2018 AGAM11-18 Technical Information Techniques To Reduce Social and Environmental Impacts

Guide to Asset Management - Technical Information
Part 11: Techniques to Reduce Social and

Environmental Impacts
Sydney 2018
Guide to Asset Management – Technical Information Part 11: Techniques to Reduce Social and
Environmental Impacts
Publisher
Third edition project manager: Caroline Evans and Dr Tim Martin
Austroads Ltd.
Level 9, 287 Elizabeth Street
Third edition prepared by: David Darwin Sydney NSW 2000 Australia
Phone: +61 2 8265 3300
Abstract
austroads@austroads.com.au
The third edition of the Austroads Guide to Asset Management (GAM) has www.austroads.com.au
been produced to provide guidance to road agencies on the application of
contemporary ‘whole of organisation’ asset management practice to road About Austroads
networks. The Guide consists of 15 Parts across three broad themes:
management overview, asset management processes, and technical Austroads is the peak organisation of Australasian
information. road transport and traffic agencies.
The five Technical Information Parts provide detailed guidance relating to Austroads’ purpose is to support our member
specific asset types, including, pavements, bridges, and intelligent transport organisations to deliver an improved Australasian
systems. The target audience is technical and applied users. road transport network. To succeed in this task, we
undertake leading-edge road and transport
Part 11 of the GAM addresses sustainable maintenance techniques used in research which underpins our input to policy
Australia and New Zealand. Significant environmental, social and economic development and published guidance on the
benefits can be achieved by using alternative road materials in maintenance design, construction and management of the road
activities. The assessment of how various maintenance and preservation network and its associated infrastructure.
techniques impact sustainability is, however, an evolving area.
Austroads provides a collective approach that
Keywords delivers value for money, encourages shared
knowledge and drives consistency for road users.
asset management, guideline, road network, practitioners, users,
environmental and social impacts, recycling, alternative and new materials, Austroads is governed by a Board consisting of
infrastructure resilience senior executive representatives from each of its
eleven member organisations:
Third edition published July 2018 • Roads and Maritime Services New South Wales
This edition of the GAM is based on the overarching asset management • Roads Corporation Victoria
principles of the International Standard ISO 55000 which has a strong • Queensland Department of Transport and Main
customer and strategic focus. Additions to the GAM include the impact of Roads
autonomous vehicles on the road and digital infrastructure, measures to
reduce the environmental impact of asset management and the recently- • Main Roads Western Australia
developed practice of reliability centred maintenance. The GAM also • Department of Planning, Transport and
documents the outcomes of Austroads-funded research undertaken since Infrastructure South Australia
2009, including asset condition monitoring equipment, asset performance
prediction models and practices that account for risk. The GAM comprises 15 • Department of State Growth Tasmania
Parts with some 62 case studies demonstrating how asset management is • Department of Infrastructure, Planning and
practiced. Logistics Northern Territory
Second edition published August 2009 • Transport Canberra and City Services
Directorate, Australian Capital Territory
First edition published March 2016
• The Department of Infrastructure, Regional
Development and Cities
ISBN 978-1-925671-50-6 Pages 32
• Australian Local Government Association
Austroads Project No. AP1900
• New Zealand Transport Agency.
Austroads Publication No. AGAM11-18
© Austroads Ltd 2018

This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the
Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without
the prior written permission of Austroads.
This Guide is produced by Austroads as a general guide. Its application is discretionary. Road authorities may vary their practice
according to local circumstances and policies. Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not
accept responsibility for any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers should rely on their own skill and
judgement to apply information to particular issues.
Guide to Asset Management – Technical Information Part 11: Techniques to Reduce Social and Environmental Impacts
Summary
Part 11 of the Guide to Asset Management addresses the current situation in Australia and New Zealand
regarding sustainable maintenance techniques. Significant environmental, social and economic benefits can
be obtained by using alternative road materials in maintenance activities. However, the assessment of how
various maintenance and preservation techniques impact sustainability is an evolving area.
According to the United States Federal Highway Administration, pavement preservation is inherently a
sustainable activity involving the use of low-cost, low-environmental impact and less energy-intensive
treatments to extend the life of pavements by delaying major rehabilitation activities.
Part 11 describes the challenges in obtaining traditional materials and the connections this has to the use of
recycled materials and other techniques that reduce social and environmental impacts. In particular, this part
discusses the environmental and social considerations associated with recycling and resource use.
Examples are provided of lower-energy aggregates currently being used in Australia and overseas for both
asphalt and concrete pavements.
A review is included on how these recycling and other techniques contribute to reducing social and
environmental impacts, including the techniques being used overseas to address these impacts and improve
sustainability. The impacts of extreme events and importance of infrastructure resilience are also noted. A
case study of the environmental and social aspects of maximising the use of crumb rubber in asphalt
illustrates the range of technical and non-technical challenges to the application of recycled materials in road
maintenance.
Austroads 2018 | page i

Contents
1. Overview.................................................................................................................................................. 1
2. Challenges in Obtaining Traditional Materials .................................................................................... 2

2.1 Demand for Primary Aggregates .............................................................................................................. 2
2.2 Cost of Bitumen ........................................................................................................................................ 3
2.3 Construction and Demolition Waste ......................................................................................................... 4
3. Environmental and Social Considerations in Resource Use and Recycling ................................... 7

3.1 Landfill and Stockpiles .............................................................................................................................. 7
3.2 Energy Savings and Reductions of Emissions ......................................................................................... 8
4. Maintenance Techniques to Address Environmental and Social Impacts .....................................10

4.1 Biomass-sourced Bitumen Pavements .................................................................................................. 11
4.2 Recycled Asphalt Pavement (RAP)........................................................................................................ 11
4.3 Warm Mix Asphalt .................................................................................................................................. 13
4.4 Geopolymer Concrete ............................................................................................................................ 14
4.5 Crumb Rubber Asphalt ........................................................................................................................... 15
4.6 Use of Plastic and Other Wastes ........................................................................................................... 17
5. Evaluation of Maintenance Techniques to Enhance Sustainability ................................................18

5.1 Evaluation Studies Undertaken in the USA ............................................................................................ 18
5.2 Evaluation of Maintenance Techniques in Europe ................................................................................. 23
6. Improving the Resilience of Road Infrastructure .............................................................................. 26
References ...................................................................................................................................................... 29
Tables
Table 2.1: Indicative pricing structures for quarry and recycled materials (Melbourne) ............................ 5
Table 2.2: Estimated financial impact of incorporating approximately 15% recycled
aggregated per annum into Victorian pavements ..................................................................... 6
Table 4.1: Laboratory test results: ‘Bitumate’........................................................................................... 12
Table 4.2: Laboratory test results: ‘Bitumix’ ............................................................................................. 13
Table 5.1: Evaluation of sustainability impacts of treatments for asphalt and concrete
surfaced pavements used in the US ....................................................................................... 19
Figures
Figure 2.1: Annual production of crushed and broken stone in Australia (Mt) ............................................ 3
Figure 5.1: Areas Investigated for Maintenance in FOX ........................................................................... 25
Figure 6.1: Rainfall across 2010–11 and 2014–15 summers in La Niña conditions .................................27
Austroads 2018 | page ii

1. Overview
Part 11 of the Guide to Asset Management (GAM) addresses the current situation in Australia and New
Zealand in relation to sustainable maintenance techniques. Whilst it is recognised that there are significant
environmental, social and economic benefits that could be obtained through the use of alternative road
materials in maintenance activities, the assessment of how various maintenance and preservation
techniques impact on sustainability is an evolving area.
According to the United States Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) (Van Dam et al. 2015), pavement
preservation is inherently a sustainable activity. It involves the use of low-cost, low-environmental-impact and
less energy-intensive treatments to extend the life of the pavement by delaying major rehabilitation activities.
Part 11 of the GAM describes the challenges in obtaining traditional materials and details the connections
this has to the use of recycled materials and other techniques which can reduce social and environmental
impacts. In particular, this part discusses the environmental and social considerations of recycling and
resource use; it also provides examples of lower-energy aggregates currently in use in Australia and
overseas for both asphalt and concrete pavements.
A review is undertaken on how these techniques contribute to reducing social and environmental impacts.
The techniques used overseas to address these impacts and improve sustainability are also highlighted.
Additionally, the impacts of extreme events and the importance of infrastructure resilience is also discussed.
A case study of the environmental and social aspects of maximising the use of crumb rubber in asphalt
illustrates the range of technical and non-technical challenges associated with the application of recycled
materials in road maintenance.
Austroads 2018 | page 1

2. Challenges in Obtaining Traditional Materials
The use of maintenance techniques designed to reduce social and environmental impacts is strongly
connected to the availability of existing resources. In Australia it is acknowledged that the costs of obtaining
traditional pavement materials are increasing as sources are being exhausted, haulage distances are
increasing and access to traditional sources is becoming increasingly restricted (Austroads 2014). Road
asset managers are therefore increasingly considering the use of alternative road materials and less energy-
intensive practices to deliver infrastructure (construction and maintenance) services at current or improved
levels of service. This includes the use of recycled materials from construction and demolition (C&D) waste,
and from other industries. It is being used for different stages of road construction such as the subbase,
lower asphalt layers and top asphalt layers and sprayed seal applications.
In 2014, an Austroads study on the economics of material availability and recycling examined the economics
of material availability and recycling. The study provided an estimate of the financial cost savings when
recycled aggregates were incorporated into pavement bases. It also set out the environmental and social
considerations associated with recycling and resource use. It was also suggested that there were significant
economic and environmental benefits associated with the incorporation of recycled aggregates in pavement
bases. It was suggested that, while the search for more sustainable materials had become a subject most
government jurisdictions were keen to promote, the practical use of recycled materials in most jurisdictions
remained limited, with the possible exception of Victoria and South Australia, where different recycled
products are used in works for various pavement components (Austroads 2014).
Due to the limited application of recycled materials so far, the cost of purchasing them is unknown to most
jurisdictions; however, VicRoads suggests that, by using recycled materials, potential savings of 15–20% can
be achieved. The states using a higher proportion of recycled materials identified that they were being
applied in more lightly-trafficked areas or regions with lower expectation of pavement performance
(Austroads 2014).
Recognised long-term benefits of the use of recycled materials are:

• reduced impact on the ‘environment’: recycled materials, on average, are less energy intensive to
produce than traditional quarried materials
• the use of recycled materials on a ‘fit-for-purpose’ basis promotes a reduction in the amount of waste
delivered to landfill
• more efficient use of traditional quarried materials for premium applications; in terms of cartage cost, this
can represent a significant proportion (up to 50%) of the cost of pavement materials supplied to a project
which typically range between 15–25 cents per tonne-km (Austroads 2014).
2.1 Demand for Primary Aggregates
As highlighted in Austroads (2014), data compiled by the Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource
Economics (ABARE) indicated that, while the demand for primary aggregates in Australia fluctuates with
economic activity, it has been increasing commensurate with population growth over the past four decades,
as shown in Figure . While the quarrying of aggregates reduced considerably during the recession in the
early 1990s, consumption has been increasing steadily since 2000. In 2011 about 103 million tonnes (Mt) of
new materials were quarried for use as construction and maintenance materials, including roadworks (new
construction, pavement rehabilitation and resurfacing). This represents about 4.5 tonnes per capita per year
(Austroads 2014).

Figure 2.1: Annual production of crushed and broken stone in Australia (Mt) 1
It was noted in Austroads (2014) that the demand for materials is interconnected with major infrastructure
projects (construction and maintenance) that are initiated as a result of natural disasters. For example,
Queensland’s use of aggregates increased by approximately 30% (from 33.4 Mt to 44 Mt per annum)
between 2010 and 2012 after the cyclones and floods, and in response to the increased development of coal
and coal seam gas infrastructure (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2014). Production peaked in Victoria in
2010–11, most likely reflecting the last of the Australian Government’s school building program, coupled with
the reconstruction of roads and other infrastructure after the Black Saturday bushfires in 2009 and major
flooding the following year (Department of Environment and Primary Industries 2012).
2.2 Cost of Bitumen
It was noted in Austroads (2010a) that changes in oil supplies are likely to have significant consequences for
the transportation industry, particularly road transport. Oil, like other fossil fuels, is a finite resource produced
by natural processes. It is recognised that non-conventional fossil oil types are difficult to access and
conventional oil reserves exist in remote locations, such as under deep oceans.
There is large uncertainty in the oil market due to differing opinions regarding: (1) how much oil is yet to be
discovered; (2) how much will technology improve to allow oil extraction from non-conventional sources;
(3) the effect of price on the viability of oil extraction from non-conventional sources; (4) the impact of
alternative transport fuels; (5) how much oil consumption will change in the future; and (6) how global
geopolitics will influence the supply and distribution of oil (Austroads 2010a, Cosgrove et al. 2012).
1
Data for WA is underestimated because quarry production is substantially under-reported to the Department of Mines and
Petroleum. The data series between 1991 and 2001 could not be included due to several States not reporting during this period
(Austroads 2014).

While it is expected that the overall price of oil will continue to increase in the long-term, it is acknowledged
that current price fluctuations can have short-term effects (increases and decreases) on the price and supply
of bitumen. As a result, it is predicted that alternative materials to bitumen or bitumen expanders such as
crumb rubber will become more attractive and cost-effective in the longer term (Evans et al. 2015).
2.3 Construction and Demolition Waste
Approximately 48 Mt of waste (excluding fly ash) was generated within Australia in 2010–11. This equates to
about 2.2 tonnes per capita, of which 60% was recycled or recovered for embodied energy. The overall
resource recovery rate in Australia increased by 9% (from 51% up to 60%), between 2006–07 and 2010–11.
This equates to the percentage of waste that is either recycled or recovered for energy. The Australian
Capital Territory (ACT) had the highest resource recovery rate (79%) followed by South Australia (SA)
(77%), New South Wales (NSW) (65%) and Victoria (62%).
Australian levels of municipal waste recovery were comparable to those in the US, Finland, Italy and the
United Kingdom, but considerably lower than many northern and western European nations, as well as
Korea (Blue Environment Pty Ltd & Randall Environmental Consulting 2014; Austroads 2014). The rates of
waste generation, recycling and recovery, by jurisdiction, in 2010–11 in terms of kg/capita are provided in
Austroads (2014). The rates of waste generation and recycling recovery by waste category (in terms of
tonnage) are also presented. It was noted that a large proportion of this waste presently going to landfill has
the potential to be reprocessed as aggregates for reuse.
According to Austroads (2014), from a C&D recycling industry perspective, national uniformity is encouraged
in terms of:
• Site development and licence conditions: each state and territory has a different policy in-relation to the
requirements for the development of infrastructure for the recycling and resource recovery industry. The
streamlining of the industry at a national level would make it simpler for organisations to expand across
borders; it would also reduce the need for different corporate policies within each jurisdiction.
• Product standards and common terminology: businesses that operate in different jurisdictions often have
difficulty transferring process standards and intellectual property across borders. This is mainly due to
different regulation requirements in each jurisdiction. Additionally, there are different requirements for
materials within the same jurisdiction, particularly within local government. The recent development and
national acceptance of the Transport Infrastructure Product Evaluation Scheme (TIPES) should assist in
the acceptance of qualified products and the standardisation of practices (Austroads 2014).
Extensive use of recycled materials in road pavement construction in Western Australia was encouraged by
the Australian Geomechanics Society (Cocks et al. 2017). These recycled materials include: crushed
concrete, comingled demolition material, crushed vitrified clay pipe, crushed glass, scrap rubber, asphalt
millings and plastic.
More details on the economics of materials availability and recycling is provided in Case Study 1.

Case Study 1: Economics of Materials Availability and Recycling
The work reported in Austroads (2014) undertook to determine the economic costs associated with the
decreasing availability of traditional road-building materials and the extent to which the future availability of
pavement materials impacts on road maintenance and construction activities.
Based on a review of the existing literature and observed experience across the industry, this work
addressed:
• the status of national quarried and recycled materials, product development and challenges across the
C&D recycling industry, including products and markets for recycled products and some barriers and
opportunities for the uptake of recycled materials
• the current disposal costs, the number of recycling facilities, the materials processed and products and
markets in New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, Western Australia and South Australia
• the reuse of recycled crushed glass (RCG)
• industry employment associated with recycled pavement materials.
A survey was conducted aimed at identifying existing initiatives/strategies at the national/state or local
level that address the use of local and recycled pavement materials and their in situ performance. The
survey included environmental managers, road construction industry stakeholders and members of the
Austroads Assets Task Force (ATF) and the (then) Austroads Pavement Technology Review Panel
(PTRP).
Relevant industry stakeholders were also surveyed requesting information relating to the future demand
for pavement materials, and indications of whether quarries had reached their finite life. The survey found
that there were differences between state road agencies in terms of the reporting of the quantities of
pavement materials used in different applications – both quarried and recycled. A possible reason for this
was that construction works undertaken by contractors and information on usage may not be reported
regularly. The results also indicated that, while seeking sustainable materials has become a subject most
government agencies were keen to promote, the practical use of recycled materials remained limited.
In order to determine the economic costs associated with the decreasing availability of traditional road-
building materials and the extent to which future pavement materials availability will impact on road
maintenance and construction activities, an assessment of the estimated financial impacts of incorporating
recycled aggregates into pavement bases was undertaken. It was found that there was insufficient data to
complete a suitable economic analysis. As a result, information from VicRoads was used to determine the
financial cost savings of incorporating recycled aggregates into pavement bases (see Table 2.1).
Table 2.1: Indicative pricing structures for quarry and recycled materials (Melbourne)
Materials Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4
$16–$22/tonne ex-
$26–$28/tonne ex- $24–$26/tonne ex- $22–$24/tonne ex-
Quarry materials bin depending on
bin bin bin
source type
Recycled
$20–$22/tonne ex- $18–$20/tonne ex- $14–$16/tonne ex-
materials
bin bin bin
(Melbourne)
Source: Graeme Newman, Technical Services, VicRoads (e-mail communication April 2014).

This financial analysis was undertaken by allowing the addition of up to 15% recycled component per
annum within pavement constructions Victoria-wide. It was found that there was an annual saving of
approximately $24 million or a 4% reduction in the total cost of pavement materials (see Table 2.2). In
terms of the current level of resource recovery and use in Victoria, recycled materials can only realistically
supply approximately 10–20% of the market's need for crushed rock and aggregates. After taking into
consideration a cheaper supply price ex-bin, their lower density (meaning less quantity of materials are
required to cover a given area), and resulting lower freight costs, the cost of the recycled component of an
in-place pavement could be in the order of 25–30% cheaper. However, this is not necessarily the case in
all markets.
Table 2.2: Estimated financial impact of incorporating approximately 15% recycled aggregated per annum
into Victorian pavements
Annual estimates – base and subbase applications

Material price and quantity Total
100% quarry product Zero recycling
Aggregate (Mt) 25
Price $/t $25
Aggregates placed (million m 3) 11
3
Price $/m (placed) $58
Total cost $m $638
85% quarry product 15% recycled aggregate
Aggregates (Mt) 22 3
Aggregates placed (million m 3) 9.5 1.5
Price $/m3 (placed) $58 $42
Total cost $m $551 $63 $614
Overall financial savings $m $24
Source: RM Consulting Group (2014).
In addition to the survey and financial analysis, two case studies were conducted from Fairfield City
Council (NSW), representative of local government, and ResourceCo (SA), representative of industry. For
Fairfield City Council, the cost savings achieved by the use of these recycled materials compared to
quarry materials for equivalent pavement performance, the proportion of waste materials diverted from
landfill, and production and consumption of recycled materials, were documented. ResourceCo (2017)
provided qualitative information relating to their recycling facilities.
The use of recycled materials, and the maturity of the industry, varies around Australia. A key issue
impacting on this project, and warranting the need for further work, was data availability. Specifically, the
amount of data with respect to the availability of traditional road-building materials and future demand for
pavement materials was extremely limited.
Notwithstanding these limitations, there are significant benefits associated with the incorporation of
recycled aggregates in pavement bases, and Fairfield City Council is an example of this successes.
Additionally, a number of environmental benefits could be achieved, including reduced quarrying, the
conservation of finite resources for future generations, reduced landfilling, energy consumption and
subsequent reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and impacts on climate change.

3. Environmental and Social Considerations in Resource Use

and Recycling
The recycling and reuse of recycled aggregates can bring substantial environmental benefits. It was noted in
Austroads (2014) that the magnitude of these gains was dependent on an efficient recycled aggregates
collection and reuse supply chain. There are energy impacts at each life-cycle stage of construction and
maintenance activities: from acquisition and manufacture through to disposal or recovery. Resource recovery
in the form of recycling will usually require further resource use to recover and reprocess waste materials for
re-use in some other (or the same) application. Alternatively, the recovered waste is disposed to a landfill.
According to Austroads (2014), there is potential for environmental and social benefits in the following areas:
• reduced resource consumption – substitution of new products for recycled aggregates means conserving
primary aggregates (a finite resource) for future generations
• reduced quarrying – means less amenity (landscape, dust, noise) and biodiversity costs
• diversion of waste materials from landfill – means less pressure on landfill space requirements, and
reduced biodiversity and amenity (visual, odour) costs
• reduced energy use and GHG emissions – recycled aggregates can have lower embodied energy (less
process or production energy use) in addition to reduced transport emissions (due to their lower
density/less freight) where materials are reused in close proximity to the site of reprocessing.
Van Dam et al. (2015) noted that, whilst there was abundant literature available on the topics of how
pavement materials, design and construction influence sustainability, there was less information available on
how pavement maintenance and preservation treatments and practices impact sustainability. Additionally, a
study reported by the US Transportation Research Board (TRB 2012) concluded that environmental
sustainability research related to post-construction operations was an emerging field (Van Dam et al. 2015).
The following sub-sections discuss the types of environmental and social benefits accruing from recycling
materials and using recycled aggregates in the maintenance of roadworks and enhancing sustainability.
Whilst many of these techniques can also be applied in construction phases, the emphasis in this section is
on maintenance.
3.1 Landfill and Stockpiles
The collection of C&D waste and processing this into recycled aggregates (and other recyclables such as
scrap steel, sand, etc.) diverts waste from going to landfill. Landfills impose a number of costs on the
community, including:
• GHG emissions arising from the burning and/or burial of waste, mainly carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane
(CH4) gases, which contribute to global warming and climate change
• air pollutants causing health effects
• amenity effects of the disposal facility including visual, noise, odour and litter
• surface water and groundwater impacts from leachate to soil and water and the discharge of waste
• site runoff to nearby receiving waters
• the need to mitigate fire risks.

In 2015 a study for Sustainability Victoria (Evans et al. 2015) on maximising the use of crumb rubber asphalt
(CRA) in Victoria was undertaken to identify and assess the benefits and barriers associated with the
increased use of crumb rubber-modified asphalt in Victoria. It was noted that: end-of-life (EOL) tyres can be
a source of health and environmental concerns; fires in stockpiles can release toxic gases; and tyre
stockpiles provide breeding habitats for pests. Despite the use of tyres for alternative markets, a significant
percentage of EOL tyres is still being stockpiled, illegally dumped or exported without customs registration
(Department of the Environment and Energy 2014). According to Sustainability Victoria, almost 20% of waste
tyres are recycled into crumb rubber, and over 50% are stockpiled or illegally dumped (Sustainability
Victoria 2016). In the Environment Protection Authority (EPA) regulatory impact statement, the generation of
waste tyres was forecast to grow by 1.8% per annum between 2013 and 2016 which is in line with estimated
Victorian population growth and increased car ownership. Section 4 further details a case study of the
environmental and social impacts associated with maximising the use of CRA.
Additionally, research suggests that landfilling wastes have the potential to generate methane gas emissions
and CO2 emissions from transporting materials to the site and the operation of landfill equipment. Diverted
C&D waste will usually comprise mostly inorganic materials including brick rubble and concrete, some scrap
steel and a small amount of combustibles which would generate negligible methane emissions if land filled.
However, more mixed waste streams comprising a greater proportion of combustibles and organic
components as well as C&D rubble can generate emissions in the order of 1 tonne of CO2-equivalent per
tonne of waste land filled (Austroads 2014).
Landfilling C&D waste also means that the embodied energy 2 of these materials is lost because new
quarried materials would need to be generated to replace them. The winning and manufacture of these
materials is in the order of 950 MJ/t, converting to an embodied carbon of about 0.13 t/CO2-e/tonne
(Hammond & Jones 2008; Austroads 2014). The following discussion highlights some of the embodied
energy and life-cycle issues related to low energy materials.
3.2 Energy Savings and Reductions of Emissions
There are energy impacts at each life-cycle stage of construction and maintenance and recycling usually
requires the use of additional energy to recover and reprocess waste materials for reuse.
Some materials claim to be ‘environmentally friendly’ or ‘low energy’, meaning that they have lower
embodied energy than others. This means that they use less energy in their whole-of-life production process
than other materials. Typically, embodied energy is measured in mega joules per kilogram or tonne of
product (i.e. MJ/kg or MJ/t). These units can then be converted to GHG emission factors depending on the
types of energy used in the manufacturing process. Emission factors are usually expressed as kilograms of
CO2 per tonne of material i.e. kg CO2-e/t. The energy intensity of fuel sources varies, for example between
diesel, gas and electricity. The use of more carbon efficient fuels, such as gas rather than electricity, in
asphalt production plants will reduce the carbon footprint of the roads industry (Austroads 2014).
McRobert (2010) collated process energy usage data from the recycling industry to develop an emission
factor for recycled aggregate. Energy usage and production data on recycled aggregates was collected from
four recycling companies operating in Australia. An average emission factor of almost 4 kg CO2-e/t was
calculated. This represents between 22% and 46% fewer emissions than an equivalent quarried or primary
aggregate (based on limited Australian data on primary aggregates) (Austroads 2014).
2
Embodied energy is an accounting methodology that measures all the energy used in making a material into a final product,
i.e. materials extraction, processing, manufacture and transportation (Austroads 2014).

Several comprehensive US studies have calculated life-cycle energy savings from the collection,
reprocessing, transport and use of recycled aggregates in roadworks applications (e.g. Carpenter &
Gardner 2007, Horvath 2003, Lee et al. 2010). For example, studies by Sousa et al. (2007 and 2009) found
that the use of crumb rubber as a modifier for bitumen for road construction led to significantly higher energy
savings and reduction of CO2 emissions, compared to alternative forms of tyre disposal. The study compared
crumb rubber as a modifier for bitumen to the shredding of tyres for use as tyre-derived fuel and the use of
shredded tyres as alternative daily cover for landfill. It has also been proposed that, compared to normal
asphalt pavements, the use of crumb rubber modified (CRM) binder technology in asphalt can lead to
significant reduction in CO2 emissions and use of non-renewable resources due to a reduction in required
layer thickness (White et al. 2010). It should be noted that such reductions are highly dependent on road
agency specifications and design assumptions and therefore may not be directly transferable from one
jurisdiction to another. These reductions may also apply to other conventional dense grade asphalt (DGA) or
polymer modified binder (PMB). This is further investigated in Sustainability Victoria (2016).
Additionally, in 2012, the Australian Low Carbon Transport Forum (ALCTF) was developed as a joint
collaboration between CSIRO, BITRE and the Australian Road Research Board (ARRB). The aim of the
ALCTF was to assess the potential size and limiting factors of a full range of GHG abatement options and
strategies in the transport sector. Using a consistent methodology, 47 abatement options for road, rail,
maritime and aviation were assessed in terms of the maximum reduction in GHG emissions to 2050. Part of
the analysis involved the assessment of the use of ‘hard’ infrastructure (generally involving physical changes
to the built environment or its energy inputs) and ‘soft’ infrastructure (primarily involving changes to
Information and Communication Technology systems or their operation).
The hard infrastructure abatement options considered included: improved processes and pavement design
for road maintenance, construction and climate change resilience, pavement smoothing and the selection of
low carbon pavement materials. It highlighted that, for the pavement design category, emission benefits can
be achieved by changing the design of pavements for road construction. If a pavement is designed to last
longer, and therefore requires less frequent replacement, and/or to incorporates materials requiring less
energy to produce, then annual emissions generated from energy use during the production of the materials
for major road rehabilitation/construction will decrease. Similarly, for the alternative road materials and less
energy-intensive practices category, estimates for possible reductions in such average emissions from
energy use during the production of materials for asphalt road maintenance, by using a range of improved
materials/surfaces (based on assumptions concerning potential proportions of alternative materials applied in
road maintenance), are provided (Cosgrove et al. 2012).

4. Maintenance Techniques to Address Environmental and

Social Impacts
As noted in the previous section, less information is available on how pavement maintenance and
preservation treatments and practices impact sustainability. It is, however, recognised that the application of
preventative and restorative treatments can have environmental and social benefits. In terms of social
benefits, these include:
• reduced traffic delays
• improved aesthetics
• improvements in ride quality
• potential reductions in roughness and noise issues
• improvements to safety, friction and drainage
• reductions in splash and spray
• improved resistance to rutting
• less damage to vehicles due to loose aggregate chips (Van Dam et al. 2015).
In relation to environmental benefits, as a result of the need to mitigate atmospheric GHG emissions, there is
an increasing need for decision-makers to modify current asset management processes. For example, there
is a desire to use alternative road materials and less energy intensive techniques in maintenance practices.
This in turn can contribute to the reductions in overall social and environmental impacts associated with
reductions in emissions and reduced noise effects on humans and biodiversity.
Examples of lower-energy aggregates in use in Australia include:

• recycled aggregates (concrete, asphalt, brick rubble) replacing primary or quarried aggregates in road
bases and wearing courses
• by-products of industrial processes reused as cement substitutes 3, e.g. fly ash and slag aggregates in
concrete bases and pavement stabilisation
• pulverised glass cullet for use as replacement of fine aggregate in concrete
• crumb rubber from scrap tyres for use in asphalt and sprayed bitumen seals (Austroads 2014).
In 2010, a study was commissioned by Austroads to prepare a series of discussion papers aimed at
identifying issues that will impact on road agency asset management in the next 10 to 20 years
(Austroads 2010a and 2010b):
• Future asset management issues part 1: Impacts of GHG emissions on asset management
• Future asset management issues part 2: Impacts of peak oil with increases in bitumen and fuel costs on
road use and asset management funding.
These studies investigated a broad range of other environmentally sustainable alternatives in addition to
those highlighted above for pavement assets. These include sustainable alternatives for:
• bridges – consideration of co-benefits of increasing the height of bridges to improve resilience, as well as
providing additional lanes to assist in reducing traffic delays caused by vehicle breakdowns or crashes,
pedestrian and cycle paths connecting with existing cycle networks, improving safety for mariners in
terms of navigation clearance, and maintaining the environmental and cultural heritage features of the
area
3
Cement is a high embodied energy product, in the order of 1 tonne CO2-e/t of cement manufactured (Austroads 2014).

• road lighting – internationally and in Australia incandescent and halogen lamps in traffic signals are being
replaced by LED array lamps. It has been found that the initial investment in LED modules is paid off
through energy savings in approximately three years, depending on energy prices (US EPA 2000 in
Austroads 2010a)
• traffic management and network design options – Austroads (2010a) notes that a range of options exist to
enable the reduction of GHG emissions directly caused by road users. Whilst some of the approaches
identified are not directly related to asset management, they can impact on the way assets are used and
therefore have the potential to reduce GHG emissions. Consideration should be given to the suitability,
scale and efficacy of a local application of these approaches and their consequences for road asset
managers. These options include, environmental zones, congestion charging, speed control and
improved network design.
This section draws on this research, with particular reference to lower-energy aggregates, and highlights a
range of techniques undertaken to ensure more sustainable road maintenance practices, the benefits and
barriers to their application are also discussed.
4.1 Biomass-sourced Bitumen Pavements
Over time, it is expected that oil prices will continue to fluctuate, and as the availability of oil becomes more
limited, alternative materials to bitumen will in turn be not only more attractive but also necessary. Such
options include vegetable-oil-based (VO-based) bitumen mixes and molasses-based bitumen products.
Bitumen from renewable sources has the potential to reduce the impact of increasing oil prices, in the longer
term, on asset management by providing a material that is not directly dependent on oil for its production,
and therefore not as directly sensitive to rising oil prices. There is, however, a need for further research into
the following:
• the long-term performance and lifetime of biomass-sourced bitumen pavements and how the
performance of these alternative sources of bitumen in pavements is evaluated
• estimation of the investment needed for new equipment and required re-training
• estimation of the cost of using biomass-sourced bitumen pavements in the field
• estimation of the exact scale of available raw material, i.e. to what extent does the quantity of suitable
plant waste from the agriculture industry allow biomass-sourced bitumen to replace fossil-oil-based
bitumen? (Austroads 2010a).
In addition to this work, Austroads undertook two further projects examining the future availability and
assessment of alternative surfacing binders and investigating the properties of alternative surfacing binders
and bitumen extending binders (Austroads 2012a, 2012b and 2013).
4.2 Recycled Asphalt Pavement (RAP)
Recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) has been used successfully for many years in road rehabilitation.
However, the acceptance and understanding of RAP as a reliable and soundly performing material is not
universal despite its apparent reported cost savings.
Similar medium- to long-term qualitative studies need to be conducted in Australia before RAP can be a
standard material for pavement construction and maintenance. In addition, investigation into the optimal
proportion of RAP that produces the greatest GHG emission reduction consistent with similar long-term
performance of normal asphalt pavements is being addressed (Austroads 2010a). RAP is often brought in
from a stockpile. However, it is possible to recycle asphalt on site when rehabilitating a pavement. This has
been practiced internationally for many years with reasonable results; however, it requires specialised
equipment (Austroads 2010a).
Two examples of products developed from RAP in South Australia are provided in Case Study 2.

Case Study 2: Recycled Materials Developed from RAP
ResourceCo was established in South Australia in 1993. It is South Australia’s largest recycler of C&D
waste. In the road infrastructure area it produces minus 20 mm granular pavement materials marketed as
‘Bitumate’ and ‘Bitumix’. ‘Bitumate’ is made from reclaimed clean asphalt and pavement material that is
free of contaminants. ‘Bitumate’ is used as a granular unsealed pavement surfacing and low-traffic
basecourses. ‘Bitumix’ is manufactured from ‘Bitumate’ with a high float bitumen emulsion added at
specified dose rates. ‘Bitumix’ is used as an alternative to traditional deep lift asphalt with a wearing
course asphalt overlaid on top. It is only used as a wearing course in low-traffic areas with a minimum
thickness of 50 mm.
Independent testing (Andrews et al. 2004) of both ‘Bitumate’ and ‘Bitumix’ showed similar properties to
more traditional materials that would be used in their respective applications under laboratory and post-
construction testing. The long-term performance of these materials was not available at the time of this
testing.
Because of its physical properties, ‘Bitumate’ is expected to perform differently to traditional pavement
materials. A summary of the laboratory test results is presented in Table 4.1. The retention of the residual
bitumen binder during the processing of ‘Bitumate’ is expected to improve the mechanical interlocking and
binding of each particle in the pavement. Consequently, the benefits derived are: reduced dust generation
from traffic, longer life pavements, reduced number of maintenance cycles and costs, and reduced land fill
disposal due to using recycled asphalt. The oldest application of ‘Bitumate’ is about 10 years; anecdotal
observation is that it appears to have performed satisfactorily to date.
Table 4.1: Laboratory test results: ‘Bitumate’
Grading based specification limits

Test Test procedure
Sieve Size mm Per cent Finer
Particle size distribution TSA –MAT-TP141 26.5 100
19.0 90 - 100
13.2 74 - 96
9.5 61 - 85
4.75 42 - 66
2.36 28 - 50
0.425 11 - 27
0.075 4 - 14
Liquid limit AS 1289 3.2.2 Max 28%
Plasticity Index AS 1289 3.3.1 Min 1% Max 8%
Linear Shrinkage AS 1289 3.4.1 Max 4%
LA Abrasion Grading B AS 1141 .23: 2009 Max 45%
Foreign Materials Type 2
(Plaster, clay, friable material) RTA-NSW T276 Max 1%
Foreign Materials Type 3
(Plastic, rubber, wood) RTA-NSW T276 Max 0.5%
Bitumen content Max 4%
Source: ResourceCo (2017).

In terms of ‘Bitumix’, the addition of the emulsion partially reactivates the residual bitumen binder retained
during the manufacturing process. A summary of the laboratory test results for several types of ‘Bitumix’ is
presented in Table 4.2. This increased total binder content is expected to further improve the mechanical
interlocking and binding of each particle within the pavement. Benefits are similar to those claimed for
‘Bitumate’ with the addition of being able to be laid cold and kept for several days before being applied.
Similar to ‘Bitumate’, the oldest application of ‘Bitumix’ is about 10 years and anecdotal observation
suggests that it also appears to have performed satisfactorily to date.
Table 4.2: Laboratory test results: ‘Bitumix’
Manufacturing tolerance
Quality control tests
Test procedure
Product 20 mm Bitumix 14 mm Bitumix 10 mm Bitumix
Sieve size mm Percent passing
Particle size distribution 53
37.5
26.5 100
19.0 90 - 100 100
13.2 74 - 96 95 - 100 100
9.5 61 - 85 74 - 96 90 - 100
4.75 42 - 66 61 - 85 60 - 85
2.36 28 - 50 42 – 60 35 - 55
TSA –MAT-TP141 0.425 11 - 27 11 - 35 10 – 45
(DPTI n.d.) 0.075 4 - 14 4 - 14 5 - 15
AS1289 3.2.2 Liquid limit Max 28%
AS1289 3.3.1 Plasticity Index Min 1% Max 8%
AS1289 3.4.1 Linear Shrinkage Max 4%
AS1141.23 LA Abrasion Grading B Max 45%
TSA-MAT-TP470
Bitumen content Max 4%
(DPTI n.d.)
Added binder Emulsion
Cement, lime or
Added binder
polymer
Source: ResourceCo (2017).
4.3 Warm Mix Asphalt
An Austroads study reviewing the environmental aspects of warm mix asphalt (WMA) (Austroads 2010d)
noted that the use of WMA appeared to be increasing throughout the developed world in place of
conventional hotmix asphalt (HMA). However, wider acceptance depends upon confirmation of the
environmental benefits and demonstration that on-road performance is at least similar to that of the HMA
currently in use.

There are essentially three processes, with a number of variants of each based on either different proprietary
materials or proprietary equipment. The three broad categories include (Austroads 2010d):
• incorporating additives into the asphalt to reduce viscosity
• foaming of the bitumen either by direct injection of water or by introducing a hydrophilic material
• emulsified binder.
The past decade has seen the rapid development of WMA technology. It is typically produced at
temperatures between 100 and 130 °C, compared to conventional HMA which is produced at temperatures
around 165 °C (Austroads 2010b). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2009) reported that a
temperature reduction of 40 °C in the manufacturing and laying process could result in no measurably
significant negative effect in terms of the development of roughness, macrotexture and braking force
coefficient of the pavements in the short-term. During monitoring of CO2 and O2 emissions during plant
production of standard and energy-saving mixes, it was found that CO2 emissions associated with
energy-saving mixes were reduced by 5-30%, and O2 emissions increased by up to 14% (EPA 2009).
Working with lower temperatures also resulted in lower energy consumption. For example, when processing
an equal quantity of energy-saving mix and standard HMA (180 tonnes/hour), a gas-fired dryer was found to
use 16.5% less gas when processing the energy-saving mix. It is generally accepted that a temperature
reduction of approximately 12 °C halves GHG emissions (EPA 2009; Evans et al. 2015).
There is potential to use WMA to ultimately replace HMA. Long-term performance monitoring of WMA
pavements needs to be undertaken as well as confirmation of the stated reduction in GHG emissions.
Emissions from asphalt plants were discussed and factors that affect the volume of emissions were
documented in Austroads (2010b). WMA products were examined and typical emission reduction data was
supplied. More recently, a review of the environmental factors, including emission calculators, for carbon and
asphalt was conducted (Austroads 2012a). The study involved a literature review of existing CO2-equivalent
emission calculators applicable to asphalt road construction and maintenance.
Despite the environmental benefits, it was, however, noted that the long-term performance monitoring of
asphalt pavements using this approach needed to be undertaken as well as confirmation of the stated
reduction in GHG emissions (Austroads 2010a).
To this end, the planning and conduct of a validation trial of three WMA surfacings (chemical additive,
polymer additive, foaming) and a hotmix asphalt ‘control’ surfacing at a site in Melbourne was reported in
Austroads (2012c). Issues addressed included the establishment of the validation site, the experimental
design, description of the site, details of the mixes tested, the condition parameters monitored, and the
performance of the surfacings after two years of trafficking. Performance after two years of trafficking was
excellent and also independent of asphalt mix type, type of warm mix asphalt, and the percentage of RAP
(0−50%) incorporated into the mix. Details of the laboratory testing program, the results and an interpretation
of the data were the subject of the Austroads (2012c) report.
4.4 Geopolymer Concrete
It was noted in Austroads (2010a and 2010b) that there were considerable advantages in using concrete in
the construction and maintenance of road infrastructure, as it does not depend directly on the price of oil
compared to bitumen. It is also a potential alternative to bituminous roads on the basis of its greater durability
and lower maintenance, in spite of a higher initial outlay. However, in the context of global warming, due
consideration must be given to GHG emissions, where concrete production is a heavy emitter of CO2 and
NOx compared to asphalt. The surface condition of a pavement also influences the GHG emissions of traffic
during its lifetime. However, the GHG emissions due to traffic have been found to be almost identical for both
asphalt and concrete roads (EAPA and Eurobitume Joint Task Group Fuel Efficiency 2004; Austroads 2010a
and 2010b).

It is possible that, as oil prices and the cost of bitumen continues to fluctuate, concrete may be preferable
despite concerns about GHGs. Potentially, the advantages of concrete roads may be obtained without the
high GHG emissions if a geopolymer concrete is used (Net Balance Foundation 2007). Conventional
concrete uses Portland cement, which requires its feedstocks to be heated to about 1500°C to enable a
chemical reaction that produces CO2 as a by-product (Fernández-Jiménez et al. 2006). The by-products of
this reaction, plus the energy used for heating, results in approximately 1 tonne of CO2 produced for each
tonne of concrete. According to the International Energy Authority, conventional concrete production alone is
responsible for between 6% and 7% of global CO2 emissions. The energy for this heating also results in
GHG emissions when supplied from the burning of fossil fuels (Austroads 2010a and 2010b).
As an alternative to Portland cement, geopolymer concrete uses fly ash, which is produced as a by-product
from coal-fired power stations. Extraordinarily high volumes of fly ash are produced each year (over
600 million tons were produced globally in 2000), much of which currently goes into landfill (Palomo et
al. 2007). Geopolymer concrete has a compressive strength suitable for structural applications and is
comparable in behaviour to conventional concrete.
Due to the use of a waste product, geopolymer concrete can be more cost-effective and produce overall less
GHG emissions than conventional concrete. However, commercial production of geopolymer concrete in
Australia is currently limited, as the industry is still in the early stages of growth. Whilst geopolymer concrete
has been tested under a variety of conditions, little research has been undertaken into the suitability and
long-term performance of geopolymer concrete for pavement construction and maintenance. Initially this
material could be a low risk application in kerb, channel or footpaths at the local government level
(Austroads 2010a, 2010b). Austroads specifications now exist for the use of geopolymer concrete in both
structural and non-structural components (Austroads 2016a, 2016b and 2017).
4.5 Crumb Rubber Asphalt
CRA has been used to improve the performance of bituminous materials in the sprayed sealing and asphalt
industry within Australia for decades. Its use in pavement application has the advantage of reusing part of
the tyre wastes (e.g. tyre rubber) as a polymer to improve the properties and performance of bituminous
binders.
The introduction of crumb rubber modifier (CRM) to Australia commenced in the mid-1970s. At present,
Victoria and New South Wales are the main users of CRM sprayed sealing (Austroads Pavements Research
Group 1999; Wilson 2008). CRM is also used in Queensland for sprayed sealing.
As noted in Section 3.1, work is being undertaken by the Victorian Government on maximising the use of
CRA. In a recent study for Sustainability Victoria on maximising the use of CRA in Victoria (Evans et
al. 2015), it was found that, as part of a survey process, seven out of ten responses noted the environmental
benefits of using crumbed rubber. These benefits include reductions in the number of pavement replacement
and maintenance cycles (crack sealing, for example) resulting in reduced waste, reductions in GHG
emissions and energy use, noise reduction benefits, reductions in stockpiles and tyre landfills and the
provision of a greener alternative compared to virgin mixes. However, despite the benefits of CRA, it is
apparent that there are three common perceived barriers that stakeholders believe are inhibiting the
maximisation of CRA in Victoria: social perceptions around occupational health and safety (from an
environmental and health perspective), cost and current specifications, and lack of diversified
suppliers/manufacturing capability (Evans et al. 2015).
Work is also being conducted by the Department of Environment, Heritage and Planning, Queensland
Department of Transport and Main Roads (TMR) and ARRB, aimed at maximising the use of crumb rubber in
asphalt and surfacing seals. The objective of this work is to present the opportunities available in
Queensland for using ground tyre rubber technologies for sprayed seal and asphalt applications.
Further discussion of the environmental and social aspects of using CRA is provided in Case Study 3.

Case Study 3: Social and Environmental Considerations in the use of Crumb Rubber
As noted in Section 4.5, CRA has been used to improve the performance of bituminous materials within
the sprayed sealing and asphalt industry. In 2015, a study was undertaken for Sustainability Victoria in
maximising the use of CRA in Victoria (Evans et al. 2015). The objective of this study was to identify and
assess the benefits and barriers associated with increasing the use of CRA in Victoria. The study also
aimed to identify the directions for further research and development for applying crumb rubber to asphalt
in road construction and maintenance processes. The study involved: (1) a literature review of
international and Australian environmental workplace health and safety (WH&S), specifications and costs
issues associated with the use of CRA; and (2) stakeholder consultation via a survey process investigating
the current viewpoints of a range of government and industry professionals.
This work extended previous work undertaken between Sustainability Victoria, the EPA and the broader
industry on the development of new regulatory frameworks and expanding new markets for waste tyres in
Victoria to support the use of tyres for productive outcomes as opposed to illegitimate stockpiling as an
end-point (Evans et al. 2015).
In particular, a range of environmental and WH&S issues were discussed, with tyre-derived product
producers, asphalt manufacturers that could potentially use tyre derived products, organisations that could
procure asphalt that uses these products, and associated government and industry organisations. The
report highlighted that the use of CRM in asphalt can have significant environmental benefits. For
example, application of crumb rubber can assist in reducing stockpiles and tyre landfills (more effective
utilisation of embodied energy) while reducing the number of pavement replacement cycles and
maintenance (for example crack sealing), resulting in reducing waste, GHG emissions and energy use
(Evans et al. 2015). Additionally, reductions in noise emissions have been identified as a benefit in using
CRA; it has been reported that the use of a mix design incorporating crumb rubber reduces traffic noise
levels by upwards of 5 decibels (Carlson 2011; Evans et al. 2015). It was noted that, whilst the survey and
literature review indicated that overall, there are environmental benefits associated with the use of CRA,
there are a number of opportunities which further investigate these benefits (Evans et al. 2015).
However, the literature review and survey responses indicated that there are concerns about
socio-economic and WH&S implications, rather than technical factors. Potential health concerns related to
the emissions from CRM applications have been the subject of a large number of studies. There appear to
be mixed results about the environmental and health issues associated with establishing a direct
exposure-response relationship in crumb rubber application. Overseas experience and the survey
responses indicate that WH&S concerns can be reduced by applying appropriate engineering and safety
measures. For example, in the case of emissions associated with CRA, one of the most promising
solutions is using WMA technology. There have been various studies performed into emissions caused by
production and processing of CRA at high temperatures internationally. As with conventional asphalt, it
has been shown that emissions from CRA can be reduced by using WMA technology (Jones et al. 2013).
Importantly, the emission of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons reduces with a reduction in production
temperature.
A report by Rebbechi and Roadcor Pty Ltd (Rebbechi 2016) for Tyre Stewardship Australia (TSA) was
prepared in response to a request from TSA to undertake a literature survey of the health effects related to
the use of crumb rubber bitumen binders in HMA. The TSA request arose from issues raised by the
Australian Asphalt Pavement Association (AAPA) and the Bitumen Crumb Rubber Asphalt (BCRA)
Reference Group. The literature revealed usage guidelines and outcomes of a number of studies,
particularly in the USA, relating to potential health effects associated with the manufacture and placing of
BCRA. These all agreed that there was no increased risk to health of workers as a result of the use of
BCRA. It is further noted that some recognition must be given to the anecdotal evidence of worker
discomfort experienced by exposure to the placing of BCRA in Australia. Additionally, some effort may
need to be applied to the relevant factors and modification to manufacturing and placing procedures that
might minimise those effects.

A range of other environmental and socio-economic issues were also highlighted in this report, such as
the potential of leaching of harmful substances from CRM pavements in service. Similarly, in a UK study
(Reid & Chandler 2001; Sustainability Victoria 2016) on alternative aggregate materials, it was found that,
in most cases, alternative materials were unlikely to cause pollution of groundwater or surface water
provided they were produced and used in accordance with appropriate specifications, standards and
quality control procedures. Mitigation methods such as the placement of inert layers, low permeability
geotextiles or asphalt, can be used to treat the material at source or break the potential pathway of
leachate (Carswell 2004; Sustainability Victoria 2016). Amongst a wide range of other recommendations,
also involving an assessment of the cost-effectiveness of CRA, the Sustainability Victoria (Evans et al.
2015) report notes that further research is required on understanding the effects of these chemicals on
people and the environment.
4.6 Use of Plastic and Other Wastes
Performance-based specifications can allow for innovation and technological advancements in the CRA
industry. A key example of an innovative initiative is TonerPave™, an asphalt additive, with high recycled
content and a reduced carbon footprint. TonerPave (2016) was developed by Downer and Close the Loop®
(CtL) and is part of a new range of low CO2 asphalt products supplied by Downer. The key ingredient of
TonerPave is modified toner polymer, which has been developed over many years by CtL. TonerPave
asphalt has been laid by numerous Melbourne councils and CtL and Downer are in the process of qualifying
mix designs in all other states. Sustainability Victoria is also supporting new formulations of TonerPave,
including the use of crumb rubber from recycled car and truck tyres, and waste acrylic paint. They are
currently under development for future release. This initiative highlights how product innovations by suppliers
are being investigated and developed. It is evident that more research and development support is required
to test and commercialise new products of this nature (TonerPave 2016).
Glass recycling is also being used in Australia in pavement construction and asphalt mixes (Institute of
Public Works Engineering Australasia (IPWEA) 2015). Specifications for recycled crushed glass (RCG) are
available (Andrews 2010) and documentation is available regarding the performance of asphalt mixes
containing RCG (GHD 2011).

5. Evaluation of Maintenance Techniques to Enhance

Sustainability
In addition to the above-mentioned techniques, a range of international documents have been developed
which further investigate and evaluate the environmental and social impacts of maintenance as part of the
asset management process. This section discusses two recent reports prepared by the FHWA, and through
the European Commission.
5.1 Evaluation Studies Undertaken in the USA
In 2015, the FHWA developed a reference document, Towards Sustainable Pavement Systems (Van Dam et
al. 2015). The aim of this document is to provide guidance on sustainability considerations in pavement
systems throughout the entire pavement life-cycle (from material extraction and processing, through to the
design, construction, use, maintenance/rehabilitation, and EOL phases.
Table 5.1 provides an evaluation of sustainability impacts of treatments for asphalt- and concrete-surfaced
pavements used in the USA. It provides a brief description of the technique and then indicates its effect on a
number of preventative and restorative benefits (‘↑’ indicates a positive impact, ‘↓’ indicates a negative
impact, and ‘↔’ represents both positive and negative impacts). Information on the relative life expectancy
and cost, and relative environmental and social impacts is also provided. It is also noted that relative
comparisons also vary depending on the traffic levels and climate region. These treatments are further
detailed in FHWA (Van Dam et al. 2015).

Table 5.1: Evaluation of sustainability impacts of treatments for asphalt and concrete surfaced pavements used in the US
Preventative Restorative Performance and costs Relative

environmental
impact based
Relative on life cycle
Improves Relative Societal
Treatment Description Addresses Eliminate Improves Improve treatment energy use and
Seal Rejuvenate ride quality cost impact
surface stable texture for texture life GHG emissions,
pavement surface and surface ($ to materials (low,
distress ruts friction for noise ( to
profile $$$$) medium, high,
)
variable)
Crack filling Placement of    Over-   $ Low Reduced

adhesive Cracking Longitudina banding may Over- traffic
material into only l over- increase banding delays, less
and/over banding roughness; increases pleasing
non-working can sealing noise aesthetics,
cracks, negatively cracks may potential
minimal crack impact slow roughness
preparation, friction development and noise
lower-quality of roughness issues
materials
used
Crack Placement of      $ Low Reduced
sealing adhesive Cracking Longitudina Over- traffic
material into only l over- banding delays, less
and/over banding increases pleasing
working can noise; aesthetics,
cracks, good negatively filling can potential
crack impact reduce roughness
preparation, friction noise issues
high-quality
materials
used


environmental
impact based
)
variable)
Asphalt Used to treat     $$ Variable Reduced

patching localised Depends on traffic delays
distresses; amount of compared to
partial-depth patching and other
patches improvement treatments;
address gained in negative
surface structural life impact on
distresses and and ride quality ride quality
full-depth and noise,
patches poor
address aesthetics (if
structural patching is
distresses substantial)
Fog seal/ Very light     $ Medium Reduced
rejuvenators application of (May Depends in traffic
asphalt negatively part on delays;
emulsion on impact skid materials improves
pavement resistance) aesthetics
surface to
seal the
existing
asphalt
surface


environmental
impact based
)
variable)
Chip seals Sprayed       $$ Medium to high Increases

application of Depends Depends Depends on safety by
asphalt largely on on chip number of improving
(usually number of size courses and friction,
emulsion, courses binder type reduced
heated placed traffic delays
asphalt due to faster
cement and construction
cutbacks also and opening
used) followed to traffic;
by aggregate reduced ride
chips roller to quality due
achieve 50 to to rough
70% surface,
embedment. potential
Cost and vehicle
performance damage due
depends on to loose
whether it is aggregate
single or chips
multi-course,
as well as
binder type
and
aggregate
quality


environmental
impact based
)
variable)
Slurry seals Mix of     $$ Medium Increases

well-graded safety by
aggregate improving
(fine sand and friction,
mineral filler) reduced
and asphalt traffic delays
emulsion due to faster
spread over construction
entire and opening
pavement to traffic;
surface improves
aesthetics.
Lower
albedo may
negatively
impact urban
heat island
(UHI) effect
Source: Van Dam et al. (2015).

For example, asphalt patching, which is also applied in Australia, is used to treat localised pavement distress
such as potholes and severely cracked areas. Patching can also be used in preparation or in conjunction
with other maintenance and preservation techniques, or as a pre-treatment for an asphalt overlay. This
maintenance technique can be applied to different depths with little preparation and uses a cold-mix material,
or can involve more intensive practices such as milling, saw cutting, application of a tack coat and asphalt
concrete patching materials. In terms of positive environmental benefits, this technique provides:
• improved structural integrity and ride quality
• little material usage for isolated repairs
• the re-use of some construction waste generation from the removal of material, recycled as RAP
• reduced traffic disruptions and delays, as patching can be completed in a short timeframe.
Additionally, potential environmental and social impacts have been identified, which include:
• reduced ride quality and tyre-pavement noise, if applied poorly
• increased costs and environmental impacts if the density of patching increases, instead of using other
more appropriate techniques for a large-scale task
• negative impacts on overall aesthetics of the pavement, if large quantities of asphalt patching is
undertaken (Van Dam et al. 2015).
The report notes that, whilst information is limited on the effects of various maintenance and preservation
treatments on the sustainability of the pavement systems, there are identified environmental and social
impacts associated with the application of some techniques for asphalt and concrete-surfaced pavements. It
is suggested that further investigation in the areas of:
• full life-cycle inventories to assess the environmental and social value of some techniques
• assessment of life-cycle costs in terms of treatment and materials selection, and timing
• consideration of offsetting higher economic costs of more frequent treatments with larger reductions in
environmental impacts due to vehicle operations on smoother pavements
• treatment and material selection in terms of reduced transportation costs by: the use of local materials
(which must meet performance requirements); reduced traffic delays on high-volume roads (balanced
with high levels of smoothness); the application of new materials which enhance performance or reveal
low energy consumption and emissions; and, further investigation of the environmental footprint during
the manufacture of certain materials (Van Dam et al. 2015).
5.2 Evaluation of Maintenance Techniques in Europe
The European Commission has launched, within the Horizon 2020 (H2020) Programme, several initiatives to
reflect on the development of cross-modal transport infrastructure. A set of three European H2020
Coordination and Support Actions, namely the REFINET, FOX and USE-iT projects, have been granted to
support this work.
The FOX (Forever Open Infrastructure across (x) all transport modes) project aims to develop a highly
efficient and effective cross modal research and development environment and culture which meets the
demanding requirements of the transport and connectivity of people and goods. The FOX project builds a
network of researchers and practitioners from the different modes and sets the agenda for the further
improvement of cross-modal research development innovation, as well as the demonstration and
implementation of the results.

In conjunction with the FOX Description of Work, the overall objective of the first phase of the project is to
undertake a review of international methods across construction, maintenance, recycling and re-use and
inspection, and identify state-of-the-art research and best practice methods across road, rail, airfields and
waterways (via four separate reports respectively). Based on the outputs of these reports, phase 2 involves
the identification of the most appropriate methods which could be applied on a cross-modal basis. This
covers the identification of new technologies (concepts/methods/materials) with promising properties and
optimisation of these methods across the four themes in terms of their cross-modal benefits and application.
Following the outcomes of these reports, the final phase then provides a road map for the future research
development and implementation of initiatives for maintenance across each mode. In this sense, the FOX
project seeks to find common methods across all transport modes (Bruiser et al. 2015).
The Forum of European National Highway Research Laboratories (FEHRL) is the project coordinator of both
FOX and USE-iT. The development of the FOX program has involved the joint collaboration between ranges
of European work package leaders. The concepts underpinning the FOX project have been separated into
key areas of analysis. In particular, Work Package 3 (WP3), which addresses maintenance, is being
delivered by the Federal Highway Research Institute, Germany (BASt). The overall objective is to identify
new technologies (concepts/methods/materials) with promising properties, and to optimise the methods for
maintenance across road, rail, airfields and waterways. The aim is to achieve flexible, durable and green
infrastructure, to reduce traffic obstructions, decrease the use of energy, and increase the safety of the
transport across the different transport modes. This is achieved by:
• exploring the state-of-the-art in maintenance activities across the transport modes
• identifying promising opportunities, knowledge and infrastructure maintenance practices from different
transport modes
• developing roadmaps and basic concepts for future initiatives on cross-modal maintenance research
• engaging with stakeholders to advise on the establishment on an ‘Intermodal Maintenance Working
Group’
As most improvements involve maintenance technologies, WP3 will act in close cooperation with the
additional FOX Work Packages: WP2 ‘Construction’, WP4 ‘Inspection’ and WP5 ‘Recycling & Re-use’
(Bruiser et al. 2015).
Within the first Deliverable 3.1 State-of-the-art, best practice and new concepts in maintenance in each
mode, a wide-range of projects were detailed in terms of their status of development, barriers to
development or implementation, opportunities from development and implementation. These projects were
also categorized in terms of their appropriate area and concept (Figure 5.1), by mode and, where possible
(information permitting), according to the technology, infrastructure, governance, and customer
considerations.

Figure 5.1: Areas Investigated for Maintenance in FOX
Source: Bruiser et al. (2015).
In particular, FOX WP3 (Deliverable 3.1) provides an evaluation of a range of maintenance techniques, with
some connections to improving environmental and social impacts. For example, diamond grinding (within the
‘Rehabilitation’ category) is an established maintenance technique not only in the road sector, but also in the
sector of airfields. Measurements show an increase in skid resistance, and environmental and social benefits
of noise reduction can be achieved with this technique. It is simple to use and is not dependent of weather
conditions, however, the durability of this method can be a barrier. Other barriers to implement this method
are the usage of diamond material which needs to be re-placed periodically. This accounts for a
cost-intensive product. Furthermore, the infrastructure can be slightly weakened, due to the removal of a thin
surface layer (Bruiser et al. 2015).
There are also strong interlinkages with the FOX WP5.1, State-of-the-art practices and developments in
recycling and re-use in each mode, which aims to gather knowledge and understand on the current situation
with regard to recycling and re-use materials in Europe. It covers both the current recycling and re-use
practices in different countries and also the developments that are ongoing in national or European research
projects. It also identifies the directions for research and the future directions required for the roadmaps to be
developed for individual modes (Kuenen et al. 2015).

6. Improving the Resilience of Road Infrastructure
As outlined in Section 4, the road transport sector is a key area that contributes to climate change by way of
increasing GHG emissions in the atmosphere. However, the transport sector is in turn itself affected by
climate change. Whilst, transport systems are designed to withstand typical weather patterns, impacts arising
in the near and longer-term can affect the efficiency of transport operations and ability of infrastructure to
withstand extreme events outside the ‘typical’ threshold. In order to address these impacts on infrastructure
(Austroads 2010c), network operations and hence the ability for end users to effectively utilise assets,
increased focus is required on climate change adaptation and implementation of more resilient measures
into road construction and maintenance.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has defined resilience as ‘a system's ability to anticipate,
absorb and recover from a hazardous event in a timely and efficient manner’. As a result, the need for
infrastructure to be resilient is of fundamental importance globally. In the face of natural disasters, climatic
challenges and security threats, the resilience of infrastructure, and the wider implications for transport,
planning and emergency relief are critical components which decision-makers need to address. Resilience
also plays a key role in maximising the economic, social and environmental aspects of reliable transport
infrastructure and network operations.
It is recognised that the term ‘resilience’ can be interpreted in a range of contexts, and involves consideration
both as a whole process, and at a project level. Integration of resilience into asset management processes
involves consideration of:
• methodologies for decision-making in a climate of great uncertainty
• the development and application of technologies
• assessment frameworks for measuring progress
• methodologies/approaches to design and measure resilience, including the contribution of rescue
services
• implementation of ‘resilience’ into the planning, design and operation of road and bridge infrastructure.
With extreme climatic events increasingly identified as posing a significant risk to road infrastructure, more
resilient solutions are sought which involve the integration of cost-effective techniques into decision-making
processes. Significant investment in investigating the need for more adaptive responses to extreme events
has been made through the TMR National Assets Centre of Excellence (NACOE) program on the life-cycle
costing of rain and flood events (forthcoming), and work in 2008 on developing a climate change framework
(Evans et al. 2008; Evans et al. 2009).
The first project involved a review of pavement management, maintenance and rehabilitation practice to
decrease exposure to damage in a cost-effective manner. This project involved analysis of the life-cycle
costing implications of rain and flood events in Queensland through a series of case studies. These were
representative of a range of typical pavements across the network, in order to calculate the life-cycle cost
implications of two alternative funding scenarios, and to compare these results to the best-estimate of actual
network life-cycle costing. This included providing some insight into the funding levels required to enable
desirable levels of service to be achieved. This is detailed further in Case Study 4.
The second project was developed to assist decision-makers in determining appropriate investment
priorities, planning for infrastructure works and developing climate change responses. The climate change
framework enabled assessment of the short- and long-term impacts of climate change on road infrastructure
and network operations across events such as temperature changes, changes in precipitation, rising sea
levels, and increased storm activity. It also provided a phased approach to the identification of critical and
vulnerable infrastructure, development of possible adaptation strategies and integration of risk management
considerations into project planning and project evaluation (Evans et al. 2008 & 2009).

Further work is being conducted by the NACoE program to provide the tools for enhanced understanding of
the climate change risks, vulnerability, criticality of infrastructure and management strategies for the
allocation of budgets towards the most effective solutions. This work is directly related to the International
Climate Change Adaptation Framework for Road Infrastructure developed by the World Road Association
(PIARC) (2015). This PIARC Framework was developed to guide road agencies through identifying relevant
assets and climate variables for assessment, identifying and prioritising risks, developing a robust adaptation
response and integrating findings into decision making processes. Further work is being undertaken to
further refine this Framework by PIARC. This NACoE project is directly related to this work and seeks to
overlay the PIARC Framework to the Queensland context and develop an updated climate change
adaptation framework, and further integrates the Queensland and Australian case studies into the refinement
of the PIARC Framework.
Case Study 4: Life-cycle costing of rain and flood events in Queensland
The rain and flood events across Queensland, Australia between 2010 and 2013 showed that the road
network is more exposed to damage from such events than desirable, with between 23% and 62% of the
state-controlled network closed or with limited access over four consecutive summers. Road pavements
were heavily impacted through extreme overland flow of floodwaters and long periods of inundation,
saturating and weakening vulnerable pavements across many regions. As a result, an unprecedented
program of repair and reconstruction took place across the state, with a shared funding arrangement
between Commonwealth and state governments investing in excess of $6 billion across the road network
(Beecroft et al. 2016). Additionally, responding to extreme events is dependent on the resilience of the
transport system as a whole process. This involves consideration of the preparedness, robustness,
recovery and adaptation of infrastructure to extreme climate events (Evans 2017).
It is acknowledged that infrastructure vulnerability is not a new concept and is directly correlated with El
Niño and La Niña events. For example, in Queensland, between 2010 and 2013, El Niño events have been
followed by strong repeated La Niña events. As illustrated in Figure 6.1, these have impacted both humid
coastal areas and semi-arid inland areas leading to very significant infrastructure damage.
Figure 6.1: Rainfall across 2010–11 and 2014–15 summers in La Niña conditions
Source: Beecroft et al. (2016)
Historically, works programs were focused on highest priority treatments, which in some cases resulted in
an overall deterioration in network condition over time, as measured by indicators such as roughness and
seal age. Strategic timely maintenance and rehabilitation programs are now thought to be preferable.

A research study in response to the events has analysed the life-cycle costing implications of rain and flood
events in Queensland. This has been undertaken through a series of case studies under three different
strategies; a base case mirroring actual experience with a limited rehabilitation and maintenance budget, a
‘stitch-in-time’ approach with reduced intervention thresholds and reduced event impacts, and a ‘full
resilience’ approach incorporating extensive reconstruction and a vision of full flood immunity. It was found
that adopting a stitch-in-time approach across the rural highway network may require a small increase in
funding, but will deliver value-for-money treatments and a more progressive program of works, providing
stability for industry rather than the ‘boom-and-bust’ cycle of major programs (e.g. waiting for an event to
occur has a larger impact on society). Impacts to the community can be avoided through the estimation of
measurable benefits.
Additionally, progress has been undertaken internationally with particular reference to developments in
Europe in the area of climate change adaptation and resilience. Australia, through ARRB, is contributing to
the United Nations Economic Commission of Europe (UNECE) Experts on Climate Change Adaptation
Working Group, the International Road Federation (IRF Geneva) and involvement in national projects at
BASt, Germany.
As noted in Section 5.2, the European Commission has launched, within the Horizon 2020 (H2020) Program,
several initiatives to reflect on the necessary development of cross-modal transport infrastructure. Within
these initiatives, a range of adaptation measures are also considered, which have cross modal capabilities. A
key example of climate change adaptation measures which have been implemented, which in turn improves
the resilience of roads is a ‘temperature-controlled pavement’ concept is being investigated within the FOX
Maintenance Work Package (within the ‘Preventative maintenance’ category). The concept has been
investigated in the USA, Japan and Germany. For example, a prototype bridge has been fitted with this
technology in Germany. The benefits of this technology include the possibility of energy harvesting in the
summer months. The energy can either be stored as thermal energy and subsequently be used for heating in
the winter or it could be directly converted to electric energy. Additionally, there are benefits for infrastructure
and customers/road users (Bruiser et al. 2015).
Adaptation measures are being implemented in Australia as a result of recent and more frequent floods,
bushfires and cyclones. These include a range of hard and soft engineering solutions at a range of levels
such as improved flood defences, surge barriers and complete rebuilds to prevent future occurrences. For
example, in TMR, foam-bitumen stabilisation technologies have been successfully applied to improve the
resilience of pavements and reduce maintenance costs following flood inundation and cyclones. The
existence of sufficient and effective maintenance of drainage is also important. Furthermore, certain
conditions are seasonal and have led to management strategies which account for this. Climate resilience
can also be provided in different ways because the circumstances differ and should be aligned with the
nature of the problem. There has also been action to improve resilience of infrastructure.
Additionally, a report (Austroads 2004) on the Impact of climate change on road infrastructure was published
by Austroads in 2004. This report assessed the likely local effects of climate change for Australia during the
next 100 years based on a scientific assessment. It also assessed the likely impacts on patterns of
demography and industry and hence on the demand for road infrastructure, identified the likely effects on
existing road infrastructure and potential adoption measures in road construction and maintenance and
reports on policy implications arising from the findings of the project.

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2018 AGAM11-18 Technical Information Techniques To Reduce Social and Environmental Impacts

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Guide to Asset Management - Technical Information

Part 11: Techniques to Reduce Social and

© Austroads Ltd 2018

Austroads 2018 | page i

2. Challenges in Obtaining Traditional Materials .................................................................................... 2

3. Environmental and Social Considerations in Resource Use and Recycling ................................... 7

4. Maintenance Techniques to Address Environmental and Social Impacts .....................................10

5. Evaluation of Maintenance Techniques to Enhance Sustainability ................................................18

6. Improving the Resilience of Road Infrastructure .............................................................................. 26

Austroads 2018 | page ii

Austroads 2018 | page 1

2. Challenges in Obtaining Traditional Materials

Recognised long-term benefits of the use of recycled materials are:

2.1 Demand for Primary Aggregates

Austroads 2018 | page 2

2.2 Cost of Bitumen

Austroads 2018 | page 3

2.3 Construction and Demolition Waste

Austroads 2018 | page 4

Case Study 1: Economics of Materials Availability and Recycling

Materials Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4

Austroads 2018 | page 5

Annual estimates – base and subbase applications

Source: RM Consulting Group (2014).

Austroads 2018 | page 6

3. Environmental and Social Considerations in Resource Use

3.1 Landfill and Stockpiles

Austroads 2018 | page 7

3.2 Energy Savings and Reductions of Emissions

Austroads 2018 | page 8

Austroads 2018 | page 9

4. Maintenance Techniques to Address Environmental and

Examples of lower-energy aggregates in use in Australia include:

Austroads 2018 | page 10

4.1 Biomass-sourced Bitumen Pavements

4.2 Recycled Asphalt Pavement (RAP)

Austroads 2018 | page 11

Case Study 2: Recycled Materials Developed from RAP

Table 4.1: Laboratory test results: ‘Bitumate’

Grading based specification limits

Source: ResourceCo (2017).

Austroads 2018 | page 12

Table 4.2: Laboratory test results: ‘Bitumix’

Source: ResourceCo (2017).

4.3 Warm Mix Asphalt

Austroads 2018 | page 13

4.4 Geopolymer Concrete

Austroads 2018 | page 14

4.5 Crumb Rubber Asphalt

Austroads 2018 | page 15

Austroads 2018 | page 16

4.6 Use of Plastic and Other Wastes

Austroads 2018 | page 17

5. Evaluation of Maintenance Techniques to Enhance

5.1 Evaluation Studies Undertaken in the USA

Austroads 2018 | page 18

Preventative Restorative Performance and costs Relative

Crack filling Placement of    Over-   $ Low Reduced

Austroads 2018 | page 19

Preventative Restorative Performance and costs Relative

Asphalt Used to treat     $$ Variable Reduced

Austroads 2018 | page 20

Preventative Restorative Performance and costs Relative