1.

      Meaningful Verbal Learning:

According to Ausubel, meaning is created through some forms of

representational equivalence between language and mental context. There are
two processes involved:

First: Reception, which is employed in meaningful verbal learning.

Second: Discovery, which is involved in concept formation and problem solving.

Ausubel’s work is usually compared to Bruner’s work because both of them held
similar views about the hierarchical nature of knowledge. However, Bruner gave
more emphasis on discovery process. On the other hand, Ausubel was strongly
oriented toward the verbal learning methods of speaking, reading, and writing.

2.      Subsumption Theory:

Ausubel subsumption theory is based on the idea that an individual's existing

cognitive structure (organization, stability and clarity of knowledge in a
particular subject) is the principal and basic factor influencing the learning and
retention of meaningful new mats the importance of relating new ideas to a
student’s existing knowledge base before the new material is presented. This
theory is applied in the 'advance organizer' strategy developed by Ausubel. From
Ausubel’s perspective, this is the meaning of learning.

When information is subsumed into the learner's cognitive structure it is

organized hierarchically. New material can be subsumed in two different ways,
and for both of these, no meaningful learning takes place unless a stable
cognitive structure exists. This existing structure provides a framework into
which the new learning is related, hierarchically, to the previous information or
concepts in the individual's cognitive structure. Ausubel, whose theories are
particularly relevant for educators, considered neo-behaviorist views inadequate.
Although he recognized other forms of learning, his work focused on verbal
learning. He dealt with the nature of meaning, and believes the external world
acquires meaning only as it is converted into the content of consciousness by
the learner.

When one encounters completely new unfamiliar material, then rote learning, as
opposed to meaningful learning, takes place. This rote learning may eventually
contribute to the construction of a new cognitive structure which can later be
used in meaningful learning. The two types of subsumption are:  1. Correlative
subsumption - new material is an extension or elaboration of what is already
known.  2. Derivative subsumption - new material or relationships can be
derived from the existing structure. Information can be moved in the hierarchy,
or linked to other concepts or information to create new interpretations or
meaning. From this type of subsumption, completely new concepts can emerge,
and previous concepts can be changed or expanded to include more of the
previously existing information. This is "figuring out."

There are three prerequisites in order to significant learning to occur:

*      The material itself must have a logical meaning,

*      Learner must be proactive in the new concept of knowledge and there is
adequate contact between the tendencies,  

*      Learners’ existing cognitive structures must have the proper

assimilation of new knowledge and ideas.

3-      Motivation Theory:

Ausubel's learning theory also attaches great importance to student motivation.

According to his view, by the cognitive drive achievement motivation, self-
improving internal driving force, and the subsidiary internal driving composition.
Cognitive drive is a student desire knowledge, understanding and mastery of
knowledge and representations and the need to solve the problem. This inner
driving force began in the curious tendency of students, and to explore,
manipulate, understand and cope with the psychological environment, the
tendency is one of the most important and most stable motivations. Self-
improvement is the internal driving force by virtue of their ability of students to
win the corresponding position or achievement needs. Subsidiary of individuals
in order to maintain internal driving means or the authority of their elders
(parents or teachers praise or recognition, and performance out of a well to
study or work needs, is an external motivation, age has a more obvious
characteristics. learning motivation will not have a direct impact on learning, but
through an indirect way of enhancing and promoting learning impact. Research
indicates that: motivation, moderate-intensity excitation, or to arouse, to learn
with good results.

Application:

Ausubel indicates that his theory applies to reception (expository) learning in

school settings. He distinguishes reception learning from rote and discovery
learning; the former because it doesn't involve subsumption (i.e., meaningful
materials) and the latter because the learner must discover information through
problem solving.

Principles for Application:

1-      The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then
progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity.
2-      Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with
previously presented information through comparisons and cross-referencing of
new and old ideas.

Example of applying different kind of learning:

Rote and Meaningful Learning

In an attempt to acquire meaningful knowledge, the learner can approach the

task in two different ways. If a person attempts to memorize his/her driver’s
license number without relating the numbers to anything more than a random
series, that is rote learning. On the other hand, if a person attempts to create
some connection to something that they already know, they experience
meaningful learning. An example might be a man memorizing a long distance
phone call by recognizing that the ten digit number is actually three series of
three, three, and four digits. Furthermore, the numbers (to him) can be recalled
because he is familiar with that state’s area code. The middle set of numbers is
the same as the aircraft he usually flies in (747 or 727 for example), and the last
four digits are a familiar high school basketball score (50-61, the home team
lost). Materials learned that have relation to experiences or memories that are
firm in the person’s memory are more likely to be retained. Whereas, materials
that are learned isolated as rote learning may tend to be forgotten quickly
(Thompson, 2004).

Is meaningful learning just what rote learning is not? This is true only if you keep
in mind that meaningful learning is very connected to the process of knowledge
retention within cognitive structures. Rote memory works at times for short term
memory as we know from casual meetings with new people and exposure to a
new joke. However, the knowledge can only be effectively retained if it is
meaningful, and therefore must be processed in a way that it can be subsumed
and anchored in the mind (Thompson, 2004).

Reception and Discovery Learning

Supporters of discovery learning declare that this type of learning is where real
knowledge is obtained, where conservation of memory is ensured, and where
sub verbal awareness is first encountered. Bruner is a leading advocate of
discovery learning and has said that the most meaningful learning takes place
when it is motivated by the students own curiosity and uncovered by individual
or group exploration. Ausubel contends that those who stand behind discovery
learning and criticize expository teaching are missing most important point. That
is, whether the method of learning is discovery or reception does not determine
the meaningfulness of the material (Good & Brophy, 1990, p. 192).

Ausubel’s most common critique of discovery learning is that although it can be

effective in certain situations, for the most part it is unwieldy and overly time
(Langford, 1989, p. 56). Additionally, unless the teacher provides a greater
context the learning is unorganized and will have no better chance of retention
than rote memorization of a procedure. Instead, expository teaching, the flip side
of reception learning, can be made to be meaningful if the teacher is
conscientious about how the material is presented (Thompson, 2004).

If Ausubel is an advocate of expository teaching and reception learning, the

question remains, "Does he have a method to make lecture a meaningful learning
experience?" It is in fact the case that Ausubel has described two very powerful
methods that educators can use to help prepare the students for meaningful
learning.

Signaling is the first and most basic concept that Ausubel prescribes. It is a tool
familiar to most of us and can be as simple as numbering the main points of the
presentation. This is known as specifying the structure of relations. Other types
of signaling include (1) premature presentations, (2) summary statements, and
(3) point words that "indicate the author’s perspective or emphasize important
information (Good & Brophy, 1990, p. 200).

The most controversial and noteworthy method Ausubel has introduced is

"advanced organizers." These are not merely previews of the subject material
that is to be presented. Advanced organizers are more general, abstract
concepts that will provide the great context to which the new information can be
subsumed and anchored (Ausubel, 1963). For example, before introducing a
lesson on brown bears, a teacher might have his/her students read a history and
geography of Admiralty Island. By providing this advanced organizer, students
may have a better chance of organizing the information regarding the brown
bear’s habitat, territorial patterns, and nutrition.

Advance organizers are believed to have different results for good versus slow
learners. Because most good learners already have the ability to organize new
information, the organizers have little additional effect. However, for slow
learners, Ausubel and Fitzgerald believe that organizers are extremely helpful as
this group of students needs additional help structuring their thinking
(Fitzgerald, 1962).

Role of the instructor and the learner

Ausubel’s theory does not address broad prescriptions for learning and therefore
provides no specifications for the role of the teacher. However, he outlines
three variables that influence meaningful verbal learning: (1) the availability of
relevant and inclusive subsuming concepts, (2) the degree that subsumers can
be discriminated, and (3) the stability and clarity of subsuming concepts
(Ausubel, 1962, pp. 219-220). One can assume that the role of the teacher and
instructional designer is to consider these variables by investigating and
providing the appropriate subsumers to facilitate meaningful verbal learning
(Kumagai, 2013).
On the other hand, the role of the learner in this type of learning is not as
significant as the teacher role. This is because this theory is more concerned
about how the student meaningfully learn through verbal learning other than
experimental learning. Therefore, the learning process depend on teachers
significantly. Teachers have to enable learners to instruct new knowledge based
on their existing knowledge (Kumagai, 2013).