 kN/m 2 ) a n d 8 2 5°F ( 441 °C ) , which is t h e n f e d t o
a s t e a m turbine , called the " main turbine."
• S t e a m is w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e t u r b i n e a t t h r e e p o i n t s.
First , 50 , 000 p o u n d s per d a y ( 22, 700 kg /d ) a r e withdrawn
a t 1 6 5 p s i a ( 1 , 1 4 3 k N /m 2 ) a n d a p p l i e d t o d r i v e s f o r
p u m p s and c o m p r e s s o r s. This is called " process " steam.
,
Second a quantity ( t o be c o m p u t e d ) is withdrawn and used
for preheating of the boiler feedwater. This is called
" p r e h e a t " s t e a m. The remaining s t e a m , which is " primary "
s t e a m , i s e x h a u s t e d a t 1 p s i a ( 6 . 9 k N / m 2 ). The
efficiency o f t h e turbine ( actual t o theoretical w o r k
o u t p u t ) is assumed t o b e 76 p e r c e n t.
Exhausted " process " s t e a m from the pump and c o m p r e s s o r

d r i v e s is c o n d e n s e d a t 1 p s i a ( 6 . 9 k N / m 2 ) , combined
with t h e " primary " c o n d e n s a t e, and s e n t t o t h e feedwater
h e a t e r. " Primary " and " process " condensates are
assumed to be saturated water at the exhaust pressure
( 1 psia [ 6.9 kN/ m 2] ) .
"Preheat " steam is mixed with " primary " and " process "
condensates in the feedwater heater to produce a
s a t u r a t e d feedwater a t 3 0 0 ° F ( 149 °C ).
• The feedwater is pressurized t o 6 1 5 psia ( 4, 2 6 1 k N/m 2 ),

and returned t o t h e boiler.
T h e following information is desired :
Steam and condensate flow rates.
• Electric power g e n e r a t e d.
• P u m p and compressor work produced by the " p r o c e s s " s t e a m.
• E n e r g y r e c o v e r y efficiency.
1 8- 26
"FEFD” STEAM B 25’ F . £ 15 psis "PROCESS" STEAM 11=55 -«ia
CUU LE D
EXHAUST
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‘ E LFCTR ICITY
*
MAIN
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DIRECT
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FLUE GAS J OJ
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CL COOLING
WASTE HEAT i. '
WAIL Hi SUPPLY
BOILER "PRIMARY"
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CONDENSER
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CONDENSER COOLING
WATFR RETURN
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1
i
MAIN
nC + 32 FEEDWATER
°1Fpal- -1.36.93 kN.'m2
FEEniVATFR
PUMP NFATER
FIGURE 18- 6
FLOWSHEET FOR EXAMPLE OF ENERGY RECOVERY

FROM INCINERATOR FLUE GAS
A n a l y z e t h e Operation o f the Main Turbine
Turbine operations can be a n a l y z e d using a Mollier diagram. A

Mollier diagram is a p l o t of e n t h a l p y versus e n t r o p y for specific
t w o - p h a s e s y s t e m s which d i s p l a y l i n e s for c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e ,
t e m p e r a t u r e , p e r c e n t m o i s t u r e , and s u p e r h e a t , a m o n g o t h e r s .
F i g u r e 1 8 - 7 is a M o l l i e r d i a g r a m f o r t h e s t e a m -w a t e r s y s t e m .
N o t e t h a t t h e t e r m s " e n t h a l p y " a n d " h e a t c o n t e n t " are e q u i v a l e n t
a n d will be used interchangeably in the following discussion.
T h e " s t a t e line " c o n c e p t is used for turbine analysis , The state

line d e s c r i b e s t h e s t e a m condition a t e v e r y point within t h e
turbine. T h e line can be d r a w n once a n y t w o points d e s c r i b i n g
s t e a m conditions in t h e turbine a r e established , For this
e x a m p l e , the turbine feed s t e a m and the " primary " s t e a m exhaust
c o n d i t i o n s will be determined , t h e n p l o t t e d o n t h e Mollier
diagram o f Figure 1 8- 7.
1 . T h e turbine feed s t e a m condition ( 6 1 5 psia [ 4 , 2 6 1 kN/m ] ), ^

825 °F [ 441 °C ] ) is plotted as point A on the Mollier Diagram
( s e e F i g u r e 1 8 - 7 ). F i g u r e 1 8 - 7 is n o t d e t a i l e d , s o t h a t
d a t a p o i n t s and s t a t e lines c a n be c l e a r l y seen , More
detailed diagrams are available 1 4 ( , 1 5 ).
1 8- 2 7
] $50 j
1600
A, "FEED" STEAM
°
825 FP
615 psia,
1550
1420 BtuAb
1500 D. "PROCESS STEAM

°
585 Fr
165 piifl,
1450 1320 Btu/lb
Cx- PREHEAT STEAM

140C
67 psiar
1258 Btu /lb
1.150
/
r: 1200 •
ucx
C * PRIMARY ”
STEAM
iorF
*,
psi
1036 Btu/lb
.
B ISENTROPICALLY EXPANDED
^PRIMARY" STEAM
101 F, °
1 psia,
915 I
l.B 1.9 2.0
-
2,1 2.2 2.3
ENTROPY, Btu/lb/ F ( 1 Btu/lb /0 F
° 4.18 kJ/kg/ C)
°
MOLLIER CHART COURTESY OF BABCOCK AND WILCOX
FIGURE 18- 7
STEAM CONDITIONS FOR EXAMPLE OF RECOVERY OF ENERGY

FROM INCINERATOR OF FLUE CAS
1 8- 2 8
2. D e t e r m i n e t h e " p r i m a r y " s t e a m e x h a u s t c o n d i t i o n. I f t h e
turbine w e r e 1 0 0 p e r c e n t efficient , t h e s t e a m w o u l d e x p a n d
i s e n t r o p i c a l l y , t h a t i s, t h e e n t r o p y o f t h e s t e a m a t a n y
point in the turbine would be identical to the entropy
of the feed steam and the state line would be vertical
( d a s h e d line i n t h e M o l l i e r Diagram ). T h e " p r i m a r y " e x h a u s t
steam condition would be located at the intersection
of the vertical state line and the exhaust pressure
( 1 p s i a [6 . 9 k N/m 2 ] ), a t p o i n t B. E n t h a l p y o f t h e s t e a m a t
p o i n t B is 9 1 5 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 2 . 1 3 M J /k g ).
H o w e v e r, t u r b i n e s a r e n o t 1 0 0 p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n t s i n c e
i s e n t r o p i c e x p a n s i o n is n e v e r attained. T h e e n e r g y which c a n
b e e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e s t e a m in p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s is o n l y
a p e r c e n t a g e o f t h a t which c a n b e e x t r a c t e d b y i s e n t r o p i c
e x p a n s i o n. T h i s i s e x p r e s s e d b y E q u a t i o n 1 8- 2.
Turbine efficiency = ( Hi
Hi
_ H p
-
2
H2i ) 100 ( 1 8- 2 )
W h e r e:
Hi = e n t h a l p y o f inlet s t e a m, B t u/l b.
H 2p = e n t h a l p y o f s t e a m exhausted from a practical

turbine , B t u/l b.
H 2i = e n t h a l p y o f s t e a m e x h a u s t e d from an ideal
turbine , B t u/l b.
T h e e f f i c i e n c y d e s c r i b e d b y E q u a t i o n 1 8- 2 i s t h e a c t u a l
w o r k o u t p u t relative t o theoretical o u t p u t — it is l e s s t h a n
1 0 0 p e r c e n t b e c a u s e o f irreversibility in t h e e x p a n s i o n o f
g a s e s in t h e turbine, Mechanical l o s s e s in t h e t u r b i n e a n d
g e n e r a t o r a r e n o t i n c l u d e d.
F o r t h e p r a c t i c a l t u r b i n e, e n t h a l p y o f t h e e x h a u s t e d
s t e a m ( H 2 p ) c a n b e c o m p u t e d f r o m E q u a t i o n 1 8 - 2. F o r t h e
t u r b i n e o f t h e e x a m p l e ( 7 6 p e r c e n t efficient ).
)
^
76
H 2p = 1, 4 2 0 ( 1 ,4 2 0 - 9 1 5 ) ( 1 8- 2 )
100
= 1, 0 3 6 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 2, 4 0 5 k J /k g )
The "primary " exhaust steam condition for the practical

t u r b i n e i s l o c a t e d a t p o i n t C, t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e
e x h a u s t p r e s s u r e ( 1 p s i a [ 6 . 9 k N/ m 2 ] ) a n d e n t h a l p y v a l u e
1,0 3 6 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 2, 4 0 5 k J /k g ). T h e s t a t e l i n e f o r t h e
p r a c t i c a l t u r b i n e is t h e n d r a w n b e t w e e n p o i n t s A a n d C.
1 8- 2 9
3. T h e "p r o c e s s" s t e a m c o n d i t i o n m u s t l i e o n t h e s t a t e l i n e, I t
is located at the intersection of the state line and the
" p r o c e s s " s t e a m o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e ( 1 6 5 p s i a [ 1, 1 4 5 k N/m 2 ] ),
a t point D.
4. As with t h e " p r o c e s s " s t e a m, t h e " p r e h e a t " s t e a m c o n d i t i o n

c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d o n c e its p r e s s u r e is k n o w n , Pressure can
b e determined b y t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n i n g :
a . "Preheat " steam pressure is essentially equal t o the

p r e s s u r e in t h e f e e d w a t e r h e a t e r ( p r e s s u r e d r o p t h r o u g h
t h e l i n e s c o n n e c t i n g t h e turbine a n d f e e d w a t e r h e a t e r is
a s s u m e d n e g l i g i b l e ).
b. T h e f e e d w a t e r h e a t e r i s a d i r e c t c o n t a c t d e v i c e.
Sufficient " p r e h e a t " s t e a m is mixed with " p r i m a r y " a n d
" p r o c e s s " c o n d e n s a t e s t o f o r m a t w o- p h a s e s y s t e m a t
3 0 0 ° F ( 1 4 9 ° C ). Thus the feedwater heater system is a
s a t u r a t e d s y s t e m.
c . T h e f e e d w a t e r h e a t e r p r e s s u r e , therefore is t h e p r e s s u r e
o f s a t u r a t e d s t e a m a t 3 0 0 ° F ( 1 4 9 °C ), which i s 6 7 p s i a
( 4 6 4 k N/m 2 ).
T h e " p r e h e a t " s t e a m c o n d i t i o n is l o c a t e d a t t h e intersection o f

t h e s t a t e l i n e a n d t h e 6 7 p s i a ( 4 6 4 k N/ m 2 ) c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e
line ( p o i n t E ). E n t h a l p y o f t h e " p r e h e a t " s t e a m is 1 , 2 5 8 B t u p e r
p o u n d ( 2,9 2 1 k J /kg ) .
Determine S t e a m and C o n d e n s a t e F l o w s
1. C i r c u l a t i n g s t e a m r a t e is c o m p u t e d b y a h e a t b a l a n c e a r o u n d
t h e b o i l e r.
a . Enthalpy of the water entering the boiler is assumed

e q u a l t o t h a t l e a v i n g t h e f e e d w a t e r h e a t e r ; t h a t i s,
pumping affects the enthalpy value negligibly. This
i s a j u s t i f i a b l e a s s u m p t i o n f o r t h e p u m p i n g o f l i q u i d s.
F r o m s t e a m t a b l e s ( 1 4 , 1 5 ), t h e e n t h a l p y o f s a t u r a t e d
w a t e r a t 300 ° F ( 1 4 9 ° C ) is 2 7 0 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 6 2 7 k J /k g ).
b. B y p r e v i o u s c a l c u l a t i o n s, e n t h a l p y o f s u p e r h e a t e d s t e a m
l e a v i n g t h e b o i l e r i s 1 , 4 2 0 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 3 , 2 9 7 k J /k g ).
c . F r o m t h e p r o b l e m s t a t e m e n t , heat a b s o r b e d in t h e boiler
= 338 x 106 B t u p e r d a y ( 3 5 6 G J /d ).
d . Therefore steam circulating rate
3 3 8 x 106 B t u/d a y
( 1 , 4 2 0 - 2 7 0 ) B t u/l b
= 2 9 3 ,9 0 0 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 1 3 3 , 4 0 0 k g /d ) .
1 8 -3 0
2. "Process," " primary ," and " preheat " steam rates are
d e t e r m i n e d b y mass a n d h e a t b a l a n c e s a r o u n d t h e f e e d w a t e r
h e a t e r. L e t X a n d Y b e t h e f l o w r a t e s f o r " p r i m a r y " a n d
" p r e h e a t " s t e a m, r e s p e c t i v e l y , E q u a t i o n 1 8-3 i s t h e m a s s
balance a r o u n d t h e f e e d w a t e r h e a t e r.
2 9 3 , 9 0 0 = X + Y + 5 0 ,0 0 0 ( 1 8- 3 )
E q u a t i o n 1 8 -4 i s t h e h e a t b a l a n c e f o r t h e f e e d w a t e r h e a t e r.
2 9 3 ,9 0 0 ( 270 ) 7 0 X + 1 2 5 8 Y + 7 0 ( 5 0, 0 0 0 ) ( 1 8-4 )
E n t h a l p i e s o f t h e " p r o c e s s " a n d '" p r i m a r y " c o n d e n s a t e s

( 7 0 B t u p e r p o u n d o r 1 6 2 k J /k g ) a r e f o r s a t u r a t e d w a t e r
a t 1 p s i a ( 6 . 9 3 k N / m 2 ). S o l v i n g E q u a t i o n s 1 8 - 3 a n d 1 8 - 4
simultaneously , "primary" and " preheat " steam rates are
1 9 4 , 6 2 6 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 8 8 , 3 5 0 k g /d ) a n d 4 9 , 2 7 4 p o u n d s
p e r d a y ( 2 2 , 3 7 0 k g /d ), r e s p e c t i v e l y.
At t h i s point , construction o f a n e n e r g y f l o w s h e e t should

be initiated ( s e e F i g u r e 1 8 - 8 ). This allows the designer
to s e e a l l p e r t i n e n t d a t a o n one h e e t a n d g i v e s a f e e l i n g
s
for t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e v a r i o u s e n e r g y f l o w s.
Determine Electrical Energy Generated

W o r k p r o d u c e d is t h e s u m o f t h e t o t a l e n t h a l p y c h a n g e s across t h e
t u r b o g e n e r a t o r:
1. W o r k f r o m " p r o c e s s" s t e a m
= 5 0 , 0 0 0 l b/d a y ( 1 , 4 2 0 , - 1 , 3 2 0 B t u /l b )
= 4.90 x 106 B t u p e r d a y ( 5 . 1 6 G J /d )
2 . Work from "preheat" steam
4 9 , 274 l b/d a y ( 1, 4 2 0 - 1, 2 5 8 B t u/l b )
7.98 x 106 B t u p e r d a y ( 8 . 4 1 G J/d )

3. Work from "primary" steam
= 1 9 4 , 6 2 0 l b/d a y ( 1 , 4 2 0 - 1 , 0 3 6 B t u/l b )
= 74.73 x 10 ^ B t u p e r d a y ( 7 8 . 7 7 G J /d )
4. Total work produced
= ( 4.90 + 7.98 + 74.73 ) x 106
= 87 x 106 B t u p e r d a y ( 9 2 . 3 G J /d )
5. Assume mechanical efficiency of the t u r b i n e /g e n e r a t o r
c o m b i n a t i o n is 9 5 p e r c e n t.
1 8- 3 1
Net electricity produced
= 8 3 . 2 x 1 C) 6 B t u p e r d a y ( 8 7 . 7 G J / d )
T h i s i s e q u i v a l e n t t o 1, 015 kW o f e l e c t r i c i t y .
- -access mw
F 5w\ooc htof
STFAM: JKJ ino liMr,

i m taut - ... AohWWW!
urr^ A/Jir.AL.
irass -
p
44K1C 1
BTBJCIK *
j
GOO I. SQ
MAIN TURBINE
!
Bal'd r/
\ I
v y
f
_
fctNiWATCM
f
Luc'aicrnr
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-
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iwm IMW *
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VHEHEAT
^=
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< WJ? MfeftM
4
! '?£ft Buils
BZJUCID'0 EiTJ I'M >
H AT < H 4MPE ftEa
c *
TO «l » ihfi WATER
CKHAl .lST^ ri
--
•F fe CF S '
STr>M ^
R& Mftiutw
nJS ?w »
S& IS Btu>dJ«
! S*l J » ut*
BiuMsy
7>
; V
‘ PRIMARY' S EO .J s .
Bu ’tiri » HO£ S$~
W£ A -
ETAarruKAi
l/JEStS IWU 1
'
«
S? T <w,
CLf +atRHfn
i
1
'
Id* E'MI'H *
> STEAM
11HCIjNOCHSATt
"PRIMARY ' '
^ -
f i L WAftM TOUPOQifafttay
m 0 iMib
Ifc & KpgiMtftv
\7
| PM ,43fi iL.Vlfc,
J I TO am^
||IUBA1F* Pbj.td*y
i
"PROCESS '
COMOtraiAi t;
FttDurAFEft
NEATER c H4 M9 iWfeV 90,000 Itv 'div
TD Diwilb JO Bairtb
^ tTt & maM mcrhs AWE FRCJPOMTKIMAL
. . 3AX1D1 Smid*v
“U SMhAU'V : HtAT ,» LS MATE
* U IA
^ EaiUir
FIGURE 18- 8
ENERGY FLOWSHEET FOR EXAMPLE OF ENERGY

RECOVERY FROM INCINERATOR FLUE CAS
D e t e r m i n e W o r k P r o d u c e d i n t h e "P r o c e s s" S t e a m C y c l e
E n t h a l p y o f t h e " p r o c e s s " s t e a m i s 1, 3 2 0 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 3 , 0 6 5 k J /
kg ) . Enthalpy of the exhausted steam can be determined using
the same technique employed for analysis of the main turbine .
Isentropic expansion of process steam ( initially at point D,
F i g u r e 1 8- 5 ) t o 1 p s i a ( 6 . 9 k N / m 2 ) p r o d u c e s a n e x h a u s t g a s
o f e n t h a l p y 9 5 0 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 2 , 2 0 6 k J /k g ) Assume process .
turbines are 50 percent efficient .
1 . Enthalpy of exhausted steam
= 1, 3 2 0 - 50
100
( 1, 3 2 0 - 950 )
= 1 , 1 3 5 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 2 , 6 3 5 k J /k g )
1 8- 3 2
2. Work produced
= ( 5 0 , 0 0 0 l b/d a y ) ( 1 , 3 2 0 - 1, 1 3 5 B t u /l b )
= 9.2 x 106 B t u p e r d a y ( 9 . 7 G J /d )
3. Assuming mechanical losses of 5 percent, work delivered

= ( 9.2 x 106 Btu per day ) ( 0.95) = 8.8 x 10 ^ Btu per day
( 9 . 3 G J /d )
T h i s is e q u i v a l e n t t o 1 0 7 k W.
Determine E n e r g y R e c o v e r y E f f i c i e n c y
A s s u m e h e a t r e m o v e d in the c o n d e n s e r s i s n o t used b e n e f i c i a l l y ,
b u t d i s c h a r g e d t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e via c o o l i n g t o w e r s.
1. E n e r g y r e c o v e r y , based o n h e a t t r a n s f e r r e d t o s t e a m
_ (( 83.2 x 106 + 8.8 x IQ 6 )

100 = 27.2 percent
338 x 106
2 . E n e r g y r e c o v e r y , based o n h e a t in t h e incinerator flue g a s
(
_ (83.2 x 106
606 x
+ 8.8 x
106
106 )
) 100 = 15.2 percent
C o m p a r e t h e recovery o f this e x a m p l e ( 1 5 p e r c e n t ) against t h e

r e c o v e r y o f e n e r g y f r o m d i g e s t e r g a s ( 6 5 p e r c e n t ), a s illustrated
b y t h e e x a m p l e i n S e c t i o n 1 8 . 3 . 3 . 1. G r e a t e r e f f i c i e n c y w a s
obtained b y t h e internal combustion s y s t e m b e c a u s e:
1. No heat was lost prior to the work producing step, In
c o n t r a s t , f u l l y 4 1 p e r c e n t o f t h e h e a t a v a i l a b l e in t h e
incinerator f l u e g a s w a s rejected in t h e w a s t e h e a t r e c o v e r y
boiler before any useful work could be extracted ( see
F i g u r e 1 8 -8 ).
2. With the internal combustion system, waste heat from the

work producing step was used benefically ( for digester
a n d s p a c e heating ), I n c o n t r a s t, w a s t e h e a t f r o m t h e s t e a m
condensers was not used benefically but rejected to the
environment . I t i s difficult t o u s e this h e a t s i n c e it i s
available a t o n l y a v e r y l o w t e m p e r a t u r e ( 1 0 2°F [ 3 9 ° C ] ).
These two examples demonstrate the general rule that energy
r e c o v e r y s c h e m e s w h o s e s o l e e f f e c t is t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f w o r k a r e
n o t l i k e l y t o b e efficient .
1 8- 3 3
It should not be inferred from the examples that energy recovery
from flue gases must necessarily be inefficient , In this
example , the objective of the designer in recoverying heat from
incinerator flue gas was to maximize work , Had he chosen to
exhaust steam from either of the turbines at higher pressures and
used it for heating purposes or had he used " process " steam
solely for heating , some work would have been sacrificed but
thermal efficiency could have been substantially improved , The
point to be made here is that the designer should examine a wide
range of options when analyzing energy recovery operations.
18.3.4 Other Factors Affecting Heat Recovery

The previous calculations point out some of the factors a
designer must consider in conducting a heat recovery analysis.
They are by no means the only factors ; much more detail must be
added. For example:
The full range of conditions expected at the plant
must be evaluated , not just average conditions. Energy
supply and energy demand schedules must be established.
Heat recovery equipment must be sized to handle peak
demands. Storage requirements for primary and backup
fuels must be determined.
• A source of backup energy must be available in the event

that plant energy recovery systems experience partial or
total failure.
• The physical and chemical nature of flue gases

generated must be considered ( for example , temperature ,
corrosiveness , particulate concentration , and moisture
content ).
T h e equipment must be designed to withstand the
conditions to which it will be subjected , Appropriate
materials of construction must be used.
• Any solid , liquid or gaseous residual from the heat

recovery operation must be collected and disposed of in a
safe and environmentally sound manner.
Chemical and physical treatments for makeup and
circulating water or steam must be established.
• Manpower to operate the heat recovery system must be

determined . Specialists may be required for certain
equipment , for example , stationary engineers for high
pressure boilers and engine specialists for internal
combustion engines.
• -
Control strategies must be decided upon , and instrumenta
tion to carry them out must be provided.
18- 34
• Economic analyses must be performed to determine
if t h e s y s t e m c a n b e e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d , As
a r u l e- o f- t h u m b, t h e l a r g e r t h e p l a n t , t h e m o r e
sophisticated the heat recovery system which can be
ju stified .
18.4 O t h e r U s e s of Wastewater Solids and Solid By-Products
W a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s m a y sometimes b e u s e d beneficially in w a y s
o t h e r t h a n a s a s o i l a m e n d m e n t o r a s a s o u r c e of r e c o v e r a b l e
energy. Lime and activated carbon have been recovered from
s l u d g e s f o r m a n y y e a r s a t p l a n t scale. These applications are
d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 1 1. S t a b i l i z e d s l u d g e , w h e n m i x e d w i t h
soil , is used a s interim o r final cover o v e r c o m p l e t e d a r e a s o f
refuse landfills ( see Chapter 19 ) . Wastewater scum has been
c o l l e c t e d ( sometimes p u r c h a s e d ) by r e n d e r e r s a t several t r e a t m e n t
p l a n t s for use a s a r a w material in t h e manufacturing of c o s m e t-
ics a n d o t h e r p r o d u c t s. Grit , particularly incinerated grit , m a y
be u s e d a s a n a g g r e g a t e, for e x a m p l e, a s a road sub- base .
O t h e r beneficial uses of wastewater solids have been considered ;
some have been tested on a laboratory or plant scale, These
include:
Recovery of ammonia from the filtrate or centrate
following anaerobic digestion and dewatering of sludge.
Ammonia is stripped from the liquor, absorbed in sulfuric
acid and crystallized a s ammonium sulfate.
R e c o v e r y o f ammonia a n d p h o s p h a t e s by precipitation o f
M g N H 4 P04 f r o m digester s u p e r n a t a n t s, The precipitate
is used a s a fertilizer.
Addition o f sludge t o p r o c e s s e s designed t o c o m p o s t
o r anaerobically d i g e s t m u n i c i p a l r e f u s e , In such
situations , s l u d g e s e r v e s p r i n c i p a l l y a s a nutrient
source .
Recycling of wastewater solids for use as a foodstuff
f o r livestock ( cattle , s h e e p, g o a t s , poultry , a n d fish ).
N o t e t h a t solids used f o r this p u r p o s e h a v e g e n e r a l l y n o t
o r i g i n a t e d f r o m m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s,
but f r o m s y s t e m s treating purely industrial o r animal
w a s t e s. H o w e v e r , t h e use of dried m u n i c i p a l s l u d g e
disinfected by gamma irradiation is being investigated a s
a food source f o r grazing animals.
U s e o f w a s t e w a t e r solids a s a n o r g a n i c s u b s t r a t e in worm
farming ( s e e C h a p t e r 1 3 ).
Use of sludge as a raw material for the production of

powdered a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n ( s e e J P L/ ACTS p r o c e s s,
C h a p t e r 1 1 ).
1 8 -3 5
18.5 References
1. U S E P A. C u r r e n t a n d Potential Utilization o f Nutrients in

M u n i c i p a l W a s t e w a t e r and S l u d g e , V o l u m e 2. Office o f
W a t e r P r o g r a m O p e r a t i o n s. W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. 2 0 6 4 0.
C o n t r a c t 6 8 -0 1- 4 8 2 0. J u l y 2 1 , 1 9 7 8.
2 . W a l k e r , J.M . " O v e r v i e w: C o s t s, Benefits a n d P r o b l e m s o f

U t i l i z a t i o n o f S l u d g e s , " p p. 1 6 7 - 1 7 4 . 1 8 t h N a t i o n a l
C o n f e r e n c e and Exhibition o n M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t.
M i a m i B e a c h , F l o r i d a . I n f o r m a t i o n T r a n s f e r , I n c.
Rockville , M d . 1 9 7 9.
3. U S E P A. " P r i n c i p a l s a n d D e s i g n C r i t e r i a f o r S e w a g e S l u d g e
A p p l i c a t i o n on Land ." S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t and D i s p o s a l ,
P a r t 2. T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r , C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o 4 5 2 6 8.
E P A -6 2 5/4 - 7 8 -0 1 2. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
4. C h i c a g o S u n-T i m e s. " U .S. B a r e s S o l a r E n e r g y P r o g r a m t o

Y e a r 2 0 2 0." P 2 9. A u g u s t 1 4, 1 9 7 5.
-
5. W a r d , P .S. " D i g e s t e r G a s H e l p s M o s t E n e r g y N e e d s."
J o u r n a l W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l F e d. V o l. 4 6 , P. 6 2 0.
1 9 7 4.
6 . Brown and
Caldwell .Solid Waste Resource Recovery
Study . Prepared for t h e C e n t r a l C o n t r a C o s t a S a n i t a r y
District , W a l n u t C r e e k , California. A u g u s t 1 9 7 4.
7. California P u b l i c Utilities Commission. S t a f f R e p o r t o n

California C o g e n e r a t i o n Activities. Utilities Division.
S a n Francisco, California. J a n u a r y 1 7, 1 9 7 8.
8. U.S. D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y. P r o p o s e d R e g u l a t i o n s P r o v i d i n g
f o r Q u a l i f i c a t i o n of S m a l l P o w e r P r o d u c t i o n a n d C o g e n -
eration Facilities Under Section 201 of the Public
U t i l i t y R e g u l a t o r y P o l i c i e s A c t o f 1 9 7 8. Federal Energy
R e g u l a t o r y Commission , Washington , D.C • r R m 7 9 - 54. J u n e
1 9 7 9.
9. S a c r a m e n t o A r e a C o n s u l t a n t s. S a c r a m e n t o R e g i o n a l W a s t e -
water Program S t u d y o f M e t h a n e U s e s. Sacramento
R e g i o n a l C o u n t y S a n i t a t i o n D i s t r i c t. S a c r a m e n t o ,
California. J u n e 1 9 7 6.
10 . A l p h a National I n c. S o l i d W a s t e a n d Biomass L o w B t u G a s
Conversion S y s t e m P r o g r a m . 1 3 0 1 E a s t El S e g u n d o B l v d • r
E l S e g u n d o, California. A p r i l 1 9 7 8.
11 . N a t i o n a l B u r e a u o f S t a n d a r d s. W a s t e H e a t M a n a g e m e n t
G u i d e b o o k. N B S H a n d b o o k 1 2 1 . W a s h i n g t o n , D . C. U .S.
G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e. 1 9 7 6.
1 8- 3 6
1 2. U S E P A. Energy Conservation in Municipal Wastewater
T r e a t m e n t. U S E P A O f f i c e of W a t e r P r o g r a m O p e r a t i o n s .
W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. 2 0 6 4 0. E P P A 4 3 0 /9 - 7 7 - 0 0 1 /. M a r c h
1978 .
1 3. H o u g e n , O. A • f W a t s o n, K.M • r a n d R.A. R a g a t z. Chemical
P r o c e s s P r i n c i p l e s. 2n d Ed . N e w Y o r k. J o h n W i l e y a n d
S o n s. 1 9 5 6 .
1 4. K e e n a n , J .H. a n d F.G. K e y e s. T h e r m o d y n a m i c P r o p e r t i e s o f
S t e a m. 4 t h Ed . N e w Y o r k. J o h n W i l e y a n d S o n s. 1 9 3 6.
1 5. Combustion E n g i n e e r i n g , I n c. S t e a m T a b l e s. Available
f r o m t h e Public Relations and A d v e r t i s i n g D e p a r t m e n t ,
W i n d s o r , Connecticut. 1 9 6 7.
1 8-3 7
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Chapter 19 . Disposal to Land


Technology Transfer
September 1979
CHAPTER 19
DISPOSAL T O L A N D
19.1 Introduction
W a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e may n o t a l w a y s be used a s a resource because
of land acquisition constraints or because they contain
h i g h l e v e l s of m e t a l s a n d o t h e r t o x i c s u b s t a n c e s , In these
s i t u a t i o n s , t h e s l u d g e m u s t be f u r t h e r p r o c e s s e d by o t h e r
m e t h o d s. N o n- utilization disposal p r o c e s s e s a r e t h e subject o f
this c h a p t e r.
As discussed in C h a p t e r 2 , o c e a n disposal is n o l o n g e r considered
appropriate. Consequently , land disposal p r o c e s s e s a r e being
optimized s o t h a t the increasing amounts o f municipal wastewater
s l u d g e p r o d u c e d by t h e a d o p t e d secondary t r e a t m e n t s t a n d a r d s c a n
be a c c e p t e d. T w o principal land disposal methods , landfilling
a n d d e d i c a t e d l a n d d i s p o s a l , d i f f e r in a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s a n d
m e t h o d s o f a p p l i c a t i o n . T y p i c a l l a n d f i l l o p e r a t i o n s involve
dewatered -s l u d g e subsurface a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s , o f t e n several f e e t
in d e p t h. Dedicated land disposal operations , h o w e v e r, typically
involve repetitive liquid s l u d g e applications , which may only
raise the land surface a few inches p e r y e a r.
1 9 . 1.1 R e g u l a t o r y A g e n c y Guidance
D e v e l o p m e n t of formalized m e t h o d s f o r s l u d g e disposal t o land is

r e c e n t . M a j o r e f f o r t s in t h i s a r e a h a v e b e e n e n c o u r a g e d a n d
f u n d e d by t h e U S E P A s i n c e 1 9 7 4. T h e r e a d e r is r e f e r r e d t o
C h a p t e r 2 f o r a discussion of s o m e of t h e guidance and regulatory
d o c u m e n t s which d e a l with t h e recent federal l a w s t o control t h e
disposal of wastewater solids. S t a t e and local guidance has also
b e e n p r o v i d e d . E x t e n s i v e s l u d g e r e s e a r c h is b e i n g f u n d e d b y
U S E P A and various s t a t e s.
19.2 S l u d g e Landfill
1 9 . 2.1 Definition
Sludge landfill can be defined as the planned burial of
w a s t e w a t e r solids , including p r o c e s s e d s l u d g e , screenings , grit ,
a n d a s h a t a d e s i g n a t e d s i t e. T h e s o l i d s a r e p l a c e d into a
p r e p a r e d site o r excavated t r e n c h and covered with a l a y e r of
soil. T h e soil cover m u s t b e d e e p e r t h a n t h e d e p t h of t h e p l o w
1 9 -1
z o n e ( a b o u t 8 t o 1 0 inches [ 2 0 . 3 t o 2 5 . 4 c m ] ) , F o r the m o s t
p a r t , landfilling o f screenings , grit , and a s h is accomplished
w i t h m e t h o d s similar t o those used for s l u d g e landfilling.
19.2.2 S l u d g e Landfill M e t h o d s
S l u d g e l a n d f i l l m e t h o d s c a n be g r o u p e d into t h r e e g e n e r a l
categories: s l u d g e - only trench fill, sludge - o n l y area fill , a n d
c o- disposal with refuse , General site and design criteria a r e
discussed u n d e r t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s , A detailed discussion o f
sludge landfills is p r e s e n t e d in the U S E P A Technology T r a n s f e r
P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l , M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e L a n d f i l l s ( 1 ). T h e
remaining p a r t s of t h e landfill p o r t i o n o f this c h a p t e r summarize
t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s d e s i g n m a n u a l, Other
information on the disposal of wastewater sludge in sanitary
landfills is available ( 2 ).
19.2.2.1 S l u d g e-Only T r e n c h Fill
T h e s l u d g e-only t r e n c h method involves excavating t r e n c h e s s o

that dewatered s l u d g e m a y be entirely buried below t h e original
ground surface. I n s o m e l o c a t i o n s, l i q u i d s t a b i l i z e d a n d
unstabilized s l u d g e s ( B l u e Plains , Washington, D. C. a n d Colorado
S p r i n g s , C o l o r a d o ) h a v e b e e n buried by t h e t r e n c h fill m e t h o d.
I n this m e t h o d , t h e s l u d g e is deposited directly into t h e t r e n c h
f r o m a haul vehicle. N o r m a l operating p r o c e d u r e requires daily
coverage. Trench disposal is appropriate for unstabilized s l u d g e,
because the immediate application of cover material reduces
associated odors , Vector control requires daily cover , e x c e p t
during very cold w e a t h e r.
Narrow Trenches
T r e n c h e s are defined a s narrow w h e n their widths are l e s s t h a n

1 0 f e e t ( 3 m ). D i s p o s a l in n a r r o w t r e n c h e s i s a p p l i c a b l e t o
sludges with a relatively low solids content of from 3 to
2 8 p e r c e n t. The application rates range from 1 , 200 to
5 , 6 0 0 c u b i c y a r d o f s l u d g e p e r a c r e ( 2 , 2 7 0 t o 1 0 , 5 8 0 m 3 / h a ).
E x c a v a t e d material c a n be e i t h e r u s e d i m m e d i a t e l y t o c o v e r
adjacent s l u d g e - filled trench or stockpiled alongside and u s e d
t o cover t h e t r e n c h from which it was removed. T h e surface s o i l
c o v e r thickness is a b o u t 4 f e e t ( 1 . 3 m ). Excavation a n d c o v e r i n g
equipment o p e r a t e s from surface areas adjacent t o t h e t r e n c h.
Wide T r e n c h e s
T r e n c h e s a r e d e f i n e d a s wi'd e w h e n t h e y h a v e w i d t h s g r e a t e r
t h a n 1 0 f e e t ( 3 m ). M a t e r i a l e x c a v a t e d f r o m t h e t r e n c h e s i s
stockpiled n e a t l y a n d used a s c o v e r f o r t h e t r e n c h. Disposal in
wide t r e n c h e s is suitable f o r s l u d g e s with solids c o n t e n t s o f
2 0 p e r c e n t or g r e a t e r. T h e application r a t e s range from 3 , 200 t o
1 4 , 500 cubic y a r d s o f s l u d g e p e r a c r e ( 6 , 0 5 0 t o 2 7 ,4 0 0 m 3/h a ).
1 9- 2
T h e surface cover thickness d e p e n d s on the solids concentration
of the sludge. The covered sludge will only be capable of
supporting equipment w h e n t h e solids concentration of t h e s l u d g e
e x c e e d s 2 5 t o 3 0 p e r c e n t and t h e s l u d g e h a s b e e n t o p p e d with 3 t o
5 feet ( 1 t o 2 m ) of soil.
T h e wide trench m e t h o d has t w o distinct advantages ; it is less

land- intensive than the narrow trench method and groundwater
protection c a n be provided by liners. T h e use of liners p e r m i t s
d e e p e r excavations. T h e primary disadvantage o f t h e wide t r e n c h
method is t h e n e e d f o r s l u d g e solid c o n t e n t s o f g r e a t e r t h a n
2 0 p e r c e n t. S l u d g e with solid contents of g r e a t e r t h a n 3 0 t o
3 5 p e r c e n t will n o t flow , a n d e x t r a effort is therefore required
t o s p r e a d t h e m e v e n l y in t h e t r e n c h. Figure 1 9 -1 provides t w o
views of a wide trenching operation at the North S h o r e Sanitary
District just n o r t h of Chicago, Illinois.
1 9 . 2.2 . 2 Sludge-Only Area Fill
I n t h e s l u d g e-o n l y area fill m e t h o d , t h e s l u d g e is mixed with

soil and t h e mixture is p l a c e d on the original ground surface.
This m e t h o d requires substantial a m o u n t s of imported soil b u t may
be suitable in a i c a o where groundwater is shallow ( liners can be
easily installed ) or bedrock prevails ( that is, where excavation
is neither possible nor required ) , Stabilized sludge is
best suited for this method , since daily cover is not usually
provided . Adequate drainage and runoff control are necessary to
prevent contamination of nearby surface waters.
Area Fill Mound
Area fill mound applications are generally suitable for

stabilized s l u d g e s with solids concentrations of 2 0 p e r c e n t o r
more. Soil is mixed with s l u d g e t o provide bulk and stability
before hauling t o t h e filling area , At the filling area , the
mixture is placed in 6 foot ( 2 m ) mounds and t h e n covered with
3 t o 5 feet ( 1 t o 1 . 5 m ) of soil . A level a r e a is required f o r
d i s p o s a l ; h o w e v e r , t h e use o f e a r t h e n containment structures
p e r m i t s disposal in hilly areas.
Area Fill Layer
A r e a fill layer applications are suitable for stabilized sludge

with solids a s low a s 15 p e r c e n t. Soil is mixed with s l u d g e ,
either a t t h e f i l l i n g a r e a o r a t a s p e c i a l m i x i n g a r e a , The
s l u d g e/soil mixture is spread in even layers of approximately
l foot ( 0.3 m ) thick , and 3 t o 5 feet ( 1 t o 1.5 m ) of soil are
added f o r final cover.
Level g r o u n d is p r e f e r r e d for this t y p e of operation, b u t mildly

sloping terrain c a n be used.
1 9 -3
The District ' s operation consists of opening 20 feet ( 6.1 m )
deep trenches on 300 - acre ( 121.5 ha ) site with large
backhoe equipment . This same equipment is used to cover
each layer of sludge with a layer of soil and cap each trench
.
with several feet of soil Production in 1976 was 30 dry
tons / day ( 27 t / day ) .
Dewatered sludge is dumped from trucks directly into the

trench . Various equipment is shown in the background .
Also, the dewatered sludge storage building is shown in
the background . Sludge is stored inside the building on
weekends for transfer to trenches during daytime hours
Monday through Friday .
FIGURE 19- 1
WIDE TRENCHING OPERATION, NORTH SHORE

SANITARY DISTRICT
-
19 4
Dike Containment
D i k e containment a p p l i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e s l u d g e with a solids

c o n t e n t of 2 0 p e r c e n t or g r e a t e r , This method is suitable for
either stabilized o r unstabilized s l u d g e , S l u d g e is usually n o t
mixed w i t h a b u l k i n g a g e n t. I f t h e d i s p o s a l s i t e is l e v e l ,
e a r t h e n dikes a r e u s e d o n all f o u r sides o f t h e containment area.
I f t h e site is a t t h e t o e of the hill, only a p a r t i a l diking is
r e q u i r e d . A c c e s s is p r o v i d e d t o t h e t o p o f t h e d i k e s o t h a t
h a u l vehicles c a n d u m p s l u d g e directly into t h e containment .
Depending o n the t y p e of equipment used , t h e interim cover will
vary from 1 t o 3 feet ( 0.3 t o 1.0 m ) and t h e final cover from
3 t o 5 f e e t ( 1 . 0 t o 1 . 5 m ). A l t h o u g h diked containment is a n
efficient disposal m e t h o d from t h e standpoint o f land use, i t may
necessitate controls for leachate outbreaks.
19.2.2 . 3 C o- Disposal with Refuse
T h e t e r m c o-disposal is used w h e n municipal sludge is disposed o f

a t a r e f u s e landfill. There are distinct trade-offs in using
c o- disposal m e t h o d r a t h e r t h a n the s l u d g e-o n l y m e t h o d s.
Sludge c a n b e d i s p o s e d o f in t h i s m a n n e r if i t i s m i x e d w i t h
refuse o r with soil. Mixing techniques a r e discussed in detail
in t h e U S E P A Office o f Solid W a s t e R e p o r t , D i s p o s a l of S e w a g e
Sludge into a Sanitary Landfill ( 2 ).
S l u d g e/Refuse Mixture
Stabilized o r unstabilized sludge with a solids content of t h r e e

p e r c e n t o r g r e a t e r is mixed with t h e refuse , Normally sludge
c o n t e n t is a p p r o x i m a t e l y t e n p e r c e n t o f t h e s l u d g e/ r e f u s e
m i x t u r e. T h e s l u d g e is a p p l i e d o n t o p o f t h e r e f u s e a t t h e
w o r k i n g f a c e o f t h e l a n d f i l l. The sludge and refuse are
thoroughly mixed before t h e y a r e s p r e a d , c o m p a c t e d , and covered
with soil . A n interim cover o f approximately o n e f o o t ( 0.3 m )
and a final cover of two feet ( 0.6 m ) is used. Application r a t e s
r a n g e from 5 0 0 t o 4 , 200 cubic y a r d s o f s l u d g e p e r a c r e ( 9 5 0 t o
7 , 9 0 0 m 3/h a .
)
S l u d g e/Soil Mixture
I n this operation, s l u d g e is mixed with soil and t h e mixture is

used a s cover for a refuse landfill, This method requires
stabilized s l u d g e w i t h a t l e a s t a 2 0 p e r c e n t s o l i d s c o n t e n t.
It promotes vegetation growth over c o m p l eted landfill areas
without t h e u s e o f fertilizer , H o w e v e r it m a y cause o d o r s ,
,
since t h e s l u d g e is n o t c o m p l e t e l y buried , A final soil cover
could be added if n e c e s s a r y t o eliminate this p r o b l e m.
1 9 -5
19.2.2.4 Suitability of Sludge for Landfilling
Some wastewater treatment sludges may not be suitable for
landfilling by any of the methods described above. For
sludge-only landfills , the solids concentration should be
15 percent or more. Although soil may be used as a bulking agent
to effectively increase the solids concentration to this level,
cost-effectiveness may become a problem , Solids concentrations
down to three percent are tolerated for codisposal , but the
absorptive capacity of the refuse should not be exceeded , An
assessment of the suitability of various sludge types is given in
-
Table 19 1. In general, only stabilized and dewatered sludges
are recommended for landfill disposal.
19.2.3 Preliminary Planning

The purpose of the preliminary planning activity is to select a
disposal site and suitable method(s ) of disposal , Preliminary
planning is followed by detailed design, initial site develop
ment, site operation and maintenance , and final site closure.
-
Site selection is the major activity during the preliminary
planning phase. Since the selection of a site is not completely
independent of the selection of a method , the preliminary
planning phase should also include the determination of sludge
characteristics and the identification of alternate landfill
methods for each site. Chapter 2 of Municipal Sludge Landfill
( 1 ) provides an excellent discussion on public participation in
this and other phases of the project.
19.2.3.1 Sludge Characterization
Sludge must be characterized as to quantity and quality .

Chapter 4 provides further discussion on sludge characterization.
Sludge Quantity
An estimate of the average sludge quantity is necessary to

establish landfill area requirements and the probable life of
the disposal site. Data on minimum and maximum sludge quantities
are important for developing an understanding of daily operating
requirements. Maximum daily sludge quantities will govern
equipment and storage facility sizing and daily operating
schedules.
Sludge Quality
The character of the sludge to be landfilled is directly related

to the choice of a landfill method. Sludge quality and the
corresponding leachate can be roughly correlated ; design of
leachate treatment facilities is more effective if sludge quality
is known.
19 6 -
TABLE 19- 1
SUITABILITY OF SLUDGES FOR LANDFILLING
Sludge only landfilling -

Co disposal landfilling
Type of sludge Suitability Reason Suitability Reason
Liquid - unstabilized
Gravity thickened primary,
WAS and primary , and WAS NS OD , OP NS OD , OP
Flotation thickened primary
and WAS , and WAS without
chemicals NS OD , OP NS OD , OP
Flotation thickened WAS with
chemicals NS OP NS OD , OP
Thermal conditioned primary
or WAS NS OD , OP MS OD, OP
Liquid -
stabilized
Thickened anaerobic digested
primary and primary , and
WAS NS OP MS OP
Thickened aerobic digested
WAS NS OP MS OP
Thickened lime stabilized
WAS NS OP MS OP
Dewatered -
unstabilized
Vacuum filtered , lime
conditioned primary S S
Dewatered stabilized
Drying bed digested and
lime stabilized S S
Vacuum filtered , lime
conditioned digested S S
Pressure filtered , lime
conditioned digested S s
Centrifuged , digested and
lime conditioned digested s s
Heat dried
Heat dried digested S S
High temperature processed

Incinerated dewatered
WAS S S
-
Wet air oxidized primary
and primary , and WAS NS OD , OP MS OD, OP
WAS - -
NS
MS
-- Not suitable
Marginally suitable
S - Suitable
OD
OP
-
-
Odor problems
Operational problems
Parameters that should be analyzed are discussed briefly below .

A l t h o u g h a l l o f t h e s e m a y n o t b e c r i t i c a l t o t h e d e s i g n of a
p a r t i c u l a r d i s p o s a l s y s t e m, a c o m p l e t e analysis is n e c e s s a r y ,
b e c a u s e t h e s l u d g e m u s t b e a d e q u a t e l y characterized.
Concentration. Concentration o r solids c o n t e n t of s l u d g e
II related to the nature of wastewater treatment and
s l u d g e p r o c e s s i n g s t e p s. The type and operation of
-
19 7
dewatering equipment may have a significant effect o n t h e
s l u d g e concentration. A certain d e g r e e o f flexibility
s h o u l d be incorporated into t h e design of landfills t o
c o m p e n s a t e for t h e variability in solids concentration o f
dewatered sludge.
Volatile c o n t e n t. Volatile solids a r e a measure of t h e

organic c o n t e n t p r e s e n t in t h e solid fraction of s l u d g e.
T h i s o r g a n i c m a t t e r is e v e n t u a l l y b r o k e n d o w n i n t o
m e t h a n e g a s a n d o t h e r digestion by- p r o d u c t s. Typically ,
volatile solids r e p r e s e n t 6 0 t o 8 0 p e r c e n t o f the t o t a l
s o l i d s in r a w p r i m a r y s l u d g e a n d 3 0 t o 6 0 p e r c e n t i n
anaerobically digested primary solids.
• N i t r o g e n. Nitrogen found in s l u d g e is a p o t e n t i a l source

of g r o u n d w a t e r p o l l u t i o n. T h e total quantity and type of
nitrogen are of importance. Nitrate is relatively mobile
in soil and is therefore o f concern.
• Inorganic ions. I n o r g a n i c ions s u c h a s h e a v y metals are

found in m o s t municipal s l u d g e s. T h e s e a r e m o r e readily
leached if s o i l and sludge a r e acidic. I f n e a r n e u t r a l
o r alkaline conditions are maintained , t h e metals will
n o t b e a s readily l e a c h e d from t h e sludge o r t h r o u g h the
s o il .
• Bacteriological q u a l i t y. S l u d g e t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s r e d u c e
t h e number of pathogens and t h e possibility of pathogenic
contamination associated with landfilling of s l u d g e s;
h o w e v e r, t h e y d o n o t provide a sterile p r o d u c t.
• Toxic organic c o m p o u n d s. T o x i c o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s c a n
present potential contamination problems , Solids
contaminated with toxic materials m u s t b e p l a ced in
appropriately designated disposal facilities .
• pH. Acidic conditions p r o m o t e l e a c h i n g o f h e a v y metals
and o t h e r compounds from t h e s l u d g e.
1 9 . 2.3 . 2 Selection of a Landfilling M e t h o d

Relationships b e t w e e n t h e characteristics o f a l t e r n a t i v e
landfill sites, the characteristics of the sludge to be
landfilled , and t h e landfill method need t o be considered in t h e
preliminary planning process. T h e s e relationships are summarized
in T a b l e 1 9 -2.
1 9 . 2.3.3 Site Selection
Site selection is a critical process in t h e planning of a s l u d g e

landfill project , I t is d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e m e t h o d o f
ultimate d i s p o s a l. T h e site finally selected must be suitable
1 9-8
f o r t h e t y p e of s l u d g e t o b e d i s p o s e d of a n d situated i n a
convenient , y e t unobtrusive , location , C h a p t e r 4 o f Municipal
S l u d g e Landfill ( 1 ) p r o v i d e s a n i n - d e p t h a p p r o a c h t o s i t e
selection.
TABLE 19- 2
SLUDGE AND SITE CONDITIONS
Appropriate
Sludge solids sludge Appropriate Appropriate
Method content, percent characteristics hydrogeology ground slope
Narrow trench 15 2B Unstabilized or Deep groundwater and < 20 percent
stabilized bedrock
Wide trench > 20 Unstabilized or Deep groundwater and < 10 percent
stabilized bedrock
Area fill mound > 20 Stabilized Shallow groundwater Suitable for steep
or bedrock terrain as long as
level area is pre
pared for mounding
-
Area fill layer > 15 Unstabilized or Shallow groundwater Suitable for medium
stabilized or bedrock slopes but level
ground preferred
Diked containment > 20 Stabilized Shallow groundwater Suitable for steep
or bedrock terrain as long as
a level area is pre
pared inside dikes
-
Sludge/refuse mixture >3 Unstabilized or Deep or shallow < 30 percent
stabilized groundwater or bed
rock
-
Sludge/soil mixture > 20 Stabilized Deep or shallow < 5 percent
groundwater or bed
rock
-
Site Considerations
T h e following f a c t o r s m u s t be considered during t h e evaluation of
possible landfill s i t e s, Information o n t h e s e factors should
t h e r e f o r e b e c o l l e c t e d a n d a s s e s s e d in a d v a n c e o f t h e f i n a l
decision making p r o c e s s.
H a u l distance. T h e m o s t f a v o r a b l e h a u l c o n d i t i o n s
combine level terrain a n d minimum distances.
Site life and size. T h e site life and size a r e directly

related t o the q u a n t i t y and characteristics o f the s l u d g e
a n d t h e method used f o r landfilling , Since t h e entire
site c a n n o t be used a s fill area , b o t h t h e g r o s s area and
t h e usable o r fill area m u s t be considered in determining
t h e s i t e size , Initially , t h e life of t h e site can be
e s t i m a t e d. A s t h e l a n d f i l l i s u s e d , t h e e x p e c t e d
life s h o u l d be reevaluated t o e n s u r e a d e q u a t e capacity
f o r future o p e r a t i o n s.
T o p o g r a p h y.
I n g e n e r a l, s l u d g e landfilling is limited t o
s i t e s with m i n i m u m s l o p e s o f o n e p e r c e n t a n d maximum
s l o p e s o f 2 0 p e r c e n t, F l a t terrain t e n d s t o r e s u l t in
ponding , w h e r e a s s t e e p s l o p e s e r o d e.
1 9-9
Surface water. The location and extent of surface waters
in the vicinity of the landfill site can be a significant
factor in the selection process , Existing surface waters
and drainage near proposed sites should be mapped and
their present and proposed uses outlined , Leachate
control measures including collection and treatment may
be required as part of the landfill design.
• Soils and geology . Soil is an important determinant in

the choice of an appropriate sludge landfilling site.
Properties such as texture , structure , permeability ,
pH , and cation exchange capacity , as well as the
characteristics of soil formation , may influence the
selection of the site. The geology of possible landfill
sites should be thoroughly examined to identify any
faults, major fractures and joint sets. The possibility
of aquifer contamination through irregular formations
must be studied.
Groundwater. Data on groundwaters in the vicinity of

potential landfill sites is essential to the selection
process. Knowledge of characteristics such as the depth
to groundwater , the hydraulic gradient , the quality and
use of the groundwater , and the location of recharge
zones is essential for determining the suitability of a
potential landfill site.
• Vegetation. The type and quantity of vegetation in the

area of proposed landfill sites should be considered
in the evaluation. Vegetation can serve as a natural
buffer , reducing visual impact , odor , and other
nuisances. At the same time , clearing a site of timber
or other heavy vegetation can add significantly to the
initial project costs.
• Meteorology . Prevailing wind direction , speed ,

temperature and atmospheric stability should be evaluated
to determine potential odor and dust impacts downwind of
the site.
• Environmentally sensitive areas. Environmentally

sensitive areas such as the wetlands , flood plains ,
permafrost areas , critical habitats of endangered
species , and recharge zones of sole source aquifers
should be avoided if at all possible when selecting
a landfill site.
• Archaeological and historical significance. The

archaeological and historTcaT significance oT proposed
sites should be determined early in the evaluation
process. Any significant finds at the selected site must
be accommodated prior to final approval.
19-10
• Site access. Haul r o u t e s should be major highways , o r
arterials , preferably those with a minimum o f traffic
during normal t r a n s p o r t hours. P r o p o s e d r o u t e s should b e
studied to determine impacts on local use and the
potential effects of accidents, Transport through
nonresidential areas is p r e f e r a b l e t o t r a n s p o r t t h r o u g h
residential areas , h i g h- density u r b a n a r e a s , a n d a r e a s
with c o n g e s t e d traffic. T h e access r o a d s t o t h e site m u s t
b e a d e q u a t e f o r t h e anticipated traffic loads.
L a n d use. Zoning restrictions , and future d e v e l o p m e n t

on potential sites should be considered in t h e selection
p r o c e s s. I d e a l l y , t h e s l u d g e landfill s i t e s h o u l d b e
located o n land considered unsuitable f o r higher u s e s ;
h o w e v e r , t h e d e s i g n e r s h o u l d b e a w a r e t h a t this m a y
be a p o l i t i c a l l y s e n s i t i v e i s s u e a n d maximum p u b l i c
participation m u s t be a s s u r e d.
C o s t s. C o s t-effectiveness of e a c h p o t e n t i a l landfill
site must be evaluated. F a c t o r s t o be included in t h e
economic evaluation include capital c o s t s a n d operating
a n d maintenance ( O & M ) c o s t s. I n t h e l a t t e r c a t e g o r y ,
s l u d g e hauling may p r o v e t o be a significant c o m p o n e n t .
T h e t r a d e-o f f s b e t w e e n high capital a n d high O S H c o s t s
will d e p e n d o n t h e design life o f t h e l a n d f i l l. T h e s e
t r a d e- o f f s w i l l b e c o m e e v i d e n t w h e n t h e t o t a l a n n u a l
( amortized capital a n d O & M c o s t s ) are c o m p a r e d , This
evaluation should be p e r f o r m e d in accordance with the
m e t h o d s outlined i n t h e c o s t - effectiveness a n a l y s i s
section discussed in C h a p t e r 3.
Site Selection Methodology
T h e selection p r o c e d u r e can b e r o u g h l y divided into t h r e e p h a s e s:
initial inventory and a s s e s s m e n t of sites , screening of potential
sites , and final site selection.
Initial inventory a n d a s s e s s m e n t is designed t o d e v e l o p a list o f
potential sites t h a t c a n b e evaluated a n d rapidly screened t o
p r o d u c e a manageable number of candidate sites. Information used
in t h i s p h a s e is g e n e r a l l y a v a i l a b l e a n d r e a d i l y accessible.
Investigation of each option becomes more detailed as the
selection p r o c e d u r e p r o g r e s s e s.
Initial A s s e s s m e n t o f Site
Initial a s s e s s m e n t s will consist of identifying F e d e r a l , S t a t e ,
and l o c a l r e g u l a t o r y constraints , eliminating inaccessible a r e a s ,
l o c a t i n g p o t e n t i a l s i t e s , r o u g h l y a s s e s s i n g t h e economic
f e a s i b i l i t y of s u c h s i t e s, a n d p e r f o r m i n g p r e l i m i n a r y s i t e
evaluations. T h e l e s s desirable sites a r e eliminated o n t h e basis
o f preliminary economics, regulatory , and technical information.
A public participation program is initiated ( 4 ). Attitudes of
the public should b e determined e a r l y. T h e public may assist in
identifying candidate sites.
1 9 -1 1
S c r e e n i n g o f C a n d i d a t e S i t e s , S i t e s r e m a i n i n g a f t e r t h e initial
a s s e s s m e n t a r e s u b j e c t e d t o c l o s e r scrutiny , Information u s e d i n
e v a l u a t i n g e a c h o p t i o n is more detailed a n d s o m e w h a t m o r e s i t e-
s p e c i f i c t h a n in t h e initial a s s e s s m e n t. R e m a i n i n g s i t e s m a y b e
r a t e d b y a s c o r i n g s y s t e m including b o t h o b j e c t i v e a n d s u b j e c t i v e
e v a l u a t i o n s ( C h a p t e r 3 ). T a b l e 3 - 4 s e r v e s a s a n e x a m p l e o f
a rating system , Candidate s y s t e m s w i t h l o w e s t o v e r a l l r a t i n g s
a r e eliminated , a n d t h e h i g h e r r a t e d s y s t e m s a r e c a r r i e d f o r w a r d
f o r f i n a l evaluation.
Site selection findings for the remaining candidate systems

s h o u l d p r o v i d e i n p u t i n t o a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t r e p o r t , if
required. P u b l i c a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d t h e remaining s i t e s s h o u l d a l s o
b e determined .
Final S i t e S e l e c t i o n a n d S i t e A c q u i s i t i o n. M e t h o d o l o g y f o r f i n a l
site s e l e c t i o n is similar t o t h a t f o r t h e s c r e e n i n g p r o c e d u r e
j u s t discussed , i n t h a t r a t i n g s y s t e m s a r e s t i l l u s e d , H o w e v e r ,
e a c h s i t e r e m a i n i n g i s investigated in g r e a t e r d e t a i l, Public
hearings may also be scheduled so that final inputs can be
received f r o m l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t officials a n d t h e p u b l i c.
O n c e t h e b e s t s i t e s a r e determined , t h e y m u s t b e a c q u i r e d , S i t e
acquisition should begin immediately following acceptance of the
p r o g r a m b y l o c a l , S t a t e , a n d F e d e r a l r e g u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t i e s.
T h e s e v e r a l a c q u i s i t i o n p r o c e d u r e s include: p u r c h a s e o p t i o n,
o u t r i g h t p u r c h a s e , l e a s e, condemnation a n d /o r o t h e r c o u r t action,
a n d l a n d dedication.
It will generally prove advantageous to purchase the site

r a t h e r t h a n h o l d a l o n g -t e r m l e a s e , T h e m a n a g i n g a g e n c y 's
responsibility will normally extend well beyond the life of the
site. Certain a d v a n t a g e s m a y a l s o be g a i n e d by l e a s i n g w i t h a n
o p t i o n t o b u y t h e s i t e a t t h e t i m e o f p l a n n i n g a p p r o v a l, A
purchase option assures the availability of land upon completion
o f t h e f a c i l i t y p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s. T h i s a p p r o a c h a l s o a l l o w s t i m e
f o r t h e p r e v i o u s o w n e r t o g r a d u a l l y p h a s e o u t o p e r a t i o n s , if
desired .
1 9 . 2.4 Facility Design
1 9 . 2.4 . 1 Regulations and Standards
L o c a l , S t a t e, a n d F e d e r a l r e g u l a t i o n s a n d standards m u s t b e f u l l y
understood before the landfill is designed, Consideration must
be given to r e q u i r e m e n t s g o v e r n i n g t h e d egree of sludge
stabilization the , l o a d i n g rates , t h e f r e q u e ncy and depth of
c o v e r, m o n i t o r i n g a n d r e p o r t i n g
, , The d e s i g n s h o u l d conform t o
all building codes and should include a d e q u a t e buffer zones to
protect public roads , p r i v a t e structures , a n d s u r f a c e w a t e r s.
1 9-1 2
Obtaining permits for construction and operation of sludge
l a n d f i l l s c a n b e a long a n d costly p r o c e s s , T o minimize delays
associated with t h i s t a s k , p e r m i t application s h o u l d b e initiated
e a r l y in t h e d e s i g n s t a g e. A s o u n d r e g u l a t o r y- c o n s u l t a n t
relationship a n d a m u t u a l understanding s h o u l d be d e v e l o p e d .
The following is a partial list of the permits which may be
required:
N P D E S permit--if landfill is in wetlands.
Army Corps of Engineers permit — for construction of

levees, dikes , o r containment s t r u c t u r e s t o be p l a c e d in
the w a t e r in a wetlands area.
O f f i c e o f E n d a n g e r e d S p e c i e s p e r m i t — if l a n d f i l l i s
located in critical habitat o f a n e n d a n g e r e d species.
Solid W a s t e M a n a g e m e n t p e r m i t.
S p e c i a l U s e permit.
Highway D e p a r t m e n t permit.
Construction permit.
Building permit.
Drainage and/o r Flood Plain Alteration permit.
1 9 . 2.4 . 2 Site Characteristics

Site characteristics should b e clearly described a n d a n a l y z e d t o
ensure the suitability of the landfill site and t h e method o f
landfilling . Design p h a s e w o r k will build u p o n planning p h a s e
d a t a b u t will b e carried t o a h i g h e r level o f detail a n d include
working drawings.
Site Plan
T h e s i t e p l a n s h o u l d contain the following minimum information:
• Boundaries of fill area and buffer zones.
• Topographic features a n d slopes o f fill area and buffer

z o n e s.
• Location of s u r f a c e w a t e r, r o a d s , a n d utilities.
• Existing and proposed structures and a c c e s s r o a d s.
• V e g e t a t i o n t o r e m a i n a n d t o b e r e m o v e d ; a r e a s t o be
r e v e g e t a t e d.
1 9-1 3
Soils
The soil characteristics at the landfill site should be
thoroughly catalogued and mapped , T h e information o f m o s t
importance t o the design and operation of the landfill includes
d e p t h, t e x t u r e, structure, bulk density , porosity , permeability ,
moisture, stability , and e a s e of excavation, Areas with rocky
soils o r extensive rock o u t c r o p s should b e n o t e d ,
,
T h e pH a n d
cation exchange capacity h a v e a direct bearing o n h e a v y m e t a l
transport through the soil, Translocation of metals must be
considered t o ensure p r o t e c t i o n o f s u r f a c e a n d g r o u n d w a t e r
supplies.
Groundwater
T h e g r o u n d w a t e r aquifers underlying t h e landfill site m u s t be
located. D e p t h of t h e aquifer under varying conditions should be
determined a t s e v e r a l locations. O t h e r characteristics such a s
t h e d i r e c t i o n a n d r a t e o f f l o w , t h e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t, t h e
quality , a n d p r e s e n t a n d p l a n n e d uses should a l s o be established.
Location o f t h e primary r e c h a r g e zones is critical in protecting
quality.
Subsurface Geology
T h e geological formations underlying t h e landfill a r e important
i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s. Critical design
p a r a m e t e r s include t h e d e p t h , distribution, and characteristics
o f s u b s u r f a c e s o i l s in r e l a t i o n t o s t a b i l i t y a n d g r o u n d w a t e r
transmissability .
Climate
Climate can influence many factors in t h e d e s i g n of landfills .
Climatic conditions effect r a t e of o r g a n i c decomposition, t h e
c o m p o s i t i o n a n d quantity o f leachate a n d r u n o f f , t h e d a y - t o-
d a y f i l l o p e r a t i o n s, a n d t h e d i s p e r s i o n o f o d o r s a n d d u s t.
I n f o r m a t i o n s u c h a s s e a s o n a l t e m p e r a t u r e, p r e c i p i t a t i o n ,
e v a p o r a t i o n, wind direction a n d s p e e d a n d atmospheric stability ,
c a n be obtained f r o m a local w e a t h e r station.
Land U s e
use o f the landfill site and adjacent
T h e p r e s e n t and p r o p o s e d
properties should be evaluated. If the s i t e is already dedicated
t o refuse o r s l u d g e disposal, it is unlikely t h a t expanding i t
will result in a d v e r s e impacts. H o w e v e r, if t h e s i t e is located
in o r near a p o p u l a t e d a r e a, extensive control measures may b e
n e e d e d t o eliminate concerns a n d minimize any public nuisance
which would d e t r a c t from t h e value of adjacent properties.
19.2.4 . 3 Landfill T y p e a n d Design

More than one sludge landfill method may be suitable for the
selected site, a s s h o w n in T a b l e 1 9- 2 1. If this is t h e case, a
m e t h o d m u s t be selected before t h e final design is b e g u n.
1 9 -1 4
Maximizing utilization of the site is an important consideration
in method selection. If daily cover is to be applied , the daily
sludge generation rate will affect the net capacity of the
site. If several days are required to fill a trench , as the
result of low sludge generation, and cover is required each day ,
then the ratio of sludge/ cover will be less than for sites
managing larger sludge quantities. The net sludge capacity will
be higher at sites where trenches are filled each day.
The amount by which the net capacity of the site will be reduced
will vary with the landfill methods , the specific site , and the
daily sludge generation rate. Before a final method is selected ,
estimates of net capacity and site life should be made for each .
Additional design criteria are summarized in Table 19-3 ( 1 ).
TABLE 19- 3
LANDFILL DESIGN CRITERIA
Sludge Cover Sludge

solids Trench thickness, ft Imported application
content , width , Bulking Bulking soil rate,
fa
Method percent ft required agent Bulking ratio Interim Final required cu yd/acre Equipment
-
Sludge only trench fill
- 20-28 --
Narrow trench 15 20C 2 3 NO -
2 3 No -
1,200 5 ,600 Backhoe with loader,
- C
C
3 10 No -
3 4 excavator, trenching
machine
Wide trench 20~28
> 29d
‘
10 No -
3 4 No -
3,200 14 , 500 Track loader, dragline ,
10 No -
4 5 scraper , track
dozer
-
Sludge only area fill
>20C'd
Area fill mound Yes Soil -
0.5 2 soil:
1 sludge
3 -
3 5 Yes 3,000-14 ,000 Track loader , backhoe
with loader , track
dozer
Area fill layer > 15d Yes Soil -
0.25 1 soil:
1 sludge
-
0.5 1 -
2 4 Yes -
2,000 9,000 Track dozer , grader ,
track loader
Diked containment -
20 28°
> 28d
No
No
Soil
Soil
0.25 -
1 sludge
3-4 Yes -
4,800 15,000 Dragline , track dozer,
scraper
Codisposal with refuse

Sludge/refuse mixture > 3d Yes Refuse -
1 wet ton sludge
-
4 7 tons refuse: 0.5 1 2 No -
500 4,200 Dragline, track dozer
Sludge/soil mixture >20d Yes Soil 1 soil: 0.5- 1 2 - No 1,600 Tractor with disc,
1 sludge grader, track loader
a
Volume basis unless otherwise noted. 1 ft = 0.305 m
1 cu yd = 0.765 cu m
În actual fill areas. 1 acre = 0.405 ha
CLand-based equipment,
d
e
-
Sludge based equipment
But sometimes used.
19.2.4.4 Ancillary Facilities

Ancillary facilities may be needed in association with the
landfill site . These are described briefly in the following
sections.
Leachate Controls
Leachate from the landfill site must be contained and treated
to eliminate potential water pollution and/or potential public
19-15
h e a l t h p r o b l e m s. I n m a n y c a s e s, l e a c h a t e c o n t a i n m e n t a n d
t r e a t m e n t m a y be r e q u i r e d b y s t a t e o r l o c a l r e g u l a t i o n s.
Numerous methods are available for controlling leachate , includ -
ing drainage , natural attenuation, soil or membrane liners , o r
collection a n d t r e a t m e n t. T h e method a n d t h e design features
c h o s e n a r e s p e c i f i c f o r e a c h p r o j e c t. T a b l e 1 9 -4 d e p i c t s
s l u d g e-o n l y l e a c h a t e quality f o r one s i t e s a m p l e d over t w o y e a r s.
TABLE 19- 4
LEACHATE QUALITY FROM SLUDGE- ONLY LANDFILL
Constituents Values 3 *
Constituents
PH 6.7
TOC 1 , 000:*
d
COD 5 ,100
d
Ammonia nitrogen 198
d
Nitrate nitrogen 0.28
Chloride 6.7
Sulfate 10
e
Specific conductivity 3 ,600
Cadmium 0.017
Chromium 1.1
Copper 1.3
Iron 170
Mercury 0.0004
Nickel 0.31
Lead 0.60
Zinc 5.0
aData from " Site 8 " monitored from July 1975

through September 1977. First received
sludge in 1973. Receives unstabilized
primary and WAS , gravity thickened and
centrifuged . Sludge is lagooned , allowed
to dry , and covered with soil. Soil
characteristics: sand and gravel , glacial
deposites.
DSpecific conductivity in micromfios/cm , PH
in units , all others in mg/1.
Ranged from 3 ,000 mg/1 to 1 mg/1.
uLimited to early part of sampling program.
0
Ranged from 10 ,000 micromhos/cm 340
micromhos/cm.
-
19 16
Gas Control
Gas produced by decomposition of organic m a t t e r is potentially
d a n g e r o u s. T h i s c o n d i t i o n is o f p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n if t h e
landfill is l o c a t e d n e a r a p o p u l a t e d a r e a , M e t h a n e g a s , in
p a r t i c u l a r, is highly explosive if confined in a n enclosed area.
C o n t r o l o f t h e g a s e s p r o d u c e d a t t h e landfill m u s t b e p r o v i d e d.
T w o w i d e l y a c c e p t e d m e t h o d s c o n t r o l p a t h s o f g a s m i g r a t i o n.
P e r m e a b l e m e t h o d s u s u a l l y consist o f a g r a v e l- f i l l e d t r e n c h
around t h e fill area for intercepting migrating gas and venting
it t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e, I m p e r m e a b l e m e t h o d s consist o f placing a
barrier of low permeability material, s u c h as c o m p a c t e d clay ,
around t h e fill a r e a t o minimize lateral m o v e m e n t o f g a s. T h i s
method provides f o r g a s venting t h r o u g h t h e cover material , I n
general , m e t h a n e recovery is n o t c o s t- effective at s l u d g e- only o r
small c o-d i s p o s a l sites.
Roads
P a v e d a c c e s s a n d o n- s i t e r o a d s a r e n e c e s s a r y a t t h e l a n d f i l l
s i t e. T e m p o r a r y r o a d s m a y b e c o n s t r u c t e d o f w e l l c o m p a c t e d
natural soil o r g r a v e l . Considerations should include g r a d e s,
r o a d s u r f a c e a n d s t a b i l i t y , a n d climate , Grades in excess
of t e n p e r c e n t should be avoided. Provisions s h o u l d be m a d e t o
a l l o w t r u c k s t o t u r n a r o u n d within t h e s i t e a r e a.
Soil S t o c k p i l e s
S t o r a g e a r e a s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d f o r o n- s i t e s t o c k p i l i n g o f
t r a n s p o r t e d soils w h e r e on- site soils are insufficient o r their
use inappropriate. T h e quantity and t y p e of soil t o be s t o c k p i l e d
d e p e n d s o n t h e individual d e m a n d s of t h e landfill , Stockpiles
may a l s o be desirable f o r winter operations w h e r e f r o z en ground
m a y limit excavation.
Inclement Weather Areas
Special landfill areas should be placed near the entrance to
t h e site s o t h a t operations may be continued during inclement
w e a t h e r. P a v e d o r a l l -w e a t h e r r o a d s s h o u l d b e p r o v i d e d f o r
working these sites.
Structures
A n o f f i c e a n d e m p l o y e e facilities s h o u l d be l o c a t e d a t t h e
landfill s i t e. F o r l a r g e o p e r a t i o n s , a p e r m a n e n t s t r u c t u r e
s h o u l d be provided . At s m a l l e r sites a trailer m i g h t suffice.
A n equipment b a r n and s h o p may be desirable f o r some locations.
Utilities
Electrical , w a t e r, communication and sanitary services s h o u l d be
provided f o r l a r g e landfill o p e r a t i o n s. Chemical toilets, bottled
w a t e r, and o n-site electrical generation may reduce the cost o f
o b t a i n i n g services f r o m utility companies. This a p p r o a c h m a y b e
appropriate f o r r e m o t e sites.
19-17
Fencing
T h e landfill site s h o u l d be f e n c e d. A c c e s s s h o u l d be limited t o

'
o n e o r t w o s e c u r e d e n t r a n c e s , T h e h e i g h t a n d t y p e of f e n c e
should suit local conditions. A 6-f o o t ( 1.8 m ) chain link fence
t o p p e d with barbed wire will restrict t r e s p a s s e r s ; a w o o d e n fence
o r h e d g e is effective f o r screening t h e o p e r a t i o n f r o m view , a n d
a 4 -f o o t ( 1 . 2 m ) barbed wire f e n c e will k e e p c a t t l e o r s h e e p a w a y
f r o m t h e site area.
Lighting
P o r t a b l e lighting s h o u l d be provided if landfill o p e r a t i o n s a r e
carried o u t a t n i g h t. P e r m a n e n t l i g h t s should be installed f o r
a l l s t r u c t u r e s and heavily used access r o a d s.
W a s h Racks
A cleaning program should be required for frequently used

e q u i p m e n t. A c u r b e d w a s h p a d a n d c o l l e c t i o n b a s i n s h o u l d b e
provided t o contain the contaminated w a s h w a t e r f o r treatment.
Monitoring Wells
I t is c r u c i a l t o m o n i t o r g r o u n d w a t e r. T h e n u m b e r , t y p e , a n d
l o c a t i o n o f monitoring w e l l s and monitoring f r e q u e n c y should b e
designated to meet specific conditions associated with the
landfill.
Landscaping
Depending o n t h e s i z e a n d l o c a t i o n o f t h e l a n d f i l l, landscaping
may be a n important design f a c t o r. T h e aesthetic acceptability
o f t h e landfill is critical, especially in a n urban o r d e n s e l y
p o p u l a t e d a r e a. I n g e n e r a l, s h r u b b e r y c h o s e n s h o u l d r e q u i r e
little maintenance a n d become a n effective visual barrier.
19.2.4.5 Landfill Equipment
A wide variety o f e q u i p m e n t m a y b e r e q u i r e d f o r a s l u d g e
landfill. T h e t y p e of equipment d e p e n d s o n t h e landfill m e t h o d
e m p l o y e d a n d o n t h e q u a n t i t y o f s l u d g e t o be d i s p o s e d o f .
E q u i p m e n t w i l l be r e q u i r e d f o r s l u d g e h a n d l i n g , e x c a v a t i o n ,
backfilling , grading , and r o a d construction. T a b l e 1 9- 5 p r e s e n t s
t y p i c a l e q u i p m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e characteristics f o r v a r i o u s
s l u d g e landfilling methods.
1 9 . 2.4.6 Flexibility a n d Reliability

Because sludge characteristics and quantities may change, a
landfill site should be designed with maximum flexibility . Since
the life of a l a n d f i l l is d i f f i c u l t t o a c c u r a t e l y p r e d i c t ,
1 9 -1 8
e x p a n s i o n may be n e e d e d s o o n e r t h a n originally p l a n n e d o r it
may be delayed . Any change in wastewater treatment or sludge
management processes may affect the nature and quantity of sludge
p r o d u c e d. O p e r a t i o n a l modifications m a y be needed if t h e s e
c h a n g e s are drastic. T h e landfill design should be such that
changes can be made without major disruption t o operations.
TABLE 19- 5
LANDFILL EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

Equipment type
Backhoe Tractor
Landfill Trenching with Track Wheel Track with
method Submethod Equipment function machine loader Excavator loader loader dozer3 Scraper Dragline Grader disc
Trench Narrow trench Trench construction G G G G

Covering G G F G G G G
Wide trench. Trench construction G P G G ft
Covering F G s*
Area fill Mound Soil hauling F r G G

Mixing F F G
Sludge hauling F F G F
Mounding G G F F
Covering F G F G G
Layer Soil hauling F G G

Mixing F ft G G
Sludge hauling F r G F
Layering G G G
Covering G G G
Diked con-
tainment
Soil hauling
Dike construction
F r
r
5
r G
G
G
Covering G L
Codisposal Sludge/refuse Spreading F G

Covering F G F
Sludge/soil Sludge spreading F G F
Mixing F G
Hauling G F F
Covering F F G F
Legend
G = Good. Fully capable of performing function listed. Equipment could be selected solely on basis of function listed.
F = Fair. Marginally capable of performing function listed. Equipment should be selected on basis of full capabilities
in other function.
-= Not applicable. Cannot be used for function listed.
Caterpillar -
D 6 generally is the largest track dozer appropriate for a sludge landfill although some engineers
-
are investigating the use of the Caterpillar LG T, double-wide track dozer.
Reliability is another important factor in designing a landfill

operation. Operation should continue even in inclement weather.
Special w o r k areas and s t o r a g e facilities should be available
o n site f o r e m e r g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s o r u n e x p e c t e d equipment
failures.
19.2 . 4.7 E x p e c t e d Performance
A l t h o u g h t h e o v e r a l l p e r f o r m a n c e of a s l u d g e landfill m a y b e
difficult to predict accurately , certain operating parameters
should be estimated . T h e site life d e p e n d s on many factors ;
a n e s t i m a t e .is n e e d e d f o r p u r p o s e s o f economic evaluations
and f u t u r e planning . S l u d g e application r a t e a n d soil cover
-
19 19
r e q u i r e m e n t s should be estimated before s c h e d u l i n g initial
o p e r a t i o n s. P e r f o r m a n c e c a n be more c l o s e l y predicted a f t e r
actual operating experience is gained.
19.2 . 4.8 Environmental I m p a c t s

S p e c i f i c a r e a s of
environmental i m p a c t vary a m o n g landfill
locations. Crucial impact areas include: traffic , land use,
air quality , s u r f a c e a n d g r o u n d w a t e r q u a l i t y , p u b l i c h e a l t h ,
aesthetics , wildlife , and habitats of e n d a n g e r e d s p e c i e s.
Adverse impacts should be mitigated during the site selection
process or by specific measures in the design.
19.2.5 Operation and Maintenance
A sludge landfill should be viewed as an ongoing construction

site. Unlike conventional construction, however, t h e operating
parameters of a sludge landfill often change and may require
innovative a l t e r a t i o n s and contingency p l a n s , A n effective
landfill r e q u i r e s a detailed o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n , Equipment
selection should be compatible with sludge characteristics ,
site conditions , and landfill method.
Operational procedures can be s e p a r a t e d into t h o s e specific t o
t h e landfill m e t h o d a n d t h o s e applicable t o s l u d g e landfills
in general. M e t h o d -s p e c i f i c p r o c e d u r e s i n c l u d e : site
preparation, sludge unloading , sludge m a n a g e m e n t and covering.
T h e s e p r o c e d u r e s a r e discussed in detail in Municipal S l u d g e
Landfill ( 1 ).
General p r o c e d u r e s include scheduling , equipment selection and

maintenance, m a n a g e m e n t and reporting , safety , and environmental
controls. T h e s e items are discussed in Sanitary Landfill Design
and Operation ( 2 ). Important points are summarized below.
19.2 . 5.1 Operations Plan
A s with a n y construction activity , s l u d g e landfilling m u s t

proceed according t o detailed plans and operating schedules, T h e
operation plan should address all relevant method-specific or
general operating procedures for the landfill, including:
Hours of operation.
Measuring procedures.
Traffic flow and unloading procedures.

Special wastes handling.
Cover excavation, stockpiling , and placement .
19-20
• Maintenance procedures and schedules.
• Inclement weather operations.
Environmental monitoring and control practices.

An operations plan is an important tool for providing continuity
of activities, monitoring and control of progress , and personnel
training.
19.2.5.2 Operating Schedule

Major features of the operating schedule include: hours of
operation , availability of qualified personnel, site preparation
schedules, and equipment maintenance schedules. The hours of
operation must be such that the site is open when sludge is to be
received . If variations in the rate of receipt are expected
during the day , it may be desirable to schedule for equipment and
personnel accordingly. The schedule may need to provide for the
application of daily soil cover.
19.2.5.3 Equipment Selection and Maintenance

Equipment selection depends largely upon the landfill method ,
design dimensions , and sludge quantity , Selection must be based
upon the functions to be performed and the cost of alternate
machines. Table 19 - 5 summarized general selection criteria.
Table 19 - 6 presents examples of equipment choices for seven
landfill schemes.
TABLE 19- 6
TYPICAL EQUIPMENT TYPE AND NUMBER AS A FUNCTION

OF LANDFILL METHOD AND SITE LOADING
3
Trench method Area fill method Codisposal method
Narrow trench wide trench Mound Laver Diked containment Sludge/refuse Sludge/soil
Equipment lb 2
C
3
d 6
I 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Trenching
machine 1 2
Backhoe with
loader 1 1 l9 1 Ig l9 Ig 1
Excavator 1
lg lg g
Track loader 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l9 l9 2
Wheel loader 1 l lg
lg 1 1 g lg lg 1 ' g
Track dozer 29 l9 1 1 2 lg 1 1 1 1 1 29 2 1 2 ig 1 1
Scraper l9 1 lg Ig 1 lg lg lg 1 ig r i
Dragline ill l
Grader lg 1
Tractor with
disc 1 1 Ig 29 2
Total 1 2 2 3 5 1 2 2 2 4 12 4 5 5 1 2 2 3 4 1 2 3 3 4 1 12 112 4 5
Âdditional equipment only.

^Scheme 1 - 1 0 wet TPD.
CScheme 2 - 50 wet TPD.
^Scheme 3 - 100 wet TPD.
GScheme 4 - 250 wet TPD.
^Scheme 5 -
gMay
500 wet TPD.
not receive 100 percent utilization.
19-21
Equipment maintenance can be more expensive than the amortized
annual purchase cost. A scheduled preventive maintenance program
should be followed to control maintenance costs , Operators
should perform routine daily maintenance ( for example , check
fluid levels , cleaning , etc. ), The operating schedule should
provide periods for thorough maintenance.
19.2.5.4 Management and Reporting
Management and reporting activities include the maintenance

of activity records , performance records , required regulatory
reports, cost records , on-site supervision and public relations
activities. Activity records include equipment and personnel
accounts, sludge and ( if applicable ) solid waste receipts, cover
material quantities and used site area layouts. These records
become bases for scheduling site development, gauging efficiency ,
and any billing as required .
Performance records may be required as a part of the regulatory

process. Regulatory agencies may perform periodic inspections on
a scheduled or an unscheduled basis , Operating and supervisory
personnel must be aware of these requirements .
For the purposes of safety and control , the site should be
staffed with two or more persons , At smaller sites , where only
one operator is required , daily visits or phone checks should be
made.
19.2.5.5 Safety
Providing a safe working environment at the landfill site should

be a part of general O& M , and certain safety features should be
built into the design . Certain practices must be followed daily
to provide safe working conditions. The operations plan should
have a separate safety section , as well as specific safety
guidelines for each operation and feature of the landfill.
Soil and Fill Stability
The stability of the soil and fill can present a critical safety
problem , particularly with the use of large equipment , Disturbed
and filled areas should be approached cautiously as should muddy
areas or areas subject to erosion.
Equipment Operation
The operation of large , earth - moving equipment presents the

potential for accidents , Only fully trained operators should
be allowed to use such equipment , Regular maintenance and safety
checks can greatly reduce the number of accidents associated with
equipment failure and operator error.
19-22
Gas Control
Caution m u s t be used w h e n dealing with g a s c o n t r o l equipment.

T h e O & M m a n u a l s h o u l d contain a c o m p l e t e s e t o f instructions o n
t h e s a f e servicing of g a s c o n t r o l and monitoring equipment , and
t h e o p e r a t i o n of this equipment should be e x p l a i n e d periodically
a t o p e r a t i o n a n d safety training sessions.
1 9 . 2.5 . 6 Environmental C o n t r o l s
T h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e environment and p u b l i c h e a l t h a r e i m p o r t a n t
a s p e c t s o f t h e landfill o p e r a t i o n. T h e o p e r a t i o n s p l a n s h o u l d
contain guidelines for providing this protection and actual
operations should conform t o t h e guidelines , G e n e r a l require-
m e n t s a r e summarized in T a b l e 1 9-7. Critical a r e a s a r e discussed
below.
TABLE 19- 7
POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND

CONTROL PRACTICES
Environmental problems
Si ltation
and
Control practice Spillage erosion Mud Dust Vectors Odors Noise Aesthetics Health Safety
Safety program X
Maintain washrooms for person
nel
- X
Training of new personnel X X X X X X X X X X
Use safety clamps on truck
tailgates X X
Maintain road markings and
trench barriers X X
Maintain fencing X X
Apply insecticide X
Maintain buffer areas and grass X X X X X X
Proper equipment maintenance X X X
Spray water/oil/liquid asphalt X X
Truck wash pad (to clean trucks) X X X
Maintain grass waterways ,
diversion ditches, rip rap X X X
Final grading of disturbed
areas X X
Revegetation of disturbed
areas X X X X
Chemical masking agent X
Lime on site X X X X X
Workers supplied with
aerators X X X X
Cover sludge daily X X X X X
Water diverted away from site X X
Environment
E n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n is g e n e r a l l y f o c u s e d o n l e a c h a t e
and runoff controls for preventing surface and groundwater
contamination . T r e n c h l i n e r s m u s t b e k e p t intact d u r i n g a n d
a f t e r filling operations. D r a i n a g e s y s t e m s should b e c h e c k e d
1 9- 2 3
to see that they are functioning as designed , If monitoring
indicates that adverse environmental impacts are occurring or
pending , immediate corrective action should be taken.
Public Health
Protection of public health should be a foremost concern in the

operation of sludge landfills. Protection of water supplies and
particularly sole source aquifers is an obvious responsibility.
In addition , control of potential disease by reduction of
vectors , the adequate venting of explosive or toxic gases, and
the restriction of access to the landfill site are the
responsibility of the operators.
Social Welfare
Minimizing the negative aesthetic impacts of a sludge landfill

can greatly increase public acceptance. Control of odors , noise,
-
and other nuisances is generally straight forward and should be
accomplished as part of the daily operating routine , Efforts
should be made to reduce the undesirable social impacts of the
fill operation.
19.2.6 Site Closure
In closing a sludge landfill site , certain criteria must be met

to make the site publicly acceptable. These criteria are
established according to the type of landfill and the location ,
size , and ultimate use of the site. The procedures for site
closure should be included in the operations manual and updated
or modified as the original landfill plan is altered.
19.2.6.1 Ultimate Use
The ultimate use of the site should be described and illustrated

in the O & M manual or in a separate document describing the
closure of the site. The actual work involved in completing the
site will depend on its ultimate use and on the care taken in
day to day fill operations.
- -
19.2.6.2 Grading at Completion of Filling
When each section of the landfill is completed , the final cover

should be graded according to a predetermined plan , It is
imperative that no sludge become or remain exposed after the
grading has been completed .
-
19 24
19.2.6.3 Final Grading
Final grading of the site is to be performed after sufficient
time has elapsed to allow for initial settlement , The final
grading plan should be designed in accordance with the intended
ultimate use of the landfill site. It is important that all
sludge be completely covered to the specified depth with cover
material.
19.2.6.4 Landscaping
The landscaping plan should reflect the intended ultimate use of
the landfill site. Where practical , landscaping may be done on
completed sections before the entire fill project is completed.
19.2.6.5 Continued Leachate and Gas Control

Since decomposition of the organics in the sludge may continue
even after the landfill has been completed , an ongoing monitoring
and control program must be maintained . Leachate and gas must be
controlled even after the filling operations have stopped. Ttve
completion plans should clearly outline this program.
19.2. 7 Landfilling of Screenings , Grit and Ash

Screenings and grit normally contain some putrescible materials
and , if landfilled , should be covered every day . Odors from
temporarily uncovered solids may be alleviated by sprinkling the
solids with lime. Special care should be exercised to assure
vector control ( for example , safe poisons for rodent control ,
spraying for flies , and animal-proof fencing to keep pets from
the area ).
Residues ( ash from the combustion of municipal wastewater solids )

generally contain high concentrations of trace metals , Leachate
from sites where incinerator ash is landfilled must be controlled
to prevent metals contamination of groundwater , In California ,
for example , wastewater sludge furnace ash must be placed
in a " protected " Class II - l site , See Chapter 11 for more
information.
19.3 Dedicated Land Disposal
19.3.1 Definition
Dedicated land disposal means the application of heavy sludge
loadings to some finite land area which has limited public
access and has been set aside or dedicated for all time to the
disposal of wastewater sludge. Dedicated land disposal does not
19-25
mean in- place utilization , Dedicated sites typically receive
liquid s l u d g e s , While a p p l i c a t i o n of dewatered s l u d g e s is
possible, it is not common , I n addition, disposal of dewatered
sludge in landfills is generally more cost-effective.
A s with any o t h e r land d i s p o s a l technique , dedicated land
d i s p o s a l r e q u i r e s t h e w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e be stabilized p r i o r
t o application. Once the s l u d g e has been stabilized , however ,
it c a n b e a p p l i e d t o t h e dedicated land in either t h e liquid
or the dewatered state. Use of anaerobically digested sludge
minimizes o d o r and potential nuisances.
Many existing w a s t e w a t e r treatment plants practice some form of
dedicated land d i s p o s a l. H o w e v e r , p r e c a u t i o n s n e c e s s a r y f o r
a s s u r i n g t h a t this m e t h o d of d i s p o s a l is n o t h a r m f u l t o t h e
environment have not always been practiced.
19.3.2 Background
Dedicated land d i s p o s a l w a s first d e v e l o p e d as an informal
practice in response t o the need t o reduce high operational c o s t s
associated with sludge disposal. The practice w a s applicable
particularly in cases where the plant site had adequate acreage
or where adjacent land was available and hauling costs to the
n e a r e s t landfill were high. G r o u n d w a t e r contamination , o d o r
production , and aesthetic concerns were not usually addressed in
this informal practice.
A more sophisticated a p p r o a c h t o dedicated land disposal had t o
be taken as sludge quantities increased with higher treatment
levels , and on-site sludge disposal was perceived as associated
with environmental p r o b l e m s. Recent research on this method of
s l u d g e disposal has developed k e y environmental controls which
are covered in subsequent sections.
T h e use of dedicated land disposal has several major advantages.
T h e s e include flexibility in managing s l u d g e s in excess of
utilization demand ; minimum land use because sludge application
rates per acre are maximized ; inexpensive dewatering through
t h e use of s o l a r e n e r g y instead of t h e relatively e x p e n s i v e
electrical energy required for mechanical dewatering ; relatively
low capital and operating costs ( 6 ).
Dedicated land disposal is applicable as a disposal method for
liquid , dewatered , o r dried s l u d g e s. T o maximize t h e advantage
of low -cost solar drying and minimize the c o s t of u p s t r e a m s l u d g e
processing , disposal of liquid s l u d g e is the most cost-effective
a p p r o a c h. D i s p o s a l of s l u d g e s in t h e liquid form r e q u i r e s
s t o r a g e capacity . Facultative s l u d g e l a g o o n s ( F S L s ) , as
discussed in Chapter 15 , can provide that s t o r a g e. F S L s provide
a buffer between continuous s l u d g e production and intermittent
land d i s p o s a l operations . D i s p o s a l of t h e thickened ( solids
concentration of 6 t o 8 p e r c e n t ) s l u d g e s f r o m t h e F S L s / ill /
commence 1 t o 5 years after the first anaerobically stabilized

sludge is discharged into FSLs.
19 - 26
19.3 3 . Site Selection
There are five major considerations in selecting an appropriate

d e d i c a t e d l a n d d i s p o s a l ( DLD ) s i t e . These considerations are
ownership, groundwater patterns , topography , soil types , and
availability of sufficient land . All are discussed briefly in
the following paragraphs .
.
19.3 3.1 Ownership by Wastewater Treatment Authority
By d e f i n i t i o n , t h e s e l e c t e d DLD s i t e w i l l be d e d i c a t e d i n
perpetuity to the sludge disposal function, L o n g- t e r m b u i l d u p
of heavy metals and s a l t s in the s o i l surface layers will
make the s i t e unsuitable f o r future d i r e c t a g r i c u l t u r a l use .
Public access to these s i t e s must be restricted because of
their potential pathogen contamination, These factors require
complete control and thus ownership of the s i t e by the wastewater
treatment authority , However , merely because certain elements
accumulate t o toxic concentrations on t h a t s i t e does not mean
that the surface soils are forever useless .
.
19.3 3.2 Groundwater Patterns
Groundwater movement must be considered i n the selection of a

DLD s i t e . Groundwater flow patterns must be known in order t o
protect present or future domestic water supply wells , The
f o l l o w i n g t h r e e c o n t r o l o p t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e:
1 . C h o i c e o f a s i t e w i t h a n i s o l a t e d g r o u n d w a t e r p a t t e r n.
This option requires that there be well defined -
groundwater migration t o a r i v e r o r t h e ocean; In this
case , there must be no intermediate domestic source
wells . An adequate subsurface buffer s t r i p between the
s i t e and the receiving waters should be provided t o
p e r m i t f u r t h e r p o t e n t i a l p o l l u t a n t a t t e n u a t i o n, u p t a k e ,
or dilution .
2. C h o i c e o f a s i t e w i t h a t i g h t/ l o w p e r m e a b i l i t y s u r f a c e
a n d/o r s u b s u r f a c e s o i l l a y e r w h i c h e s s e n t i a l l y p r e v e n t s
from reaching the groundwater ,
DLD l e a c h a t e In this
option, additional monitoring wells may be required
to confirm the design assumptions over the long term .
3. Construction of an artificial leachate control barrier
c o m p o s e d o f a m i n i m u m 2 -f o o t ( 0 . 6 m ) d e p t h c l a y l a y e r
under the entire s i t e and deep cutoff trenches a t the
groundwater downstream end of the s i t e for leachate
collection and recycling , I t should be noted that when
t h e r e a r e l o w- p e r m e a b l e s o i l s t o o c l o s e t o t h e s u r f a c e ,
liquid disposal operations can be hindered , Shallow
clays can cause ponding and reduced loading rates
with these systems.
1 9-2 7
1 9 . 3.3 . 3 Topography
Natural topography is a n important consideration in selecting a

DLD site. Natural s l o p e s g r e a t e r than 0 . 5 p e r c e n t will have to
b e modified t o p r e v e n t e r o s i o n , T h e lack o f v e g e t a t i o n o n
the disposal site increases the potential erosion p r o b l e m and
s u b s e q u e n t runoff c o n t r o l , The u s e o f level o r n e a r l y level land
eliminates erosion p r o b l e m s. Graded o r terraced sites can be
used , but increased earthmoving c o s t s are involved.
19.3.3.4 Soil T y p e s
Most soil t y p e s can accommodate one or another form o f D L D s y s t e m
with proper protection of g r o u n d and surface w a t e r s a s outlined
a b o v e. P r e f e r e n c e s h o u l d , h o w e v e r , be g i v e n t o s o i l s w i t h a
m o d e r a t e t o h i g h c a t i o n e x c h a n g e c a p a c i t y ( C E C ), t y p i c a l l y
g r e a t e r than 1 0 milliequivalents p e r 1 0 0 g r a m s .
Desirable soil c o n d i t i o n s i n c l u d e restrictive p e r m e a b i l i t y ,
minimal ponding , and freedom from boulders , Technical assistance
in the areas o f soil science, soil agronomy, and soil engineering
is recommended , so t h a t the i m p a c t s o f specific soil t y p e s o n t h e
project can be a c c u r a t e l y evaluated .
19.3.3 . 5 Availability o f Sufficient Land
T h e amount o f land required d e p e n d s u p o n t h e quantity of s l u d g e

g e n e r a t e d and upon t h e a c c e p t a b l e loading r a t e s , Sufficient land
m u s t be available t o ensure the integrity o f the system.
1 9 . 3.4 Storage
Storage should b e considered f o r D L D systems under certain

climatic c o n d i t i o n s a n d f o r increased operational efficiency
a n d c o n t r o l. A s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , FSLs are recommended
t o meet these conditions and t o assist in flow buffering ( see
Chapter 1 5 ).
1 9 . 3.4 . 1 Climatic Influences

In m o s t areas o f t h e c o u n t r y , rainfall is s e a s o n a l, and in some
the g r o u n d m a y be frozen t o a d e p t h which makes it unworkable
during the winter. These conditions mean that dedicated land
disposal operations can occur o n l y during t h e drier months , A s a
minimum , provision f o r six months o f s l u d g e s t o r a g e is required .
S y s t e m s d e s i g n e d f o r h a n d l i n g l i q u i d s l u d g e in S a c r a m e n t o,
California ( 6 ), and in Corvallis, O r e g o n ( 7, 8,9 ), a r e designed
for 1 8 t o 6 0 m o n t h s s t o r a g e o f anaerobically digested s l u d g e in
F S L s. This allows u p s t r e a m s y s t e m s t o o p e r a t e t h r o u g h a winter-
summer-winter cycle and without disposal p r o b l e m s during a w e t
spreading season.
1 9-2 8
19.3.4.2 Operational Storage
Even where climate is not severe enough to require sludge
storage , storage may still be warranted for operational
efficiency . If storage is provided , routine equipment
maintenance can take place during normal work hours. Emergency
situations , such as those which require the retention of
unstabilized sludge for very short periods during any plant
upset, can be responded to effectively (10).
19.3.5 Operational Methods and Equipment

Dedicated land disposal has achieved recent prominence because
of its application to the problem of direct disposal of liquid
sludges. Systems that are designed to deliver and manage liquid
sludges on DLD sites are of primary interest ( 11 ).
19.3.5.1 Liquid Sludge

Application of liquid sludge is desirable because it simplifies
upstream processes. Dewatering processes are not required , and
inexpensive liquid transport and application systems can be used.
Four common surface application methods for the liquid sludge are
described in the following paragraphs. The first three are
irrigation systems and the fourth is a mobile tank application
system subsurface applications methods are described in the final
paragraph. Summaries of certain characteristics of those methods
-
are given in Tables 19 8 and 19 9. -
Spraying
Wastewater sludge can be applied to the land using either fixed
or portable irrigation systems. These systems must either be
designed specifically to handle solids without clogging , or
-
liquid sludges must be screened . A 1/8 inch ( 0.32 cm ) mesh
rotary strainer will perform satisfactorily.
It is advantageous to spray sludges because operating labor is
reduced , less land needs to be prepared , and a wide selection of
commercial equipment is available. Fixed irrigation systems can
be highly automated , whereas operator attention is required
for portable sprinkler systems . Sprinklers can operate
satisfactorily on rough , wet land unsuitable for tank trucks or
injection equipment.
Disadvantages of spraying sludges include power costs associated
-
with the use of high pressure pumps , the potential for aerosol
pollution from entrained pathogens , odors , potential for ponding
of the sludge , and adverse public reaction. Preferred spray
systems direct the sludge toward the ground. Modified versions
of center pivot systems provide for low pressure at the nozzles,
minimizing odors and aerosols. Such designs minimize direct
airborne transport of sludge , control application rates and
distribution , and minimize aerosol formation and transport.
-
19 29
TABLE 19- 8
SURFACE APPLICATION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT FOR LIQUID SLUDGES
Topographical and seasonal

Method Characteristics suitability
Spray (sprinkler) fixed Large orifice required on Can be used on a sloping
or portable nozzles ; large power and low land ; can be used year-
labor requirement; wide round if the pipes are
selection of commercial equip- drained in winter ; odor
ment available ; sludge must be and aerosol nuisances may
flushed from pipes when use Occur.
• '
stops for longer than 2 to 3

days.
Overland flow and
flooding
Used on sloping ground with or
without vegetation with no
Can be applied from all
weather ridge roads.
-
runoff permitted ; suitable for
emergency operation ; difficult
to get uniform aerial applica -
tion ; use of gated or perforated
pipe requires screening of
sludge prior to application;
sludge must be flushed from
pipes when use stops for longer
than 2 to 3 days.
Ridge and furrows Land preparation needed ; lower Between 0.3 and 1.0 percent
power requirements than spray ; slope depending on solids
limited to low solids con- concentration and
centration (less than 3 percent
works best).
condition of soil , Fill
able land not usable on
-
wet or frozen ground.
Tank truck Capacity 500 to 3 ,800 gallons ; Tillable land ; not usable
larger volume trucks will re -
quire flotation tires; can use
on very soft ground.
with temporary irrigation setup ;

with pump discharge can spray
from roadway onto field.
1 gal = 3.8 1
Overland Flow and Controlled Flooding
Overland flow ( wild flooding ) and controlled flooding ( border

check flooding ) are common irrigation techniques. Both of these
use gated or perforated pipe to assure aerial uniformity , DLD
experiments with these techniques on stabilized lagooned sludge
at Sacramento, California ( 12 ), indicate that neither resulted in
the satisfactory surface spreading of such sludge. Wild flooding
spread the sludge too far laterally and quite unevenly downslope.
Border check flooding took care of the lateral spreading , but
the downslope could not be adjusted to varying sludge solids
concentrations. Therefore , the sludge either collected at the
top of the sloped field ( when there was too little slope for the
percent solids concentration ) or at the bottom of the sloped
field ( when there was too much slope for the percent solids
concentration ). Both flooding techniques resulted in the
accumulation of excessive amounts of sludge on limited areas ;
reapplication was thus limited and problems such as odors and
19 -30
vectors were an outcome. In both techniques, clogging problems
were experienced with standard water irrigation gated and
perforated piping . This indicated that either special distribu-
tion piping would be required for use with sludge or the sludge
would have to be screened in a manner similar to that indicated
for sprinkler application.
TABLE 19- 9
SUBSURFACE APPLICATION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT

FOR LIQUID SLUDGES
Topographical and seasonal

Method Characteristics suitability
Flexible irrigation hose Pipeline or tanker pres- Tillable land ; not usable on
(umbilical cord system) surized supply ; 650 ft hose wet or frozen ground.
with subsurface injection connected to manifold dis-
or surface discharge3 charge on plow or disc
pulled by tracked vehicle ;
abrasive wear can result in
short hose life ; subsurface
injection by means of very
small furrow behind knife-
edge cutting disk and/or
narrow plow ; surface dis
charge into furrow
-
immediately ahead of plow
application rate of 50 to
-
100 wet ton/acre/pass.
Tank truck with subsurface

injection or surface
500 -
3,800 gallon 4-wheel
drive commercial equipment
Tillable land ; not usable on
wet or frozen ground .
discharge available ; subsurface
injection by means of very
small furrow behind knife
edge cutting disk and/or
-
narrow plow ; surface dis
charge into furrow
-
immediately ahead of plow-
Farm tank trailer and Sludge discharged into fur- Tillable land ; not usable on
tractor with surface dis - row ahead of plow mounted wet or frozen ground .
charge3 on tank trailer -
applica
tion of 170 to 225 wet
-
ton/acre/pass. Sludge
spread in narrow bank on
ground surface and imme-
diately plowed under -
Farm tank trailer and Sludge discharged into chan- Tillable land ; not usable on
tractor with subsurface nel opened and covered by wet or frozen ground .
injection3 a tillable tool mounted on
tank trailer -
application
rate 25 to 50 wet ton/acre/
pass.
aVehicle reaccess to area receiving application dependant on

water content and application rate of liquid sludges.
1 gal = 3.8 1
1 ton/acre - 2.25 t/ha
19-31
Ridge and Furrow
T h e ridge and furrow sludge application method is similar t o that

used in agricultural systems. At the high application rates and
g i v e n l o w solids c o n t e n t , t h e ridge and furrow m e t h o d o f f e r s
better control t h a n gated o r perforated pipe systems used for
overland flow o r controlled flooding . Key factors in the success
of ridge and furrow application are the solids concentration of
t h e sludge , the furrow slope, a n d the condition of the soil. T h e
effect o f the solids concentration and the furrow slope on sludge
application, determined from a study in Sacramento, California
a r e a ( 3 4 ), is summarized in T a b l e 1 9 - 1 0. G e n e r a l l y , for
a w e l l- s t a b i l i z e d s l u d g e , t h e f u r r o w s l o p e s h o u l d b e a b o u t
0.1 t o 0.2 percent p e r one percent sludge solids concentration,
particularly for s l u d g e s which b e h a v e like w a t e r ( less t h a n
3 t o 4 p e r c e n t solids ). S l u d g e s with much g r e a t e r solids
concentrations cannot b e successfully surface spread by the ridge
a n d f u r r o w t e c h n i q u e . As l o n g a s t h e soil remains loose a n d
friable , satisfactory ridges a n d f u r r o w s c a n b e c r e a t e d a n d
friction losses c a n be tolerated. Excessive reapplications of
s l u d g e s with high moisture contents can create soils which clump.
This makes ridge and furrow construction difficult and increases
friction losses t o intolerable levels.
Advantages of ridge and furrow irrigation include simplicity ,

flexibility , and l o w e r energy r e q u i r e m e n t s , Disadvantages
include t h e s e t t l i n g of solids a t t h e h e a d s of furrows , t h e
n e e d f o r a w e l l- p r e p a r e d site with p r o p e r gradients, a n d t h e
impossibility of maintaining a friable soil , I n addition ,
ponding of s l u d g e in the furrows c a n result in o d o r problems.
O f t e n , ridge and furrow s l u d g e i r r i g a t i o n a l s o involves a

covering operation. This must be carefully considered , laid out,
and tested prior t o installation s o that maximum efficiency in
application and land use is assured .
Tank Truck Surface Spreading
A common method of liquid sludge surface application is direct

spreading by tank trucks, tractors , and farm tank wagons with
c a p a c i t i e s o f 5 0 0 t o 3 , 8 0 0 g a l l o n s ( 2 t o 1 4 m 3 ), S l u d g e is
spread from a manifold o n t h e rear of the truck o r w a g o n as the
vehicle is driven across the field , Application r a t e s can be
controlled either by valving the manifold o r by varying t h e speed
o f the t r u c k.
T h e principal a d v a n t a g e s of a t a n k truck s y s t e m a r e low capital

investment and ease o f o p e r a t i o n. T h e s y s t e m is flexible in
t h a t a variety of a p p l i c a t i o n sites , p a s t u r e s , g o l f courses ,
farmland , athletic fields and t h e like , can be served. This
permits utilization of sludge, with a dedicated land disposal
s y s t e m a s a reliable backup disposal mode.
1 9 -3 2
TABLE 19- 10
FURROW SLOPE EVALUATION
a
Slope , Percent
c
percent solids 3* •
Observations
0.1 3.1 Sludge ponded or flowed
very slowly. On slopes
this flat slight
variations in grade
causing ponding. Gen-
erally unsatisfactory.
.2 3.1 No ponding , sludge flowed
slowly . Minimum grade
for 3 percent solids.
Would be too flat for
5 percent solids.
.3 3.1 Sludge flowed evenly at a

moderate rate. Excel -
lent slope for 3 per
cent solids.
-
.4 - .5 2.7 Sludge flowed evenly at a
moderate rate , If
sludge-furrow was not
covered when full all
the sludge would flow
to the low end and pond .
a
0.1 percent equals 0.1 ft of fall/100 ft
of run. (0.1 m/100 m)
b
Percent solids expressed determined in a
dry weight basis.
c
All observations are based on 12 in. ( . 30 cm )
deep furrows , Soil in excellent friable
condition. Deeper furrows would permit the
use of flatter slopes.
Disadvantages of this system include wet- weather problems

and the high operating costs for sludge hauling . Standard ,
-
highway operable tank trucks are not able to enter sites when the
ground is soft. -
Consequently , storage or wet weather handling
alternatives must be available. Another disadvantage is that
truck traffic damages soil structure and compresses the soil,
thus yielding higher bulk densities and reduced infiltration
capacities.
-
19 33
To maximize disposal time during days when the site can be used ,
a highway vehicle with a 3 ,000 to 6 ,000 gallon (11.7 to 22.7 m 3 )
capacity tank can be used to transport the sludge to the OLD
site. Sludge is then transferred to one or more off road -
application trucks. These trucks should be equipped with high
-
flotation tires and four wheel drive for working wet sites.
Subsurface Injection
Subsurface injection involves a principle of incorporation , which

involves cutting a furrow , delivering sludge into that furrow ,
and covering the sludge and furrow , all in one operation.
Modifications include methods in which the sludge is injected
beneath the soil surface or incorporated by use of a disk.
Advantages of incorporation include: immediate mixture of sludge

and soil , elimination of potential odor and vector problems from
ponding , and control of surface runoff. Incorporation procedures
are also favored when sludge utilization is desired , because less
nitrogen is lost from the soil through ammonia volatilization.
The principal disadvantages of incorporation are its complex

management procedures and the fact that the equipment cannot be
effectively used on wet or frozen ground .
19.3.5.2 Dewatered Sludge
Application of dewatered sludge is similar to application

of solid or semi solid fertilizers , lime , or animal manure.
-
Sludge can be spread with bulldozers , loaders , graders , or box
spreaders and then plowed or disked in. Spiked tooth harrows
used for normal farming operations may be too light to bury
sludge to the required depth ,
discs or disk harrows may be required ,
-
Use of heavy duty industrial
Methods and equipment
for application of dewatered sludges are shown in Table 19 11. -
Figure 19 - 2 shows views of Denver Metro's dewatered sludge
landspreading operations.
The principal advantage of using dewatered sludge is that

conventional equipment for application of fertilizer and lime
and for tillage can be used. Another advantage is that dewatered
sludge may be applied at higher rates than liquid sludge.
'
Problems of flooding and ponding and subsequent site access

associated with the high hydraulic loading rates of liquid
sludge applications are avoided . The disadvantage is the higher
energy and operational costs associated with sludge dewatering
and the treatment required for resulting sidestream , The
disadvantages appear to outweigh the advantages , since dewatered
sludge is infrequently used for DLD.
-
19 34
TABLE 19- 11
METHODS AND EQUIPMENT FOR APPLICATION OF

DEWATERED SLUDGES
Method Characteristics
Spreading Truck -mounted or tractor -
powered box spreader
( commercially available ) ;
sludge spread evenly on
ground ; application rate
controlled by over -the -
ground speed ; can be
incorporated by disking
or plowing .
Piles or win- Normally hauled by dump

drows truck ; spreading and
leveling by bulldozer or
grader needed to give
uniform application; 4
to 6 inch layer can be
incorporated by plowing.
Reslurry and Suitable for long hauls by
handle as in rail transportation.
Tables 19 - 8 and
19 - 9.
19.3.5.3 Sludge Application Rates

Sludges should be applied such that soils can dry sufficiently
between sludge applications to allow the passage of sludge
distribution vehicles. Sludge application does not create excess
leachate or runoff. Application should also be managed so that
the soil does not become anaerobic and generate odors.
Adverse moisture conditions can be avoided for the most part if
sludge application rates are not allowed to exceed the net soil
evaporation rate ( that is , evaporation minus precipitation ) .
Using this guideline , water should be removed by evaporation as
rapidly as it is added with the sludge and the fields should dry
out prior to subsequent sludge applications. Since on the
average , all water is removed by evaporation , none should remain
to percolate or become runoff . The environmental hazard and
operating costs associated with controlling these streams
are thus minimized . Given this premise , sludge should be
applied only when the net soil evaporation rate is positive.
The Colorado Springs case example discusses this approach .
Operations will tend to be seasonal , intensive during warm, dry
conditions and slowed down during wet or cold conditions. Sludge
application must , of course, be terminated when the ground is
frozen.
19-35
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'
r'V'
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-
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-r <
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,
The Denver Metro uses large trucks to transport dewatered sludge cake to its rela -
tively isolated disposal site at the former Lowry Bombing Range 25 miles ( 40 km)
from the treatment plant . This picture shows transfer of sludge to smaller dump
trucks for spreading in the field. Sludge is spread by allowing it to drop from the
truck as it is driven through the field . At one time the District used a manure
spreader instead of dump truck for sludge spreading purposes .
• . *»•
'i
After spreading, sludge is incorporated into the soil by

plowing with this 6-bottom, 2 - way moldboard plow .
Annual application was about 30 dry tons per acre
( 67 dry t / ha ) in 1976 . Nine or ten months later , the
same land received another application of sludge .
FIGURE 19- 2
DEWATERED SLUDGE LANDSPREADING , METROPOLITAN

DENVER SEWAGE DISPOSAL DISTRICT NO 1, .
DENVER, COLORADO
1 9-3 6
I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t runoff and leachate c o n t r o l s are still
required e v e n t h o u g h t h e s y s t e m, o n t h e a v e r a g e, eliminates a l l
w a t e r by e v a p o r a t i o n. L e a c h a t e a n d r u n o f f m u s t b e e x p e c t e d ,
since p e r i o d s will o c c u r w h e n t h e n e t soil e v a p o r a t i o n r a t e s are
l e s s t h a n e x p e c t e d o r w h e r e more s l u d g e t h a n p e r m i s s i b l e is
applied.
O r g a n i c rather than hydraulic limitations may govern,

particularly when dewatered sludges are applied, Odors can
d e v e l o p if t h e s o i l /s l u d g e l a y e r d o e s n o t r e m a i n a e r o b i c .
Maintenance of the aerobic condition depends o n r a t e of s l u d g e
application, t h e s l u d g e t o soil ratio, t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d frequency
of soil turning o r disking .
19.3.6 Environmental Controls and Monitoring

I n g e n e r a l , environmental controls for dedicated land disposal
a r e n o t as severe as t h o s e f o r s l u d g e utilization. T h e basic
r e q u i r e m e n t is t h a t a c t i v i t i e s d o n o t c a u s e a n y n u i s a n c e
o f f-s i t e. Control of all transport mechanisms for potential
p o l l u t a n t s , specifically via s u r f a c e and g r o u n d w a t e r , and t h r o u g h
aerosols a n d o d o r is required . If t h e s l u d g e is well stabilized ,
v e c t o r c o n t r o l s will b e negligible.
19.3.6.1 Site L a y o u t
Good site planning is t h e k e y t o environmental pollution control

for D L D. Initial site selection should be based o n s l o p e, soil
t y p e , and isolation possibilities from g r o u n d a n d s u r f a c e w a t e r.
Subsequent detailed planning can significantly enhance final
environmental control measures.
Division of the D L D site into several fields is desirable f o r
operational and environmental controls. Individual fields should
be in t h e r a n g e of 1 0 t o 1 0 0 acres ( 4 t o 4 0 h a ), a n d 5 0 acres
( 2 0 h a ) i s t y p i c a l. For the umbilical cord subsurface
injection method, a m i n i mum dimension of 1 , 300 feet ( 400 m )
i s d e s i r a b l e . T h i s will a l l o w a t r a c t o r d r a g g i n g a 6 5 0- f o o t
( 2 0 0 m ) h o s e t o c o v e r a field , side - t o- side , w h e n the s l u d g e
hydrant is located in the center of the field . Smaller sites are
more amenable t o the use of tank vehicle systems.
T h e breakdown of the site into smaller areas will permit easier
terracing . First , fields with fairly uniform elevations m u s t
be c h o s e n , a n d s l o p e s m u s t t h e n b e r e g r a d e d f o r t h e c h o s e n
application method .
Beyond t h e site subdivision , plans for l a r g e r D L D s y s t e m s should

include a layout of " nurse centers." T h e s e are take-off points
o n a fixed distributional s y s t e m f o r r e- f i l l i n g a p p l i c a t i o n
t r u c k s in o r d e r t o minimize their unproductive t r a v e l time
a n d u n d e s i r a b l e e x t r a field c o m p a c t i o n. They also serve as
1 9 -3 7
h o o k u p s t o the tractor- drawn umbilical cord s y s t e m , U s u a l l y , t h e
nurse c e n t e r s consist of a s m a l l ( 4 - t o 6 - inch [ 1 0 t o 1 5 c m ] in
diameter ) s l u d g e f o r c e main riser with a q u i c k c o n n e c t coupling ,
coming from a pump station or dredge operating in a sludge
s t o r a g e lagoon. A s m a l l s t o r a g e tank o r vault ( maximum volume
twice the t a n k e r capacity ) is o f t e n a d d e d a t t h e nurse c e n t e r t o
simplify pumping control and t o permit s l u d g e pickup by a field
t a n k e r b y m e a n s o f s u c t i o n. S l u d g e s h o u l d n o t b e a l l o w e d t o
remain unmixed in t h e vault f o r more t h a n 3 0 minutes. Mixing o f
t h e t a n k contents will p r e v e n t liquid -solid separation , which
could cause wide variations in solids concentrations at pickup
and , t h e r e f o r e , uneven solids application r a t e s t o t h e site.
1 9 . 3.6 . 2 Groundwater Controls
T h e r e a r e t w o distinct k i n d s o f g r o u n d w a t e r c o n t r o l f o r D L D
sites. T h e first involves c o m p l e t e collection o f a n y and a l l
l e a c h a t e f r o m t h e s i t e f o l l o w e d by either r e c y c l i n g b a c k t o
t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t o r f u r t h e r o n- s i t e t r e a t m e n t , The second
involves monitoring groundwater migration patterns from the
site and assuring t h a t t h e q u a l i t y o f external w a t e r s a r e n o t
reduced.
I n t h e case o f t h e first , t h e site s h o u l d be underlain with a n
i m p e r v i o u s soil, h a r d p a n, o r r o c k. A l t h o u g h it is possible t o
p r e p a r e this barrier artificially using c l a y o r a liner , it is
u s u a l l y n o t economically feasible t o d o s o. T h u s , t h e original
site selection determines t h e d e g r e e of vertical containment.
H o r i z o n t a l m o v e m e n t of g r o u n d w a t e r is p r e v e n t e d by t h e u s e
o f d i k i n g a n d c u t o f f t r e n c h e s. Leachate is then collected
t o g e t h e r with s u r f a c e r u n o f f .
I n t h e case of t h e s e c o n d , extensive s u r v e y s m a y be necessary t o

determine natural g r o u n d w a t e r migration patterns. T h e direction
of leaching m u s t be determined . Design s h o u l d be s u c h t h a t final
concentrations of potential p o l l u t a n t s either in t h e o f f-site
groundwater or in surface water do not exceed contamination
guidelines p r e s e t by t h e a p p l i c a b l e r e g u l a t o r y authority .
19.3.6 . 3 S u r f a c e W a t e r Runoff C o n t r o l s
E a c h D L D site should b e g r a d e d s u c h t h a t a l l surface r u n o f f w o u l d

drain toward one point near the edge or toward the corner of
t h e f i e l d . E a c h s i t e s h o u l d b e s u r r o u n d e d by a b e r m t o k e e p
uncontaminated surface runoff o u t and t o contain contaminated D L D
runof f. A c e n t e r drain should either direct t h e contaminated
runoff back t o t h e n e a r e s t m a n h o l e o n a facultative s l u d g e l a g o o n
s u p e r n a t a n t s y s t e m , o r be c o n n e c t e d t o a pump which directs t h e
r u n o f f b a c k t o t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t o r t o a s e p a r a t e o n- s i t e
treatment system, Temporary holding of the runoff to permit
settling of settleable solids a n d monitoring may be desirable.
If t h e s t o r e d w a t e r is f o u n d t o be o f sufficient quality t o m e e t
d i s c h a r g e standards , it c a n b e r e l e a s e d without a n y t r e a t m e n t.
1 9 -3 8
T h e p r i m a r y m e c h a n i s m f o r w a t e r r e m o v a l a t m o s t sites is
e v a p o r a t i o n. Runoff can be minimized by adjusting sludge
loadings so that they are less than or equal to the net soil
e v a p o r a t i o n r a t e ( evapotranspiration rate minus precipitation ).
Runoff c o n t r o l c a n be aided by disking in t h e s l u d g e soon a f t e r

a p p l i c a t i o n, t h e r e b y preventing downward m o v e m e n t o f the liquid
s l u d g e.
1 9 . 3.6.4 Air Pollution C o n t r o l

T w o a i r p o l l u t i o n c o n c e r n s a r e a e r o s o l t r a n s p o r t a n d o d o r.
There must be adequate buffer zones around the DLD site .
Operationally , s y s t e m s which minimize the l e n g t h o f time s l u d g e
is directly e x p o s e d t o t h e a i r are p r e f e r r e d. I t is possible t o
incorporate special design features for air pollution control ,
for e x a m p l e, vacuum stripping o f t h e digested s l u d g e t o remove
o d o r s prior t o l a n d a p p l i c a t i o n.
19.3.6 . 5 Site Monitoring

Monitoring requirements for D L D a r e relatively straightforward .
G r o u n d w a t e r m o n i t o r i n g is e s s e n t i a l a n d s h o u l d b e c o n d u c t e d
from a pattern of groundwater wells located primarily at the
d o w n s t r e a m b o u n d a r y o f the site , I n addition t o g r o u n d w a t e r,
collected leachate and surface water runoff streams must be
monitored t o determine if and w h e n s u c h s t r e a m s m u s t be treated.
For air pollution control, olfactometer measurements (see
C h a p t e r 1 7 ) c o u l d b e t a k e n regularly , particularly during c a l m
periods and preceding a n d d u r i n g t i m e s o f air inversions , If
o d o r s a r e a major p r o b l e m, o p e r a t i o n s could be s t o p p e d during
periods o f c a l m winds a n d t e m p e r a t u r e inversion.
1 9 . 3.7 Costs
Extensive c o s t d a t a a r e n o t available o n D L D. C o s t estimates

;
a r e, h o w e v e r, available f r o m a new s y s t e m d e v e l o p e d a t C o l o r a d o
Springs , Colorado, and a l a r g e p r o t o t y p e s y s t e m a t S a c r a m e n t o,
i
C a l i f o r n i a. T h e s e c o s t e s t i m a t e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e c a s e
e x a m p l e s t o follow. T h e s e D L D c o s t s a r e quite site-specific, a n d
extrapolations f r o m t h e C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s a n d S a c r a m e n t o c o s t d a t a
should be made with caution.
1 9 . 3.8 Case Examples
The relatively recent acceptance of dedicated land disposal

makes t h e selection o f case e x a m p l e s limited , particularly f o r
s m a l l p l a n t s. C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s , Colorado , a medium -sized s y s t e m ,
and S a c r a m e n t o , California, a large s y s t e m are discussed in t h e
,
f o l l o w i n g sections.
1 9 -3 9
19.3.8.1 Colorado Springs , Colorado
The analyses for and design of a sludge management program for
Colorado Springs was cased on population and average dry weather
flow figures ( see Table 19 12). - —
TABLE 19- 12
COLORADO SPRINGS POPULATION AND WASTEWATER
FLOW PROJECTIONS
Population , Planning
Year thousands ADWF , mgd designation
1978 230 25 Present

1990 330 36 Phase I
2005 440 48 Phase II

Ultimate 60 Phase III
An interim sludge management system employs anaerobic digestion

-
of primary and waste activated sludge at the wastewater treatment
plant site. 150 ,000 gallons ( 570 m 3 ) of digested sludge of
2.5 percent solids concentration is produced each day . The
sludge is trucked from the treatment plant site to two 5 acre -
-
( 2.0 ha) 15 feet (4.6 m ) deep temporary storage lagoons located
20 miles ( 32 km ) away . The sludge is later removed from the
-
lagoons by two special four wheel drive high flotation tired tank
vehicles equipped with suction devices and subsurface injected on
-
an adjacent dedicated land disposal site. Capacities of the
subsurface injection (SSI ) vehicles are 3 ,600 and 3 ,800 gallons
(13.6 and 14.4 m3 ).
The Colorado Springs sludge management system is b e i n g

substantially modified and upgraded ( 14). A schematic of the
-
modified system is shown on Figure 19 3 , and an overall layout
of the sludge disposal site on Figure 19 4. Estimated capital
-
and operating costs for the various facilities are shown in
-
Table 19 13.
The soils at the DLD site consist of Verdos Alluvium , Piney Creek
Alluvium, and a weathered Pieere Shale having low to very low
permeabilities, in the range of 1.0 x 10 4 to 1.0 x 10 6 cm per
"
-
second.
r
'
Monthly average temperatures range from 29°F to 71°F ( 1°C to

22°C ). Effective soil evaporation occurs to a depth of about
-
2 feet ( 0.6 m ), and moisture profiles from SSI test sites show
a maximum downward migration of moisture to a depth of 22 inches
.
,
(57 cm), after application of liquid sludge.
-
19 40
COLORADO SPRINGS
WWTF
THICKENERS
DUAL SLUDGE PIPELINE

COLORADO SPRINGS WWTF
TO HANNA RANCH
20 MILES
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Hi i11 ill
I
FACULTATIVE SLUDGE SUPERNATANT

BASINS { FSB ) TREATMENT
AT
r —
~
| AGRICULTURAL i
1
i
DEDICATED LAND
HANNA RANCH
I
I
I REUSE BY I DISPOSAL BY
j SUBSURFACE I
INJECTION
SUBSURFACE
INJECTION
i —n
1
, I -
ON SITE REUSE
__
( AG /SSII ( 0LD/SS1)
I J
THE TERM FACULTATIVE SLUDGE BASIN ( FSB ) IN USED INTERCHANGEABLY
WITH FACULTATIVE SLUDGE LAGOON ( FSL )
FIGURE 19- 3
FLOW DIAGRAM SLUDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM , COLORADO

»;
SPRINGS , COLORADO
1 9-4 1
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TABLE 19- 13
COLORADO SPRINGS PROJECTED COST OF SLUDGE

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Phase cost , thousand dollars3

Item I II III
Capital cost
Raw sludge conveyance system 3 ,552 98 98
Anaerobic digesters 5 ,539 2 , 289 2 , 313
Facultative sludge basins 3 ,924 1, 236 2 , 068
Subsurface injection system 0
Supernatant lagoons
* 1,696 756 841
461 75
Supernatant treatment facility 1,681 217
Subtotal , capital cost 16 ,853 4 , 596 5 , 394
Engineering and contingencies0 5 ,899 1,609 1,888
Total, capital cost 22 ,752 6 ,205 7, 282
Present worthd
Capital costf 22,473d N/Ae
Operation and maintenance cost9 8,048 N/A
Total , present worth of project
cost 30 ,521 N/A
Equivalent annual cost 2 ,881 N/A
aCosts based on an ENR cost index of 2600 , March 1979 , Denver.

^SSI system includes FSB dredge ; harvested sludge distribution pumps , piping and nurse
tanks ; SSI tank vehicles; and site preparation including grading , cutoff trenches and
monitoring facilities , but excluding land costs, which were approximately $ 1,400 per
acre in 1972.
c Allowance for engineering and administrative expense and contingencies is based on
*
35 percent of construction cost.

^Present worth costs based on an interest rate of 7 percent and projected construction
-
dates of Phase I and II facilities for a 20 year planning period.
ePhase —
III not included beyond 20-year planning period.
^Salvage values based on assumed life of equipment and computed on straight line
depreciation.
-
gBased on uniform series present worth for fixed costs and gradient series for variable
costs.
1 acre .91 ha
Note: The term facultative sludge basin (FSB) is used
interchangably with facultative sludge lagoon (FSL).
There were no groundwater supplies which could be endangered on

the 160-acre ( 65 ha ) disposal site or the immediately adjacent
areas. However , to provide maximum protection of the environ-
ment , the system was designed to minimize percolate production.
The design approach was to match sludge application and net
soil evaporation rates. Net soil evaporation calculations are
presented on a month- to- month basis in Table 19 -14. Note that
gross soil evaporation was estimated to be a fixed fraction
( 70 percent ) of the evaporation which would occur from a free
water surface ( a lake ).
19 -43
TABLE 19- 14
COLORADO SPRINGS CLIMATIC CONDITIONS AFFECTING
SLUDGE DISPOSAL
Lake Net lake Net soil a, e

Month evaporationa ,b Precipitationa ,c evaporation a ,d evaporation
January 0.71 “0.71
February 0.73 -0.73
March
April 5.15
1.56
1.91
-3.24
1.56
1.70
May 6.44 2.14 4.30 2.37
June 7.62 2.16 5.46 3.17
July 8.26 3.00 5.26 2.78
August 6.99 2.32 4.67 2.57
September 5.39 1.55 3.84 2.22
October 4 .13 1.11 3.02 1.78
November 0.95 0.95
December 0.67 0.67
Annual 43.98 18.81 25.17 16.59
aAll values shown in inches.

Developed from "Interim Study of Land -
Incorporated Sewage
Sludge " at Colorado Springs , Colorado , December 1978 , by
Waste and Land Systems , Inc.
c
Includes precipitation and snow assuming 10 percent of snow depth
is equivalent to precipitation depth in inches.
^ Lake evaporation minus precipitation.
Estimated net soil evaporation based on 70 percent of lake
evaporation less precipitation.
1 in. 2.54 cm
Allowable sludge application rates were calculated on a monthly

basis for the months of April to October , assuming a sludge
content of 5 percent. Results of this analysis , shown on
Figure 19 -5 indicated total allowable sludge application on a
6-month and 7-month operating basis to be 86.0 and 95.8 dry tons
per acre ( 193 to 215 t/ha ), respectively . The range of required
land area for the more restrictive 6 -month period is shown on
Figure 19 -6. Area required for average loadings ( 14.3 tons per
acre per month [ 32.1 t/ ha- mo ] ) is shown by the " average " curve.
Area required if the sludge could be applied for all the
months at the maximum June rate ( 18.6 tons per acre per month
[ 41.7 t/ha- mo ] ) is shown by the " low range " curve. Similarly ,
area required if all the sludge were applied at the minimum
October rate is shown by the " high range " curve. A second
analysis shown on Figure 19 - 7 , indicated the range of area
requirements based on variations in sludge solids content of 4 to
6 percent , using average solids loadings ( 14.3 tons per acre per
month or 32.1 t/ha- mo ).
With respect to surface water controls , cutoff ditches will be

constructed to prevent surface runoff from the disposal site.
The injection pattern will be parallel to the contours of the
area to reduce the potential for soil erosion and surface runoff
19 -44
-
from sludge amended s o i l s , To the south, the entire sludge
disposal area i s contained behind a retention dam designed
to prevent runoff from reaching an existing ash disposal s i t e .
This dam, designed f o r a flood l e v e l equivalent t o a once in a
-
1, 000 y e a r r e c u r r e n c e i n t e r v a l , p r o v i d e s c o n t a i n m e n t of b o t h
surface runoff and upstream percolate Although the operation of .
-
t h e t a n k v e h i c l e SSI s y s t e m w a s b a s e d o n a w e l l d e f i n e d DLD a r e a
with ground slopes typically 3 t o 6 percent , portions of the mesa
area which have slopes of less than 10 percent can also be used
for injection . The maneuverability and freedom of movement of
the detached v e h i c l e s allows maximum s i t e u t i l i z a t i o n .
30
26
OPERATING TOTAL APPLICATION '
PERIOD 1
26
? MONTH DRY TONS /ACRE
m
24
CM
n 6 MONTH DRY TON3MCR 6
22
&0 20
*
C
o
IB
to
L.
16
c
S 14
£
12
O
H 10
<
o
Q.
a
CL
<
yj
O
O
D 4
if)
l i i
FES APR JUN AUG OCT DEC
MONTHS
( 1 t / acre = 2.24 t /ha )
FIGURE 19- 5
SLUDGE APPLICATION RATE- DLD SYSTEM,

COLORADO SPRINGS , COLORADO
-
19 45
100
140 *
rtt
-C
o
O
II 120
*
U -
r
fTJ
v»
CJ
100
u
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UP
CL
<
80
<
ay
s
ay
Q
60
O
z
<
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LU
40 r»te-
<
u
a NOTE. BASED ON SSI OPERATING
111 PERIOD MAY THROUGH
Q
.
OCTOBER ASSUMING
20 SLUDGE APPLIED AT
5 PERCENT SOLIDS
0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
YEARS
FIGURE 19- 6
ESTIMATED NET DLD AREA REQUIREMENTS SLUDGE APPLIED

AT 5 PERCENT SOLIDS CONCENTRATION,
T h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e D L D/S S I s y s t e m commences with h a r v e s t i n g o f

t h e s l u d g e from t h e facultative sludge basins ( F S B s ) ( faculative
sludge lagoons [FSLs] ) are referred to as facultative sludge
basins a t C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s ) ( 1 5 ). T h e s l u d g e is transferred from
t h e basin t o a s l u d g e receiving /distribution station by a d r e d g e
e q u i p p e d w i t h a d i e s e l- d r i v e n p u m p , From the station, the
h a r v e s t e d s l u d g e is c o n v e y e d t h r o u g h a d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m
consisting of 1 2- inch ( 3 0 c m ) diameter p i p e s t o a series o f D L D
nurse t a n k s. T h e fiberglass n u r s e t a n k s a r e e a c h 7 , 5 0 0 g a l l o n s,
twice t h e volume o f t h e S S I vehicle t a n k . T h e nurse t a n k s a r e
1 9- 46
160
£
140
LIT
O
O
tLi
LL.
120 r.. ii:
.'
‘
. j.
U
ffi
irt
dj>
o
« 100
<
LU
cc
<
<
VT so
o
Q
_
VJ
a
a
z: 60
<
D
<
u
-
UJ
r
40
O
LU
Q NOTE : BASED ON SSI OPERATING
H PERIOD MAY THROUGH
III OCTOBER AND SLUDGE
ZL 20 SOLIDS CONTENT AS SHOWN
0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
YEARS
FIGURE 19- 7
ESTIMATED NET DLD AREA REQUIREMENTS AT VARIOUS

SLUDGE CONCENTRATIONS , COLORADO SPRINGS , COLORADO
buried below ground and protected with a concrete slab on grade.

A steel pipe fitted with a gate valve and couplings extends from
the bottom of the tank to above the ground surface to feed the
SSI vehicles. The harvested sludge distribution system is valved
to allow any combination or number of . nurse tanks to be placed
into service. The network is designed to allow approximately
1 ,000 lineal feet ( 305 m ) of injection area between nurse tanks
to optimize the injection operation and minimize downtimes caused
by travel with empty tanks. Depending on climatic conditions ,
-
19 47
1.50 6.0 !m
SM3
Q.
"
EU CNI
CN
m 1.25 5.0
f \2
S3
H
ra
a
CL
c
1.00 4.0
Ic
o
sa I
Vt
Qi
0.75 3.0 <9
w.
£
u
C tn
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o
2
O 0.50 >.
f- 2.0 T3
<
O
O
.4
^
Q
CL
h-
<
< 0.2 B 1.0 a
Q
-a
J
,
a,
O <
ss_ J
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 ot f l
.
SLUDGE INJECTION RATE, gpm ( 1 gpri = 3.78 l /min )
FIGURE 19- 8
SLUDGE APPLICATION RATES BY SUBSURFACE INJECTION ,

the sludge injection cate can be adjusted to correspond with the

soil conditions in the injection area and will vary through
t h e sludge a p p l i c a t i o n season , a s shown on F i g u r e 19-5 The .
relationship between sludge injection rate and solids application
rate on the basis of both liquid sludge and dry solids i s shown
o n F i g u r e 1 9-8 .
Based on the estimated turnaround time for tank
refilling and normal maintenance, a net injection time of about
1 hours per day per vehicle can be expected , One dredge can
harvest sludge from the FSLs a t a r a t e sufficient t o feed two SSI
vehicles. Equipment requirements and operating characteristics
a r e shown i n Table 19 15 - .
W h i l e t h e D L D/ S S I s y s t e m f o r C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s i s d e s i g n e d a s a
base disposal system, i t can be used as a secondary , or utiliza
tion, option without significant additional expense, Eventual
-
agricultural utilization of a major portion of the sludge
p r o d u c t i o n i s, i n f a c t , a d e f i n e d g o a l of t h e c h o s e n s y s t e m. S e e
Chapter 3 for discussion of base and secondary disposal options .
1 9-4 8
TABLE 19- 15
COLORADO SPRINGS DEDICATED LAND DISPOSAL /

SUBSURFACE INJECTION SYSTEM DESIGN DATA
I tern Phase I Phase II Phase III
Facultative sludge basins (FSBs)

Basin dredge
Number 1 2 3
Maximum capacity , gpm 1 ,400 1 ,400 1 ,400
Solids capacity , percent
Maximum 8 8 8
Average
Pumping head , feet >5,
Diesel engine power , hp

- 5
65
175
5
65
175
65
175
5
Dedicated land disposal (DLD)

Harvested sludge application
Quantity , dry tons per daya 43.2, 58.4 76.7
Volume, gpda'k 203 ,790 274 , 360 360 ,440
Percent volatile 50 50 50
Average percent solids 5 5 5
Average annual application
6- month operating period , dry tons
per acre 86.0 36.0 86.0
7-month operating period , dry tons
per acre 95.8 95.8 95.8
DLD area required , acres

Maximum 85 115 150
Average 60 85 110
DLD distribution system

Nurse tanks
Number 12 18 24
Capacity , each gal 7 ,500 7 , 500 7 ,500
SSI vehicles
Number 2 4 5
Tank capacity , each gal 3 ,600 3 ,600 3 ,600
Injection rate , gpm
Maximum 700 700 700
Average ‘ 500 500 500
Average vehicle speed , mph 1.5 1.5 1.5
Injection width , feet 12 12 12
Volume injected , gallons per vehicle
per day
Maximum 116 ,000 116 , 000 116 , 000
Average 100 ,000 100 , 000 100 , 000
Vehicle coverage, acres per vehicle
per day 6.5 6.5 6.5
Tillage tractors
Number 1 1
aAssuming 120 day per year operation. .
Âssuming 5 percent solids.

Note: The term facultative sludge basins (FSBs) is
used interchangably with facultative sludge
lagoons (FSLs).
1 gpm = 0.06 1/s

1 ft - 0.30 m
1 hp = 746 W
1 ton/day = .91 t/day
1 gpd = 3.8 1/day
_
1 ton/acre = 2.24 t/ha
1 acre -
.405 ha
1 gal = 3 . 8 1
1 mph = 1.61 km/hr . ,
1 gal/vehicle = „ 3.8 1/vehicle .

1 acre/vehicle = .405 ha/vehicle
I*
».
19-49
19.3.8.2 Sacramento , California
S a c r a m e n t o, California h a s b e e n t h e site o f m u c h o f t h e w o r k
associated with t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of dedicated land d i s p o s a l
technical criteria. T h e R e g i o n a l Wastewater T r e a t m e n t P l a n t
S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t P r o g r a m f o r t h e S a c r a m e n t o Regional C o u n t y
Sanitation District was a p p r o v e d by t h e Regional B o a r d of
D i r e c t o r s in J a n u a r y 1 9 7 9 ( 1 5 ) a n d t h e Environmental I m p a c t
R e p o r t ( EIR ) ( 6 ) was certified a t that time. T h e sludge planning
p e r i o d f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t is divided into t w o p h a s e s ;
Stage I includes operations to be conducted from 1980 to 1992 ,
and S t a g e I I is devoted t o operations for the period 1992-1999.
T h e sludge management program was approved after 3 t o 4 years of

monitoring a n d detailed investigations directed primarily
a t determining t h e engineering , economic , a n d environmental
a s p e c t s of storing liquid anaerobically digested sludge in solid
s t o r a g e basins ( S S B s ) ( 1 2 ). Precise operational and design
c r i t e r i a w e r e d e v e l o p e d f o r t h e S a c r a m e n t o S S B / DLD s y s t e m t o
assure efficient operation and environmental acceptability . Most
investigative work was conducted on a large prototype SSB /DLD
s u b s u r f a c e injection s y s t e m a n d t h e r e f o r e did n o t s u f f e r t h e
problems normally associated with scaling u p a pilot system.
FIGURE 19- 9
PROTOTYPE DREDGING OPERATION , SACRAMENTO

REGIONAL COUNTY SANITATION DISTRICT
Initial w o r k c o m m e n c e d in 1 9 7 4 . S i t e preparation i n c l u d e d
installation of g r o u n d w a t e r m o n i t o r i n g wells . T h e p r o t o t y p e
20-acre DLD system has been in full operation since 1976 , and
data has been collected and analyzed for 1976 t h r o u g h 1978 and
for part of 1979. Figure 19 -9 illustrates the p r o t o t y p e dredging
1 9 -5 0
.............
operations at Sacramento , while Figure 19 - 10 illustrates

prototype subsurface injection operations with a close- up view of
the injector units.
The sludge applied to the Sacramento DLD site has been

anaerobically digested and then subjected to long- term storage in
the SSBs. Application rates were planned at 100 dry tons/acre
( 2 24 dry t/ha ) ; rates of 97 tons/acre ( 217 t/ha ) were achieved
without problems in the 1977 tests , The application rates are
controlled by the water content of the sludge removed from the
SSBs , since DLD operates primarily on a solar evaporation basis.
New equipment installed at sludge removal operations in 1979 has
increased the solids concentration to over 6 percent , with
better than 8 percent achieved for several hours. It is expected
that when the FSLs are fully developed , an average harvested
sludge concentration of 6 percent can be sustained , The
following text discusses the final DLD subsurface injection
system for Sacramento based on experience gained over the 1976 to
1979 period .
Table 19-16 shows projected flows and loadings for the Sacramento
wastewater treatment plant for 1985. Figure 19 - 11 is a flow
diagram of the solids treatment and disposal system. The numbers
thereon give the solids flow in dry tons per day for operations
through 1992.
TABLE 19- 16
SACRAMENTO REGIONAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT

PROJECTED 1965 WASTEWATER FLOW AND LOADINGS
Parameter Value
—
j iriawr
Seasonal 3
ADWF , b MGD 136.2
B0 D 5, 1 , 000 lb/day 243.3
Suspended solids , 1 , 000 lb/day 246.3
Nonseasonal
ADWF , MGD 122.7
PWWF, c MGD 248.7
aSeasonal = canning season , mid -June to

mid -October.
ADWF = average dry-weather flow.
CPWWF = peak wet -weather flow.
1 lb/day = 0.454 kg/day.
1 MGD = 0.044 m y s e c.
19-51
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View of tractor pulling sludge injector

units
Close up view of prototype sludge injector

units
FIGURE 19-10
PROTOTYPE SUBSURFACE INJECTION OPERATIONS ,
SACRAMENTO REGIONAL COUNTY SANITATION
DISTRICT
1 9 -5 2
RECOMMENDED PROJECT
GRiT AND SCREENINGS PRIMARY THICKENEO

SCUM SLUDGE SECONDARY
SlUDGE
OFF GAS
1
1
? .r 76.7 e? 2
DEWATERING
JeHlWtMtt
'
!
MULTIPLE 21A 70 !)
165 4 HEARTH SCREENINGS
CENTRIFUGES
FURNACE
55 ,3
I
1D. 5 ASH
CENTRATF
6.7
ANAEROBIC
DIGESTER'S GAS
ON SITE DISPOSAL
IN 2b ACRE LANDFILL
677 ® 2.4 % SOLIDS /
VACUUM VAPORIZATION ODOROUS GAS 6$

0.2 STRAININGS HLlfcHEU IN
AND ROTO STRAINERS
ACTIVATE D CAP EON
EVAPORATION
RECYCLE
TO REGIONAL
PLANT IN FALL
ANDW NTEft ’ SSB ' sCFFER
PERIODS
20 558's
LONG TERM-
STORAGE AND
124 SURFACE ACRES FURTHER ANAEROBIC
SSB SUPER NATAN F
DECOMPOSITION
EVAPORATION
WINTER RUNOFF
RECYCLE TO HARVESTED SLUDGE
556 Y UH TO
REGIONAL PLANT
.
ifi 500 :an5 solids >' year »’ $ 6 % solids I
DISPOSED OF ON DLD DURING
StX DHY MONTHS
DEDICATED LAND DISPOSAL 136 ACRES -

HIGHLY STA & fLIZiD SLUDGE IS INCORPORATED INTO
THE SURFACE SOIL LAYERS FOR DRYING . CONTINUED
AEROBIC DECOMPOSlTIQN OCCURS OVE 3 TIME.
SITE IS REUSED ANNUALLY.
THE TERM 'SOLID STORAGE BASINS' ( SSB ’s ) IS USED INTERCHANGEABLY

WITH FACULTATIVE SLUDGE LAGOONS { FSL 's }
( 1 ton /yr = 0.91 t /yr )

{1 acre = 0.405 ha )
FIGURE 19- 11
FLOW DIAGRAM - PROJECTED 1992 NORMAL SOLIDS

TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OPERATION , SACRAMENTO
19-53
The flow schematic indicates that not all the sludge will be
managed by the SSB/DLD subsurface injector system. Through
the 1980s , there will be sufficient furnace capacity in an
incinerator (designed for screenings , grit, and scum ) to handle
about 30 percent of the primary sludge production , A total of
one month per year shutdown of the incinerator was assumed ,
two weeks for maintenance during the time of low solids
production in spring , and two weeks miscellaneous upset.
Estimated sludge production rates at the Sacramento plant are
given in Table 19 17. -
TABLE 19- 17

PROJECTED DIGESTED SLUDGE PRODUCTION
Total solids production, ton/day
Stage I Stage II
Estimated Solids Volatile 1980 1985 1992 1999

solids concentration , solids ,
parameters percent percent Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet
Digested solids, with

incinerators operating
Average annual -
2.2 2.5 57-59 51.2 2,278 54.2 2, 366 67.0 2,818 75.5 3,035
Maximum seasonal -
2.4 2.7 57-62 70.0 2,715 74.4 2 ,810 81.5 3, 340 94.0 3,640
Digested solids , with

incinerators not
operating
Average annual -
2.5 2.7 -
57 60 65.0 2,500 70.0 2 ,600 77.4 3 ,070 85.0 3,380
Maximum seasonal -
2.6 3.0 -
58 63 81.2 2 ,860 89.1 3,000 92.7 3,550 107.0 3 ,860
Average annual SSBa solids

removed 3 * 6 43.0 38.6 643 40.8 679 50.7 844 57.0 951
aThe term solid storage basins (SSBs) is used interchangably with facultative sludge lagoons (FSLs).
b
Actual daily removal rates are higher . since solids are harvested for only part of the year (May-October).
1 ton/day = 2.24 t/ha
The layout of the existing and future dedicated land disposal

sites in relation to the Sacramento Regional Wastewater Treatment
Plant is shown in Chapter 15 , Figure 15 9. -
Operation of the DLD system is practiced from May through
October. Several methods of sludge application were tested , and
for the prevailing conditions at the Sacramento site , subsurface
injection utilizing a flexible hose and injection unit mounted
-
behind a crawler tractor fitted with extra wide tracks worked -
best.
Two dredges will take care of operations through 1992 , ( Stage I )
dredging solids at about a 6 percent solids concentration
from the lower depths of the SSBs and pumping the sludge to the
DLD site. Booster pumping is required to pump 6 percent solids
-
19 54
-
material o v e r the maximum 8 ,000 foot ( 2 ,440 m ) distance.
-
Four inch (10 cm) diameter flexible hoses connect the tractor
injectors with hydrants located throughout the DLD sites. Four -
-
tractor injectors are needed to handle the two dredge disposal
operation. In normal operation of these facilities , freshly
-
applied solids remain unexposed to the atmosphere. The DLD sites
are loaded at 100 dry tons to the acre ( 224 dry t/ha ) each
season. Sludge is supplied to approximately match the net soil
evaporation rate , The soil evaporation rate in Sacramento is
about half the evaporation rate which occurs from a free water
surface ( lake evaporation rate ), Stage I DLD operations will
-
utilize 185 acres (75 ha ) in five 37 acre (15 ha) sites. Regular
disking of the site is necessary to break up the soil/sludge
surface and expose more of the loaded soil to the atmosphere.
Existing subsoils are fairly impervious and are underlain by

hardpan. The local groundwater supply is not endangered. Free
groundwater was measured at depths of 13 to 46 feet ( 4.0 to
14.0 m ) , with an average depth of 31.6 feet ( 9.7 m ) for nine
borings. The aggregate coefficient of permeability for the
composite layered interval of the surface soils is on the order
of 5 x 10 8 cin/sec. Cemented strata were encountered in the
”
borings at depths ranging from 5 to 10 feet (1.5 to 3.0 m ), with

thicknesses of approximately 12 to 21 feet ( 3.7 to 6.4 m / and
permeability coefficients of 2.2 x 10-8 cm/sec to 3.7 x 10- 10 cm/
sec. Effective sealing of the surface soils from vertical
leachate movement to groundwater is thus achieved ( 6 , 1 2 ) .
Increases in the concentrations of nitrates and chlorides have
not been observed below the impervious strata ( 12).
Runoff is collected in detention basins and returned to the
regional plant influent after storm flows have subsided , Some
data on DLD runoff water quality are given in Table 19 18. -
TABLE 19- 18
SACRAMENTO TEST DLD RUNOFF WATER ANALYSIS

'
Constituent 12/18/77 12/28/77 1/05/78 1/09/78

Zn , mg/1 0.05 0.05 0.25 0.12
Cu , mg/1 0.050 0.043 o . ioi 0.064
Cd , mg/1 0.001 0.001 o .001 0.001
Ni , mg/1 ..0.090 0.090 0. 16 0.078
Pb , mg/1 . . 0.014 0.008 '
0.016 0.028
Hg , mg/1 0.0001 0.0001 0.0002 0.0002
TKN , a mg/1
;
r 30 ‘
24
,
17 7.6
Turbidity , NTU' < 1.5 170 . 37
'
3.0
TSS , mg/1 26 16 442 38
EC x 103 4.0 3.6 1 .9 1.1
pH 7.2 8.4 7. 4 7.4
NO -. , mg/1 440 310 43 31
NH4 , mg/1 36
- 5 2 . 1
.
..
aTotal Kjeldahl Nitrogen.
19-55
For runoff c o n t r o l , t y p i c a l D L D sites a r e s l o p e d t r a n s v e r s e l y a t
a maximum of 0 . 5 p e r c e n t a n d s p r e a d outward in both directions
from t h e centerline , A longitudinal s l o p e of 0 . 1 t o 0.2 p e r c e n t
is also provided , Runoff drains from e a c h D L D site t o ditches on
both sides. T o p r e v e n t erosion , t h e maximum field s l o p e will b e
held t o 0.5 p e r c e n t and w a t e r velocity in t h e ditches will b e
limited t o 5 feet p e r s e c o n d ( 1 . 5 m/s ) , R u n o f f f r o m t h e ditches
is c o l l e c t e d in a f a i r l y f l a t ( 0 . 1 p e r c e n t t r a n s v e r s e s l o p e )
d e t e n t i o n b a s i n , o n e p e r D L D s i t e ; t h e b a s i n is s i t u a t e d
approximately 3 feet ( 0.9 m ) lower t h a n t h e main operational p a r t
of the D L D site. E a c h basin has a capacity o f 12.7 acre- feet
( 1 2 3 m 3 ) a n d a maximum d e p t h o f 2 feet ( 0 . 6 m ). T h e basins a r e
d e s i g n e d t o c o n t a i n t w o 4 - inch ( 1 0 c m ) 2 4- h o u r s t o r m s ( t h e
2 5-y e a r maximum rainfall for t w o 2 4-h o u r p e r i o d s ). T h e runoff is
drained from t h e basins via corner inlet s t r u c t u r e s fitted with
c o n t r o l l e d r e l e a s e r a t e w e i r s a n d is t r a n s f e r r e d t h r o u g h a
2 1- inch ( 0 . 5 3 m ) runoff r e t u r n pipe t o a flow metering s t r u c t u r e.
Then the runoff is drained to an interceptor sewer connected
t o t h e w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t. A flood control levee is
constructed o n t h e lowest three sides of the S S B /D L D a r e a such
that the entire site is protected from flooding. Provision
is a l s o m a d e f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n , r e t e n t i o n , a n d p u m p i n g of
uncontaminated site runoff t r a p p e d by t h e flood c o n t r o l levee.
In this regard , facilities ( including a pump station ) are
d e s i g n e d t o h a n d l e t h e s a m e s t o r m c o n d i t i o n s ( t w o 2 5- y e a r ,
2 4- h o u r s t o r m s , o n e d a y a p a r t ) a s a r e r u n o f f f a c i l i t i e s f o r
t h e D L D s i t e s. A r u n o f f o f 8 0 p e r c e n t i s a s s u m e d b a s e d o n a
saturated g r o u n d condition .
F i n a l D L D s i t e s h a v e a g r o s s a r e a o f a b o u t 5 0 a c r e s ( 2 0 h a ),
including s p a c e for drainage , r o a d access, a n d injector turning .
A s indicated e a r l i e r , t h i s r e s u l t s i n a n e t u s a b l e a r e a o f
37 acres ( 15 ha ) for each of the five sites , E a c h s i t e is
approximately 1 , 3 0 0 feet ( 4 0 0 in ) wide , which allows a tractor
dragging a 6 5 0- f o o t ( 2 0 0 m ) h o s e t o cover the entire width o f
t h e field , T h e s l u d g e h y d r a n t is t h e n located in t h e c e n t e r of
t h e f i e l d. S i t e s a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 , 6 0 0 f e e t ( 5 6 0 m ) long ,
calculated f r o m t h e a r e a r e q u i r e d t o a l l o w t w o i n j e c t ors to
operate continuously o n t h e s a m e field 6 h o u r s p e r d a y , 5 days
p e r w e e k , during t h e p e a k dry m o n t h s of J u n e , J u l y , a n d A u g u s t.
P e a k d r y m o n t h o p e r a t i o n a s s u m e s s l u d g e removed f r o m t h e F S L s c a n
be applied t o t h e same site twice a w e e k. During M a y , S e p t e m b e r ,
a n d O c t o b e r , it is assumed t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s l u d g e removed from
t h e S S B s will be limited t o o n e once a w e e k. T h u s , application
r a t e s d u r i n g J u n e, J u l y , a n d A u g u s t a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y d o u b l e
( 1 0 i n c h e s p e r m o n t h [ 2 5 c m/m o n t h ] ) t h e r a t e s of M a y , S e p t e m b e r ,
a n d O c t o b e r ( 5 inches p e r m o n t h [ 1 3 c m/m o n t h ] ). E a c h D L D s i t e is
provided with six field h y d r a n t s for injector feed connection,
located a t 2 3 0-foot ( 7 0 m ) c e n t e r s down t h e middle o f each site.
T h e field hydrants each have a f o u l p r o o f pressure sensing device,
a m a n u a l isolation valve , and a swivel- elbow a s s e m b l y d e s i g n e d
for q u i c k coupling t o a 4 . 5- inch ( 1 1 c m ) injector f e e d h o s e.
1 9- 5 6
Operationally , SSB sludge removal piping is flushed with FSL
supernatant at the end of each week's run with the flushing water
returned to the FSLs. Sludge removal operations themselves are
restricted to reducing the water level in the FSLs no more than
14 inches ( 36 cm) below normal operational levels , The water
level is never allowed to drop low enough to expose the sludge
blanket. The blanket is maintained below its maximum elevation
which is another 10 inches ( 25 cm ) below the absolute minimum
water level.
Key DLD equipment for Sacramento includes:
Two S S B d r e d g e s , e a c h g e n e r a t i n g 1 , 4 0 0 g pm
( 7 ,630 m V d a y ) a v e r a g e flow at 6 percent s o l i d s
concentration.
- -
Two 200 to 250 horsepower ( 150 to 187 kW ) diesel powered
floating booster pumps connected to the dredges with
v a r i a b l e speed p u m p o p e r a t i o n t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r
variations in sludge solids concentrations.
- -
Four 60 to 80 horsepower (45 to 60 kW ) crawler tractors -
-
with 30 inch ( 0.76 m ) wide tracks and nine to ten rear -
mounted subsurface injector sweeps , each w i t h 2 inch
( 5 cm ) diameter feed hoses. Path width is 13 to 14 feet
-
(4.0 to 4.2 m ), speed 1.0 to 1.5 miles per hour (1.6 to
2.4 km/hr ), and average capacity 700 gpm ( 3 ,800 m /day )
each. ^
- -
One four wheel d r i v e , rubber tired , 150 horsepower
(112 kW ) tillage tractor with heavy disk unit which can
-
be raised clear of the ground.
Staffing requirements for f u l l Phase I DLD operations are

-
expected to reach 11 people on a 6 month seasonal basis , May
through October , to remove the sludge from the SSBs and inject it
into the soil at the five DLD sites. Personnel needs are given
- -
in Table 19 19. Fifteen other full time personnel are needed for
the whole solids processing and disposal system e x c l u s i v e of
anaerobic digestion , with their time only partially attributable
to DLD operations. The 15 staff are composed of one at the
screenings , grit and ash landfill , six in general operational
maintenance , six in mechanical and electrical maintenance, and
two in management and monitoring .
Ongoing requirements and possible concerns associated w i t h

DLD operations include the need to lime the soil ( at about
one ton of lime per acre per year [2.24 t/ha/yr ] ) to maintain a
proper pH and hence decrease mobility of metal cations , Also ,
-
the useful life of the present type of 4 inch ( 10 cm) diameter
feed hose is unacceptably short. The possibility of using
different hose construction or a d i f f e r e n t brand i s b e i n g
explored . -
F i n a l l y , a f t e r a 20 year operation , D L D s o i l s ,
-
19 57
building up at about 0.75 inch ( 1.9 cm ) per year , will have
increased in salinity to about 8 ,000 mg/1 in the saturation
extract. This concentration is not expected to affect the
bacterial decomposition of the organic matter , however.
TABLE 19- 19

PROJECTED 1985 DLD STAFFING REQUIREMENTS
Number of
Description staf f
One operator for each dredge/booster pump combination 2

Relief operator for dredges 1
One operator for each tractor/injector A

Relief operators for tractor/injectors 2
Operator for tillage tractor 1
Supervisor 1
Total 11
Costs for sludge treatment and disposal at Sacramento are given

in Table 19 20. - Costs do not include the main battery of
anaerobic digesters but do include the costs of a blending
digester ( see Chapter 15 ).
19.4 References
1. USEPA. Process Desiqn Manual: Municipal Sludqe Landfills.

Environmental Research Information Center , Office of Solid
Wastes , Cincinnati , Ohio 45268.
October 1978.
- - -
EPA 625/1 78 010 , SW 705. -
2. USEPA. Disposal of Sewage Sludge into a Sanitary Landfill.
Office of Solid Wastes , Washington , D.C. 20460. SW- 71d.
1974.
3. Lukasik , G.D. , and J.M. Cormack. " Development and Operation

of a Sanitary Landfill for Sludge Disposal North Shore
Sanitary District." N o r t h S h o r e S a n i t a r y D i s t r i c t ,
Waukegan , Illinois. 1976.
4. USEPA . Regulations on Public Participation in Programs

Under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act , The Safe
Drinking Water Act , and The Clean Water Act. Office of
Waste and Hazardous Materials , Washington , D. C. 20460.
40 CFR 25 , 44 CFR 10292. February 16 , 1979.
-
19 58
TABLE 19- 20

PROJECTED COSTS OF SLUDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
FOLLOWING ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
j Costs, thousand dollars

Phase II:
Phase I : 1992-1999
Item -
1980 1992 additional costs Total
3
Capital cost
Levee/drainage 670 670
Blending digester 3 , 910 3 ,910
-
Odor stripping facilities
Solid storage basins (SSBs)
980
7 ,810 2,730
980
10,540
Existing SSB modifications 480 480
Barriers and wind machines 1 ,020 420 1,440
DLD sites 2 ,480 2 , 480
Electrical and controls 1 ,640 100 1, 740
Wetlands/agricultural land 840 840
Landfill 280 280
Subtotal , construction cost 20 , 110 3 , 250 23 , 360
Administration , engineering
and contingencies
Landc ^ 4 , 840
2 , 690
750 5 , 590
2 , 690
Sludge handling equipment 1 , 150 1,150 2 , 300
Total, capital cost 28,790 5 ,150 33 ,940
Operational cost, annual

Labore
^ 574 112 58 5
Materials and supplies1 ^ 248 25 273
Power and fuel
Site monitoring ^ 126
30
18
5
144
35
Total annual operating cost 978 160 1, 138
Annual costs
Stationary facilities
Mobile equipment1
^ 2 , 218
144
359
48
2 , 577
192
LandJ 185 185
Operational costs 978 160 1, 138
Total annual costs 3 ,525 597 4 , 122k
aCosts based on an ENR cost index of 3900 , Sacramento, 1980.

Âllowance for administrative and engineering expense, and contingencies, Includes
staging allowance for additional work in Stage I to accommodate Stage II.
CLand costs are $ 1, 500/acre.
i
,
Ôperational costs are based on estimated 1980 prices for solids loads at the midpoint
of each stage , i .e., 1985 for Stage I and 1996 for Stage II. ..
-
eTotal average annual cost per full time individual of $ 28 ,000 in 1980, including all
fringe benefits and administrative overhead expenses. (20 1/2 person staff 1985 ,
24 1/2 person staff 1996 ).
Materials and supplies include special allowances for flexible hose for DLD operation
-
( $ 25 ,000/yr), activated carbon for odor stripping (11 , 200 3 b/yr) percent allowances for
equipment ( 3 percent) , structures ( 1 percent), and earthwork ( 1/2 percent ) construction
costs.
^ Electrical power projected at 2.9 cents/kWhr and diesel fuel at 80 cents/gal in bulk
in 1980.
^ -
Amortization at 6 7/8 percent over a 25 yr life.
xMobile facilities have various useful lives. No salvage value assumed .
3 Land value assumed the same at the end of 20 years.
Weighted average annual total program cost $ 3 ,824 ,000.
1 acre = 0.405 ha
1 kWhr = 3.6 MJ
1 gal = 3 . 8 1
1 lb 0.453 kg
-
19 59
5. USEPA . Subsurface Disposal of Municipal Wastewater
Treatment Sludge. Office of Solid Wastes , Washington ,
D.C. 20460. -
SW 167 c. 1978.

Program Final Report , Volume 7 , Environmental Report and
Advanced Site Planning . Sacramento Regional County
Sanitation District . Sacramento , California 95814 .
September 1979.
7. Brown and Caldwell. Corvallis Sludge Disposal Study . City

of Corvallis , Oregon. April 1977.
8 . Brown and Caldwell. Corvallis Sludge Disposal Predesign
Report. City of Corvallis , Oregon. March 1978.
9. Brown and Caldwell. Amendment to Corvallis Wastewater

Treatment Program Environmental Assessment Dedicated Land
Disposal Project. City of Corvallis , Oregon. April 1978.
10 . Uhte , W.R . " Wastewater Solids Storage Bas ins: A Useful
Buffer Between Solids Stabilization and Final Disposal."
Presented at the 48th Annual Conference of the California
Water Pollution Control Association , Lake Tahoe , California.
April 14, 1976.
11. USEPA . "Principals and Design Criteria for Sewage Sludge
Application on Land ." In Sludge Treatment and Disposal ,
Part 2 . Environmental Research Information Center .
- -
Cincinnati , Ohio 45268. EPA 625/4 78-012. October 1978.
Program Final Report , Volume 5 . Dedicated Land Disposal
Study . Sacramento Regional County Sanitation District.
Sacramento, California 95814. September 1979.
13. USEPA. Comprehensive Summary of Sludge Disposal Recycling

History. Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati ,
Ohio 45268. EPA 600/2 77 054. April 1977.
- - -
14. Brown and Caldwell. Preliminary Draft: Colorado Springs
Long Range Sludge Management Study. C i t y o f C o l o r a d o
-
Springs , Colorado 80947. April 1979.
15. Sacramento Area Consultants. Sewage S ludge Management
,
Program Final Report Volume 1 , SSMP Final Report , Work
Plans , Source Survey. Sacramento Regional County Sanitation
District. Sacramento, California 95814. September 1979.
Program Cost Increases. Letter to Sacramento Regional
County Sanitation District. Sacramento, California 95814.
May 18 , 1979.
-
19 60
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

FOR
Appendix A. Metric Equivalents


Technology Transfer
September 1979
APPENDIX A
METRIC EQUIVALENTS
METRIC CONVERSION TABLES
Recommended Units Recommended Units

English English
Description Unit Symbol Comments Equivalents Description Unit Symbol Comments Equivalents
length meter
kilometer
m
km
Basic SI unit 39.37 in = 3.28 ft
1.09 yd
0 62 mi
- Velocity
linear meter per
second
m/s 3.28 fps
millimeter mm 0.03937 in. millimeter mn /i 0 00328 fps
centimeter cm 0 3937 in. per second
micrometer jzm . 3 937 X 10' 3 = 103 A kilometers km / s 2 ,230 mph
par second
Area square meter m2 10.744 sq ft
= 1.196 sq yd angular radians per rad /s
square kilometer km 2 6.384 sq mi = second
247 acres
square centimeter cm 2 0.155 sq in . Flow ( volumetric ) cubic mater m 3/ s Commonly called 15 ,850 gpm
square millimeter mm 3 0 00155 sq m. per second the cumec = 2.120 cfm
hectare ha The hectare ( 10.000 2 47 1 acres
m 2 ) u a recognized liter per second I/ s 15.05 gpm
multiple unit and
will remain in inter Viscosity poise poise 0.06 7 2 / lb /
national use . sec It
Volume cubic meter m3 35 314 CU ft =

1.3079 cu yd Pressure newton per N /m 2 The newton is not 0 00014 psi
cubic centimeter cm 3 0.061 cu in. square meter yet well known as
the unit of force
liter The liter is now I 057 qt = 0.264 gal kilonewton per kN /m ? and kgf cm ? will 0.145 psi
recognized as the = 0 81 X 10 -4 acre square meter clearly be used for
special name for ft some time In this
the cubic decimeter kilogram ( force ) kgf /cm 2 field the hydraulic 14.223 psi
per squere head expressed in
Mass kilogram kg Basic SI unit 2.205 lb centimeter meters is an accept
gram 9 0.035 oz = 15.43 gr able alternative
milligram mg 0.01543 gr
tonne t 1 tonne = 1,000 kg 0.984 ton ( long ) = Temperature degree Kelvin K Basic SI unit 5F
1.1023 ton (short ) degree Celsius C The Kelvin and 17.77
9
Celsius degrees
Time second i Basic SI unit are identical
day day Neither the day nor The use of the
the year is an SI unit Celsius scale is
year yr or but both are impor - recommended as
8 tant . it is the former
centigrade scale
Force newton N The newton is that 0.22481 lb ( weight )
force that produces s 7.5 poundals Work, energy, loule J 1 |ouie s 1Nm 2.778 X !0 7 '
an acceleration of quantity of heel kw hr =

3 725 X 10 7
1 m / s 2 m a mass
-
*
of 1 kg . hp hr 0.73756
Mb = 9.48 X
.
10 ' 4 Btu
kilojoule kJ 2 778 kw hr
Power watt W 1 wett * 1 J/ s
kilowatt kW
joule per second J/ j
Application of Units Applicatio n of Units

English English
Description Unit Symbol Comments Equivalents Description Unit Symbol Comments Equivalents
Precipitation, millimeter mm For meteorological Concentration milligram per mg/I 1 ppm
run - off , purposes it may be htar
evaporation convenient to meas
ure precipitation in BOD loading kilogram per kg/ m 3 day 0.0624 Ito / cu ft
terms of mass/unit cubic meter day
area ( kg /m 3) . per day
1 mm of ram =
1 kg / sq m Hydraulic load cubic meter m 3 / m 2 day If this is con 3 28 cu ft / sq ft
per unit arta, per square meter verted to a
River flow cubic meter m 3/ s Commonly called 35.314 cfs e .g . filtration per day velocity , it
per second the cumec rates should ba ex -
pressed in mm / s
Flow in pipes, cubic meter per m 3/s ( 1 mm / s = 86 4
conduits, chan second m 3 /m ? day ) .
.
nels over weirs ,
pumping liter per second I/S 15.85 gpm m 3/ m 3 dey
Hydraulic load cubic meter
per unit volume: per cubic meter
Discharges or cubic meter m 3/day 1 I/s = 86 4 m 3/day 1.83 X 10 3 gpm
'
e g . biological per day
abstractions, per day filters, lagoons
yields
cubic meter m 3/yr Air supply cubic meter or m 3/s
per year liter of free air
per second i/ s i
Usage of water titer per person l/ person 0.264 gcpd
per day day Pipes
Density kilogram per

cubic meter
kg/m 3 The density of
water under stand
0.0624 Ib /cuft
diameter
length
millimater
meter
mm
m
0.03937 in
39.37 in .
3.28 ft
-
ard conditions is
1 ,000 kg/ m 3 or Optical units lumen per lumen /m 2 0.092 ft
1, 000 g / t square meter candle / sq ft
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1981- 757-064/ 0276 A- l

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EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011

PROCESS DESIGN MANUAL

U .S . ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory

Center for Environmental Research Information

The mention of trade names or commercial

The formation of the United States Environmental Protection

This manual is one of several available from Technology Transfer

T h e purpose of this manual is to present a contemporary review

D e s i g n e x a m p l e s a r e used t h r o u g h o u t t h e manual t o illustrate

LIST OF TABLES .. * * # * XXV

LIST OF FIGURES * * » * XXXVI

2.3.3 Time Span of Decisions 2- 7

CHAPTER 3. DESIGN APPROACH 3- 1

CHAPTER 4. WASTEWATER SOLIDS PRODUCTION AND

4.2.1.5 Chemical Precipitation and

1.1.2.1 Performance Data . w * 9

8.4.3 Availability ... . 8- 7

9.1.1 Process Evaluation i # 9- 1

CHAPTER 10. HEAT DRYING * * 10- 1

Theoretical Calculation Methods * * * * * # 11- 24

11.8 . 8.2 Establish Air Pollution Abatement

11.10 References , , 11-136

12.3.1.3 Design Example 12- 18

CHAPTER 13. MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES 13- 1

CHAPTER 16. SIDESTREAMS FROM SOLIDS TREATMENT

CHAPTER 17. INSTRUMENTATION 17- 1

CHAPTER 18. UTILIZATION 18- 1

CHAPTER 19. DISPOSAL TO LAND 19 - 1

19.2.5.2 Operating Schedule * * 19- 21

4 - 1 Predicted Quantities of Suspended Solids and

Values of Yield and Decay Coefficients for

of Combined Sewer Overflows 4- 62

Centrifuges for Thickening of Waste Activated -

6 - 1 Type and Reference of Full Scale Studies on

the Thickener at Bowery Bay Plant , New York * » * * * 6 - 11

Characteristics of Sludge Gas

of Light Metal Cations 6- 40

6 -19 Relationship Between the Velocity Gradient

7- 1 Pathogenic Human Viruses Potentially in

9- 1 Pilot-Scale Sludge Dewatering Studies 9- 2

Rotary Vacuum Filters - Coil Media 9- 35

Fixed Volume Recessed Plate Pressure Filter.. 9- 56

10 - 1 Estimated 1977 Costs for Dewatering , Drying

11 16- Design Example: Heat and Material Balance

11 18- Heat and Material Balance Comparison of

11-20 Design Example: Heat and Material Balances

12 -1 Suggested Monitoring Program for a Municipal

13- 1 Partial List of Fixation Processes 13- 2

13- 3 Possible Operating Difficulties in

17 12 - Sidestreams * * * • » • > •• 17- 36

18 -1 Comparison of Current and Potential Sludge

5- 6 Estimated June 1975 Maintenance Material Cost

Effect of Temperature and SRT on the Pattern

6-30 Digester Drain System

7- 1 Potential Pathogen Pathways to Man ....... 7- 13

8 - 1 Basic Parameters for Evaluation of a Sludge.

9 - 1 Schematic of Sludge Dewatering in a Drying Bed

9-15 Rotary Vacuum Filter Productivity as a Function

Schematic for Sludge Drying Example

Moisture on Capability for Autogenous

at the Central Contra Costa Sanitary District,

12 -1 Effect of Solids Content on the Ratio of Wood