Q34

Hypothesis testing is generally used when

you are comparing two or more groups.
When you are evaluating a hypothesis, you need
to account for both the variability in your sample
and how large your sample is. Based on this
information, you'd like to make an assessment of
whether any differences you see are meaningful,
or if they are likely just due to chance. This is
formally done through a process called
hypothesis testing.

Five Steps in Hypothesis Testing:

1.Specify the Null Hypothesis

2.Specify the Alternative Hypothesis

3.Set the Significance Level (a)

4.Calculate the Test Statistic and

Corresponding P-Value

5.Drawing a Conclusion

Step 1: Specify the Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis (H0) is a statement of no
effect, relationship, or difference between two or
more groups or factors. In research studies, a
researcher is usually interested in disproving the
null hypothesis.
Examples:
 • There is no difference in intubation
rates across ages 0 to 5 years.

• The intervention and control groups

have the same survival rate (or, the
intervention does not improve
survival rate).

• There is no association between

injury type and whether or not the
patient received an IV in the
prehospital setting.

Step 2: Specify the Alternative Hypothesis

The alternative hypothesis (H1) is the statement
that there is an effect or difference. This is
usually the hypothesis the researcher is
interested in proving. The alternative
hypothesis can be one-sided (only provides one
direction, e.g., lower) or two-sided. We often
use two-sided tests even when our true
hypothesis is one-sided because it requires more
evidence against the null hypothesis to accept
the alternative hypothesis.
Examples:

• The intubation success rate differs

with the age of the patient being
treated (twosided).

• The time to resuscitation from

cardiac arrest is lower for the
intervention group than for the
control (one-sided).
 • There is an association between
injury type and whether or not the
patient received an IV in the
prehospital setting (two sided).

Step 3: Set the Significance Level (a)

The significance level (denoted by the Greek
letter alpha— a) is generally set at 0.05. This
means that there is a 5% chance that you will
accept your alternative hypothesis when your
null hypothesis is actually true. The smaller the
significance level, the greater the burden of
proof needed to reject the null hypothesis, or in
other words, to support the alternative
hypothesis.

Step 4: Calculate the Test Statistic and

Corresponding P-Value
In another section we present some basic test
statistics to evaluate a hypothesis. Hypothesis
testing generally uses a test statistic that
compares groups or examines associations
between variables. When describing a single
sample without establishing relationships
between variables, a confidence interval is
commonly used.
The p-value describes the probability of
obtaining a sample statistic as or more extreme
by chance alone if your null hypothesis is true.
This p-value is determined based on the result of
your test statistic. Your conclusions about the
hypothesis are based on your pvalue and your
significance level.
Example:

• P-value = 0.01 This will happen 1 in

100 times by pure chance if your null
hypothesis is true. Not likely to
happen strictly by chance.

Example:

• P-value = 0.75 This will happen 75 in

100 times by pure chance if your null
hypothesis is true. Very likely to
occur strictly by chance.

Cautions About P-Values

your sample size directly impacts your p-value.
Large sample sizes produce small p-values even
when differences between groups are not
meaningful. You should always verify the
practical relevance of your results. On the other
hand, a sample size that is too small can result in
a failure to identify a difference when one truly
exists.
Plan your sample size ahead of time so that you
have enough information from your sample to
show a meaningful relationship or difference if
one exists.
See calculating a sample size for more
information.
Example:
 • Average ages were significantly
different between the two groups
(16.2 years vs. 16.7 years; p =
0.01; n=1,000). Is this an
important difference? Probably
not, but the large sample size has
resulted in a small pvalue.

Example:

• Average ages were not

significantly different between
the two groups (10.4

years vs. 16.7 years; p = 0.40,

n=10). Is this an important
difference? It could be, but
because the sample size is small,
we can't determine for sure if this
is a true difference or just
happened due to the natural
variability in age within these two
groups.

If you do a large number of tests to evaluate a

hypothesis (called multiple testing), then you
need to control for this in your designation of the
significance level or calculation of the p-value.
For example, if three outcomes measure the
effectiveness of a drug or other intervention, you
will have to adjust for these three analyses.
Step 5: Drawing a Conclusion
1.P-value <= significance level (a) => Reject
your null hypothesis in favour of your
alternative hypothesis. Your result is
statistically significant.

2.P-value > significance level (a) => Fail to

reject your null hypothesis. Your result is
not statistically significant.
Hypothesis testing is not set up so that you can
absolutely prove a null hypothesis. Therefore,
when you do not find evidence against the null
hypothesis, you fail to reject the null hypothesis.
When you do find strong enough evidence
against the null hypothesis, you reject the null
hypothesis. Your conclusions also translate into
a statement about your alternative hypothesis.
When presenting the results of a hypothesis test,
include the descriptive statistics in your
conclusions as well. Report exact p-values
rather than a certain range. For example, "The
intubation rate differed significantly by patient
age with younger patients have a lower rate of
successful intubation (p=0.02)." Here are two
more examples with the conclusion stated in
several different ways.
Example:

• H0: There is no difference in survival

between the intervention and control
group.
 • H1: There is a difference in survival
between the intervention and control
group.

• a = 0.05; 20% increase in survival for

the intervention group; p-value =
0.002

Conclusion:

• Reject the null hypothesis in favour

of the alternative hypothesis.

• The difference in survival between

the intervention and control group
was statistically significant.

• There was a 20% increase in survival

for the intervention group compared
to control (p=0.001).

Example:

• H0: There is no difference in survival

between the intervention and control
group.

• H1: There is a difference in survival

between the intervention and control
group.

• a = 0.05; 5% increase in survival

between the intervention and control
group; p-value = 0.20

Conclusion:

• Fail to reject the null hypothesis.

 • The difference in survival between
the intervention and control group
was not statistically significant.

• There was no significant increase in

survival for the intervention group
compared to control (p=0.20).

Q35

What Is Systematic Sampling?

Systematic sampling is a type of probability
sampling method in which sample members from
a larger population are selected according to a
random starting point but with a fixed, periodic
interval. This interval, called the sampling
interval, is calculated by dividing the population
size by the desired sample size.

Despite the sample population being selected in

advance, systematic sampling is still thought of
as being random if the periodic interval is
determined beforehand and the starting point is
random.

Since simple random sampling of a population

can be inefficient and time-consuming,
statisticians turn to other methods, such as
systematic sampling. Choosing a sample size
through a systematic approach can be done
quickly. Once a fixed starting point has been
identified, a constant interval is selected to
facilitate participant selection.

Systematic sampling is preferable to simple

random sampling when there is a low risk of data
manipulation. If such a risk is high when a
researcher can manipulate the interval length to
obtain desired results, a simple random sampling
technique would be more appropriate.

Systematic sampling is popular with

researchers and analysts because of its
simplicity. Researchers generally assume the
results are representative of most normal
populations unless a random characteristic
disproportionately exists with every "nth" data
sample (which is unlikely). In other words, a
population needs to exhibit a natural degree of
randomness along the chosen metric. If the
population has a type of standardized pattern,
the risk of accidentally choosing very common
cases is more apparent.

Within systematic sampling, as with other

sampling methods, a target population must be
selected prior to selecting participants. A
population can be identified based on any
number of desired characteristics that suit the
purpose of the study being conducted. Some
selection criteria may include age, gender, race,
location, education level and/or profession.

One risk that statisticians must consider when

conducting systematic sampling involves how
the list used with the sampling interval is
organized. If the population placed on the list is
organized in a cyclical pattern that matches the
sampling interval, the selected sample may be
biased.
Q36.
Technical reports are today a major source of
scientific and technical information. They are
prepared for internal or wider distribution by
many organizations, most of which lack the
extensive editing and printing facilities of
commercial publishers.
Technical reports are often prepared for
sponsors of research projects. Another case
where a technical report may be produced is
when more information is produced for an
academic paper than is acceptable or feasible to
publish in a peer-reviewed publication; examples
of this include in-depth experimental details,
additional results, or the architecture of a
computer model. Researchers may also publish
work in early form as a technical report to
establish novelty, without having to wait for the
often long production schedules of academic
journals. Technical reports are considered "non-
archival" publications, and so are free to be
published elsewhere in peer-reviewed venues
with or without modification.
a technical paper (also known as a scientific
report) is a comprehensive and detailed
document that serve the purpose of describing
the process, progress or results of highly
technical or scientific research. They might also
describe the state of a calculate research
problem.

Technical reports are also sometimes used to

present recommendations or findings for
research. Different from other forms of scientific
writing, like journals and overviews of academic
conferences, scientific reports are seldom
submitted for independent peer review prior to
their publication.
Technical reports are written for a number of
different reasons. They might be used to
introduce new government policies, or to provide
a comprehensive overview and technical
specification on a new product. However, most
frequently, they are used to introduce new
research or to contrast or challenge existing
research.

Writing this type of lengthy and data-rich

document is not an easy task. In fact, technical
reports written at the grad school and above
level can take years to complete, especially when
the research is either ongoing or requires a
certain period of observation time. It isn’t
uncommon for individuals to base their entire
professional careers around scientific papers –
this is especially true for anyone in the field of
academic or research.

Q37.
A test of significance is a formal procedure for
comparing observed data with a claim (also
called a hypothesis), the truth of which is being
assessed. • The claim is a statement about a
parameter, like the population proportion p or
the population mean µ. • The results of a
significance test are expressed in terms of a
probability that measures how well the data and
the claim agree.
A significance test starts with a careful
statement of the claims being compared. The
claim tested by a statistical test is called the null
hypothesis (H 0 ). The test is designed to assess
the strength of the evidence against the null
hypothesis. Often the null hypothesis is a
statement of “no difference.” The claim about
the population that evidence is being sought for
is the alternative hypothesis (Ha ). The
alternative is one-sided if it states that a
parameter is larger or smaller than the null
hypothesis value. It is two-sided if it states that
the parameter is different from the null value (it
could be either smaller or larger).
When conducting a significance test, the goal is
to provide evidence to reject the null hypothesis.
If the evidence is strong enough to reject the null
hypothesis, then the alternative hypothesis can
automatically be accepted. However, if the
evidence is not strong enough, researchers fail
to reject the null hypothesis.
It is important to know how small the p-value
needs to be in order to reject the null
hypothesis.
(DIAGRAM)
The cut-off value for p is called alpha, or the
significance level.  The researcher establishes
the value of alpha prior to beginning the
statistical analysis.  In social sciences, alpha is
typically set at 0.05 (or 5%). This represents the
amount of acceptable error, or the probability of
rejecting a null hypothesis that is in fact true. It
is also called the probability of Type I error. Once
the alpha level has been selected and the p-
value has been computed:  If the p-value is
larger than alpha, accept the null hypothesis and
reject the alternative hypothesis.  If the p-value
is smaller than alpha, reject the null hypothesis
and accept the alternative hypothesis.

Q38.
A key part of your dissertation or thesis is the
methodology. This is not quite the same as
‘methods’.

The methodology describes the broad

philosophical underpinning to your chosen
research methods, including whether you are
using qualitative or quantitative methods, or a
mixture of both, and why.

You should be clear about the academic basis for

all the choices of research methods that you
have made. 'I was interested' or 'I thought...' is
not enough; there must be good academic
reasons for your choice.

What to Include in your Methodology

If you are submitting your dissertation in
sections, with the methodology submitted before
you actually undertake the research, you should
use this section to set out exactly what you plan
to do.
The methodology should be linked back to the
literature to explain why you are using certain
methods, and the academic basis of your choice.
If you are submitting as a single thesis, then the
Methodology should explain what you did, with
any refinements that you made as your work
progressed. Again, it should have a clear
academic justification of all the choices that you
made and be linked back to the literature.

Q39.

Definition

Statistical background
In statistical test theory, the notion of a
statistical error is an integral part of hypothesis
testing. The test goes about choosing about two
competing propositions called null hypothesis,
denoted by H0 and alternative hypothesis,
denoted by H1 . This is conceptually similar to the
judgement in a court trial. The null hypothesis
corresponds to the position of defendant: just as
he is presumed to be innocent until proven
guilty, so is the null hypothesis presumed to be
true until the data provide convincing evidence
against it. The alternative hypothesis
corresponds to the position against the
defendant.
If the result of the test corresponds with reality,
then a correct decision has been made. However,
if the result of the test does not correspond with
reality, then an error has occurred. There are
two situations in which the decision is wrong.
The null hypothesis may be true, whereas we
reject H0. On the other hand, the alternative
hypothesis H1 may be true, whereas we do not
reject H0. Two types of error are distinguished:
Type I error and type II error.[3]
Type I error
The first kind of error is the rejection of a true
null hypothesis as the result of a test procedure.
This kind of error is called a type I error and is
sometimes called an error of the first kind.
In terms of the courtroom example, a type I error
corresponds to convicting an innocent
defendant.
Type II error
The second kind of error is the failure to reject a
false null hypothesis as the result of a test
procedure. This sort of error is called a type II
error and is also referred to as an error of the
second kind.
In terms of the courtroom example, a type II
error corresponds to acquitting a criminal.
A perfect test would have zero false positives
and zero false negatives. However, statistics is a
game of probability, and it cannot be known for
certain whether statistical conclusions are
correct. Whenever there is uncertainty, there is
the possibility of making an error. Considering
this nature of statistics science, all statistical
hypothesis tests have a probability of making
type I and type II errors.[6]

• The type I error rate or significance level is the

probability of rejecting the null hypothesis
 given that it is true. It is denoted by the Greek
letter α (alpha) and is also called the alpha
level. Usually, the significance level is set to
0.05 (5%), implying that it is acceptable to
have a 5% probability of incorrectly rejecting
the true null hypothesis.[7]

• The rate of the type II error is denoted by the

Greek letter β (beta) and related to the power
of a test, which equals 1−β.[8]
These two types of error rates are traded off
against each other: for any given sample set, the
effort to reduce one type of error generally
results in increasing the other type of error.[9]
The quality of hypothesis test[edit]
The same idea can be expressed in terms of the
rate of correct results and therefore used to
minimize error rates and improve the quality of
hypothesis test. To reduce the probability of
committing a Type I error, making the alpha (p)
value more stringent is quite simple and
efficient. To decrease the probability of
committing a Type II error, which is closely
associated with analyses' power, either
increasing the test's sample size or relaxing the
alpha level could increase the analyses' power. [10]
A test statistic is robust if the Type I error rate is
controlled.
Q40.
Reliability and validity are concepts used to
evaluate the quality of research. They indicate
how well a method, technique or test measures
something. Reliability is about the consistency of
a measure, and validity is about the accuracy of
a measure.

It’s important to consider reliability and validity

when you are creating your research design,
planning your methods, and writing up your
results, especially in quantitative research.

Reliability vs validity

What does The extent to which the The extent to which

it tell you? results can be the results really
reproduced when the measure wh they are
research is repeated supposed to
under the same measure.
conditions.
How is it By checking the By checking how well
assessed? consistency of results the results correspond
across time, across to established
different observers, and theories and other
across parts of the test measures of the sam
itself. concept.

How do A reliable measurement is A valid

they measurement is not always valid: the results
relate? generally reliable: if a tes might be
reproducible, but produces accurate result
they’re not necessarily they should be
correct. reproducible.
Reliability Validity

What is reliability?
Reliability refers to how consistently a method
measures something. If the same result can be
consistently achieved by using the same
methods under the same circumstances, the
measurement is considered reliable.

What is validity?
Validity refers to how accurately a method
measures what it is intended to measure. If
research has high validity that means it produces
results that correspond to real properties,
characteristics, and variations in the physical or
social world.

High reliability is one indicator that a

measurement is valid. If a method is not reliable,
it probably isn’t valid.