Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation

1.1 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)

1.2 NO and NC Electromagnetic Relay

A relay is an electromagnetic switch used to switch High Voltage or Current
using low power circuits. For example, we can use it for controlling home appliances
with a normal low voltage electronic circuit. Electromagnetic relays uses
an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically. It also provides
isolation between low power circuit and high power circuits.

Figure 1-1: Electromagnetic Relay

The construction and working of a relay can be understood from Figure 1.1
above. The main part of a relay is the electromagnet. The electromagnet is made by a
coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core which provides low reluctance path for
magnetic flux. It also consists of a movable iron armature and one or more set of
contacts. These are held in a position by a spring as shown in the above figure.

Normally a SPDT relay has 5 terminals. Two of them are used to energies the
electromagnet and the other three are COM, NO, NC. COM stands for Common, NO
stands for Normally Open and NC stands for Normally Closed. When the
electromagnet is not energized, the armature will be connected to NC contact. Thus
COM and NC will be connected. When the electromagnet is energized, the

Page 1 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation

electromagnet attracts the iron armature and it will be connected to NO contact. Thus
COM and NO will be connected.

One must consider different parameters before selecting a relay to ensure safety
and life time. The main parameters are:

 Coil Ratings
 Contact Ratings
 Change Over Time
 Enclosure and Mounting

Coil Ratings

For DC operated relays electromagnet excitation voltage and coil resistance

are specified while for AC operated relays AC Voltage and VA ratings are specified.
The coil rating is directly proportional to the contact rating. If the contact rating
doubles, coil rating also almost doubles. The standard coil ratings available for DC
operated coils are 6, 12, 24Vdc (nominal). Coils are designed to take up to 20%
higher excitation voltage. This reduces the need for regulated supply. 230 Vac / 50 Hz
coils are available for AC excitation. The inrush current for AC coils is about 5 times
higher than continuous coil rating.

Contact Ratings

The commonly used contact ratings are the maximum voltage and current it can
handle continuously. The three current ratings specified are:

a) Inrush or 'make contact' capacity.

b) Normal or continuous carrying capacity.
c) The opening or breaking capacity.

Change Over Time

It is also known as Operation Time. Turn – ON (Switch – ON) time is the time
required for the relay to make ON contact after energizing the electromagnet and Turn
– OFF (Switch – OFF) time is the time required to make OFF contact after de-
energizing the relay. In some applications such as UPS these times are critical.

Page 2 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation

Enclosure and Mounting

Relays are available in enclosure and in open execution. If the relays are used
in cabinet of a device, then you may use open execution type. However if there is a
possibility of dust gathering in to electrical contacts, it is better to use enclosed type
relays. There is also a possibility of sparks in contacts, thus in hazardous
environments properly enclosed relay must be selected.

1.3 Definition of Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is an industrial solid-state computer
that monitors inputs and outputs, and makes logic-based decisions for automated
processes or machines.

PLCs were introduced in the late 1960s by inventor Richard Morley to provide
the same functions as relay logic systems. Relay systems at the time tended to fail and
create delays. Technicians then had to troubleshoot an entire wall of relays to fix the
problem.

PLCs are robust and can survive harsh conditions including severe heat, cold,
dust, and extreme moisture. Their programming language is easily understood, so they
can be programmed without much difficulty. PLCs are modular so they can be
plugged into various setups. Relays switching under load can cause undesired arcing
between contacts. Arcing generates high temperatures that weld contacts shut and
cause degradation of the contacts in the relays, resulting in device failure. Replacing
relays with PLCs helps prevent overheating of contacts.

PLCs do have disadvantages. They do not perform well when handling

complex data. When dealing with data that requires C++ or Visual Basic, computers
are the controllers of choice. PLCs also cannot display data well, so external monitors
are often required.

Page 3 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation

PLC Hardware Components

A central processing unit (CPU) serves as the brain of the PLC. It is a -16 or
-32 bit microprocessor consisting of a memory chip and integrated circuits for control
logic, monitoring, and communicating. The CPU directs the PLC to execute control
instructions, communicate with other devices, carry out logic and arithmetic
operations, and perform internal diagnostics. The CPU runs memory routines,
constantly checking the PLC (PLC controller is redundant) to avoid programming
errors and ensure the memory is undamaged.

Figure 1-2: PLC System

Memory provides permanent storage to the operating system for data used by
the CPU. The system’s read-only memory (ROM) stores data permanently for the
operating system random access memory (RAM) stores status information for input
and output devices, along with values for timers, counters, and internal devices. PLCs
require a programming device, either a computer or console, to upload data onto the
CPU.

Page 4 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation

1.4 Block Diagram of PLC

A simplified block diagram of a PLC shown in Figure 1.3 below. It has three
major units/sections.

1. I/O (Input/Output) Modules.

2. CPU (Central Processing Units).
3. Programmer/Monitor. 

Figure 1-3: A Simplified Block Diagram of PLC

The input section converts the field signals supplied by input devices/sensors
to logic-level signals that the PLC's CPU can read. The processor section reads these
inputs, processes the signal, and prepares the output signals. The output section
converts the logic level output signals coming from processor section to high level
signals and used to actuate various output field devices. The programmer/monitor is
used to enter the user's program into memory and to monitor the execution of the
program.

1. I/O Section

The I/O section establish the interfacing between physical devices in the real
world outside the PLC and the digital arena inside the PLC.

The input module has bank of terminals for physically connecting input
devices, like push buttons, limit switches etc. to a PLC. the role of an input
module is to translate signals from input devices into a form that the PLC's CPU
can understand.
Page 5 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation

Figure 1-3-1: PLC Input Module

The Output module also has bank of terminals that physically connect output
devices like solenoids, motor starters, indicating lamps etc. to a PLC. The role of
an output module is to translate signals from the PLC's CPU into a form that the
output device can use.

Figure 1-3-2: PLC Output Module

The tasks of the I/O section can be classified as:

 Conditioning
 Isolation 
 Termination
 Indication

Page 6 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation

An electronic system for connecting I/O modules to remotely located I/O

devices can be added if needed. The actual operating process under PLC Control
can be thousands of feet from the CPU and its I/O modules.

2. CPU Section

The Central Processing Unit, the brain of the system is the control portion of
the PLC. It has three Subparts.

a) Memory System
b) Processor
c) Power Supply

a. Memory System

The memory is the area of the CPU in which data and information is stored
and retrieved. The total memory area can be subdivided into the following four
Sections.

 I/O Image Memory

The input image memory consists of memory locations used to hold

the ON or OFF states of each input field devices, in the input status file.

The output status file consists of memory locations that stores the ON
or OFF states of hardware output devices in the field. Data is stored in the
output status file as a result of solving user program and is waiting to be
transferred to the output module's switching device.

 Data Memory

It is used to store numerical data required in math calculation, bar code

data etc.

 User Memory

It contains user's application program.

 Executive Memory

Page 7 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation

It is used to store an executive program or system software. An

operating system of the PLC is a special program that controls the action
of CPU and consequently the execution of the user's program. A PLC
operating systems designed to scan image memory, interprets the
instruction of user's program stored in main memory, and executes the
user's application program the operating system is supplied by the PLC
manufacturer and is permanently held in memory.

b. Processor

The processor, the heart of CPU is the computerized part of the CPU in the
form of Microprocessor / Micro controller chip. It supervises all operation in the
system and performs all tasks necessary to fulfil the PLC function.

 It reads the information i.e. status of externally connected input devices

with input module.
 It stores this information in memory for later use.
 It carries out mathematical and logic operations as specified in application
program.
 After solving the user's program, it writes the result values in the memory.
 It sends data out to external devices like output module, so as to actuate
field hardware.
 It performs peripheral and external device communication.
 It performs self-diagnostics.

c. Power Supply

The power supply provides power to memory system, processor and I/O
Modules.

 It converts the higher level AC line Voltage to various operational DC

values.
 For electronic circuitry.
 It filters and regulates the DC voltages to ensure proper computer
operations. 

Page 8 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation

3. Programmer/Monitor

The Programmer/Monitor (PM) is a device used to communicate with the

circuits of the PLC. The programming unit allows the engineer/technicians to
enter the edit the program to be executed.

 In its simplest form it can be hand-held device with membrane keypad for
program entry, and a display device (LED or LCD) for viewing program steps of
functions.

More advanced systems employ a separate industrial terminal or personal

computers with type-writer type keyboard and CRT monitors. With the help of
proprietary software, it allows programmer to write, view and edit the program
and download it into the PLC. It also allows user to monitor the PLC as it is
running the program. With this monitoring systems, such things as internal coils,
registers, timers and other items not visible externally can be monitored to
determine proper operation. Also, internal register data can be altered, if required
to fine tune program operation while debugging. Communication between PM and
PLC is done via a cable connected to a special programming port on PLC.
Connection to the personal computer can be through a serial port or from a
dedicated card installed in the computer.

1.5 Input and Output Device Wiring

Input Modules Wiring

During normal PLC operation, different methods of connecting the field

device wires to the I/O Modules offer no significant advantages over each other. Field
devices can be wired differently to provide safety and protection in the event of
failures in field devices, or faults in their electrical circuits.

"Backups" are field devices required to operate properly to provide safety in

the event of a failure of another device or fault in a circuit. If the circuit for a backup
is not affected, the backup should operate properly and continue to provide safety.

Page 9 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation

The safety of sequentially controlled systems, industrial facilities, and even

personnel frequently depends on field devices (especially the backups) operating
properly.

Sink and Source connections at a DC Input Module are defined by whether or

not the field device DC power comes from a power supply external to the PLC.
Neither connection has any fault protection advantage.

Output Module Wiring

DC Modules use "Sink" and "Source" connections. The connections are

determined by the configuration of the module being used. DC Modules are
configured differently because of the DC polarity differences required of the two
connections.

The Output module also has bank of terminals that physically connect output
devices like solenoids, motor starters, indicating lamps etc. to a PLC. The role of an
output module is to translate signals from the PLC's CPU into a form that the output
device can use.

Page 10 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation

2.0 PLC LADDER DIAGRAM PROGRAMMING

2.1 The Different Between PLC Physical Ladder Diagram and

PLC Programmed Ladder

When a PLC is used primarily to replace relays, timers, and counters, it's hard
to beat the simplicity and usefulness of ladder diagram programming. Their ability to
accept programming in ladder diagram format is one of the reasons for the success of
programmable logic controllers (PLCs) in the industry. The many similarities between
the ladder diagrams used to program PLCs and the relay ladder logic formerly used to
control industrial systems eased the transition from hardwired relay systems to PLC-
based systems for many people in the electrical industry. And, the ability to monitor
PLC logic in ladder diagram format also made troubleshooting easier for those
already familiar with relay-based control systems. Although there are many higher-
level languages now available for PLC programming, the majority of systems are still
programmed in ladder diagram format because of these advantages.

Anatomy of a Ladder Diagram

The logic in a ladder diagram typically flows from left to right. The diagram
can be divided into sections called rungs, which are roughly analogous to the rungs on
a ladder. Each rung typically consists of a combination of input instructions. These
instructions lead to a single output instruction; however, rungs containing function
block instructions may be more complicated.

Each input or output instruction is assigned an address indicating the location

in the PLC memory where the state of that instruction is stored. Function block
instructions may include one or more addresses to store parameters related to the
function that they perform.

Page 11 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation

The numerical format of the address depends on the scheme used by the
particular manufacturer, and it may be stated in a binary-based numbering system. A
name may also be associated with each address to make the ladder diagram easier to
interpret.

Types of Instructions

Ladder diagram programming allows PLCs to perform several different types

of tasks, including Boolean logic, timing, counting, arithmetic, and special functions.
In addition to these instructions, most PLCs support many extended instructions to
perform more complicated tasks.

Boolean Logic

Boolean logic is actually what PLCs and relay systems perform. The legal
operations in Boolean logic are AND, OR, and NOT. The AND operation simply
means all of the inputs must be ON for the output to be ON; it's analogous to relay
contacts connected in series.

The OR operation means that the output is ON if at least one of the inputs is
ON; it's analogous to relay contacts connected in parallel.

The NOT operation means that the output is OFF if the input is ON and vice-
versa; it's analogous to a normally closed relay contact. To describe the situation in
Rung 1 of Fig. 1 using Boolean logic, for example, we can say that Output 201 is ON
if Input 101 OR 102 is ON AND Input 103 is NOT ON.

Relay Instructions

PLCs perform Boolean logic using basic relay instructions. Common input
instructions are examine-on (normally open contact) and examine-off (normally
closed contact). Input instructions can be used to examine either the state of external
PLC inputs or internal bits in the PLC memory. The examine-on instruction is ON if
the input or bit being examined is ON; the examine-off instruction is ON if the input
or bit being examined is OFF. The examine instructions can be connected in series
and parallel in any combination to perform virtually any Boolean logic function, and
the result can be connected to a relay coil (output) instruction. Relay coil instructions

Page 12 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation

can be used to control either external PLC outputs or internal relay coils (bits) in the
PLC.

Timing Instructions

The basic timing instructions are on-delay and off-delay. With on-delay
timers, the output associated with the timing instruction is turned ON some specified
time after the input is ON, but it turns OFF immediately when the input is turned
OFF.

With off-delay timers, the output is turned ON immediately when the input is
turned ON. However, it remains ON for a specified period of time after the input has
been turned OFF, but before going OFF. Timing instructions are usually connected
like relay coil instructions in the ladder diagram, so any combination of input
conditions can be programmed to trigger them. When a timing instruction is created in
the PLC program, space is reserved for the timer running value and the preset value at
which the timer will trip, and the programmer must set the preset value to the desired
number when inserting the instruction. The status of the timer output can be checked
with the examine instructions for use in other rungs in the program.

2.2 Types of Relays Used in Ladder Diagram Programming

The fundamental element of a ladder diagram is a "Contact". A contact can be
activated by the presence of an electrical current. This makes it possible for a control
system to control the turning ON or OFF of a large load by using electrical current to
activate a switch that can conduct high current. The simplest form of this type of
contact is a relay. Relays are the simplest connection type. They act like light switches
that are turned on or off by the PLC. They physically connect/disconnect 2 pins on the
PLC.

In traditional electromagnetic relay, a coil of wire is wound around an iron

core which turns it into an electromagnet. When current passes through the "coil" the
Page 13 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation

magnet is "energized" and the force is used to either close a contact (that makes it a
normally-open contact, closed only when energized) or open it (that will be a
normally-closed contact since it is closed when not energized).

In a PLC, there are hundreds of internal "relays" which are supposed to behave
like the typical electromagnetic relay. Unlike an output (e.g. the "Lamp" output)
which has a physical connection out of the PLC, when an internal relay is turned ON,
it is said to be "energized" but you will not see any changes in the PLC's physical
I/Os. The logic state is kept internally in the PLC. The contact of the relay can then be
used in the ladder diagram for turning ON or OFF of other relays or outputs. A relay
contact in the ladder diagram can be Normally-Open or Normally-Closed and there is
no limit to the number of contacts a relay can have.

2.3 Input Relay, Output Relay, Internal Relay, Timer Relay and Counter Relay.
Input Relays-(Contacts)

These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist and receive
signals from switches, sensors, etc. Typically they are not relays but rather they are
transistors.

Internal Utility Relays-(Contacts)

These do not receive signals from the outside world nor do they physically
exist. They are simulated relays and are what enables a PLC to eliminate external
relays. There are also some special relays that are dedicated to performing only one
task. Some are always on while some are always off. Some are on only once during
power-on and are typically used for initializing data that was stored.

Counters

A counter is also a special kind of relay that has a programmable Set Value
(SV). When a counter coil is energized for the first time after a reset, it will load the
value of SV-1 into its count register. From there on, every time the counter coil is
energized from OFF to ON, the counter decrement its count register value by 1. Note
that the coil must go through OFF to ON cycle in order to decrement the counter. If
the coil remain energized all the time, the counter will not decrement. Hence counter

Page 14 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation

is suitable for counting the number of cycles an operation has gone through. When the
count register hits zero, all the counter's N.O. contacts will be turned ON. These
counter contacts will remain ON regardless of whether the counter's coil is energized
or not. To turn OFF these contacts, you have to reset the counter using a special
counter reset function.

These again do not physically exist. They are simulated counters and they can
be programmed to count pulses. Typically these counters can count up, down or both
up and down. Since they are simulated they are limited in their counting speed. Some
manufacturers also include high-speed counters that are hardware based. We can think
of these as physically existing. Most times these counters can count up, down or up
and down.

Timers

A timer is a special kind of relay that, when its coil is energized, must wait for
a fixed length of time before closing its contact. The waiting time is dependent on the
"Set Value" (SV) of the timer. Once the delay time is up, the timer's N.O. contacts
will be closed for as long as its coil remains energized. When the coil is de-energized
(i.e. turned OFF), all the timer's N.O. contacts will be opened immediately.

However, if the coil is de-energized before the delay time is up, the timer will
be reset and its contact will never be closed. When a last aborted timer is re-
energized, the delay timing will restart afresh using the SV of the timer and not
continue from the last aborted timing operation. These also do not physically exist.
They come in many varieties and increments. The most common type is an on-delay
type. Others include off-delay and both retentive and non-retentive types. Increments
vary from 1ms through 1s.

Output Relays-(Coils)

A PLC output is like an internal relay with a physical connection that can
supply electrical power to control an external load. They physically exist and send
on/off signals to solenoids, lights, etc. They can be transistors, relays, or triacs
depending upon the model chosen. Thus, like a relay, an output can also have
unlimited number of contacts that can be used in the ladder program.

Page 15 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation

Page 16 of 16