1

Management:
To create and maintain an environment where individuals can work together trying to achieve
their objectives.
Approaches of Management:
1. Functions Approach.
2. Roles Approach.
3. Skills Approach.

1. Functions Approach.
I. Planning
II. Organizing
III. Leading
IV. Controlling
2. Roles Approach:
Set of Activities performed by individuals.
A. Interpersonal: (while dealing humans)
i. Leader: (to guide others)
ii. Liaison: (the role of lining b/w org)
iii. Figurehead: (for exp. C.R.)

B. Informational:
i. Monitor: (collects information)
ii. Disseminator: ( Spread information)
iii. Spokes person: (to spread information outside the organization)

C. Decisional:
i. Entrepreneur: (…………………………………………………)
ii. Negotiator: ( dealing outside the organization)
iii. Disturbance Handler: ( conflict resolves)
iv. Resource Allocator: (resources from where will be come and
where to be used.

3. Skills Approach:
Observable demonstratable and measureable characteristics are called skills.
A. Conceptual Skills (analyzing the situation.)

B. Human Skills
Ability to understand and work with individual.

C. Technical Skills
Subject to specific knowledge or area specific knowledge.
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Organization
A consciously co-ordinate unit with a definable boundary composed of two or more individual
working on relatively continuous bases to achieve a set of objectives.
1. Social Unit
2. Definable boundary
3. Composed of 2 or more individuals
4. Continuous Working
5. Purpose
Resources of Organizations:
1. Physical Resources
2. Financial Resources
3. Human Resources.
(Human capital is called knowledge, skills and ability of people.)

Behavior
Actions or reactions of an individual towards an external environment are called behavior.
(There are 3 things in external environment, People, things, events.)

Organizational Behavior:
A systematic study or a systematic investigation in to the action or reaction of individuals
working with in a specific organization and to find out the impact of various individual level,
group level, organizational level variable on their action and reaction. OR
Study of behavior of individuals within organization to predict it and to modify it according to the
requirements of organization is called organizational behavior.
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Types of Behavior:
1. Absenteeism
2. Employees Turnover.
3. Productivity
4. Job Satisfaction
5. Organization Citizenship Behavior
6. Deviant Workplace

1. Absenteeism (↓)
Failure to report to the work place OR
Inability of individual to report to the job when required is called absenteeism.
Absenteeism should be decreased.

2. Employees Turnover. (↓)

Employees who leave the organization permanently is called employees turnover.
Example, A person enters in an organization and he has no experience. He learns in
company and when he becomes a professional and there comes a time to work for the
benefit of organization he leaves to that organization, which is not right and not good for
the company.)
There are two types of Employees Turnover, Violently (employee leaves himself) and
Involuntary (employees leaves because of any problem.).
3. Productivity. (↑)
The ratio b/w input and output of an individual.
The contributions made by employee towards in its organization.
An employee does how much work and how much work is his duty.
4. Job Satisfaction. (↑)
A positive feeling about the job as a result of evaluation of these characteristics,
i. Work itself/Contents of the job. (Which type of work we are doing?)
ii. Physical working conditions
iii. Co-Workers.
iv. Pay and benefits
v. Promotion opportunity
Job satisfaction is not a behavior but if this characteristic will be fulfilled then 2 and 3
will be more positive.
5. Organization Citizenship Behavior. (↑)
As a Pakistani it is our responsibility that we should do all those works which are for the
benefit of Pakistan and we should avoid from all those works which are cause of loss for
Pakistan, same as it is a responsibility of an employee that he should act or not act which
is better or not better for organization.
6. Deviant Workplace. /Work Place Incivility. (↓)
Voilentry and invoilentry behavior on part of the employee that disturb significant and
that are against the well being of organization and its members.
For example, an employee is working much better but with its working he is singing in
low voice or beating its pen on table which is disturbing to others.
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Organizational Behavior Model

Intuition:
Acting or performing any action by saying or thinking this that my heart is saying this or I think
this is right.
Systematic Study:
Acting or performing any action on the basis of research and evidences. This is also called EBM
(Evidence Based Management).
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Challenges and Opportunities for

Managers/O.B./People
1. Globalization
2. Workforce diversity
3. Improving quality and productivity
4. Customer Services
5. Improving people skills
6. Creativity and Innovation
7. Dealing with temporariness
8. Working with networked organization
9. Positive work environment
10. Ethical Environment
11. Work-Life balance

1. Globalization
(We are performing better from our competitors in any field i.e. cost, advertisement, etc.)
Expansion of business for goods and services across the boundary of nations is called
globalization that may create various challenges like cultural differences, differences
among the values and thoughts of individuals and hiring a more appropriate workforce
that may deal with different kind of people.
(We are expanding our business across the boundary. When we will expand it then we
will have to manage the differences of culture etc.)

2. Workforce diversity
When people will work in any organization or office belonging from various countries,
Values and cultures then there will be problems among them. These problems are called
problems of workforce diversity.
The differnative characteristics of labor force in terms of their biographical
characteristics may be called as workforce diversity. (For example Age, gender, religion,
social class, etc.)
It may create various challenges because of differences among the needs and expressions
of individuals having different characteristics that may force the manager to introduce
“flex policy” for the employees.
Where there is workforce diversity there may be these 3 problems. We will have to be
attentive to stop to these problems.
(i)No Discrimination: He is non Muslim so he cannot work here.
(ii) Fair Treatment: A manager should keep in mind the needs of employees. For
example if a worker performs well and manager gives him a bike in reward while
employee need money for medicines of his children, or he need a home.
(iii) Equal Opportunity: A manager should provide equal chances to everyone so that
they could show and better use their abilities.
Affirmative Action: When these problems will become then a manager should use this
action. All the roles and policies introduced implemented by the organization to ensure
equal and fair treatment without discrimination.

3. Improving quality and productivity

A manager should focus on increasing the quantity while considering the quality as the
basic concern.
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4. Customer Services
Majority of the business lines with the services section including hospitals, banking etc.
where customers have direct interaction with the service provider so the manager need
the prepare their workforce to fulfill customers needs accordingly.

5. Improving people skills

Preparing the workforce/ labor force by improving their skill regarding understanding
with other human being and working with them in the most appropriate and suitable
manners.

6. Creativity and Innovation

Preparing the people/ work force to identify various opportunities and avail that
opportunities for the best interest of business.

7. Dealing with temporariness

(When nothing is permanent, it is called temporariness.)
In the today’s ever changing environment various procedure or operational changes many
happen that can create frustration and disturbance for their employees. This problem
should be avoided by implementing rules and to facilitate the employees accordingly.

8. Working with networked organization

Where there is no direct interaction of people and they are linked through networks and
computers there this problem will become because then cannot know the feeling and
emotions of one another.
The organizations where people are in directive with each other through computer
network and various technologies may create various issues as no direct interaction takes
place b/w various employees.

9. Positive work environment

Creating a supportive environment for the employees where they can perform at their
best using the skills.
For example the professor was delivering lecture and the class was feeling bore then
professor said a joke and the whole class become fresh.

10. Ethical Environment

Equal and fair treatment for all the employees by applying the most appropriate
managerial practices.
Ethical Dilemma: The situation where manager can decide that what is right and what
is wrong.
11. Work-Life balance
Life= personal obligations, Work= Job
The appropriate and suitable managing the job timing so that an employee could give
time to job and also to his family.
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Levels of Organization
(1) Individual Level
(2) Group Level
(3) Organizational Level
(1) Individual Level
 Biographical Characteristics
 Ability
 Learning

 Biographical Characteristics
Permanent characteristics of an individual personality that explains or identifies and distinguishes
it from the other members of that organization.
Age, Tenure, Gender, Race, Social Class.
(1) Age:
The number of years of individual spent after its birth.
Age↑ = ↑Experience, ↑Judgment, ↑Commitment with job, ↑Work ethics (More rational)
If Age↑ = Flexibility (↓Adoptability to changes)
Comparison:
(i) Absenteeism:

(ii) Employee Turnover:

Age↑ = ↑Ratio of Employee Turnover
Company gave me job when I was need for it, now company has need mine so why I leave it.

(iii) Productivity:
Age= Productivity +ve / Un-Related
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(iv) Job Satisfaction:

In the start a person makes struggle with high level of job satisfaction but after some time he
comes to know that company has limited resources and a little platform then his job satisfaction
comes down but with the passage of time when he becomes an expert in his work his job
satisfaction comes again to high level.

(v) Organizational Citizenship Behavior:

Age = Organizational Citizenship Behavior ( Un-Related)
Its means that any person cannot tell that this person his this age limit that is why he has
organizational citizenship behavior or not.

(vi) Deviant Workplace Behavior:

Age= Deviant Workplace Behavior (-ve)
A person avoids from deviant workplace behavior with an increase of age.
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(2) Tenure:
The number of years a person have been working and performing obligation.

(3) Gender:
The orientation of an individual in terms of male and female.

(4) Race:
The biographical region of an individual that distinguish a specific group of people from
another individual. For example African, Asian, Spanish, White People, Red Indians.
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(5) Social Class:

A specific group with in a society from which a person belongs based on various
characteristics including style of living, income etc.

Reasons for Race and Social Class:

(i) To avoid discriminations among various individuals from different race and social
classes
(ii) To avoid favoritism for different individuals from different regions
(iii) To avoid negative attitude for different individuals from various regions.

Ability
Capacity of a person to perform work/various tasks.
Types of Ability
(i) Intellectual Ability
(ii) Physical Ability

(i) Intellectual Ability/Cognitive Ability

Capacity of a person to perform various mental tasks that involves thinking, reasoning and
problem solving. (Ability to use your mind.)
Types of Intellectual Ability
(a) Arithmetic Ability
(b) Verbal Comprehension
(c) Perpetual Speed
(d) Reasoning
(e) Spatial Visualization
(f) Memory

(a) Arithmetic Ability

Individual ability to perform various mathematical tasks accurately involving +,-, /, and
*.

(b) Verbal Comprehension

An individual capacity to understand and to effectively explain the words which are
heard and read by the individual.
For example sales man, lawyer, and professor
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(c) Perceptual Speed

Ability to analyze the physical dimensions of situations and to identify various similarity
and differences among the situations. For example policeman.
(To see different things and to analyze those things.)

(d) Reasoning
Using logic to make arguments or to identify similarities or differences among various
situations.

(e) Spatial Visualization

Ability of an individual to imagine various changes in physical environment to foresee
that how does the environment look after the change.
For example event managers, designers.
( if the direction of the class room will be like this and like this then how it will be
attractive and beautiful.)

(f) Memory
Ability of an individual to retain and recall information. For example student.

(ii) Physical Ability

Ability of an individual to perform various tasks that involve strength, stemna and
coordination of various parts of body is called physical ability.
Strength: How strong the person is to perform a work.
Stamina: For how long a person can perform various tasks.
Coordination: Whether various parts of body help each other by performing physical
activities.

Ability Job-Fit
 To study the ability of someone, analyze it and then assign him a task which is best
suitable according to his abilities.
 Identifying the specific dimension of ability processed by individual and assigning that
person specific job activities accordingly or
 A match b/w ability of individual and its nature of job.
(Note: We are studying these abilities so that we could assign reasonable and suitable tasks and
job work to employees and people.)

 Learning
Acquiring new knowledge, skills and information and abilities is called learning

Systematic definition
A relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience
Permanent
Change in behavior
Experience
(Direct experience: When any person will be involved in any task.
(Indirect Experience: When any person will get knowledge from the experience of
someone others.
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Theories of Learning
(i) Classical Conditioning theory
(ii) Operant conditioning theory
(iii) Social learning theory

(i) Classical Conditioning theory

(Early 1900s) Russian psych. Ivan Pavlov.
“Every behavior is a result of specific condition.

For example if there is no guard on the gate then no any person will come with card.
The theory of learning that explains that specific behavior can be promoted with in individuals by
applying various conditions or set of conditions that are helpful in creating desired behavior with
in individuals.

(a) Passive Theory” Passive theory is a classical theory. First the conditions will apply
then the behavior will change.

(b) A General conception. This is a general theory. If we will use conditions then the
behavior will be changed.

(ii) Operant Conditioning

(1940s B.F. Skinner)
There are two types of operators which change our behavior.
(a) Punishment: We come with card so that we could be safe from fine.
(b) Reward: We come in presentation well dressed so that we could affect to
professor and then he will give us more marks.

The theory of learning that identifies that behavior is result of its consequences including rewards
and punishments.

(a) Active theory: first the action is performed then we will receive the reward or
punishment.
(b) More logical in defining the relationship b/w behavior and its consequences.

(iii) Social Learning Theory:

Trainers use this theory more time from any other person.
We learn from around us where we are living.
The theory of learning that focuses on other members of society and explains that
individuals acquire various behaviors by observing other individuals.
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Process of Social Learning

(i) Intentional Process
(ii) Retention Process
(iii) Motor reproduction process
(iv) Re-enforcement Process.

Explanation: (i) We go to a manager with a new client or customer and we see that with how
much better method he deals to the client.
(ii) We like and remember the dealing method of manager.
(iii)Next time manager assigns same tasks to us and we use the same dealing method of manager
which we remembered.
(iv)If we will be successful in deal then manager gives us reward and if we fail he says us bad or
something other.

(i) Attention: The process of identifying a specific member of society as “model”

whose action and reaction/ behavior are considered characteristics to perform various
job activities.

(ii) Retention Process: The process of remembering all he slandered characteristic so

they can be duplicated when the model is not readily available.

(iii) Motor Reproduction: The process of performing various work activities as

observed within the model and retained the individual.

(iv) Re-enforcement: the process of providing the individual with feedback whether it
has performed the activities accordingly or otherwise. OR
All the tools and techniques designed by the managers to shape or modify the
behavior of employees according to the requirements.

Shaping/ Behavior Modeling/ Behavior Modification:

Modifying the behavior of employee according to the requirements of an organization by
applying various reinforcements is called behavior modeling.
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Kinds of Reinforcements
(i) Positive reinforcement (behavior ↑)
(ii) Negative reinforcement (behavior ↑)
(iii) Punishment (behavior↓)
(iv) Extinction (behavior↓)

(i) Positive reinforcement

Offering something worthwhile or positive to the employees in case they perform the
desired activities.
For example an employee makes an outstanding effort then the manager gives him
some reward or commission. In the result of such case the employee will make also
best efforts in his duty.

(ii) Negative Reinforcement:

Removing something unpleasant from the employee in case they perform work
activities.
For example manager assigns a task to an employee and the employee give better
result before the expected time then the manager gives him relaxation and leave him
before the leave time.

(iii) Punishment:
Imposing an unpleasant condition or a burden on the employee in case they perform
various activities that are not required by the organization.
For example a manager says to an employee that you cannot go to home until you
complete your work.

(iv) Extinction:
Removing all kinds of reinforcements to ignore the behavior that are not required so
these behavior can automatically be removed.
For example Professor was teaching in class and a boy raises his hand to ask
something but professor does not give attention to him, after some time boys acts
again same but professor does not give attention, boys will do this action may be
three or four time but if professor will not give attention then the boy will be
automatically stopped.

(Note): when there no will be any kind of first three kinds of reinforcements then the suggested
example will be the 4th type automatically.)
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Schedule of Reinforcement
The specific timings or ratio of output on the basis of which an employee can be reinforced
according to the policy of company.
Types according to Schedule:
1. Continuous Reinforcement
2. Intermittent Reinforcement

1. Continuous Reinforcement:
Reinforcing various behaviors each and every time an employee performs various activities.
For example a person sells a marker company gives him commission, he sells another company
gives him commission again, he sell another, company gives him commission again and so on.
OR
A student comes without card and the gatekeeper stops him, student comes again and again
without card and gate keeper stops him each and every time.

2. Intermittent:
Reinforcing the behavior on variable intervals rather than (instead of) applying certain
reinforcement each time when the behavior is performed.
For example a student comes without card then gate keeper gives him warning and allowed him
to come in, but when student comes next time without card, gate keeper stops him and does not
allowed him to come inside the college.

1. Fixed Ratio Reinforcement:

The schedule in which a specific quantity of the output is fixed by the managers to reinforce the
employees.
For example Commission on each 100 units of sale.

2. Variable Ratio:
The schedule of reinforcement where managers have decided to reinforce the employees on the
basis of variable quantity of output.
For example commission on variable quantity sold.
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1. Fixed Interval Reinforcement:

The schedule where the specific time period has been fixed by the manager to reinforce various
activities.
For example commission on sale at the end of each month.

2. Variable Interval Reinforcement:

The schedule where employees are reinforced after variable time intervals based on their
behavior.
For example commission after variable time interval.
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Attitudes
Evaluation statements or judgments regarding people, things and events
Components of an attitude:
1. Cognitive Component
2. Affective Component
3. Behavioral Component

1. Cognitive Component:
The thinking or perception part of an attitude
Example: Cigrate is a bad habit.

2. Affective Component:
The emotions and feelings parts of an attitude
Example: It is waste of money and health.

3. Behavioral Components:
Intention to behave in a specific way regarding people, things and events
Example: If any person offers me cigrate, I cannot accept it.
Some times
Perception Attitude (Attitude comes from perception)
Attitude Behavior (Behavior comes from attitude)
Behavior Attitude (Attitude comes from behavior)
Attitude Behavior (Both goes to be end.)

Attitude and Behavior:

The variables/factors that determine cognitive dissonance.
For example I don’t like cigrate but when any friend will offers me I accept it. Here attitude is
different from behavior. This is called cognitive Dissonance.
People try to decrease it by matching in attitude and behavior.
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The Factors that determine………………………

1. Importance: ↑
Our religious thinking is very important for us. We do not change our behavior about those our
religious tasks. Here there is a match between attitude and behavior. The more important certain
attitude there is less chances of cognitive dissonance.
Example: value system, religious believes.

2. Occurrence: ↑
When any tasks become repeated then we match our behavior according to the attitude.
The more something happens again and again, individuals tend to match their attitudes and
behaviors.
Example: A friend offers me a cigrate again and again on daily basis; at least one day I will
accept it.

3. Control: ↑
Children were noising in the street then a person goes and ask them to remain silent otherwise I
will slap you. Here his attitude is that there should be no noise. In this situation there is a match
between attitude and behavior. But he can’t say all this to his wife in his home that is why there in
no match between behavior and attitude because his attitude is “no noise” but his behavior is
being silent mean he is “accepting the noise”. The control over situations and events there are less
chances of cognitive dissonance.

4. Social Pressure: ↑
The social pressure e in terms of various nouns traditions may help the individual to minimize to
cognitive dissonance by providing various limitations.
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Job Related Attitudes

1. Job Satisfaction
2. Job Involvement
3. Job Engagement
4. Organizational Commitment
5. Perceived Organizational Support

1. Job Satisfaction:
Positive feeling about the job as a result of evaluation of its characteristics
Some important factors of job satisfaction
1. Job Contents/Nature of job
Which types of task has been assigned to me.
2. Physical working Conditions
What is the physical condition of my office? Attractive or bad
3. Co-Workers
Are co-workers are co-operative or not?
4. Pay and benefits
Is there a good salary package? Is he satisfied from his salary package?
5. Opportunity for advancement/Growth
Will he get promotion ever? After how much time he gets promotion

How to measure Job Satisfaction

1. Single Global Rating
2. Summation Score

1. Single Global Rating:

The method of measuring job satisfaction where a single question is asked from the employee
regardless of considering various characteristics of that job
In this type we do not ask questions in detail from employees. We ask just generally.

As well as score will is increase the satisfaction also will be increased.

2. Summation Score
In this method we know different characteristics of workers and also we know generally/overall
that is he satisfied or not from his job?
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Effects of Job Satisfaction on employees

↓Absenteeism
↓Turnover
↑Productivity
↑ Customer Satisfaction
↑Citizenship Behavior
↓Workplace Deviance
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Effects of Job Dissatisfaction on employee’s behavior

When any employee becomes dissatisfied from job, then he can perform one of these options, like
he can leave the job or continue his working with this feeling that what problem for me I am
receiving my salary whether company earns profits or not.

I. Exit
II. Voice
III. Loyalty
IV. Neglect
i. Exit:
The response of job dissatisfaction where employees tend to quit their job with the firm. This
response is considered to be an active response from the employees that is destructive for the
organization or that is not beneficial for organization

ii. II. Voice:

The job dissatisfaction response which is active and beneficial for the organization where
employees tend to inform the management about the various aspects of job from which they are
dissatisfied.
iii. III. Loyalty:
A passive response from the employees which is constructive for the organization where
employees contribute their efforts for the organization with a positive perception that the
condition may improve

iv. Neglect:
A destructive response of job dissatisfaction where employees do not contribute their efforts and
let the conditions be worst.
↑Absenteeism
↑Turnover
↓Productivity
↓Customer Satisfaction
↓Citizenship behavior
↑Workplace Deviance
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2. Job Involvement:
The degree to which an employee identifies the job intends to perform that job and considers
performance important for self work.
*identification
*Intention to perform
*Important

Effects of job involvement on employee’s behavior:

↓Absenteeism
↓Turnover
↑Productivity
↑Citizenship Behavior
↓Deviance Workplace behavior
↑Profits/Returns
4. Job Engagement:
The degree to which an employee is satisfied with the job involved in to that job and
enthusiastic/passionate about performing that job
*Positive feelings
*Identification
*Intention to perform
*Important

Effects of Job engagement on employee behavior:

↑Profits
↓Absenteeism
↓Turnover
↑Productivity
↑Job Satisfaction
↑Citizenship behavior
↓Deviance Workplace behavior
↓Errors/Mistakes
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4. Organization Commitment:
The degree to an employee identifies with an organization and intends to work for that org for a
longer period of time.
*Identification with the organization
*Intentions to work for the organization
*For a longer period of time.
Companies give rewards on the base of seniority and performance. If one person hopes that
company will give him reward on the base of performance but company gives reward on the
bases of seniority, then this person becomes unsatisfied from the organization and if organization
gives reward according to his hope on the base of performance its mean that he identifies the
organization and becomes satisfied and works with full satisfaction.
↑Profits
↓Absenteeism
↓Turnover
↑Productivity
↑Job Satisfaction
↑Citizenship behavior
↓Deviance Workplace behavior
↓Errors/Mistakes

Types of Organization Commitment:

1. Affective Commitment (Feelings/Emotions)
2. Normative Commitment
3. Continuance Commitment

1. Affective Commitment:
The attachment of an individual with a specific task based on its emotions and feelings that are
matched with goals and objectives of organization
For examples relative of a person dies with cancer and such person has emotional attachment
with that person. Now he tends to stop the disease of cancer and builds a cancer hospital. Now
this person will never leave this work.

2. Normative Commitment:
Attachment of an individual with a specific organization based on ethical values or norms and
traditions exists within that society.
I live in Shorkot (Jhang) now a welfare society builds up there and I join this but my friends do
not join this. But after some time because of me they join it.

3. Continuance Commitment:
Attachment of individual with an organization based on perceived monitory value or returns
associated with that organization
Example: Not to leave that organization to avail various benefits and monitory returns.
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Perceived Organizational Support

Organizational Support:
All the facilities and assistance/help provided to an employee for its personal and professional
development.
For examples a person knows that how to maintain general journal, ledger, trial balance, but he
does not know how to maintain to adjusting entries. Then org asks to a senior to teach and train
him. On this situation employee thinks positive about the organization that organization is
supporting me.
Perceived Organizational Support:
A positive perception of employee regarding organization support.
↑Profits
↓Absenteeism
↓Turnover
↑Productivity
↑Job Satisfaction
↑Citizenship behavior
↓Deviance Workplace behavior
↓Errors/Mistakes
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Personality
(Persona: Greek origin= Mask) Defined by Gordon Allport (1937)
A dynamic organization of all the psychological systems within an individual that define its
unique adjustments with its environment
i. Dynamic organization
ii. Psychological systems
iii. Individual’s unique adjustment
iv. External environment.
(By Robbins) Sum total of ways, a person reacts or interacts with others.
I. Sum total of ways
II. Interaction or reaction
III. Towards/ with others
Personality Traits:
Permanent characteristics of an individual that define its personality are called personality traits.

Determinants of Personality
All the sources that define how personality is developed
All the ingredients that contribute in the development of personality
1. Heredity
2. Environment
3. Situation

1. Heredity: (90% contribution in our personality)

All the factors that are adopted by an individual by its parents at the time of birth
It includes a major portion of physical characteristics as well as a reasonable amount of
psychological characteristics.
Physical characteristics: age, complexion, weight, height.
Psychological Characteristics: Anger, Shyness, Confident, Communication.

2. Environment: ( 7 - 8% contribution in personality)

All the factors that are contributed by the specific abounding or individual where a person is
brought up/grown up.
In this type of factor, those things which a child gets from its parents are polished and increased
and he gets some new characteristics also. For example a child was not much brave but because
of living in its environment he becomes a brave person.

3. Situation: (1-2% contribution in personality)

The specific condition or the contingency, an individual has to deal with.
 27

How to measure personality?

1. Self rating survey

2. Observer rating survey
3. Projective techniques

1. Self rating survey.

The survey method to measure personality in which valid/specific question are used to evaluate
the personality of an individual to be filled in by that person himself
For example there is a questionnaire and if we fill it himself then it will be a self rating survey.
 Lie/wrong information about himself/errors
 Impression management (a person trying to show himself extraordinary but actually he is not)
 Less accurate.
In companies 70% this survey is used.

2. Observer rating survey:

The method to measure personality of individual in which various questionnaires are used or
responses are acquired from various observes.
 More accurate
 More reliable
 Less chances of bias/wrong information

3. Projective Measures:
Various methods to assess/measure the personality of individual used by experts/psychologists
that predict about personality and future performance of that individual
This type of survey is rarely used. These are the examples of this type of survey.

 MAPS ( Make a picture story)

Mostly in army a candidate sees a picture on projector and after some time they close it and
candidate is asked to write a story on that picture.

 Inkblot Test:
If we drop some ink on a page and after that we close to that page, when we will open to that
page again there will be a sign of ink. The candidate is asked to write a story on that sign of
ink that for which thing or animal this sign or picture can be.

 Clouded Pictures:
In a picture there are two people under the tree and seeing towards a place. The candidate is asked
to write that which thing can be there, where they are seeing.
 28

 Sentence Completion Test:

A story was going on, (………………… at last the boy came in a room and he saw a fit girl alone
sitting in the room. The boy closed the door and………)
The candidate is asked to complete this story after “and…..” this will show his mental approach.

Uses of Personality Assessment

Uses of personality assessment are as following:

i. Screenings and selections:

At the time of selection various tools are applied for personality assessment to determine whether
that person is suitable for the job or not.
For example we required a person for marketing who should have good relations with people and
friendly. So for this purpose to test his personality and if he is suitable then to assign that job is
called screening and selection

ii. Carrier Development:

While deciding about various carrier options for an individual it may be helpful to assess their
personality and to determine various carriers’ paths suitable for that person.

iii. Team Building:

While deciding about team members to work on various tasks to be accomplish in group or to
create a group of individual with similar characteristics.
For example we need a team for a job, we thought that these three people are some mental so
keep them combine in a separate team or this person is mental and he will disturb to others so
do not keep him in this team.

iv. Management Development:

While deciding about the training program and the content of training, personality assessment
may be helpful to identify various deficiencies and to design a training accordingly.
For example when we organize management development training then personality assessment
can help us that this person needs training in which type of his job or duty.
 29

Types of Personality
 MBTI
 Big 5 Model
 Others
 MBTI ( Myers Briggs Type Indicator)
(1962 Katherine Cook Briggs & Isabella Briggs Myers)
In 2nd world war a large amount of people died and women came out from their homes for work.
Katherine and Isabella were mother and daughter. They studied the personality of such women
and introduced 8 traits for studying the personality of any person. From these traits 16 types of
personality could be studied. (4x4=16) Those are as following:
 Extravert _____________________ Introvert
 Sensing ______________________Intuitive
 Thinking _____________________ Feeling
 Judging ______________________ Perceiving

i. Extravert--------- Vs--- ----Introvert (Functions)

In these types of factors we know the functions of life of a person.
Extraverts are the individuals to like to share ideas with others and like to be with other people.
Introverts are the individuals who quit and shy and do not like to share their views.

ii. Sensing --------- Vs--- ----Intuitive (Attitude)

In these types of factors we know the attitude of a person.
Sensing are the individuals who use their sensory impression (5 senses) to evaluate the things.
Intuitive are the people who rely upon their gut feelings (6th Sense like my heart is saying this so
this will be correct.)

iii. Thinking--------- Vs--- ---- Feelings (Style)

In these types of factors we know the style of thinking and decision making of a person.
Thinking is the individuals who make the decisions logically and rationally by conducting a cost
benefit analysis.
Feelings are the individuals who are emotional and go for emotional decision making.
(Note: do not be confused by meanings of thinking and feeling. Here these are being used as
terms.)

iv. Judging --------- Vs--- ---- Perceiving (Routine)

In these types of factors we study the routine of a person.
Judging type like to be in discipline and prefer routine and order
Perceiving type prefer to be a free style and spontaneous ( jo ho raha hy us ko hony do baad main
dekha jaey ga.)
 30

 BIG 5 Model ( 5 Factors Model)

1970’s Lewis Gold Berg
This model is most used all over the world for developing the personality. The 5 factors of this
model are used to develop the personality of an individual.
i. Extraversion
ii. Agreeableness
iii. Conscientiousness
iv. Openness
v. Emotional Stability

i. Extraversion:
The degree to which an individual is open and like to meet with other people to discuss and share
various ideas

For example using Likert Scale

If the scale of a person is lying on these points then its means that he is 70% extraversion and
30% is introversion.

ii. Agreeableness:
An individual’s tendency to defer to others and co-operate and compensate to others human
beings
For example a person says to his friend “ok. Keep it. I will take later or I will take another from
market.”

iii. Conscientiousness:
The degree to which an individual is responsible and it can be rely upon/ reliable
For example if a person is assigned a task and he does it with fully attention then its means that
his level of conscientiousness is high.

iv. Openness to Experience:

Individuals who like to experience new things, new ideas and who are creative innovative.
For example the rule of Amir Khan in 3 Idiot

v. Emotional Stability:
The degree to which an individual can deal with stress and perform under negative or stressful
circumstances is called emotional stability.
 31

 Other Types:
There are some other types of personality which are as following.

i. Core-Self Evaluation:
The degree to which an individual believes that he is capable enough to perform various tasks and
has control over important decision making in life is called Core-Self Evaluation. If he thinks
like this then his core-self evaluation is positive otherwise negative. His performance will be
better as much he will be capable enough to perform various tasks and will have more control
over important decision making in life.

If a person has high self efficacy and internal locus of control then its means that his core-self
evaluation is high or positive and if he has low self efficacy and external locus of control then
its means that his core-self evaluation is low or negative.

a. Self-Efficacy:
An individual’s positive belief about its own capacity to perform various tasks. In simple words it
is called self confidence.
High: I can perform this task and I will perform it better from previous. For example a student
presented not well in class then he feels that he can perform this task and will perform again
better from previous
Low: I cannot perform this task. For example a student presented not well in class then he feels
that I cannot perform this task better so leave it, and he is not thinking to perform it better from
previous.

b. Locus of Control:
An individual’s belief that he has control over important decision making in life is called locus of
control.
Internal: If a person decides himself then his locus of control will be internal.
External: if a person depends on others at the time of decision, then its locus of control will be
external.
For example some boys go to a shopping centre and there a friend purchases shirts on its own
choice and decision then its locus of control is internal and if he says to other that please tell
me which color will be best for me and which shirt will be best for me then his locus of
control is external.
 32

ii. Machs ( Machiavellianism)

iii.

The degree to which an individual is power oriented and likes to gain and maintain power and
authority within organization without considering emotions and feelings of others.
 Power oriented
 Likes control over situations
 Dislikes rules and regulation
 Do not consider emotions and feelings
 Good negotiation/ interaction
The people who like to these things are high machs and those who do not like to these things are
low machs.

iv. Narcissist:
The degree to which an individual is proud and over confident about its own capabilities and
working and dislikes others because of certain superiority complex is called Narcissist.
 Proud and over confident
 Dislikes others
 Least effective (because they do not like to others and that is why that others also do not like
them and not like to do work with these people.)
This type of people think that just we are right and true, all others are wrong.

v. Self-Monitoring personality:
The individuals who continuously evaluate/monitor their environment and adopt themselves
according to the changing requirements of that situation.
 Adoptability/acceptance to change/ flexibility
 Continuous evaluation of the situation
 Adjustment according to the situational factors
 Most effective ( in terms of task completion and promotion)
 Less committed

vi. Risk taking personality:

The type of personality in which individuals tend to identify the opportunities and try to avail that
opportunity by providing all the necessary resources in terms of monitory, physical and human
resources. The people who tend to avoid risks are called “Risk Averse”.
 33

vii. Proactive_______ Reactive

The individuals who tend to identify various changes within near future and prepare themselves
to deal with the changing environment even before the changes occurs/happens.
For example exams of 6th semester are after 1 month and a student starts his preparation for
exams up to now, he is Proactive and those who start preparation at last night are Reactive.

viii. Type of personality:

The individuals who have the tendency to avail more and more by utilizing a minimum amount of
time and monitory resources. These people are called Type A Personality.
For example some people are willing to get more and more achievement in shorter time period.
They search shortcuts and work two or more place at the same time. These people focus on
quantity and do not focus on quality. These people are more effective and get promotion with
in short period.
The individuals who tend to focus on quality and try to perform their activity using standard time
and resources are called Type B Personality.

ix. High Flyers:

High flyers are those people who achieve more success within a few times.
Characteristics of High Flyers
There are some characteristics of High Flyers which are as following.
 Committed
 Achievement
 Vision/ Target
 Hard workers
 Challenging
Because of these characteristics they are most successful.

Person Job Fit:

A process of identifying the specific personality traits processed by an individual and assign
person certain job according to its personality, or
A match between personality of an individual and type of job he is performing.
 34

Values
Basic conviction/belief that a mode of conduct or an end state of existence is personally or
socially preferred over another converse mode of conduct or the end state of existence.
 Mode of conduct
 End state of existence
(They are positively related with each other.)

Types of Values:
i. Mode of Conduct ( instrumental values)
ii. End state of existence ( Terminal Values)

i. Mode of Conduct:
Various behavior or modes of conduct adopted by an individual to achieve its purpose of life or
end state of existence.
Examples: Hard work, Discipline, Punctual,

ii. End State of Existence:

The proposed end state of existence adopted by an individual or the ultimate purpose of life that
an individual wants to achieve.
Examples: Money, Status, Prosperity,
Values System:
A hierarchy of values for a specific individual based on the order of preference of that individual
i. Respect
ii. Status
iii. Money
Categorization of Workforce based on value
Category Entry to Job Value
Veterans 1950-65 i. They are traditional
ii. Hard Working
iii. Committed to their organization
iv. Loyal to their work

Boomers 1965-85 i. Achievement oriented

ii. Dislike rules and regulations
iii. Like to be authorized
iv. Committed to their organization
Generation X (Xers) 1985-2000 i. Committed to their work
ii. Relationship oriented
iv. Group activities (collectivism)

Nexters 2000-Present i. Relationship oriented

ii. Loyal to their work
 35

iii. Committed to both relationship and their work

Generation Gap:
Value system changes every 15 to 20 years and this change is called the Generation Gap.

Person Organization Fit

A match between the value system of individual and type of organization in which that individual
is performing, or
A match between value system of an individual and value system of an organization.
If the Person Organization Fit then there is a positive impact on these factors.

Motivation
Motivation is a reason behind every action.
All the processes that account for an individual’s intensity direction and persistence of effort
towards the achievement of its goals.
 Intensity of efforts ( how hard a person tries)
A bowler throws an over and takes rest. After some time he throws an over and takes rest again
and so on, while another bowler throws an over checks his mistakes and throws over again
with more efficiency to cover his mistake and so on, the action of second bowler is called
intensity of effort.
 Direction of efforts (whether the activities are positively towards goal achievement)
 Persistence of efforts ( for how long a person can perform various activities)
A person works for a little time and then takes rest while another person works continuously. The
continuously working of second person is called persistence of efforts.
 36

Theories of Motivation

(i) Hierarchy of Needs Theory

(Abraham Maslow)
i. Physical Needs
ii.
iii. Safety/Security Needs
iv. Social Needs
v. Esteem (a) External Esteem ( status, recognition, attention)
(b) Internal Esteem (achievement, autonomy)
vi. Self Actualization

i. Physiological Needs: An individual’s needs/desires to fulfill its basic needs including foods,
clothing shelter etc.
ii. Safety Needs: Protection from physical and emotional harms.
iii. Social Needs: Needs for belongingness, friendship relationships with in society.
iv. Esteem Needs: An individual’s desire to be recognized respected with in society and to
achieve self respect.
v. Self-Actualization: To become what one is capable of becoming according to its abilities.

(ii) ERG Theory

1970 Clayton Alderfer
He told that a man has three types of needs. He told that the needs of existence, relatedness and
growth are active at same time. But may be importance of someone will be more from others.
 37

This theory is developed on the base of theory of Maslow.

i. Existence:
An individual desire as necessities including food, clothing and sheltered and remain protected
from physical and emotional harms.

ii. Needs for Relatedness:

An individual desires to maintain social relationships, creating a sense of friendship and
belongingness within a society, so it can be recognized and enjoy status.

iii. Need for Growth:

An individual desire to develop its capabilities and to achieve what one is capable of achieving
within its resources.

(iii) Theory X, Theory Y

Douglas McGregor
Theory X: The assumption that individuals dislike their work and they need to be forced
/punished to perform various tasks assigned to them
Theory Y: The assumption that an individual likes its work activities and it needs to be facilitated
to perform various activities. This facilitation may be participation in decision making,
delegation of authority, assigning responsibilities and support in case of difficulties.

(iv) Huzburg’s Two-Factor Theory

(Motivator and Hygiene Factors Theory)
(Satisfy and Dissatisfy)

Huzburg told that all those factors which are satisfying and which are dissatisfying to a person are
not same. They are separate, while before this theory there was an assumption that there is a
same factor which is playing role in satisfying and dissatisfying to a person. He also told that
those factors which satisfied to an employee, increases the motivation of an employee, while if
we maintain those factors which are dissatisfying to an employee they will play a role in not
dissatisfying to an employee.

Motivators: (Satisfied______Not Satisfied)

All the factors that contribute towards employee’s satisfaction and that can save and increase
amount of motivation including all the intrinsic factors of job. Motivators are the additional
facilities provided by a person to his employee. Which are not necessary for him to provide his
employee.
Intrinsic factors are:
i. Achievement
ii. Responsibility
 38

iii. Advancement
iv. Recognition (for example to appreciate and announce in a meeting that who is the best worker
in this month.)

Hygiene: (Not Dis-satisfied_______Dis-satisfied)

All the factors that contribute towards employee’s dis-satisfaction including physical working
condition, pay, supervisor’s behavior etc.
Hygiene are those factors or facilities about which we think that a company must should give
these facilities to a worker like for an accountant pay, chair, computer, fan etc.

(v) David McClelland’s Needs Theory

i. Needs for achievement
ii. Need for Power
iii. Need for Affiliation

i. Need for achievement:

An individual’s desire to succeed/excel in life and to achieve various targets or objectives in
relation to an individual’s ability

Characteristics:
a. Challenging
When these people select a goal, they try to select a hard and difficult goal from other people.

b. Hardworking
Because of their selection of a hard and difficult goal ultimately they work hard.

c. Risk takers
These people take more risk from others.

d. Goal Setting
They set their goal about their working, for example in how much time they have to complete this
task.

e. Self Evaluation
They also evaluate themselves that how much they have completed their task and they have gain
how much their goal.

ii. Need for Power:

An individual’s desire to control other individuals and situation and to make them
perform/behave in such a way they are not going to perform otherwise.
 39

Characteristics:
a. Most Effective
They are most effective only on that time when they have power otherwise they are least
effective.
b. Dominant
They are also dominants. For example there are 5 students in a group on equally basis and they
are working on a topic but one of them is giving instructions and trying to control and lead
them again and again. This boy is called dominant.
c. Authoritated
They want o use their authority. If they have no authority and no chances for authority then
mostly they leave to that group or organization.

iii. Needs for Affiliation:

An individual’s desire to create and to maintain interpersonal relationships with the other
members of organization/society.
Characteristics:
a. Friendship and Belongingness
b. Compromising and considering
They often leave their rights for their friends and other people. For example in a photocopy shop
there was only one book and on that time a friend ask to other “ ok. You take it, I will buy it
later.”
c. Least effective
They are least effective because at many situations they try to think about their friends and
relation instead of their goal.

Need for Power ___________________ Most Effective

Need for Achievement___________________ Low Effective
Need for Affiliation ___________________ Least Effective

(vi) Goal Setting Theory

The individual’s who are provided with challenging and specific goals along with timely
feedback or more motivated towards achievement or their targets.
i. Challenging goal
ii. Specific goal
iii. Feed back (timely)
For example if there are two groups made by professor and they have assigned same group
assignment, but professor asks to one group to complete this assignment from a specific
known website and asks them to return it with in a limited days while the other group has
given free hand. In this situation the motivation level towards work will be high of first group
because they have a specific and challenging goal with timely feedback, while motivation
level of other group towards their work will be low because they have no specific and
challenging goal with timely feedback.
 40

(vii) Self-Efficacy Theory

(Albert Bandura)
An individual’s positive belief about its own capabilities that he is able enough to perform
various tasks assigned to him.
The people who have high efficacy they have high level of motivation, so to increase the level of
motivation of people we have to increase the level of their self-efficacy.
This theory assumes that individuals with high self efficacy tend to perform better than the
people/ individual with low self efficacy.

Methods to Develop Self-Efficacy

i. Enactive Mastery
ii. Vicarious Modeling
iii. Verbal Persuasion
iv. Arousal

i. Enactive Mastery
Providing an individual with an opportunity to perform a job by itself under the supervision of
expert so that individual may feel confident about its abilities by actually performing the job
activities
For example a student asks to other for installing window in his laptop. The other student asks
him I will supervise you, start the installing of window. The first student starts the window and
gives instructions and commands himself by reading commands. When he completes it he
feels confident and thinks that this was so easy now I can perform this task with no any
problem.
ii. Vicarious Modeling
Developing an individual’s self confidence by identifying specific “models” with in society so the
person can develop its self-efficacy by observing that “model” while performing the job
activities. To get effect on himself by seeing the condition of others
For example a person was seeing a movie. Suddenly a sad scene comes and this person also
becomes sad because of that scene.

iii. Verbal Persuasion

Providing an individual with positive feedback or high lighting positive aspects of an individual’s
abilities so he can feel confident about its own capacity/capability.
For example to persuade someone by words that “what???????????? You cannot do this even this
simple task. Amazing” On these words he feels that how is I foolish. This is a very simple
tasks and I can perform this.

iv. Arousal
Various perspectives that can develop self confidence in an individual so that person may/can feel
confidence about its capabilities without the involvement of any external factor.
For example a boy was sitting in canteen for just time passing and he was wasting his time then
he thinks himself that what is the purpose of my life and what am I doing here. I should do
something and the tries to do any task with courage.
 41

(viii) Equity Theory

(J. Stacy Adams)
The theory that focuses that the employees are going to compare themselves with various frames
of references to find out en-equalities and differences that can contribute towards employees’
motivation.
In frame of references comes every such person to whom with we make comparison
Frame of Reference:
i. Self inside
ii. Self outside
iii. Others inside
iv. Others outside

i. Self Inside
For example we are studying in Hailey College of Commerce, and we have studied in both
buildings. If we make a comparison of facilities of new building with the facilities of old
building provided to us. If is called self inside.

ii. Self Outside

For example we make a comparison of our Hailey College with our previous college of
intermediate.
iii. Others Inside
For example we make a comparison of facilities provided to us and to the students of 8th semester.

iv. Others Outside

For example we make a comparison of facilities for us in Punjab University and to the facilities
for the students of GC University.
 42

Organizational Justice
The perception of employees regarding over all fairness in terms of distribution of resources,
fairness of proceedings and interaction of/with other human beings.
Equity intention: If there is no justice in organization and people are not being provided equal
facilities then there level of motivation will be decreased. This decrease in level of motivation
is called Equity intention.
Organizational justice means that facilities should be equally for each and every person in
organization should have same rights.
Organizational justice can be divided in to three parts:
i. Distributed Justice
ii. Procedural Justice
iii. Interactional Justice

i. Distributed Justice
The perceived fairness (mean employees feel this) with in the distribution of resources and
reward among all the members of organization.
For example in a sales project fifteen employees were working and on the completion of that
project the management announces bonus for 10 people and remaining 5 people are not given
any bonus. This is called distributed in-justice. Because of this the motivation level of
employees will be decreased. They all should be given bonus or all should be not given bonus.

ii. Procedural Justice

The perception of employees about fairness in various procedures used to perform day to day
operation.
For example there is a process of getting bank challan for fee and every student who comes,
stands in line outside the window while some students have given relaxation by the authority
and they just comes inside the room through door and without standing in line they get their
fee challan. This is procedural in-justice.
iii. Interactional Justice
The perception of employees about fairness in dealing with various members of that organization.
For example some students of section D go in the room of Sir Musarrat Sb. And he treat them
well, asks them for tea while some other students of same section go in his room and he treat
them generally and send back to them. This is called interactional in-justice.
 43

(ix) Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Victor Vroom

The theory that explains that an individual is motivated by fulfillment of its expectations
associated with its efforts in terms of
(1) Increase in performance
(2) Rewards from the organization
(3) Achievement of personal goals.

1. Effort-Performance Relationship:
↑Efforts & ↑Performance= Positive Relationship
↑Efforts & ↓Performance= Negative Relationship
There should be a positive relationship between individual’s efforts and its performance as an
increase in efforts should bring an increase in performance.

2. Performance-Reward Relationship:
A positive relationship between performance and rewards that an increase in performance should
result an increase in rewards
3. Rewards-Goals Relationship:
A positive relationship between organizational rewards and accomplishment of personal goals
contribute more towards employee’s motivation.
 44

Organizational Politics
Before starting the topic of organizational we should know its basic topics which are as
following.
1. Power
2. Dependency
Power
Capacity of an individual to influence others and to make them to behave according to its own
requirements (Power is capacity to influence others).
Types of Power

i. Coercive Power (Force Power)

Capacity of an individual to assign punishments to others through which others can be influenced.
Fine, salary deduction etc
For example there are 50 employees working in an organization and their supervisor says to one
of them that if you will not work I will deduct your salary. Because of this that employees work
with attention and its means that supervisor has a power to influence him.

ii. Reward Power

Capacity of an individual to distribute various resources and rewards among members of
organization
For example a manager has the power for announcing bonus for any employee, because of this
power every employee will work for him with attention so that he could get bonus. In this
situation employees are being influenced with that power of manager.

iii. Legitimate Power

Capacity of an individual to influence others because of its specific position with in
organizational hierarchy, like general manager, supervisor etc
For example a manager has a power to give job to any person in organization or to suspend
someone from job. This type of authority is called legitimate power.
(Note: these all types of power could be under one person at same time.)
 45

iv. Expert Power

Capacity to influence others due to the specific skills or expertise possessed by an individual
For example a sheaf is cooking in a restaurant. He has master in his work. After some time he
says to management this please increase my pay. This pay is very low and if you will not increase
my pay then I have to work somewhere else. The manager has no other way. He has to increase
his pay. In this type of example a sheaf has not given this power by any organization or by his
restaurant. This is the power of his personal skill.

v. Referent Power
Capacity to influence others due to the specific relationships and belongingness with others
members of society
For example father asks to his son “what are you doing here? Go on the shop and bring these
things.” Son goes and brings. This power which is influencing to son is called referent power.

Dependency
A person cannot be influenced by another person until he depends upon him
Relationship between two parties where one party depends upon the other party in various aspects
of life
For example the main focus of a student is to be just passing in exams while another student has
focus on achieving good marks in the exam. So the first student will not feel necessary to be
present in the class while the other student will prefer to go in classes and to submit his
assignments, because the first student is low dependent on his professor while the other student is
much dependent on his professor. That is why the first student if being less influenced by his
professor whiles the other student is more influenced by his professor.

Organizational Politics
All the behaviors adopted by an individual that are not part of its formal job activities yet these
behaviors are performed to exploit/ to disturb the distribution of advantages and disadvantages
within organization.
For example a professor informs to students about their marks in exam. After the period a student
goes in the office of that professor and requests him for giving him just five marks more so that
his CGPA could be increased. This is not the duty of student and this is called organizational
politics.
 46

Causes and Consequences of Organizational Politics

 47

Types of Organizational Politics

i. Low/Legitimate Politics
The day to day political activities which are not harmful for the organization. This politics is not
destructive for the organization.
For example a professor informs to students about their marks in exam. After the period a student
goes in the office of that professor and requests him for giving him just five marks more so that
his CGPA could be increased. This is low politics and is not destructive for the organization.

ii. High/illegitimate Politics

The political activities that are against organizational norms that may violate the significant
working of the organization
For example a professor does not check properly the papers of student and not give them good
marks. Because of this the students start strike in the department due to which the working of
department is being destructive by this activity. This is a high/illegitimate politics.
 48

Causes of Organizational Politics

1. Individual Factors
i. High Mach Personality
The individual with high score on mach tends to be more involved in
organizational politics as they need to attain and maintain power within
organization.

ii. Internal Locus of Control

The individuals who prefer to make their own decisions tend to involve political
behavior more than the other employees.

iii. High Self Monitoring

The individuals with high self monitoring personality tend to adopt themselves
according to the requirements of a situation to avail various advantages and to
avoid disadvantages.

iv. Organizational Investment

The time spent by an individual with a specific organization as the individual
spend more and more time, it can violate the organizational resources, because of
its awareness regarding organization and its procedures.
v. Job Alternatives
If an employee has better job alternatives with other organization, its
involvement in organizational politics may increase.
For example a person knows that if I will leave to this organizational then I can
get job in other organizations without any problem then he will involve more and
more in organizational politics.

vi. Expectation of Success

An individual’s expectation regarding success in achieving its targets through the
involvement in organizational politics may be a strong predictor of political
behavior.
 49

2. Organizational factors
i. Re-Allocation of Resources
Whenever an organization is going through re-distribution of resources there are more chances
that employees may involve into politics to avail various benefits.
For example there is no AC in our class and it comes to know from somewhere that there are
coming AC’s in department then we will try from different sources to avail this facility and we
will meet to different professors and authorities so that an AC should be installed in our room

ii. Promotion opportunities

Whenever an organization has various vacant positions, the employees may involve into political
activities to avail that opportunity or to get the benefits.
For example there are four assistant managers working in an organization and there comes a
vacancy of manager. Now these all four assistant managers will try to avail this opportunity and
they meet to different people so that they could get this post.

iii. Low Trust

If employees and management have a lower degree of trust, there are more chances of political
activities.
For example if management and employees have low trust on one another then they will work
lesser and involve in politics more.

iv. Role Ambiguity

If the employees are not clear about their specific role within organization they may involve into
politics to avail various benefit or to disturb the other members of organization.

v. Un-Clear Evaluation System

If the organization has no clearly designed the evaluation system, there are more chances that
employees will go for political activities to have positive performance evaluation.

vi. Win-Lose Reward System

If the organization has win-lose reward system where one party is going to be benefited on the
cost of other party/parties there is more probability for political activities.
For example there are 10 employees working in an organization and organization has to give
reward or commission to these employees. If organization gives reward to all these employees
then it will be win-win reward system and if organization gives reward to some specific
employees from these 10 employees then it will be win-lose reward system and employees will
involve in political activities to get this reward.

vii. Democratic Decisions

If the organization has assigned decision making power to various individuals they may involve
into decision making which is beneficial for them.

viii. High Performance Pressure

If the employees are assigned with various tasks or projects creating a burden of performance
pressure, they may involve into political activities to remove that burden.
For example every professor gives assignment on same day to the class. This act will create
performance pressure for student and they will try with different sources to reduce this pressure
by requesting the professors to extend the date of assignments.
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ix. Self Serving Management

If the management of any organization cares about their own interests and takes the decisions
which are beneficial for them by not considering its employees are as an important resource,
employees may involves in to politics.
For example if we see that there is an AC and cold water in the room of every professor and in
the room of Shakeel but there is no facility for us then every student may involve in political
activities.
Ss