Models of

Speech Production
• Fromkin’s 6-stage model
• Garrett’s model
• Dell’s model
• Levelt’s model
 Context
• Victoria Alexandra Fromkin
(1923 – 2000)

- An American linguist whose

research focused on brain and
language, lexical representation,
processing models, and speech
errors as linguistic evidence
 Fromkin’s Model
1 Generate meaning to be conveyed

2 Select syntactic structure with word slots specified

3 Generate intonation contour

4 Insert content words

5 Formulate affixes and function words

6 Specify phonetic segments

 Example
1 Message: She packed two bags.

2 N/Pn + Adverb + Verb + Adjective + Noun

3 She + already + pack + two + bag

4 packed bags

5 She already packed two bags

6 (insert phonetic segments)

 Speech Errors
- commonly referred to as misspeaking or
slip of the tongue

- a deviation from the apparently intended

form of an utterance
1. Spoonerisms

✔️ : The dear old queen

✖️ : The queer old dean

2. Word Blends

✔️ : Have you seen my black hat?

✖️ : Have you sen my blat?

3. Phonological Accommodation

✔️ : The basket of apples

✖️ : The apples of basket

4. Affix Substitution

✔️ : I am so excited for tomorrow!

✖️ : I am so exciting for tomorrow!

5. Freudian Slip

✔️ : I just want this class to be over!

✖️ : I just want this class to be eating!

6. Anticipation

✔️ : Wombats forage for fruit.

✖️ : Wombats frorage for fruit.

7. Preservation

✔️ : The choir started singing.

✖️ : The choir started stinging.

8. Substitution

✔️ : The Great Barrier Reef

✖️ : The Great Barrier Wreath

 Garrett’s Model - Context
• Merrill F. Garrett

- created a model by compiling speech

errors

- model is based on Fromkin’s model;

added a few things that filled the gaps
pointed out by the other researchers
Garrett’s Model
Evidence
1. Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon - validates distinction
between functional and positional level

2. Speech Errors - predicts distinct and independent error

types associated with different levels

3. Word Errors - occur at the functional level

Dell’s Model - Context
• Dell Hathaway Hymes

- known for his establishment of

disciplinary foundations for the
comparative, ethnographic study of
language use
Dell’s Model - Context
- model of lexical network which
attempts to symbolically
represent the lexicon and in turn,
explain how people chose the
words they wish to produce, and
organize those words into speech
Dell’s Model
Evidence
1. Mixed error
Target = cat
Semantic = dog
Phonological = hat
Both = rat

2. Speech errors occur when activation spreads to

the wrong item which turns out to be more active
than target item
Levelt’s Model - Context
• Willem Johannes Maria
Levelt

- A Dutch psycholinguist who

is also a well-known
researcher of human
language acquisition and
speech production
Levelt’s Model
Analysis
Same underlying processes:

1. Selection of a semantically and structurally appropriate

word

2. Retrieval of word’s phonological properties

3. Rapid syllabification of the word in context

4. Preparation of corresponding articulatory gestures

Definition
• Formulated by Vivian Cook

• Refers to the knowledge of

more than one language in
a person’s mind
 Definition
• Mind of any user of a second language
at any level of achievement not
restricted by high-level bilingualism

Multi-competence = first language +

interlanguage + aspects of L2 user’s
mind
• The different language a person speaks are seen as a connected
system, rather than each language being a separate system.

L1 L2 L1
L2

✖️ fractional interpretation ✔️ “wholistic” interpretation

of bilingualism of bilingualism
✖️ 2 monolingual states ✔️ Distinct compound system of mind
 Problem
• Society, especially foreign language classrooms,
privilege monolinguist approaches which means
that the standard of language learning is that of
native speakers.

• Since L2 learners are hindered by the interference

of L1, their attempts are seen as a mistake, a
deficiency, or a failure (Grosjean, 1989)
 Goal
• L2 learners should be held at their own
standard or of successful L2 learners where
one can see how to make use of both
languages in achieving classroom goals.

“You can try to pass as a native speaker

of another language but never become one,

by definition”
 Cross-Linguistic Differences
• Phonology – there is a difference in intonation

• Lexicons – vocabulary is stored alongside with others;

they are likely to be unable to switch it off

• Syntax – change in cues in the processing of L1 word

order change

• Pragmatics – different interpretations (Parlenko, 2003);

cross-switching and translation are more likely to occur
 Beneficial Differences
• Helps develop metalinguistic awareness
(Bialystok, 2001)

• Delays onset of Alzheimer’s Disease

(Bialystok, Craik, Klein, & Viseranathan,
2004)

• Develops area of the brain responsible for

control (Green, 2010)
Bilingual Cognition Differences
• Shape and material (Imai and
Gentha, 1997)
• Color
• Gender
 Teaching implications
1. Teachers should adopt a multilingual stance
rather than a monolingual stance.
• Create a community of learners who learn to
respect L2 in all its forms.
• Adopt a bilingual approach to teaching
“systematic use of L1 alongside L2” as an aid
to learning and a model of the outside world.
2. Normalize the acceptance of L2 users instead
of making them feel shameful of their
condition.

✖️ focus on native speakers

✖️ principal measures of success:

pronunciation and linguistic accuracy

✔️ emphasis on the kinds of L2 usage

3. Teachers should cultivate an awareness of the state of
mind, as well as what it means to be in a linguistically and
culturally diverse world.

• language learning
– development of proficiency
• language teaching
– social and political purpose
Thank you!