Wave Mechanics and PDA Quantities

for Pile Testers

GRL Frank Rausche

Combined Version
2010, GRL Engineers
 1-D Wave Theory

• Hammer causes a downward travelling

stress-wave to enter the pile
• Soil resistance and section changes
cause upward stress-wave reflections
• Stress in pile can be represented by
1-dimensional Wave Theory
• These “stress-waves” can be analyzed
by measured pile top force and velocity

GRL
 The Wave Equation
ρ (δ2u/ δt2) = E (δ2u/ δx2)
Solution: u = f(x - ct) + g(x + ct)

f
x … length coordinate
u … displacement t … time coordinate

g
E … elastic modulus c2 = E/ρ ... Wave Speed
ρ … mass density
GRL
 Wave Propagation

dL

Compressed Zone, races

F along pile at wave speed c

c = (E/ρ)0.5 is the wave speed of the pile material

In a time “dt” the wave travels a distance dL = c dt

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Pile Particle Velocity due to Stress Wave

dt = Time after impact passes particle

dL = c dt

dx …

a small
Particle displacement
Velocity v is about
Particle Velocity, v = dx /dt of the pileofparticle
3 orders due to
magnitude
pile compression
slower of dLc
than wave speed

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 Pile Strain due to a Stress Wave
F = v (EA/c) = v Z
force & velocity are proportional by “impedance” Z = EA/c
dL = c dt

Strain, ε = dx /dL dx = v dt

a small displacement
Strain, ε = v / c
of the pile particle due to
Stress, σ = v E/c
pile compression of dL
Force, F = v EA/c
causing particle velocity v
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 Measuring strain and acceleration
at one point

Strain transducer Accelerometer

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 AMX, SX1, SX2

a1 (t), a2 (t), one acc. on each side

a1 (t) a2 (t), one on each side

AMX = max ½ (a1 + a2)

SX1 SX2

ε1 (t), ε2 (t), one strain on each side

GRL
 FMX, VMX

F1(t) = ε1 (t) A E
F2(t) = ε2 (t) A E

FMX = max ½ (F1 + F2)

VMX = max ½ (v1 + v2)

v1 (t) = ʃa1 (t) dt

v2 (t) = ʃa2 (t) dt

GRL
 DMX, DFN

d1 max

d1(t) = ʃv1(t) dt d1 fin

DMX = max ½ (d1 + d2)

DFN = ½ (d1 fin + d2 fin)

d2 fin
d2(t) = ʃv1(t) dt

GRL
 Pile top force and velocity from PDA

F(t) = ½ [F1(t) + F2(t)]

v(t) = ½ [v1(t) + v2(t)] Z

FMX = max F(t)

We are measuring the total force and the total velocity

We plot both together using Z to scale velocity

What is wave up and what is wave down?

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 FMX

GRL
 Sign Conventions

Force:
•Compression positive (+)
•Tension negative (-)

Velocity:
•Downward positive (+)
•Upward negative (-)

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 Wave Mechanics

Downward Traveling Waves

TOP TOE

C+ Downward waves
V+
F+, V+
Particle
Force + ( F-, V- )
Velocity +
(Same sign)
F = Zv

GRL
 Wave Mechanics

Upward Travelling (reflected) Waves

TOP TOE

V Upward waves C
F+, V-
Particle
Velocity - F-, V+
Force +
(Opposite sign)
V V+ F = - Zv T
Particle
GRL Velocity + Force -
 1-D Wave Theory

• Proportionality Law
• F = +Zv in a downward traveling wave
• F = -Zv in an upward traveling wave
• Pile Impedance Z = EA/c = ρ cA
• E - Elastic Modulus
• A - Cross Sectional Area
• ρ - Mass Density
• c - Wave Speed c = (E/ρ)0.5
GRL E = ρ c 2
 Separation of Waves
Downward Waves Upward Waves

F=F½(F+Zv)
=Zv FF
=
=-Zv
½(F-Zv)


F = F+ F

GRL v = v+ v
Wave Down and Wave Up from F and Zv

Wd=½(F+Zv) Wu=½(F-Zv)

GRL
 WD1, WU2

t1 t2

Wd1

GRL Wu2
 End Effects—Two Extremes

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 Free-end resistance
Free Body

Compression input
F↓= +C Equilibrium
reflects as tension

Velocity downward R=0

F↑ = -C in upward tension
so velocity doubles

Vnet = V↓ + V↑
GRL
 Wave Travel - Free Pile Time

Top moves down

Pile compresses:
double distance
top moves down
Length L

Pile pulled down

by upward wave

GRL Pile stretches: toe moves double distance

 Free Pile, Velocities

+V

GRL
 Free Pile, Stresses

+σ

GRL Force must be zero at pile toe

 Example - Free pile (easy driving)

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 Fixed-end resistance
Free Body
Reflection is
F↓=+C
+ZV
V↓+ Continuity
fixed end
if R > +2C
V=0
R=+2C
Equilibrium
F↑=+C
V↑-
-ZV Force at bottom end
is 2x force at top

R = Fnet = F↓ + F↑
GRL
 Wave Travel - Fixed Pile Time
Pile “rebounds”:
top moves up
Length L

GRL Pile compresses: toe does not move

 Fixed Pile, Velocities

+V

GRL
 Fixed Pile, Stresses

+σ

GRL Note that force doubles at fixed pile toe

 Example - Fixed pile (hard driving)

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Theoretically:
Pile toe is “fixed” if Rtoe > 2 * Fimpact

Practically:
limit of Rtoe is reduced due to
damping and stiffness (quake)

Application:
If driving is refusal, increase impact force

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 Soil Resistance

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 R
(shaft resistance)

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 R
(shaft resistance)

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 Example - Pile with shaft resistance

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 Resistance distribution

R/2

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Theoretically:
Wave continues down as long as
Rshaft < 2 * Fimpact

Practically:
Rshaft limit reduced due to damping

Application:
If driving is refusal, increase impact force

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Application:
If driving is refusal, increase impact force
Solutions to increase impact force:
Fimpact = ( EA/c ) Vimpact
• Increase impact pile velocity Vimpact
Increase stroke or cushion stiffness

• Increase pile impedance EA/c

Increase area or modulus

• May need to increase pile yield strength

GRL
 Practical Application of
Stress Wave Propagation for Piles

Determine Case-Goble Capacity

GRL
 Case-Goble Capacity
A pile is struck at time t1.
The impact force generates a wave F(down,t1)
L
F(,t1)

F(,t2)

The impact wave returns to the pile top at time

t2 = t 1+ 2L/c together with all resistance waves

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 Resistance Waves
t=0 L/c 2L/c

Fd,1
-Fd,1
x ½R

L RB

R + ½R
-½R

Upward traveling wave at time 2L/c:

RB Fu,2 = -Fd,1 + ½R + ½R + RB
or (rearranging)

GRL R = Fd,1 + Fu,2

 The Case Method Equation

R = ½(F1 + Zv1 + F2 - Zv2)

F1 and v1 are pile top force and velocity at time 1
F2 and v2 are pile top force and velocity at time 2

Time 2 is 2L/c after Time 1: t2 = t1 + 2L/c

R is the total pile resistance

present at the time of the test,
and mobilized by the hammer impact.
GRL
 Case-Goble Static
Resistance
Total Resistance = Static + Dynamic

Rstatic= R - Rdynamic

estimate Rdynamic from pile toe velocity

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 Case Damping Factor
• To calculate static from total resistance, a
viscous damping parameter ( Jv ) is
introduced for multiplication of computed
toe velocity vtoe

Rd = Jv vtoe
Vtoe = ( 2 WD1 - Rt ) / Z

• Non-dimensionalization leads to the

Case Damping Factor, Jc:
Jc = Jv ÷ Z ⇒ Rd = Jc Z v
GRL
 Case-Goble Static
Resistance
Total Resistance = Static + Dynamic

Rstatic= R - Rdynamic

Rs = (1-Jc)[F1+ Zv1]/2 + (1+Jc)[F2 - Zv2]/2

Rs = (1-Jc) WD1 + (1+Jc) WU2

GRL
 Case Damping Factor
• A larger damping factor produces a lower
static Case Method capacity (more
conservative)
• With the RMX method, the Case Damping
factor varies typically between 0.4 and 1.0 for
non-cohesive and cohesive soils, respectively
• When driving is hard, the pile velocities are
low. Then there is little damping and the Case
Method capacity becomes insensitive to the
choice of damping factor

GRL
 Case Damping Factor
Values for RMX
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Gravel 0.3 0.4

Sand 0.4 0.5

Reducing Increasing
Grain Size Damping factor
Silt 0.5 0.7

Clay 0.7 1.0

GRL
 Restrike testing - fine grained soils

100 days

1000 days
1 day

10 days
capacity

Restrike testing generally under-

taken 1 to 10 days after installation

log time
GRL
 Capacity:
Rules for good correlation
• Need to Mobilize Capacity
( need minimum set per blow )
(if very small set, then PDA result is lower
bound solution; true ultimate is higher)
• Account for time dependent strength changes
Setup - Capacity increase
Relaxation - Capacity decrease
Therefore, restrike test pile after sufficient wait
using a sufficiently large impact weight
GRL
 FMX, CSX = FMX/A
Force (Stress) Maximum at gage location
FMX = εav E A ; CSX = εav E

Strain transducer

Ensure that pile top is not overstressed

Force may be higher at other pile

locations

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 Pile force at any location
Downwards traveling waves from the hammer combine with
the upward traveling wave reflected at L/c

t=0 L/c 2L/c

Downward Wave
L
Upward Wave

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 Pile force at any location
Downwards traveling waves from the hammer combine with
the upward traveling wave reflected at the pile bottom

t=0 L/c 2L/c

Downward Wave
X

Upward Wave
L

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 Pile force at any location
The force at x equals the sum of the upward wave at the pile
top a time x/c later and the downward wave at the pile top x/c
earlier:
F [x,(2L-x )/c] = Fu[0,2L/c] + Fd[0,(2L-2x)/c]

t=0 t3=(2L-2x)/c (2L-x)/c 2L/c

x/c x/c

GRL
 CTN, TSN

Maximum Computed Tension force

(stress) in period 2L/c after impact
due to upward wave +C
CTN = Fu (t2 ) + Fd(t3)min

TSN = CTN / A -T

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Tension Stress Calculation – Wave-Up

Fu

Fd

Min. Compr.- down

Max. Tension - up

Max. Compr.- down

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 Tension Stress Calculation – Wave-Up

toe top

Point of max tension

t3
Tension Stress
Distribution

GRL Max. Tension Wave Up

Tension Stress Calculation – Wave-Up

Toe Top

t3

GRL
 CTX, TSX

Maximum Computed Tension force

(stress) throughout record considering
downward tension wave.
Wd, max-tension + Wu, min-comp.
-T
CTX = Max
CTN
+C
TSX = CTX / A

GRL
 Tension Stress Calculation – Wave-Down

2L/c

Max. Tension Min. Comp.

GRL Wave Down Wave Up
 Limitations of Force Calculation
Superposition of waves for stress
calculation only reasonably accurate, if:
– Pile is uniform and elastic
– Pile has no cracks
– Waves do not change significantly between
top (measurement point) and location of
calculated stress value

GRL
 Pile Damage: BTA, LTD
•Pile damage causes a tension
reflection before 2L/c

•The time at which the tension

LTD
reflection arrives at the gage
location indicates the depth to the
damage: LTD = tdamage / 2c

•The extent of the damage is

quantified with the damage factor
BTA (β)
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 Reflection at an Impedance Change
t=0 L/c 2x/c 2L/c

Fd,1
Z1 Fu1

A
x B Fd2

Z2 FA = FB: Fu,1 + Fd,1 = Fd,2

vA = vB: vu,1 + vd,1 = vd,2
2nd equation: (Z2/Z1)(Z1vu,1 + Z1vd,1) = Z2 vd,2
with β = Z2/Z1: β(- Fu,1 + Fd,1) = Fd,2 = Fu,1 + Fd,1
β = (Fu,1 + Fd,1) / (- Fu,1 + Fd,1)
GRL
 Fd,1 = ½(Ft1+Zvt1)
t1

t3

Fu,1 = ½(Ft3-Zvt3)

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 Beta Example: 24-inch octagonal concrete pile

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 CTN, TSN
Maximum Computed Tension force
in first period 2L/c after impact

CTN = F (t2 ) + F(t3)min where t1<t3<t2

+C
TSN = CTN / A

Related: CTX, TSX

-T
max. computed tension stress
over complete record.

GRL
 CFB, CSB
Computed Force at Pile Base

CFB = Rtoe
= Ft2 + Ft1 - Rshaft F

CSB = CFB / A
F
To avoid overstressing at bottom
when driving to hard bearing layer
CF
GRL B
 Damage Location

• Pile damage causes a tension

reflection before 2L/c

xdamage
•The time at which the tension
reflection arrives at the gage
location indicates the depth to the
damage: xdamage = tdamage c / 2

GRL
 Fu,1 Impedance Reduction
Approximate Solution
Z1
β = Z2/Z1
Fd,1 β = (Fd,1 + Fu,1)/(Fd,1 - Fu,1)

Z2 Fu,1 is the reflection wave that

Fd,2
indicates the extent of the
section reduction (damage)
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 The End

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