Intrnshp RPT 1-CCN

COMPUTER COMMUNCATION NETWORK
CHAPTER 1
COMPANY PROFILE
1.1 HISTORY
PAN India Telecom operator BSNL refers to Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, when
going to history, it is 100% government owned Communications Corporation, and it is a
public telecommunication service in India launched on 15th September 2000 and celebrating
the formation day by starting the operations from 01.10.2000 having operational headquarters
in New Delhi. BSNL is India’s oldest communication service provider whose history has a
trace back to the British era in the 19th century, and It was the first telegraph line during the
British period that got established in 1851, in earlier it was connected to a part of erstwhile
Postal and Telegraph Department.
In 1854 the public started accessing the telegraph services, In 1885, The Indian
Telegraph Act passed by the British Legislative Counsel, In 1975, it got separated from
Postal Telegraph and in 1980’s a telegraph department was created due to the need for
telegraph services in the country. The Government of India made telecom and telegraph
services into a corporation in October 2000 and named it Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited
which now operated as a fully owned government public sector in the economy, and after the
formation, PSU has run the BSNL telegraph services in India until the facilities were shut
down in July 2015 by putting a full stop for Telegram services in history.
The Regional Telecom Training Centre (RTTC), Mysore is one of the pioneer
Telecom Training Centre in India serving for the training needs on different fields of
Telecommunication, Accounts, Computers, Civil, Electrical, Management and Information
Technology for the officers/Staff of the organizations of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited,
India and other Telecom related organizations like TCIL, Dept Of Electronics, ITI etc.
RTTC, Mysore has been recognized as the "Centre for excellence in Computers" by the
Telecom directorate as a result of its excellent infrastructure in the field of Computers. Co-
functioning in the same premises is the Circle Telecom Training Centre (CTTC), catering
to the training needs of the staff of the Karnataka Telecom Circle.
Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 1

Fig 1.1: Company Logo
1.2 COMPANY MISSION
 To become the largest telecom Service Provider in Asia.

 To provide world class State-of-art technology telecom services to its customers on
demand at competitive prices.
 To provide a world class telecom infrastructure in its area of operation and to contribute
to the growth of the country's economy.
 To be a Lead Telecom Services Provider.
 To provide quality and reliable fixed telecom service to our customer and there by
increase customer's confidence.
 To provide mobile telephone service of high quality and become no. 1 GSM operator in
its area of operation.
 To provide point of interconnection to other service provider as per their requirement
promptly.
 Providing telephone connection in villages as per government policy.
 Implementation of Triple play as a regular commercial proposition.
OBJECTIVES
 Increasing sales revenue with focus on subscriber retention & acquisition by way of
strengthening sales & marketing, quality of service and customer delivery.

 Accelerate the pace of expansion of mobile & data services with up-gradation of
technology.
 Adopt policies and processes to enable transparent, quick and efficient decision making.
 Developing marketing team with attitude towards customer care.
 Increasing BSNL visibility in urban, sub-urban and rural areas.
 Improve customer care by reducing fault rate, upgrading Customer service Centres
(CSCs) and introducing convergent billing.
1.3 COMPANY DETAILS
Fig 1.3: Details of BSNL Company
Type State owned organization
Telecommunications
Industry
1 October 2000; 19 years ago

Founded
New Delhi,
Headquarters
India
India
Area served
Pravin Kumar Purwar

Key people (Chairman & MD)
(interim)
 Fixed line telephone
 Mobile phone
Services  Broadband
 Internet television
 IPTV
₹70,746.75 crore (US$9.9 billion) (FY 2019)

Total assets
[2]
Government of India
Owner
121.47 million
Members
(31 December 2019)
70,216 appx(2019)
Number of employees
Divisions BSNL Mobile

BSNL Broadband
BSNL Landline
BSNL Towers Limited
Subsidiaries
Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited
www.bsnl.co.in
Website
1.4 ABOUT THEORGANIZATION
1.4.1 ADMINISTRATIVE BLOCK
Fig 1.4.1: Administrative Block of RTTC
The RTTC Mysore has an administrative / technical building of 10,400 square metres.
in area, where all its administrative offices, class rooms and laboratories are located. There
are 3 faculties i.e. Switching, Transmission, Computer supported by programming and
administrative sections. Each faculty is presently headed by a Divisional Engineer. There are
21 class rooms for handling lecture sessions of which 14 are fully equipped with table, chair,
white boards, overhead projectors, etc. There are seven High-tech class rooms with
multimedia computer and LCD projectors.
A wide variety of Telecommunication equipment are installed in the training centre

required for covering most of the topics of induction and refresher courses. The equipment
installed are CDOT 256 port, CDOT SBM, SBM MBM, Broad Band, MLLN, SDH and etc.,.
Four well equipped computer labs with a wide variety of software. Microwave systems of 2
GC 13 GC, 34 MB and 140 MB OFC systems, ISDN, SDH, GSM etc.

The examination hall is big enough to accommodate 120 trainees at a time with
individual furniture’s and other facilities. The auditorium room is equally big in size to
accommodate an audience of more than 300, with a stage arrangement including audio-visual
facilities to conduct various cultural / official functions.
1.4.2 HOSTEL BLOCK
There are two hostels in the campus. Both the hostels have computer with internet.
Fig 1.4.2: Hostel Block of RTTC
Campus: The Campus is beautiful with variety of vegetation. A cricket ground, badminton
etc.
Hostel 1: Has 27 rooms of 3 beds and 24 rooms of 2 two beds with a total accommodation
capacity of 129 .The hostel mess is run on contract basis. The required infrastructure is
provided by the RTTC. These include, a dining hall with 100 chairs, a well equipped kitchen
with steam cookers, 2 Sets Steam Boiler of 25 Kg capacity, 180 Capacity Idle plant, a
Cooking platform with 3 burners etc. Hot water is supplied through a solar heater of 2000
Litre capacity. Recreation facilities like reading room, Indoor and outdoor sports are
provided. Yoga classes are being conducted every day through a qualified Yoga instructor.

Hostel 2: The Hostel Campus is beautiful with variety of vegetation. A cricket ground,
badminton etc. will definitely please sport lovers .Hostel has 70 rooms having 3 beds in each
room. Around 210 trainees are accommodated in the hostel. Multi gym is an added healthcare
feature to the trainees.
HOSTEL MESS: The hostel mess is run on contract basis. The required infrastructure is
provided by the RTTC. These include, a dining hall with 100 chairs, a well equipped kitchen
with steam cookers, 2 Sets Steam Boiler of 25 Kg capacity, 180 Capacity Idle plant, a
Cooking platform with 3 burners etc. Hot water is supplied through a solar heater of 2000
Litre capacity. Recreation facilities like reading room, Indoor and outdoor sports are
provided. Yoga classes are being conducted every day through a qualified Yoga instructor.
The Hostel Campus is beautiful with variety of vegetation. A cricket ground,

badminton etc, will definitely please sport lovers. Hostel has 70 rooms having 3 beds in each
room. Around 210 trainees are accommodated in the hostel. Multi gym is an added healthcare
feature to the trainees.
Welfare / Recreation
Facility for indoor games like table tennis, carom, chess, Chinese checker, etc. and a
reading room, TV room are available in the hostel. Facilities for outdoor games like
badminton, cricket, and volley ball, Tennis, etc. are also available and trainees are
encouraged to take part in the various games. A library is available in the recreation club with
2540 books in English, Hindi, Kannada, Telugu and Tamil.
About 4 cultural functions including sporting events are organized by the training
centre annually. These cultural/sports events are organized on occasions such as The
foundation day/Republic Day, Hostel Day, Independence Day and Rajyotsava Day. The
trainees are encouraged to participate in the events which provide an opportunity for the
trainees to exhibit their talents and develop better attitude, team spirit etc.
1.4.3 INFRASTRUCTURE ON RENT
RTTC Mysore is pleased to inform to all concerned that certain facilities /

infrastructure of RTTC Mysore are available on rent for short duration to Government /
Public Sector Undertakings and reputed registered private firms and institutions.

Eligibility: Government / Public Sector Undertakings / Autonomous bodies and private

organization registered with Govt., Schools, Colleges and Educational Institutions and BSNL
Employees.
Inspection Quarters
7 nos. of well-furnished Air Conditioned IQs with colour TV and phone are available in the
RTTC premises.
Fig 1.4.3: Inspection Quarters
1.4.4 PICTURES OF OUR INTERNSHIP TRAINING IN RTTC
During Theory classes

During Computer Lab
During Optical fibre Lab

Fig 1.4.4: Pictures of Our Internship training in RTTC

Chapter 1: COMPUTER COMMUNICATION NETWORK
Introduction
Communication, whether between human beings or computer systems, involves the transfer
of information from a sender to receiver. Data communication refers to exchange of digital
information between two digital devices. In this chapter, we will examine some of the basic
concepts and terminology related to data communication. Data representation, serial/parallel
data transmission and asynchronous/synchronous data transmission concepts are discussed
first. We then proceed to examine some practical concepts of Bit rate, Baud rate, Noise and
attenuation and their impact in data communication. Communication is the process of
sending, receiving & interpreting data by means of a protocol or bilateral agreement.
Transmission means the transfer of data from the source to the destination. Thus, every
communication session involves transmission sessions but, every transmission may not
involve.
OBJECTIVES
The objective of this session is to make trainee aware of concepts of data communication and
its related important terms, definitions and parameters.
Data representation
Data is represented in form of bits. “Bits” word has been taken from Binary Digits. A binary
digit or bit has only two states, “0” and “1” and can represent only two symbols, but even the
simplest form of communication between computers require a much larger set of symbols,
e.g.
• 52 (capital and small) letters,
• 10 numerals from 0 to 9,
• Punctuation marks and other special symbols, and

• Terminal control characters – Carriage Return (CR), Line Feed (LF).
Therefore, a group of bits is used as a code to represent a symbol. The code can be 7 to 32
bits long depending on the type of code being used. An 7-bit code can represent 27 = 128
symbols whereas 32-bit code can represent 232 symbols. ASCII (American Standard Code
for information Interchange) code is 7 bit code whereas Unicode is 32 bit code. Unicode can
represent character of any language available in the world.
BYTES
Byte is a group of bits which is considered as a single unit during processing. It is usually
eight bits long. The byte is a unit of digital information that most commonly consists of eight
bits. The byte is the number of bits used to encode a single character of text in a computer
and for this reason it is the smallest addressable unit of memory in many computer
architectures. The unit symbol kB is commonly used for kilobyte, but may be confused with
the still often-used abbreviation of kb for kilobit. In data transmission systems, the byte is
defined as a contiguous sequence of bits in a serial data stream, representing smallest
distinguished unit of data.
DATA TRANSMISSION
There is always need to exchange data, commands and other control information between a
computer and its terminals or between two computers. This information, as we saw in the
previous section, is in the form of bits.
Data transmission refers to movement of the bits over some physical medium connecting two
or more digital devices. There are two options of transmitting the bits, namely, Parallel
transmission, or Serial transmission.
Parallel Transmission
In parallel transmission, all the bits of a byte are transmitted simultaneously on separate wires
as shown in Fig. 1 and multiple circuits interconnecting the two devices are, therefore,
required. It is practical only if the two devices, e.g., a computer and its associated printer are
close to each other.
Serial Transmission
In serial transmission, bits are transmitted serially one after the other (Fig.2). The least
significant
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
Transmitter
Bit (LSB) is usually transmitted first. Note that as compared to transmission, serial
transmission requires only one circuit interconnecting the two devices. Therefore, serial
transmission is suitable for transmission over long distances.
BIT RATE
Bit rate is simply the number of bits which can be transmitted in a second. If tp is the duration
of a bit, the bit rate R will be 1/tp. It must be noted that bit duration is not necessarily the
pulse duration. For example, in Fig.3, the first pulse is of two-bit duration. Letter, we will
come across signal formats in which the pulse duration is only half the bit duration.
MODES OF DATA TRANSMISSION
There are two methods of timing control for reception of bits. The transmission modes
corresponding to these two timing methods are called Asynchronous transmission and
Synchronous transmission.
Asynchronous Transmission

We call an action asynchronous when the agent performing the action does so whenever it
wishes. Asynchronous transmission refers to the case when the sending end commences
transmission of bytes at any instant of time. Only one byte is sent at a time and there is no
time relation between consecutive bytes, i.e., after sending a byte, the next byte can sent after
arbitrary delay (Fig. 3).In the idle state, when no byte is being transmitted, the polarity of the
electrical signal corresponds to “1”
Idle Idle Idle
Start Start
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
Stop bit Stop bit bit bit
Due to the arbitrary delay between consecutive bytes, the time occurrences of the clock
pulses at the receiving end need to be synchronized repeatedly for each byte. This is achieved
by providing two extra bits, a start bit at the beginning and a stop bit at the end of a byte.
Start Bit: The start bit is always “0” and is prefixed to each byte. At the onset transmission
of a byte, it ensures that the electrical signal changes from idle state “1” to “0” and remains at
“0” for one bit duration. The leading edge of the start bit used as a time reference for
generating the clock pulses at the required sampling instants. Thus, each onset of a byte
results in resynchronization of the receiver clock.
Stop Bit: To ensure that the transition from “1” to “0” is always present at the beginning of
a byte, it is necessary that polarity of the electrical signal should correspond to “1” before
occurrence of the start bit. That is why the idle state is kept at “1”. But there may be two
bytes, one immediately following the other and if the last bit of the first byte is “0”, the
transition from “1” to “0” will not occur. Therefore, a stop bit is also suffixed to each byte. It
is always “1” and its duration is usually 1, 1.5 or 2 bits.
Synchronous Transmission
A synchronous action, unlike an asynchronous action, is carried out under the control of a
timing source. In synchronous transmission, bits are always synchronized to a reference clock
irrespective of the bytes they belong to. There are no start or stop bits. bytes are transmitted

as a block (group of bytes) in a continuous stream of bits (Fig. 4). Even the inter-block idle
time is filled with idle characters.
Continuous transmission of bits enables the receiver to extract the clock from the incoming
electrical signal. As this clock is inherently synchronized to the bits, the job of the receiver
becomes simpler.
There is, however, still one problem. The bytes lose their identity and their boundaries need
to be identified. Therefore, a unique sequence of fixed number of bits, called flag, is prefixed
to each block. The flag identifies the start of a block. The receiver first detects the flag and
then identifies the boundaries of different bytes using a counter. Just after the flag there is
first bit of the first byte.
A more common term for data block is frame. A frame contains may other fields in addition
to the flag. We will discuss frame structures later.
BAUD
When bits are transmitted as an electrical signal having two levels, the bits rate and the
“modulation” rate of the electrical signal are the same. Modulation rate is the rate at which
the electrical signal changes its levels. It is expressed in bauds (“per second” is implied).
Note that there is one to one correspondence between bits and electrical levels.
It is possible to associate more than one bit to one electrical level. For example, if the
electrical signal has four distinct levels, two bits can be associated with one electrical level .
In this case, the bit rate is twice the baud rate.
LAN, MAN & WAN
There are so many different types of computer networks in existence; it can be hard to
understand the differences between them, particularly the ones with very similar-sounding
names. This lesson explains the structures and functions of some of the most popular
computer networks.

There are several different types of computer networks. Computer networks can be
characterized by their size as well as their purpose.
The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area they occupy and the number
of computers that are part of the network. Networks can cover anything from a handful of
devices within a single room to millions of devices spread across the entire globe.
Some of the different networks based on size are:
• Local area network, or LAN
• Metropolitan area network, or MAN
• Wide area network, or WAN
In terms of purpose, many networks can be considered general purpose, which means they
are used for everything for example sending files, printer sharing, accessing internet etc.
Some types of networks, however, serve a very particular purpose. Some of the different
networks based on their main purpose are:
• Storage area network, or SAN
• Enterprise private network, OBJECTIVES
The objective of this session is to make trainee aware of different type of network and their
importance w.r.t data communication and their related important terms, definitions and
parameters.
LOCAL AREA NETWORK
A local area network (LAN) is a group of computers and associated devices that share a
common communications line or wireless link to a server. Typically, a LAN encompasses
computers and peripherals connected to a server within a small geographic area such as an
office building or home. Computers and other mobile devices can share resources such as a
printer or network storage. Usually, the server has applications and data storage that are
shared in common by multiple computer users.
The following characteristics differentiate one LAN from another:

• Topology : The geometric arrangement of devices on the network. For example, devices
can be arranged in a ring or in a straight line.
• Protocols : The rules and encoding specifications for sending data. The protocols also
determine whether the network uses a peer-to-peer or client/server architecture.
• Media : Devices can be connected by twisted-pair wire, coaxial cables, or fiber optic
cables. Some networks do without connecting media altogether, communicating instead via
radio waves.
Many LANs are now based partly or wholly on wireless technologies. Smartphones, tablet
computers and laptops typically have wireless networking support built-in. In a wireless local
area network, users may move unrestricted in the coverage area. Wireless networks have
become popular in residences and small businesses, because of their ease of installation.
Guests are often offered Internet access via a hotspot service.
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that interconnects users with computer
resources in a geographical area or region larger than that covered by even a local area
network (LAN) but smaller than the area covered by a wide area network (WAN). The term
is applied to the interconnection of networks in a city into a single larger network (which may
then also offer efficient connection to a wide area network). It is also used to mean the
interconnection of several local area networks by bridging them with backbone lines. The
latter usage is also sometimes referred to as a campus network. It’s all about benefits reason
why a particular campus, town, city of metro would go for a MAN. MAN is a computer
network infrastructure which facilitates the communications among local government, private
businesses, organizations, utilities, educational institutions, libraries, and citizens within a
specific physical area. Obviously, one of the strong reasons why MANs are in expansion
nowadays is all due to its enormous be The Broadband equipment deployed and connected
within a city is also considered as a MAN.
WIDE AREA NETWORK

A wide area network (WAN) is a geographically dispersed telecommunications network. The

term distinguishes a broader telecommunication structure from a local area network (LAN).
A wide area network may be privately owned or rented, but the term usually denotes the
inclusion of public (shared user) networks. An intermediate form of network in terms of
geography is a metropolitan area network (MAN).
Computers connected to a wide-area network are often connected through public networks,
such as the telephone system. They can also be connected through leased lines or satellites.
The largest WAN in existence is the Internet.
A WAN connects more than one LAN and is used for larger geographical areas. WANs are
similar to a banking system, where hundreds of branches in different cities are connected
with each other in order to share their official data.
A WAN works in a similar fashion to a LAN, just on a larger scale. Typically, TCP/IP is the
protocol used for a WAN in combination with devices such as routers, switches, firewalls and
modems.
A WAN is different from a MAN because of the distance between each of the networks. In a
WAN, one network may be anywhere from several hundred miles away, to across the globe
in a different country. The same difference applies to a LAN. Computers in a LAN are
usually close to each other, but a WAN can have larger distances between computers and
networks within the WAN.
WANs generally utilize different and much more expensive networking equipment than
do LANs. Key technologies often found in WANs include SONET, Frame Relay, and ATM.
LAN, MAN & WAN are the category of the network on basis of geographical area supported
by them. LAN supports smaller area while WAN supports bigger one. The bifurcation of the
network help in identifying the equipment that can be utilized as per the demand of network
type and thereby makes the management of network easier. For example, in case of LAN,
router is not necessary while it is mandatory in case of WAN. Similarly, modems or switches
with fiber ports can be used for configuration of MAN.
LAN & WAN Topologies

Network Topology refers to layout of a network and how different nodes in a network
are connected to each other and how they communicate. Topologies are either physical (the
physical layout of devices on a network) or logical (the way that the signals act on the
network media, or the way that the data passes through the network from one device to the
next). The most common nodes are computers and peripheral devices. Network topology is
illustrated by showing these nodes and their connections using cables.
Computers in a network have to be connected in some logical manner. The layout pattern of
the interconnections between computers in a network is called network topology. You can
think of topology as the virtual shape or structure of the network. Network topology is also
referred to as 'network architecture.'
BUS TOPOLOGY
Bus topology uses one main cable to which all nodes are directly connected. The main
cable acts as a backbone for the network. One of the computers in the network typically acts
as the computer server. The first advantage of bus topology is that it is easy to connect a
computer or peripheral device. The second advantage is that the cable requirements are
relatively small, resulting in lower cost.
One of the disadvantages is that if the main cable breaks, the entire network goes down. This
type of network is also difficult to troubleshoot. For these reasons, this type of topology is not
used for large networks, such as those covering an entire building.
Bus Topology: In networking a bus is the central cable -- the main wire -- that connects all
devices on a local-area network (LAN). It is also called the backbone. This is often used to
describe the main network connections composing the Internet. Bus networks are relatively
inexpensive and easy to install for small networks. Ethernet systems using a bus topology:-

 Features of Bus Topology

 It transmits data only in one direction.
 Every device is connected to a single cable
 Advantages of Bus Topology

 It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.
 Cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other networks.
 Bus topology costs very less.
 Linear Bus network is mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.
 Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 There is a limit on central cable length and number of nodes that can be connected.
 Dependency on central cable in this topology has its disadvantages. If the main
cable (i.e. Bus) encounters some problem, whole network breaks
down.
 Proper termination is required to dump signals. Use of terminators is must.
 It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at individual station.
 Maintenance costs can get higher with time.
 Efficiency of Bus network reduces, as the number of devices connected to it
increases.

 It is not suitable for networks with heavy traffic.

 Security is very low because all the computers receive the sent signal from the
source.
STAR TOPOLOGY
In star topology, each computer is connected to a central hub using a point-to-point

connection. The central hub can be a computer server that manages the network, or it can be a
much simpler device that only makes the connections between computers over the network
possible.
Star topology is very popular because the start-up costs are low. It is also easy to add new
nodes to the network. The network is robust in the sense that if one connection between a
computer and the hub fails, the other connections remain intact. If the central hub fails,
however, the entire network goes down. It also requires more cable than bus topology and is,
therefore, more expensive.
 Features of Star Topology

 Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
 Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.

 Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
 Advantages of Star Topology

 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Easy to setup and modify.
 Only that node is affected which is connected to failed port, rest of the nodes can
work smoothly.
 Disadvantages of Star Topology

 Cost of installation is high.
 Expensive to use.
 If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on
the hub.
 Performance is based on the hub that it depends on its capacity.
RING TOPOLOGY
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.
That is, all of the nodes are connected in a closed loop. Messages travel around the ring, with
each node reading those messages addressed to it.

 Features of Ring Topology

 A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because
if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100
nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence
to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
 The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
 In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite
direction in them.
 Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
 Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit.
 Data transmitted, has to pass through each node of the network, till the destination
node.
 Advantages of Ring Topology

 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only
the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

 Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
 Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are
connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
 Routing
 Flooding
Routing
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like, routing
logic to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic
which has information about the broken links, and it avoids those nodes etc. We can even
have routing logic, to reconfigure the failed nodes.
Routing Protocol
 IGP
 An interior gateway protocol (IGP) is a routing protocol that is used to exchange routing
information within an autonomous system (AS).
 In contrast, an Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) is for determining network reachability
between autonomous systems and makes use of IGPs to resolve routes within an AS.
 The interior gateway protocols can be divided into two categories: 1) Distance-vector
routing protocol and 2) Link-state routing protocol.
Type of Interior gateway protocols
 Distance-vector routing protocol

Distance-vector routing protocols use the Bellman-Ford algorithm. In these protocols, each
router does not possess information about the full network topology. It advertises its distance
value (DV) calculated to other routers and receives similar advertisements from other routers
unless changes are done in local network or by neighbours (Routers). Using these routing
advertisements each router populates its routing table. In the next advertisement cycle, a
router advertises updated information from its routing table. This process continues until the
routing tables of each router converge to stable values.
Some examples of Distance Vector routing protocol are:
 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

 Routing Information Protocol Version 2 (RIP)
 Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)
 Link-state routing protocol
In the case of Link-state routing protocols, each router possesses information about the
complete network topology. Each router then independently calculates the best next hop from
it for every possible destination in the network using local information of the topology. The
collection of best next hops forms the routing table. This contrasts with distance-vector
routing protocols, which work by having each node share its routing table with its
neighbours. In a link-state protocol, the only information passed between the nodes is
information used to construct the connectivity maps.
Some examples of Link-State routing protocol are:
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

 Intermediate system to intermediate system (IS-IS)
 Hybrid routing protocol
Hybrid routing protocols have both the features of distance vector routing protocols & linked
state routing protocols. An example of this protocol is EIGRP.

 EGP
The Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) is a now obsolete routing protocol for the Internet
originally specified in 1982 by Eric C. Rosen of Bolt, Beranek and Newman, and David L.
Mills. It was first described in RFC 827 and formally specified in RFC 904 (1984). Not to be
confused with exterior gateway protocols in general (of which EGP and Border Gateway
Protocol (BGP) are examples), EGP is a simple reachability protocol, and, unlike modern
distance-vector and path-vector protocols, it is limited to tree-like topologies.
During the early days of the Internet, EGP version 3 (EGP3) was used to interconnect
autonomous systems. Currently, BGP version 4 is the accepted standard for Internet routing
and has essentially replaced the more limited EGP3.
Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes; hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and it’s very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to
unwanted load over the network.

 Advantages of Mesh Topology

 Each connection can carry its own data load.
 It is robust.
 Fault is diagnosed easily. • Provides security and privacy.
 Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

 Installation and configuration is difficult.
 Cabling cost is more.
 Bulk wiring is required.
TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also
called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy. It is also
a special case of "hybrid" topology that combines characteristics of linear bus and star
topologies. In a tree network, groups of star configured networks are connected to a linear
bus backbone cable.

 Features of Tree Topology

 Combination of bus and star topology.
 Expansion of network is possible and easy.
 Provides point-to-point wiring for individual groups
 If any hub fails, related segment will be removed from the network.
Hybrid Topology
Hybrid topology is a combination of different network topologies. It is also known as a

Special Topology. This topology is useful for corporate offices to link their internal LANs
together while adding external networks through Wide Area Networks (WANs). The
commonly used combination of topologies is Star-Bus or Star-Ring. A star-bus network
consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk. Whereas a tree
topology, can be viewed as a collection of star networks arranged in a hierarchy. Here the
function of the central node may be distributed unlike the star topology.
 Features of Hybrid Topology

 It is a combination of two or topologies
 Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

 Advantages of Hybrid Topology

 One of the prominent advantages of this topology is its flexibility. The topology is
designed, so that it can be implemented for a number of different network
environments.
 It is a combination of different configurations, due to which it often works perfectly
for different amounts of network traffic.
 As compared to most other topologies, this topology is reliable. It has better fault
tolerance. Since, a number of different topologies are connected to one another, in
case of a problem, it becomes rather easier to isolate the different topologies
connected to each other and find the fault with the hybrid topology.
 Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

 Complex in design. Since different topologies come together in a hybrid topology,
managing the topology becomes difficult.
 Costly. The cost of this topology is higher as compared to the other topologies. Cost
factor can be attributed to the cost of the hub, which is higher, as it has to continue to
work in the network even when any one of the nodes goes down. The cost of cabling
also increases, as a lot of cabling has to be carried out in this topology.
WAN TOPOLOGIES
The phrase WAN topology refers to the arrangement or relative positioning of links and
nodes. These topologies can end up being analogous, at greater levels of
abstraction/hierarchy, to LAN topologies.
Point To Point WAN

A Point-To-Point WAN has a remote access link for each major node in the WAN. The
link can be anything from a T-1 line to a 56 Kbps dial up line. The following diagram
represents a intercity WAN.
 Advantages :
 It is inexpensive relative to the other options
 Disadvantages:
 Vulnerability to failure in key components
 Limited scalability (less number of hops)
 No alternative route in case of failure,
Thus the point-to-point WAN is best when there are only two or three major locations.
Ring WAN
The Ring WAN is developed by having point to point connections that connect the major
nodes in a ring. This is illustrated in the next image.

 Advantages:
 This is an improvement over the point-to-point WAN in that it provides alternative
routes.
 It is less expensive than all but the point-to-point WAN.
 Disadvantage:
 It is slightly more expensive than the point-to-point.
 It has slightly worse scalability problems than point-to-point.
Star WAN:
A WAN star is laid out in a star configuration with one location as the "hub". In this case
this hub will make use of something called a concentrator router. In the following figure the
concentrator router is located in Chicago.

 Advantages:
 it is more scalable
 relatively easy to add nodes
 each node is at most two hops away from any other
 Disadvantage:
 it has a single point of failure at the concentrator router
 To get by some of these problems, network administrators tend to add in some alternative
links between sites not at the hub. This increases costs slightly, but gives alternative
routes in case of failure or congestion. Providing direct links between all possible pairs of
nodes
Computer Network Components
Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the software.
Some important network components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and modem.
Depending on the type of network that we need to install, some network components can also
be removed. For example, the wireless network does not require a cable.

Following are the major components required to install a network:
NIC
 NIC stands for network interface card.

 NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer onto a
network
 It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.
 The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is
assigned by the IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is stored in
the PROM (Programmable read-only memory).
There are two types of NIC:
 Wired NIC
 Wireless NIC
 Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors
are used with wired NIC to transfer data.
Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the
wireless network. For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.
Hub
A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple devices.
When computer requests for some information from a network, it first sends the request to the
Hub through cable. Hub will broadcast this request to the entire network. All the devices will
check whether the request belongs to them or not. If not, the request will be dropped.
The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and limits the amount of
communication. Nowadays, the use of hub is obsolete, and it is replaced by more advanced
computer network components such as Switches, Routers.
Switch
A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A

Switch contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that
decides where the data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to the correct
destination based on the physical address present in the incoming message. A Switch does
not broadcast the message to the entire network like the Hub. It determines the device to
whom the message is to be transmitted. Therefore, we can say that switch provides a direct
connection between the source and destination. It increases the speed of the network.
Router
A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It
is used to receive, analyse and forward the incoming packets to another network. A router
works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model. A router forwards the
packet based on the information available in the routing table. It determines the best path
from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.
Modem
 A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the internet over
the existing telephone line.
 A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather than it is installed on the PCI slot
found on the motherboard.

 It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital data into an analog signal
over the telephone lines.
Based on the differences in speed and transmission rate, a modem can be classified in the
following categories:
 Standard PC modem or Dial-up modem

 Cellular Modem
 Cable modem
Cables and Connectors
 Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal.

 There are three types of cables used in transmission:
 Twisted pair cable
 Coaxial cable
 Fibre-optic cable
TCP / IP and IP Address
Short for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, TCP/IP is a set of rules (protocols)
governing communications among all computers on the Internet. More specifically, TCP/IP

dictates how information should be packaged (turned into bundles of information called
packets), sent, and received, as well as how to get to its destination. TCP/IP was developed in
1978 and driven by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf.
WHAT IS TCP / IP
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. It defines how
electronic devices (like computers) should be connected over the Internet, and how data
should be transmitted between them.
TCP - Transmission Control Protocol
TCP is responsible for breaking data down into small packets before they can be sent over a
network, and for assembling the packets again when they arrive.
IP - Internet Protocol
IP takes care of the communication between computers. It is responsible for addressing,

sending and receiving the data packets over the Internet.

Domain names and TCP/IP addresses
The TCP/IP address for a website or web server is typically not easy to remember. To
remedy this issue, a domain name is used instead. For example, 45.79.151.23 is the IP
address for the Computer Hope website and computerhope.com is the domain name. Using
this method, instead of a set of numbers, makes it much easier for users to remember
Computer Hope's web address.
IP Addressing
Decomposition of an IPv4 address from dot-decimal notation to its binary value. In IPv4 an
address consists of 32 bits which limits the address space to 4294967296 (232) possible
unique addresses. IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as private
networks (~18 million addresses) or multicast addresses(~270 million addresses).
IPv4 addresses are canonically represented in dot-decimal notation, which consists of four
decimal numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g., 172.16.254.1. Each
part represents a group of 8 bits (octet) of the address. In some cases of technical writing,
IPv4 addresses may be presented in various hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations.
Historical classful network architecture
Size of Size
Number
network of rest
Leading
number bit bit of Addresses Start
Class bits field field networks per network address End address
16,777,216
A 0 8 24 128 (27) (224) 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.255
16,384 65,536
B 10 16 16 (214) (216) 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255
C 110 24 8 2,097,152 256 (28) 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255

(221)
Classful network design served its purpose in the start-up stage of the Internet, but it lacked
scalability in the face of the rapid expansion of the network in the 1990s. The class system of
the address space was replaced with Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in 1993. CIDR
is based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) to allow allocation and routing based on
arbitrary-length prefixes.
Today, remnants of classful network concepts function only in a limited scope as the default
configuration parameters of some network software and hardware components (e.g.
netmask), and in the technical jargon used in network administrators' discussions.
Private addresses
Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for
communications with all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be uniquely assigned to a
particular computer or device. However, it was found that this was not always necessary as
private networks developed and public address space needed to be conserved.
Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only
with each other via TCP/IP, need not have globally unique IP addresses. Three non-
overlapping ranges of IPv4 addresses for private networks were reserved in RFC 1918. These
addresses are not routed on the Internet and thus their use need not be coordinated with an IP
address registry.
Today, when needed, such private networks typically connect to the Internet through network
address translation (NAT).
IANA-reserved private IPv4 network ranges
Start End No. of addresses
24-bit block (/8 prefix, 1 × A) 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 16777216
20-bit block (/12 prefix, 16 × B) 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 1048576

16-bit block (/16 prefix, 256 × C) 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255 65536
Any user may use any of the reserved blocks. Typically, a network administrator will divide a
block into subnets; for example, many home routers automatically use a default address range
of 192.168.0.0 through 192.168.0.255 (192.168.0.0/24).
IP V4 Address Exhaustion
High levels of demand have decreased the supply of unallocated Internet Protocol Version 4
(IPv4) addresses available for assignment to Internet service providers and end user
organizations since the 1980s. This development is referred to as IPv4 address exhaustion.
IANA's primary address pool was exhausted on 3 February 2011, when the last five blocks
were allocated to the five RIRs. APNIC was the first RIR to exhaust its regional pool on 15
April 2011, except for a small amount of address space reserved for the transition to IPv6,
intended to be allocated in a restricted process.
TCP/IP is a large set—sometimes called a suite—of communications protocols that fit in the
middle of a larger set of mechanisms. These protocols provide the linkage between
applications that can communicate and a physical network that carries the communicated
data. Thus, TCP/IP complements and extends the capability of a physical network, but can't
work without it.
IP VERSION 6
Decomposition of an IPv6 address from hexadecimal representation to its binary value.
The rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space prompted the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) to explore new technologies to expand the addressing capability in the Internet. The
permanent solution was deemed to be a redesign of the Internet Protocol itself. This new
generation of the Internet Protocol was eventually named Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)
in 1995. The address size was increased from 32 to 128 bits (16 octets), thus providing up to

2128 (approximately3.403×1038) addresses. This is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable

future.
PRIVATE ADDRESSES
Just as IPv4 reserves addresses for private networks, blocks of addresses are set aside in IPv6.
In IPv6, these are referred to as unique local addresses (ULA). RFC 4193reserves the routing
prefix fc00::/7 for this block which is divided into two /8 blocks with different implied
policies. The addresses include a 40bit pseudorandom number that minimizes the risk of
address collisions if sites merge or packets are misrouted.
Early practices used a different block for this purpose (fec0 ::), dubbed site-local addresses.
However, the definition of what constituted sites remained unclear and the poorly defined
addressing policy created ambiguities for routing. This address type was abandoned and must
not be used in new systems.
Addresses starting with fe80:, called link-local addresses, are assigned to interfaces for
communication on the attached link. The addresses are automatically generated by the
operating system for each network interface. This provides instant and automatic
communication between all
IPv6 host on a link. This feature is required in the lower layers of IPv6 network
administration, such as for the Neighbour Discovery Protocol.
Private address prefixes may not be routed on the public Internet.
IP SUBNETWORK
IP networks may be divided into subnetworks in both IPv4 and IPv6. For this purpose, an IP
address is logically recognized as consisting of two parts: the network prefix and the host
identifier, or interface identifier (IPv6). The subnet mask or the CIDR prefix determines how
the IP address is divided into network and host parts.
The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the CIDR
concept and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in

decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called the routing prefix. For example, an
IPv4 address and its subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively. The
CIDR notation for the same IP address and subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits of
the IP address indicate the network and subnet.
IP ADDRESS ASSIGNMENT
Internet Protocol addresses are assigned to a host either anew at the time of booting, or
permanently by fixed configuration of its hardware or software. Persistent configuration is
also known as using a static IP address. In contrast, in situations when the computer's IP
address is assigned newly each time, this is known as using a dynamic IP address.
ROUTING
IP addresses are classified into several classes of operational characteristics: unicast,

multicast, any cast and broadcast addressing.
Unicast addressing
The most common concept of an IP address is in unicast addressing, available in both IPv4
and IPv6. It normally refers to a single sender or a single receiver, and can be used for both
sending and receiving. Usually, a unicast address is associated with a single device or host,
but a device or host may have more than one unicast address. Some individual PCs have
several distinct unicast addresses, each for its own distinct purpose. Sending the same data to
multiple unicast addresses requires the sender to send all the data many times over, once for
each recipient.
Broadcast addressing
In IPv4 it is possible to send data to all possible destinations ("all-hosts broadcast"), which
permits the sender to send the data only once, and all receivers receive a copy of it. In the
IPv4 protocol, the address 255.255.255.255 is used for local broadcast. In addition, a directed
(limited) broadcast can be made by combining the network prefix with a host suffix
composed entirely of binary 1s. For example, the destination address used for a directed

broadcast to devices on the 192.0.2.0/24 network is 192.0.2.255. IPv6 does not implement
broadcast addressing and replaces it with multicast to the specially-defined all nodes
multicast address.
Multicast addressing
A multicast address is associated with a group of interested receivers. In IPv4, addresses

224.0.0.0 through 239.255.255.255 (the former Class D addresses) are designated as
multicast addresses. IPv6 uses the address block with the prefix ff00::/8 for multicast
applications. In either case, the sender sends a single datagram from its unicast address to the
multicast group address and the intermediary routers take care of making copies and sending
them to all receivers that have joined the corresponding multicast group.
Any-cast addressing
Like broadcast and multicast, any cast is a one-to-many routing topology. However, the data
stream is not transmitted to all receivers, just the one which the router decides is logically
closest in the network. Any cast address is an inherent feature of only IPv6. In IPv4, any cast
addressing implementations typically operate using the shortest-path metric of BGP routing
and do not take into account congestion or other attributes of the path. Any cast methods are
useful for global load balancing and are commonly used in distributed DNS systems.
Virtual LANs
VLANs logically segment switched networks based on the functions, project teams, or
applications of the organization regardless of the physical location or connections to the
network. All workstations and servers used by a particular workgroup share the same VLAN,
regardless of the physical connection or location.

VLANs function by logically segmenting the network into different broadcast domains so
that packets are only switched between ports that are designated for the same VLAN. Routers
in VLAN topologies provide broadcast filtering, security, and traffic flow management.
VLAN types
 Port-based VLANs
 MAC address based VLANs
 Protocol based VLANs
CONFIGURATION PORTS
 Access Ports

 Trunk Ports

Advantages of VLANs
Broadcast Control: Broadcasts are required for the normal function of a network. Many

protocols and applications depend on broadcast communication to function properly. A layer
2 switched networks is in a single broadcast domain and the broadcasts can reach the network
segments which are so far where a particular broadcast has no scope and consume available
network bandwidth. A layer 3 device (typically a Router) is used to segment a broadcast
domain.
If we segment a large LAN to smaller VLANs we can reduce broadcast traffic as

each broadcast will be sent on to the relevant VLAN only.
• Security: VLANs provide enhanced network security. In a VLAN network environment,

with multiple broadcast domains, network administrators have control over each port and
user. A malicious user can no longer just plug their workstation into any switch port and sniff
the network traffic using a packet sniffer. The network administrator controls each port and
whatever resources it is allowed to use.
VLANs help to restrict sensitive traffic originating from an enterprise department within

itself.
• Cost: Segmenting a large VLAN to smaller VLANs is cheaper than creating a routed

network with routers because normally routers costlier than switches.


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COMPUTER COMMUNCATION NETWORK

Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 1

Fig 1.1: Company Logo

1.2 COMPANY MISSION

 To become the largest telecom Service Provider in Asia.

Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 2

1.3 COMPANY DETAILS

Fig 1.3: Details of BSNL Company

Type State owned organization

1 October 2000; 19 years ago

Pravin Kumar Purwar

₹70,746.75 crore (US$9.9 billion) (FY 2019)

Divisions BSNL Mobile

Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 3

1.4 ABOUT THEORGANIZATION

1.4.1 ADMINISTRATIVE BLOCK

Fig 1.4.1: Administrative Block of RTTC

A wide variety of Telecommunication equipment are installed in the training centre

Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 4

1.4.2 HOSTEL BLOCK

Fig 1.4.2: Hostel Block of RTTC

Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 5

The Hostel Campus is beautiful with variety of vegetation. A cricket ground,

1.4.3 INFRASTRUCTURE ON RENT

RTTC Mysore is pleased to inform to all concerned that certain facilities /

Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 6

Eligibility: Government / Public Sector Undertakings / Autonomous bodies and private

Fig 1.4.3: Inspection Quarters

1.4.4 PICTURES OF OUR INTERNSHIP TRAINING IN RTTC

During Theory classes

Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 7

During Computer Lab

During Optical fibre Lab

Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 8

Fig 1.4.4: Pictures of Our Internship training in RTTC

Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 9

Chapter 1: COMPUTER COMMUNICATION NETWORK

• 52 (capital and small) letters,

• Punctuation marks and other special symbols, and

• Terminal control characters – Carriage Return (CR), Line Feed (LF).

MODES OF DATA TRANSMISSION

Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 12

Idle Idle Idle

Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 13

LAN, MAN & WAN

Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 14

Some of the different networks based on size are:

• Local area network, or LAN

• Metropolitan area network, or MAN

• Wide area network, or WAN

• Storage area network, or SAN

• Enterprise private network, OBJECTIVES

LOCAL AREA NETWORK

The following characteristics differentiate one LAN from another:

Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 15

METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK

WIDE AREA NETWORK

Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 16

A wide area network (WAN) is a geographically dispersed telecommunications network. The

LAN & WAN Topologies

Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 17

Dept, of ECE, RIT 2019-2020 Page 18

 Features of Bus Topology