Running head: STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 1

Strategies to Support Struggling English Language Learner Readers

Abigail Maiwald

Vanderbilt University
STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 2

Table of Contents

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………....3

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..3

Who are English Language Learners?…………………………………………………….4

Areas of Instructional Focus………………………………………………………………5

Vocabulary……………………………………………………………………...…5

Phonological Awareness………………………………….……………………….7

Fluency…………………………………………………………………………….9

Comprehension…………………………………….…………………………….11

Future Research Pathways……………………………………………………………….15

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….16

References…………………………………………………………………………….….17
STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 3

Abstract

This literature review focuses on identifying strategies to support struggling

English Language Learner (ELL) readers. ELL students are active learners of the English

language who benefit from explicit instruction in English. These students often fall

behind their English-speaking peers in literacy skills and require targeted instruction to

support their reading development. The literature review suggests specific strategies to

support struggling ELL readers in the key areas of instructional focus: vocabulary,

fluency, phonological awareness, and comprehension.

Introduction

This year is my first year teaching first grade at a school that consists of primarily

students who are English Language Learners (ELLs). In August I received the large

purple folder of students’ Fountas and Pinnell reading levels and running records from

the previous year, I remember grimacing at the overwhelming percentage of running

records with “PRE-A” written in block letters at the top of the page. I expected most

students to enter my classroom on grade level, a Level D or above, and to exit my

classroom reading at a Level J, the end of first grade benchmark suggested by Teacher’s

College. The percentage of first grade students entering my classroom as Pre-A readers

was highly concerning to me as a teacher. As I began reading the teacher notes on the

header of the running records, I continued to see comments such as, “ELL student-

English language errors when reading,” “Student does not know English letter names and

sounds,” and “ELL vocabulary errors.” As I paged through these assessments I began to

wonder, how do I best support these struggling ELL readers and what strategies can I use

to support them as they learn to read in a new language?

STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 4

For the purposes of this literature review I intend to address this question with the

available research. I will begin by addressing who ELL students are as defined by the

United States Department of Education. Next I intend to address areas of instructional

focus and specific strategies teachers can use to target instruction for EL students in

vocabulary, phonological awareness, and fluency. Finally, I will discuss potential areas of

research for future areas of inquiry.

Who are English Language Learners?

According to the United States Department of Education, English Language

Learners, referred to as ELLs, are active learners of the English language who would

benefit from a language support program. The term ELL, sometimes used

interchangeably with Limited English Proficiency or LEP, is most commonly used in K-

12 institutions (National Council of Teachers of English, 2008). It is estimated that there

are over 5.3 million ELL students and that the ELL population represents 10.7 percent of

K-12 students enrolled in U.S. schools (Batalova & McHugh, 2010). ELLs represent the

fastest growing group within the student population and are a highly diverse group in

terms of language proficiency, socioeconomic status, immigration status, content

knowledge, and expectations of school. ELLs are present in every state, a change from

previous years when ELL students were largely concentrated in a few major states, and

ELL enrollment is rapidly increasing in many states within the United States. According

to National Assessment of Educational Progress data, ELL students often exhibit lower

levels of reading proficiency and a lower rate of high school graduation than their native

English-speaking peers (National Council of Teachers of English, 2008) and consistently

fall behind their native English speaking peers in literacy skills (Netten, Droop, &
STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 5

Verhoeven 2011). Given this knowledge about ELL students, their prevalence in U.S.

schools and their low levels of reading proficiency compared to their native English-

speaking peers, what strategies can classroom teachers utilize to support struggling EL

readers during reading instruction?

Areas of Instructional Focus

August and Shanahan (2006), Shanahan and Beck (2006), and Francis, Rivera,

Lesaux, Kieffer, and Rivera (2006) agree that that explicit instruction in the key

components of reading: phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary, and text

comprehension can greatly benefit ELL readers. Specific strategies to support ELL

readers in each of these areas are addressed throughout this literature review.

Vocabulary

According to Wallace (2008), native English speakers know between 5,000-7,000

English words and their meanings when they begin learning to read in school. Most ELL

students do not yet know 5,000-7,000 English words and often know the meaning of far

fewer words. This gap in vocabulary knowledge contributes to the differences between

the early reading achievement of ELL students and their native English-speaking peers

(Wallace, 2008). A key to developing reading proficiency with struggling ELL readers is

explicit vocabulary instruction (August & Shanahan, 2006; Nassaji, 2011).

According to Francis et al. (2006), only five to ten percent of classroom

instruction is focused on vocabulary, and little of the vocabulary instruction is focused on

the meaning of words and students’ understanding of the words. In order to best support

struggling ELL readers, vocabulary instruction must be explicit and make up a more

substantial part of instructional time (Wallace, 2008). Vocabulary instruction should go

STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 6

beyond instruction of academic vocabulary to focus on words that most native English

speakers would already know such as ‘grass,’ referred to as Tier I words (Wallace, 2008;

Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2008). Teachers should carefully choose words and provide

students with the definition of the word, multiple exposures to the word, and

opportunities to use the word in meaningful contexts (Francis et al., 2006). Providing

students with accessible definitions to words, examples and non-examples of words, and

giving students opportunities to use new words in context with teachers and peers are

valuable strategies to teach new vocabulary (Richards-Tutor, Aceves, & Reese, 2016).

Evidence consistently shows that student-friendly definitions, adapted from textbook or

dictionary definitions, is a key component to rich vocabulary instruction and is integral to

student learning of vocabulary (Gersten, Baker, Shanahan, Linan-Thompson, Collins &

Scarcella, 2007). Teachers can provide students with multiple exposures to words by

sharing video clips with students and readings and sentences containing new vocabulary

words (Richards-Tutor et al., 2016). Explicit instruction is not enough for ELLs to learn

new vocabulary, students must have multiple opportunities to encounter words in context

and teachers must utilize teachable moments, addressing words as they come up in

conversation (Richards-Tutor et al., 2016).

As ELL students cannot possibly learn the meanings of all the words they must

know to be successful readers, teachers must support students in using word-learning

strategies (Richards-Tutor et al.; Kucan, 2012). Richards-Tutor et al. (2016) and Kucan

(2012) suggest that morphology, context clues, and cognates are researched strategies

students can use to support vocabulary knowledge. Students can use their knowledge of

morphology in combination with context clues to determine the meaning of unknown

STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 7

words (Kucan, 2012). Context clues are a powerful word learning strategy for ELL

students because it provides ELLs with a working definition of the unknown word that

can change and develop as students read and understand more of the passage (Richards-

Tutor et al., 2016; Kucan, 2012). Goodman (1986) suggests that a comprehension of

material is always the ultimate goal of a reader, emphasizing the importance of ELL

readers developing a deep understanding of the vocabulary words they encounter in

context. Although students should be aware that there are false cognates between

languages, use of cognates can be a helpful tool for students learning to read in a new

language (Richards-Tutor et al., 2016). According to Gregory (2008), teacher awareness

of semantic relationships and introducing words that are semantically related at the same

time can help ELL students to learn vocabulary at a quicker rate and on a deeper level of

understanding. Providing ELL students with rich vocabulary instruction focused on a

variety of words across the vocabulary Tiers, providing multiple opportunities for using

words in context, and teaching specific word learning strategies can support ELL learners

in building their vocabulary knowledge and improving their reading skills (Gregory,

2008; Richards-Tutor et al., 2016; Wallace, 2008).

Phonological Awareness

One of the best predictors of early reading success is phonological awareness

(Cunningham & Cunningham, 2002; Ford, Cabell, Konold, Invernizzi & Gartland, 2012).

For the purposes of this literature review, phonological awareness will be defined as the

ability to attend to and identify the sounds of language (Cunningham & Cunningham,

2002). According to Francis et al. (2006), both ELL students and native English speaking

students need phonological awareness skills in order to successfully decode words. The
STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 8

tendency in many school systems is to hold off on providing phonological awareness for

ELL students with the idea that building oral language first may remedy students’

phonological awareness deficits (Francis et al., 2006). However, recent research shows

that holding off on phonological awareness instruction for ELL students widens the gap

between their reading skills and those of their native English speaking peers (Francis et

al., 2006). Research also points to very few differences between the way in which native

English speakers and ELL students acquire phonological awareness skills, both groups of

students benefit from explicit and intensive instruction (Chiappe, Siegel & Wade-

Woolley, 2002). Chiappe et al. (2002), suggest that explicit and

intensive phonological awareness instruction may include a systematic

phonics program such as Bennett and Ottley’s Launch Into Reading

Success in addition to regular reinforcement of letter-sound

correspondence, cloze reading activities, independent reading, use of

leveled texts, whole group read alouds, and engaging whole and small

group discussions.

According to Cunningham & Cunningham (2002) and Goodman

(1986), research-based phonological awareness instruction should

have students spending most of their time participating in reading and

writing activities, and reading outside of decodable texts. Phonological

awareness instruction should promote high engagement and center

around activities that emphasize transfer of phonics skills

(Cunningham & Cunningham, 2002). One strategy that the

Cunningham and Cunningham (2002) suggest is introducing activities

STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 9

that focus on looking for patterns in words, sorting, and manipulating

existing words to create new words. Utilizing this “Making Words”

strategy can help students to identify beginning, middle and ending

sounds, decode and encode words, identify rhyming words, and model

to students how phonics can be used in reading and writing activities.

Cunningham and Cunningham (2002) also stress the importance of

teaching students to utilize known words and use known words,

spelling patterns, morphemes, and a knowledge of rhyme to create

new words from the known words. Teachers can also implement

rhyming activities such as creating rhyming words and using them to

write silly sentences (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2002). This activity

can be used to explicitly introduce and identify beginning and ending

consonants, blends, and digraphs in addition to focusing on vowel

sounds (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2002). As phonological

awareness is a key indicator of early reading success, quality phonics

instruction is imperative for both ELL and native English speaking

readers and should be a key aspect of reading instruction when

working with struggling ELL learners (Cunningham & Cunningham,

2002).

Fluency

Fluency, the ability to automatically recognize words while understanding word

meanings and extracting meaning from the text, is a key component to reading and is bi-

directionally related to comprehension (Francis et al., 2006; August & Shanahan, 2006).
STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 10

Poor decoding skills, limited vocabulary, and limited exposure to print can contribute to

low fluency (Francis et al., 2006). Repeated reading is an intervention beneficial for

building fluency in ELL students that focuses on orally reading instructional-level

passages, passages students can read with 90 percent accuracy, with limited errors and

appropriate rate and prosody (Francis et al., 2006). Students generally read with adults or

with a partner peer and are provided with corrective feedback when they misread words

(Francis et al., 2006; Samuels, 2006). Research by Francis et al. (2006) supports adapting

this activity for ELL students by pairing the repeated readings with oral discussions of

vocabulary and comprehension questions during and after reading. Repeated oral

readings including vocabulary and comprehension discussions and increased exposure to

text support ELL students building fluency when reading. (Francis et al., 2006). As

students practice the passage and read with better rate, accuracy, and prosody their

confidence often increases, a powerful feeling for students who may frequently

experience reading failure (Samuels, 2006). In addition to repeated reading, Samuels

(2006) also suggests using technology to build fluency by allowing students to listen to

pre-recorded CDs and audiotapes of a fluent reader reading as they follow along in

individual copies of the text. ELL students can build fluency by participating in partner

reading or guided pairs and receiving feedback from a partner in regards to their reading

accuracy (Samuels, 2006). Reader’s Theater, radio reading, and choral reading are

additional strategies that may prove beneficial for struggling ELL readers working on

building fluency (Samuels, 2006).

Ogle & Correa-Kovtun (2010) suggest implementing PRC2, Partner Reading and

Content Too, to build fluency in ELL readers. In PRC2, partners are grouped by
STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 11

homogeneous reading level and are given the opportunity to pre-read the text then read

the first two pages of the text independently and silently (Ogle & Correa-Kovtun, 2010).

Partners rehearse the page they will be reading then take turns reading the page or section

orally (Ogle & Correa-Kovtun, 2010). After each partner has read, the partners ask and

answer questions and discuss the text including its vocabulary and overarching concepts

(Ogle & Correa-Kovtun, 2010). Partners switch roles as they progress through the text

and add new vocabulary words to a personal vocabulary journal at the end of the reading

(Ogle & Correa-Kovtun, 2010). Strategies such as PRC2, repeated reading, choral

reading, etc. when paired with appropriate vocabulary instruction and exposure to a

variety of texts can support fluency in ELL students and ultimately lead to better reading

skills and comprehension of texts (Ogle & Correa-Kovtun, 2010).

Comprehension

Comprehension, the ultimate goal of reading, is another area in which teachers

can provide explicit instruction to support ELL readers (Richards-Tutor et al., 2016;

Goodman, 1986). According to Proctor, August, Carlo & Snow (2005), reading

comprehension is composed of vocabulary instruction, listening comprehension,

alphabetic knowledge, and fluency. In order to succeed in reading comprehension, ELL

students must also have strong backgrounds in vocabulary, phonological and alphabetic

awareness, and fluency (Proctor et al., 2005). Richards-Tutor et al. (2016), Duke and

Pearson (2002), and Beer and Probst (2013) suggest teaching students explicit

comprehension strategies such as summarizing, inferring, making connections, and

asking questions. Beer and Probst (2013) refer to “signposts” in their research, writing
STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 12

that teachers should identify and teach features that are noticeable, widespread, and help

a reader better understand the text. Signposts within the text, such as flashbacks,

moments of realization, difficult questions, repetition, contrast, or life lessons, cue

students to use comprehension strategies such as visualizing, predicting, summarizing,

clarifying, questioning, inferring, and making connections (Beer & Probst, 2013). Duke

and Pearson (2002) suggest that making predictions, identifying text structure, visual

representations of text, summarizing, and questioning are valuable strategies for teachers

to focus on explicitly when teaching comprehension. Teachers can promote engagement

with the text and incorporation of students’ pre-existing knowledge about a text or topic

by asking students to make predictions throughout reading of the text (Duke & Pearson,

2002). Duke and Pearson (2002) and Nassaji (2011) suggest teaching students to use the

structure of the text to better recall the text and to organize their understandings of the

text. Duke and Pearson (2002) and Nassaji (2011) recommend explicitly teaching

students about both informational and story structures to improve student recall, transfer,

and build better readers. Creating visual representations of texts such as graphic

organizers, semantic maps, or flowcharts can also help students better comprehend texts

(Duke & Pearson, 2002). Similar to explicit teaching about text structures, creating or

presenting visual representations of texts can aid student recall, transfer, and support

students in becoming better readers (Duke & Pearson, 2002). Summarizing is another key

comprehension strategy that requires students to identify the important pieces within

large amounts of information and to originally synthesize what they identify as the most

important information (Duke & Pearson, 2002). Teachers can approach explicit

summarization instruction through one of two popular models (Duke & Pearson, 2002).
STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 13

The first is a rule-governed approach in which students first delete unnecessary and

redundant material, then compose a word to replace a list of items and an action, and

finally select or create a topic sentence (Duke & Pearson, 2002). Another approach to

summarization instruction is the GIST approach in which students work whole group, in

small groups, and finally individually to create fifteen words or less summaries to

synthesize information (Duke & Pearson, 2002). Both a rule-governed approach and the

GIST procedure prove effective, as measured by comprehension portions of standardized

tests, because they help students to identify their own thinking throughout the text (Duke

& Pearson, 2002). Questioning is another important strategy in developing

comprehension (Duke & Pearson, 2002). Teachers can target the type of comprehension

they would like students to have by choosing specific types of questions (Duke &

Pearson, 2002). For example, if teachers would like to support a more factual recall of the

text, possibly when reading an informational text, teachers could focus on recall-based

questions (Duke & Pearson, 2002). However, McMahon (2008) suggests moving beyond

literal comprehension to focus on interpretive and critical comprehension as well.

Teachers can achieve this balance and support both ELL and non-ELL students in

comprehension through asking a mix of literal questions and questions that require

students to draw on their own experiences and evaluate the text based upon their own

experiences (McMahon, 2008). Duke and Pearson (2002) and McKeown, Beck, and

Worthy (1993) recommend using “Questioning the Author” to encourage students to

analyze the meaning of the text, engage with the text, and to think about the author’s

purpose and motivations. Teachers can facilitate questioning the author by initiating

discussion about the author’s purpose, pushing students to focus on the author’s message,
STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 14

helping students to make connections between pieces of information, identify difficulties

with how the author presents information, encouraging students to refer back to the text,

recognize the author’s technique, and use already known information to make logical

predictions (McKeown et al., 1993). Questioning the Author and explicitly instructing

students in the types of questions they should ask before, during, and after reading

supports student engagement in text and a deeper level of comprehension when reading

various types of texts (McKeown et al., 1993).

Richards-Tutor et al. (2016) suggest that Collaborative Strategic Reading, CSR, is

a beneficial approach for teaching comprehension strategies to ELL readers that involves

students working cooperatively to use comprehension strategies. Annamma, Eppolito,

Klingner, Boele, Boardman & Stillman-Spisak (2011), explain that CSR begins with a

teacher modeling the comprehension strategy, usually through a think aloud. Students

then move to small groups to monitor using a specific comprehension strategy

(Annamma et al., 2011). Students receive teacher feedback throughout the lesson to

scaffold their learning of the comprehension strategy. Teacher feedback from the study

suggested that ELL students greatly benefitted from CSR instruction and build valuable

comprehension skills through CSR-style instruction (Annamma et al., 2011).

Another effective strategy for building comprehension in both ELL and native

English speaking students is through use of think-alouds (Block & Israel, 2004; Duke &

Pearson, 2002). Skilled readers set and monitor goals when reading, think strategically,

monitor their goals throughout reading, monitor comprehension, and reflect on an

author’s purpose (Block & Israel, 2004). Struggling readers may not be aware of these

processes and require specific instruction, in the form of think-alouds, in order to

STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 15

recognize and apply these strategies (Block & Israel, 2004). Teachers can conduct think-

alouds before, during, and after reading to target specific comprehension strategies

(Block & Israel, 2004). Before reading a text teachers can conduct think-alouds focusing

on overviewing the text, looking for important information, connecting to an author’s big

ideas, activating relevant knowledge, and putting oneself in a book (Block & Israel,

2004). Utilizing these strategies prior to reading a text can help readers to allocate

attention to important details of a text and overlook extraneous information, make

connections to the theme of the text, and activate relevant background information and

experiences (Block & Israel, 2004). While reading a text teachers can perform think-

alouds focused on revising prior knowledge and making predictions, recognizing an

author’s writing style, determining word meanings, and asking questions (Block & Israel,

2004). These strategies can support developing readers in recognizing their own thinking

as they read, using prior knowledge to make predictions, better decoding texts by

determining meanings of unknown words, and in identifying significant and insignificant

information and thoughts when reading (Block & Israel, 2004). Finally, teachers can

conduct think-alouds after reading in noticing novelty in a text, relating the text to

students’ lives, and anticipating the use of knowledge in order to analyze an author’s craft

and apply knowledge from a text to students’ lives and to outside contexts (Block &

Israel, 2004). Explicitly presenting these strategies to students in the form of think-alouds

can support struggling or developing readers in independently using comprehension

strategies and improving their abilities to understand the text.

Future Research Pathways

STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 16

This literature review did not address bilingual education or additive literacy.

These are additional areas of research that focus on including students’ first languages

within instruction and relying on students’ first languages to support development of their

second language. Bilingual instruction and additive literacy are additional approaches to

supporting struggling ELL readers that should be considered when choosing best

instructional practices. However, these areas are outside the scope of this literature

review and merit additional research and consideration in the future.

Limited research exists in regards to specific strategies targeted for struggling

ELL readers. There are also limited articles from classroom teachers or reading

specialists citing anecdotal evidence of best practices to support struggling ELL readers.

Future research may include longitudinal studies implementing specific reading strategies

targeting struggling ELL readers and yielding both qualitative and quantitative results.

Conclusion

This literature review identified English Language Learners as students who are

actively learning the English language and require explicit instruction in the English

language. These students often fall behind in literacy and require additional support and

targeted instruction. This literature review addressed specific strategies classroom

teachers can implement in the key areas of literary instructional focus: vocabulary,

fluency, phonological awareness, and comprehension. Teachers can implement these

strategies whole group, small group, and individually to support struggling ELL readers.
STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT STRUGGLING ELL READERS 17

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